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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Structure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Structure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Structure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Epidermis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidermis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Epidermis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epidermis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Layers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Layers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Layers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Layers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sublayers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sublayers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Sublayers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sublayers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genes_and_proteins_expressed_in_the_epidermis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genes_and_proteins_expressed_in_the_epidermis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Genes and proteins expressed in the epidermis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genes_and_proteins_expressed_in_the_epidermis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dermis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dermis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Dermis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dermis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Papillary_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Papillary_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Papillary region</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Papillary_region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reticular_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reticular_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Reticular region</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reticular_region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subcutaneous_tissue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subcutaneous_tissue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Subcutaneous tissue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subcutaneous_tissue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cross-section" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cross-section"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Cross-section</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cross-section-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cell_count_and_cell_mass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cell_count_and_cell_mass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Cell count and cell mass</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cell_count_and_cell_mass-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Cell count and cell mass subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Cell_count_and_cell_mass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Skin_cell_table" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skin_cell_table"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Skin cell table</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skin_cell_table-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Development subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Skin_colour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skin_colour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Skin colour</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skin_colour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ageing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ageing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Ageing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ageing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Photoageing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photoageing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Photoageing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photoageing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-UV-induced_DNA_damage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#UV-induced_DNA_damage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>UV-induced DNA damage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-UV-induced_DNA_damage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Functions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Functions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Functions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Functions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Functions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Skin_flora" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skin_flora"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Skin flora</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skin_flora-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Clinical significance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Society and culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Society and culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hygiene_and_skin_care" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hygiene_and_skin_care"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Hygiene and skin care</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hygiene_and_skin_care-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Oily_skin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oily_skin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Oily skin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oily_skin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Permeability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Permeability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Permeability</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Permeability-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Permeability subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Permeability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nanoparticles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nanoparticles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Nanoparticles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nanoparticles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Increasing_permeability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Increasing_permeability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Increasing permeability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Increasing_permeability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sunblock_and_sunscreen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sunblock_and_sunscreen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Sunblock and sunscreen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sunblock_and_sunscreen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Diet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Human skin</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">27 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86" title="جلد الإنسان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جلد الإنسان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A9" title="Մորթ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Մորթ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%95" title="ত্বক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ত্বক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kublit_nin_tawo" title="Kublit nin tawo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Kublit nin tawo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pell_humana" title="Pell humana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pell humana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lidsk%C3%A1_k%C5%AF%C5%BEe" title="Lidská kůže – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Lidská kůže" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganda_(mwiri)" title="Ganda (mwiri) – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ganda (mwiri)" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piel_humana" title="Piel humana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Piel humana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giza_azal" title="Giza azal – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Giza azal" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86" title="پوست انسان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پوست انسان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peau_humaine" title="Peau humaine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Peau humaine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%AF_(%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4)" title="Մաշկ (մարդ) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մաշկ (մարդ)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE" title="मानव त्वचा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मानव त्वचा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulit_manusia" title="Kulit manusia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kulit manusia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%93%D7%9D" title="עור האדם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עור האדם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%A8_%E0%B2%9A%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE" title="ಮಾನವನ ಚರ್ಮ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮಾನವನ ಚರ್ಮ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87erm%C3%AA_mirov" title="Çermê mirov – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Çermê mirov" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulit_manusia" title="Kulit manusia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kulit manusia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huid_(mens)" title="Huid (mens) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Huid (mens)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE" title="मानव छाला – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="मानव छाला" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pele_humana" title="Pele humana – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pele humana" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ABkura_e_njeriut" title="Lëkura e njeriut – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Lëkura e njeriut" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%89%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B0" title="Људска кожа – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Људска кожа" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மனிதத்தோல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மனிதத்தோல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Organ covering the outside of the human body</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about skin in humans. For other vertebrates, see <a href="/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">Skin</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white">Human skin</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_skin_structure.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Human_skin_structure.jpg/250px-Human_skin_structure.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Human_skin_structure.jpg/375px-Human_skin_structure.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Human_skin_structure.jpg/500px-Human_skin_structure.jpg 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="363" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Skin of a human hand</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_skin_structure.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Human_skin_structure.svg/250px-Human_skin_structure.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Human_skin_structure.svg/375px-Human_skin_structure.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Human_skin_structure.svg/500px-Human_skin_structure.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1447" data-file-height="1013" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis">Epidermis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dermis" title="Dermis">dermis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Subcutis" class="mw-redirect" title="Subcutis">subcutis</a>, showing a <a href="/wiki/Hair_follicle" title="Hair follicle">hair follicle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gland" title="Gland">gland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sebaceous_gland" title="Sebaceous gland">sebaceous gland</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Organ_system" title="Organ system">System</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Integumentary_system" title="Integumentary system">Integumentary system</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>cutis</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA98</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/16.0.00.002%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm">A16.0.00.002</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA2</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.org/?id=7041">7041</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Histologica" title="Terminologia Histologica">TH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/PDF/TH%20Chapter%20H3.12.pdf">H3.12.00.1.00001 </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">FMA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma7163">7163</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</a><div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5259911" class="extiw" title="d:Q5259911">edit on Wikidata</a>]</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>human skin</b> is the outer covering of the body and is the largest organ of the <a href="/wiki/Integumentary_system" title="Integumentary system">integumentary system</a>. The skin has up to seven layers of <a href="/wiki/Ectodermal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ectodermal">ectodermal</a> <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissue</a> guarding <a href="/wiki/Skeletal_muscle" title="Skeletal muscle">muscles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ligament" title="Ligament">ligaments</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">internal organs</a>. Human skin is similar to most of the other <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>' skin, and it is very similar to <a href="/wiki/Pig" title="Pig">pig</a> skin. Though nearly all human skin is covered with <a href="/wiki/Hair_follicle" title="Hair follicle">hair follicles</a>, it can appear <a href="/wiki/Nudity#Evolution_of_hairlessness" title="Nudity">hairless</a>. There are two general types of skin: hairy and <a href="/wiki/Glabrous_skin" class="mw-redirect" title="Glabrous skin">glabrous skin</a> (hairless). The adjective <a href="/wiki/List_of_medical_roots,_suffixes_and_prefixes#C" title="List of medical roots, suffixes and prefixes"><i>cutaneous</i></a> literally means "of the skin" (from Latin <i>cutis</i>, skin). </p><p>Skin plays an important <a href="/wiki/Immunity_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunity (medical)">immunity</a> role in protecting the body against <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a> and excessive <a href="/wiki/Transepidermal_water_loss" title="Transepidermal water loss">water loss</a>. Its other functions are <a href="/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation">insulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermoregulation" title="Thermoregulation">temperature regulation</a>, sensation, synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">vitamin D</a>, and the protection of <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitamin B">vitamin B</a> folates. Severely damaged skin will try to heal by forming <a href="/wiki/Scar" title="Scar">scar tissue</a>. This is often discoloured and depigmented. </p><p>In humans, <a href="/wiki/Human_skin_colour" class="mw-redirect" title="Human skin colour">skin pigmentation</a> (affected by melanin) varies among populations, and skin type can range from <a href="/wiki/Dry_skin" class="mw-redirect" title="Dry skin">dry</a> to non-dry and from <a href="/wiki/Sebaceous_gland#Sebum" title="Sebaceous gland">oily</a> to non-oily. Such skin variety provides a rich and diverse habitat for the approximately one thousand species of <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> from nineteen <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a> which have been found on human skin. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:06_Hegasy_Skin_Layers_Receptors_Wiki_EN_CCBYSA.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/06_Hegasy_Skin_Layers_Receptors_Wiki_EN_CCBYSA.png/220px-06_Hegasy_Skin_Layers_Receptors_Wiki_EN_CCBYSA.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/06_Hegasy_Skin_Layers_Receptors_Wiki_EN_CCBYSA.png/330px-06_Hegasy_Skin_Layers_Receptors_Wiki_EN_CCBYSA.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/06_Hegasy_Skin_Layers_Receptors_Wiki_EN_CCBYSA.png/440px-06_Hegasy_Skin_Layers_Receptors_Wiki_EN_CCBYSA.png 2x" data-file-width="3508" data-file-height="2480" /></a><figcaption>Layers, receptors, and appendages of human skin</figcaption></figure> <p>Human skin shares anatomical, physiological, biochemical and immunological properties with other mammalian lines. <a href="/wiki/Pig" title="Pig">Pig skin</a> especially shares similar epidermal and dermal thickness ratios to human skin: pig and human skin share similar hair follicle and blood vessel patterns; biochemically the dermal collagen and elastin content is similar in pig and human skin; and pig skin and human skin have similar physical responses to various growth factors.<sup id="cite_ref-porcine2018Janu_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-porcine2018Janu-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-porcine2018Janu2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-porcine2018Janu2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Skin has <a href="/wiki/Mesoderm" title="Mesoderm">mesodermal</a> cells which produce <a href="/wiki/Biological_pigment" title="Biological pigment">pigmentation</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">melanin</a> provided by <a href="/wiki/Melanocyte" title="Melanocyte">melanocytes</a>, which absorb some of the potentially dangerous <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet radiation">ultraviolet radiation</a> (UV) in <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a>. It contains <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">DNA repair</a> <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> that help reverse UV damage. People lacking the <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> for these enzymes have high rates of <a href="/wiki/Skin_cancer" title="Skin cancer">skin cancer</a>. One form predominantly produced by UV light, <a href="/wiki/Malignant" class="mw-redirect" title="Malignant">malignant</a> <a href="/wiki/Melanoma" title="Melanoma">melanoma</a>, is particularly invasive, causing it to <a href="/wiki/Metastasize" class="mw-redirect" title="Metastasize">spread</a> quickly, and can often be deadly. Human skin pigmentation varies substantially between populations; this has led to the classification of people(s) on the basis of <a href="/wiki/Human_skin_color" title="Human skin color">skin colour</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Maton_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maton-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In terms of surface area, the skin is the second largest organ in the human body (the inside of the small intestine is 15 to 20 times larger). For the average adult human, the skin has a surface area of 1.5–2.0 square metres (15–20 sq ft). The thickness of the skin varies considerably over all parts of the body, and between men and women, and young and old. An example is the skin on the forearm, which is on average <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6997130000000000000♠"></span>1.3 mm</span> in males and <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6997126000000000000♠"></span>1.26 mm</span> in females.<sup id="cite_ref-Millington_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millington-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One average square inch (6.5 cm<sup>2</sup>) of skin holds 650 sweat glands, 20 blood vessels, 60,000 melanocytes, and more than 1,000 nerve endings.<sup id="cite_ref-Bennett_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bennett-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (July 2016)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The average human skin cell is about <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6995300000000000000♠"></span>30 μm</span> in diameter, but there are variants. A skin cell usually ranges from 25 to 40 μm<sup>2</sup>, depending on a variety of factors. </p><p>Skin is composed of three primary layers: the <a href="/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis">epidermis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dermis" title="Dermis">dermis</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hypodermis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypodermis">hypodermis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Millington_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millington-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epidermis">Epidermis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Epidermis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis">Epidermis</a></div> <p>The epidermis, "epi" coming from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a> meaning "over" or "upon", is the outermost layer of the skin. It forms the waterproof, protective wrap over the body's surface, which also serves as a barrier to <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infection</a> and is made up of stratified squamous <a href="/wiki/Epithelium" title="Epithelium">epithelium</a> with an underlying <a href="/wiki/Basal_lamina" title="Basal lamina">basal lamina</a>. </p><p>The epidermis contains no <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a>, and cells in the deepest layers are nourished almost exclusively by diffused oxygen from the surrounding air<sup id="cite_ref-Stücker2002_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stücker2002-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to a far lesser degree by blood capillaries extending to the outer layers of the dermis. The main type of cells that make up the epidermis are <a href="/wiki/Merkel_cell" title="Merkel cell">Merkel cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Keratinocyte" title="Keratinocyte">keratinocytes</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Melanocyte" title="Melanocyte">melanocytes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Langerhans_cell" title="Langerhans cell">Langerhans cells</a> also present. The epidermis can be further subdivided into the following <i>strata</i> (beginning with the outermost layer): corneum, lucidum (only in palms of hands and bottoms of feet), granulosum, spinosum, and basale. Cells are formed through <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a> at the basale layer. The daughter cells (see <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell division</a>) move up the strata changing shape and composition as they die due to isolation from their blood source. The cytoplasm is released and the protein <a href="/wiki/Keratin" title="Keratin">keratin</a> is inserted. They eventually reach the corneum and slough off (<a href="/wiki/Desquamation" title="Desquamation">desquamation</a>). This process is called <a href="/wiki/Cornification" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornification">"keratinization"</a>. This keratinized layer of skin is responsible for keeping water in the body and keeping other harmful chemicals and <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a> out, making skin a natural barrier to infection.<sup id="cite_ref-Proksch_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proksch-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HautFingerspitzeOCT_nonanimated.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/HautFingerspitzeOCT_nonanimated.gif" decoding="async" width="209" height="218" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="209" data-file-height="218" /></a><figcaption> 2D projection of a 3D <a href="/wiki/Optical_coherence_tomography" title="Optical coherence tomography">OCT</a>-tomogram of the skin at the fingertip, depicting the <a href="/wiki/Stratum_corneum" title="Stratum corneum">stratum corneum</a> (≈500 μm thick) with the stratum disjunctum on top and the <a href="/wiki/Stratum_lucidum" title="Stratum lucidum">stratum lucidum</a> in the middle. At the bottom are the superficial parts of the dermis. The sweat ducts are clearly visible. (See also: <a href="/wiki/File:HautFingerspitzeOCT.gif" title="File:HautFingerspitzeOCT.gif">Rotating 3D Version</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The epidermis contains no <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a> and is nourished by <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a> from the dermis. The main type of cells that make up the epidermis are <a href="/wiki/Keratinocyte" title="Keratinocyte">keratinocytes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melanocyte" title="Melanocyte">melanocytes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Langerhans_cell" title="Langerhans cell">Langerhans cells</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Merkel_cell" title="Merkel cell">Merkel cells</a>. The epidermis helps the skin regulate body temperature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Layers">Layers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Layers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The skin has up to seven layers of ectodermal tissue and guards the underlying <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ligament" title="Ligament">ligaments</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">internal organs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hcare_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hcare-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The epidermis is divided into several layers, where cells are formed through <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a> at the innermost layers. They move up the strata changing shape and composition as they differentiate and become filled with <a href="/wiki/Keratin" title="Keratin">keratin</a>. After reaching the top layer <a href="/wiki/Stratum_corneum" title="Stratum corneum">stratum corneum</a> they are eventually 'sloughed off', or <a href="/wiki/Desquamation" title="Desquamation">desquamated</a>. This process is called <a href="/wiki/Keratinization" class="mw-redirect" title="Keratinization">keratinization</a> and takes place within weeks. </p><p>It was previously believed that the <a href="/wiki/Stratum_corneum" title="Stratum corneum">stratum corneum</a> was "a simple, biologically inactive, outer epidermal layer comprising a fibrillar lattice of dead keratin".<sup id="cite_ref-delrosso2011_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-delrosso2011-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is now understood that this is not true, and that the <a href="/wiki/Stratum_corneum" title="Stratum corneum">stratum corneum</a> should be considered to be a live tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-kligman2013_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kligman2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While it is true that the <a href="/wiki/Stratum_corneum" title="Stratum corneum">stratum corneum</a> is mainly composed of terminally differentiated <a href="/wiki/Keratinocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Keratinocytes">keratinocytes</a> called <a href="/wiki/Corneocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Corneocytes">corneocytes</a> that are anucleated, these cells remain alive and metabolically functional until <a href="/wiki/Desquamation" title="Desquamation">desquamated</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sublayers">Sublayers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sublayers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The epidermis is divided into the following 5 sublayers or strata: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stratum_corneum" title="Stratum corneum">Stratum corneum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratum_lucidum" title="Stratum lucidum">Stratum lucidum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratum_granulosum" title="Stratum granulosum">Stratum granulosum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratum_spinosum" title="Stratum spinosum">Stratum spinosum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratum_basale" title="Stratum basale">Stratum basale</a> (also called "stratum germinativum")</li></ul> <p>Blood capillaries are found beneath the epidermis and are linked to an arteriole and a venule. Arterial shunt vessels may bypass the network in ears, the nose and fingertips. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Genes_and_proteins_expressed_in_the_epidermis">Genes and proteins expressed in the epidermis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Genes and proteins expressed in the epidermis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>About 70% of all human protein-coding genes are expressed in the skin.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Almost 500 genes have an elevated pattern of expression in the skin. There are fewer than 100 genes that are specific for the skin, and these are expressed in the epidermis.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An analysis of the corresponding proteins show that these are mainly expressed in <a href="/wiki/Keratinocyte" title="Keratinocyte">keratinocytes</a> and have functions related to <a href="/wiki/Squamous" class="mw-redirect" title="Squamous">squamous</a> differentiation and <a href="/wiki/Keratin" title="Keratin">cornification</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dermis">Dermis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dermis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dermis" title="Dermis">Dermis</a></div> <p>The dermis is the layer of skin beneath the <a href="/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis">epidermis</a> that consists of <a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">connective tissue</a> and cushions the body from stress and strain. The dermis is tightly connected to the epidermis by a <a href="/wiki/Basement_membrane" title="Basement membrane">basement membrane</a>. It also harbours many <a href="/wiki/Mechanoreceptor" title="Mechanoreceptor">nerve endings</a> that provide the sense of touch and heat. It contains the <a href="/wiki/Hair_follicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Hair follicles">hair follicles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweat_gland" title="Sweat gland">sweat glands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sebaceous_gland" title="Sebaceous gland">sebaceous glands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apocrine_gland" class="mw-redirect" title="Apocrine gland">apocrine glands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_vessels" class="mw-redirect" title="Lymphatic vessels">lymphatic vessels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessels" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood vessels">blood vessels</a>. The blood vessels in the dermis provide nourishment and waste removal from its own cells as well as from the stratum basale of the epidermis. </p><p>The dermis is structurally divided into two areas: a superficial area adjacent to the epidermis, called the <i>papillary region</i>, and a deep thicker area known as the <i>reticular region</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Papillary_region">Papillary region</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Papillary region"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The papillary region is composed of loose <a href="/wiki/Areolar_connective_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Areolar connective tissue">areolar connective tissue</a>. It is named for its finger-like projections called <i>papillae</i>, which extend toward the epidermis. The papillae provide the dermis with a "bumpy" surface that interdigitates with the epidermis, strengthening the connection between the two layers of skin. </p><p>In the palms, fingers, soles, and toes, the influence of the papillae projecting into the epidermis forms contours in the skin's surface. These <a href="/wiki/Epidermal_ridges" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidermal ridges">epidermal ridges</a> occur in patterns (<i>see:</i> <a href="/wiki/Fingerprint" title="Fingerprint">fingerprint</a>) that are genetically and <a href="/wiki/Epigenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epigenetic">epigenetically</a> determined and are therefore unique to the individual, making it possible to use fingerprints or footprints as a means of <a href="/wiki/Forensic_identification" title="Forensic identification">identification</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reticular_region">Reticular region</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Reticular region"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The reticular region lies deep in the papillary region and is usually much thicker. It is composed of dense irregular connective tissue, and receives its name from the dense concentration of <a href="/wiki/Collagenous" class="mw-redirect" title="Collagenous">collagenous</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elastin" title="Elastin">elastic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Reticular_fiber" title="Reticular fiber">reticular</a> fibres that weave throughout it. These <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> fibres give the dermis its properties of strength, extensibility, and elasticity. </p><p>Also located within the reticular region are the <a href="/wiki/Hair#Root_of_the_hair" title="Hair">roots of the hairs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sebaceous_gland" title="Sebaceous gland">sebaceous glands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweat_gland" title="Sweat gland">sweat glands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cutaneous_receptor" title="Cutaneous receptor">receptors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nail_(anatomy)" title="Nail (anatomy)">nails</a>, and blood vessels. </p><p>Tattoo ink is held in the dermis. <a href="/wiki/Stretch_marks" title="Stretch marks">Stretch marks</a>, often from pregnancy and <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a>, are also located in the dermis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subcutaneous_tissue">Subcutaneous tissue</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Subcutaneous tissue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Subcutaneous_tissue" title="Subcutaneous tissue">subcutaneous tissue</a> (also <i>hypodermis</i> and <i>subcutis</i>) is not part of the skin, but lies below the dermis of the <a href="/wiki/Cutis_(anatomy)" title="Cutis (anatomy)">cutis</a>. Its purpose is to attach the skin to underlying bone and <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscle</a> as well as supplying it with blood vessels and nerves. It consists of loose connective tissue, adipose tissue and <a href="/wiki/Elastin" title="Elastin">elastin</a>. The main cell types are <a href="/wiki/Fibroblast" title="Fibroblast">fibroblasts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adipocyte" title="Adipocyte">adipocytes</a> (subcutaneous tissue contains 50% of body fat). Fat serves as padding and insulation for the body. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cross-section">Cross-section</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Cross-section"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="thumb tnone" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:808px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="overflow:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Skin_layers.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Skin layers, of both hairy and hairless skin"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Skin_layers.svg/800px-Skin_layers.svg.png" decoding="async" width="800" height="550" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Skin_layers.svg/1200px-Skin_layers.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Skin_layers.svg/1600px-Skin_layers.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1505" data-file-height="1034" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Skin_layers.svg" title="File:Skin layers.svg"> </a></div>Skin layers, of both hairy and hairless skin</div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cell_count_and_cell_mass">Cell count and cell mass</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cell count and cell mass"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skin_cell_table">Skin cell table</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Skin cell table"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The below table identifies the skin cell count and aggregate cell mass estimates for a 70 kg adult male (ICRP-23; ICRP-89, ICRP-110).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tissue mass is defined at 3.3 kg (ICRP-89, ICRP110) and addresses the skin's epidermis, dermis, hair follicles, and glands. The cell data is extracted from 'The Human Cell Count and Cell Size Distribution',<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tissue-Table tab in the Supporting Information SO1 Dataset (xlsx). The 1200 record Dataset is supported by extensive references for cell size, cell count, and aggregate cell mass. </p><p>Detailed data for below cell groups are further subdivided into all the cell types listed in the above sections and categorized by epidermal, dermal, hair follicle, and glandular subcategories in the dataset and on the dataset's graphical website interface.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While adipocytes in the hypodermal adipose tissue are treated separately in the ICRP tissue categories, fat content (minus cell-membrane-lipids) resident in the dermal layer (Table-105, ICRP-23) is addressed by the below interstitial-adipocytes in the dermal layer. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Named Tissue and <p>Associated Cell Groups </p> </th> <th>Cell Count </th> <th>Aggregate <p>Cell Mass (g) </p> </th> <th>Percent of <p>Total Mass </p> </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Skin Total</b> </td> <td>6.1E+11 </td> <td>846.7 </td> <td>100% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Adipocyte </td> <td>7.3E+08 </td> <td>291.9 </td> <td>34.5% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Endothelial Cell (EnCs) </td> <td>1.5E+10 </td> <td>6.16 </td> <td>0.7% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Epithelial Cells (EpC) </td> <td>4.1E+11 </td> <td>313.9 </td> <td>37.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">Eccrine Gland </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">1.7E+11 </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">105 </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">12.4% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">Epidermal Keratinocytes </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">1.1E+11 </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">85.5 </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">10.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">Hair Follicle </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">1.3E+11 </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">119.9 </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">14.2% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">Mechanoreceptors </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">4.9E+09 </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">3.6 </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">0.4% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Epithelial Cells (EpC); Non-Nucleated </td> <td>7.2E+10 </td> <td>28.2 </td> <td>3.3% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fibroblasts </td> <td>4.3E+10 </td> <td>94.6 </td> <td>11.2% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Myocytes </td> <td>2.6E+07 </td> <td>0.08 </td> <td>0.01% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neuroglia </td> <td>8.5E+09 </td> <td>12.8 </td> <td>1.5% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Perivascular Cells / Pericytes / Mural </td> <td>1.5E+09 </td> <td>0.56 </td> <td>0.07% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Stem Cells; Epithelial (EpSC) </td> <td>3.6E+09 </td> <td>1.50 </td> <td>0.2% </td></tr> <tr> <td>White Blood Cells </td> <td>5.4E+10 </td> <td>97.1 </td> <td>11.5% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">Granulocytes (Mast Cell) </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">2.2E+10 </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">32.6 </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">3.8% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">Lymphoid </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">1.3E+10 </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">1.6 </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">0.2% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">Monocyte-Macrophage Series </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">1.9E+10 </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">62.9 </td> <td style="padding-left: 2em;">7.4% </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Human_embryogenesis#Integumentary_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Human embryogenesis">Human embryogenesis § Integumentary system</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skin_colour">Skin colour</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Skin colour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_skin_colour" class="mw-redirect" title="Human skin colour">Human skin colour</a></div> <p>Human skin shows high skin colour variety from the darkest brown to the lightest pinkish-white hues. Human skin shows higher variation in colour than any other single mammalian species and is the result of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. Skin pigmentation in humans evolved to primarily regulate the amount of <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet radiation">ultraviolet radiation</a> (UVR) penetrating the skin, controlling its biochemical effects.<sup id="cite_ref-jabl1_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jabl1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The actual skin colour of different humans is affected by many substances, although the single most important substance determining human skin colour is the pigment <a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">melanin</a>. Melanin is produced within the skin in cells called <a href="/wiki/Melanocyte" title="Melanocyte">melanocytes</a> and it is the main determinant of the skin colour of <a href="/wiki/Dark_skin" title="Dark skin">darker-skinned</a> humans. The skin colour of people with <a href="/wiki/Light_skin" title="Light skin">light skin</a> is determined mainly by the bluish-white connective tissue under the <a href="/wiki/Dermis" title="Dermis">dermis</a> and by the <a href="/wiki/Haemoglobin" class="mw-redirect" title="Haemoglobin">haemoglobin</a> circulating in the veins of the dermis. The red colour underlying the skin becomes more visible, especially in the face, when, as consequence of <a href="/wiki/Physical_exercise" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical exercise">physical exercise</a> or the stimulation of the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a> (anger, fear), <a href="/wiki/Arterioles" class="mw-redirect" title="Arterioles">arterioles</a> dilate.<sup id="cite_ref-Jabl06_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jabl06-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are at least five different pigments that determine the colour of the skin.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These pigments are present at different levels and places. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">Melanin</a>: It is brown in colour and present in the <a href="/wiki/Basal_layer" class="mw-redirect" title="Basal layer">basal layer</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis">epidermis</a>.</li> <li>Melanoid: It resembles melanin but is present diffusely throughout the epidermis.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carotene" title="Carotene">Carotene</a>: This pigment is yellow to orange in colour. It is present in the stratum corneum and fat cells of dermis and <a href="/wiki/Superficial_fascia" class="mw-redirect" title="Superficial fascia">superficial fascia</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">Hemoglobin</a> (also spelled <i>haemoglobin</i>): It is found in blood and is not a pigment of the skin but develops a purple colour.</li> <li>Oxyhemoglobin: It is also found in blood and is not a pigment of the skin. It develops a red colour.</li></ul> <p>There is a correlation between the geographic distribution of UV radiation (UVR) and the distribution of indigenous skin pigmentation around the world. Areas that highlight higher amounts of UVR reflect darker-skinned populations, generally located nearer towards the equator. Areas that are far from the tropics and closer to the poles have lower concentration of UVR, which is reflected in lighter-skinned populations.<sup id="cite_ref-webb06_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-webb06-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the same population it has been observed that adult human <a href="/wiki/Woman" title="Woman">females</a> are considerably lighter in skin pigmentation than <a href="/wiki/Man" title="Man">males</a>. Females need more <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> during <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lactation" title="Lactation">lactation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">vitamin D</a>, which is synthesized from sunlight helps in absorbing calcium. For this reason it is thought that females may have evolved to have lighter skin in order to help their bodies absorb more calcium.<sup id="cite_ref-Jabl00_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jabl00-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Fitzpatrick_scale" title="Fitzpatrick scale">Fitzpatrick scale</a><sup id="cite_ref-Skininc_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skininc-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ARPNSA_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ARPNSA-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a numerical classification schema for human skin colour developed in 1975 as a way to classify the typical response of different types of skin to ultraviolet (UV) light: </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td>I </td> <td>Always burns, never tans </td> <td>Pale, Fair, Freckles </td></tr> <tr> <td>II </td> <td>Usually burns, sometimes tans </td> <td>Fair </td></tr> <tr> <td>III </td> <td>May burn, usually tans </td> <td>Light Brown </td></tr> <tr> <td>IV </td> <td>Rarely burns, always tans </td> <td>Olive brown </td></tr> <tr> <td>V </td> <td>Moderate constitutional pigmentation </td> <td>Brown </td></tr> <tr> <td>VI </td> <td>Marked constitutional pigmentation </td> <td>Black </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ageing">Ageing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ageing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Senescence" title="Senescence">senescence</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_ageing" title="Intrinsic and extrinsic ageing">Intrinsic and extrinsic ageing</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rash.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Rash.jpg/220px-Rash.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Rash.jpg/330px-Rash.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Rash.jpg/440px-Rash.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1530" data-file-height="1275" /></a><figcaption>A typical rash</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scabies-burrow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Scabies-burrow.jpg/220px-Scabies-burrow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Scabies-burrow.jpg/330px-Scabies-burrow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Scabies-burrow.jpg/440px-Scabies-burrow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="411" /></a><figcaption>Skin infected with <a href="/wiki/Scabies" title="Scabies">scabies</a></figcaption></figure> <p>As skin ages, it becomes thinner and more easily damaged. Intensifying this effect is the decreasing ability of skin to heal itself as a person ages. </p><p>Among other things, skin ageing is noted by a decrease in volume and elasticity. There are many <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_ageing" title="Intrinsic and extrinsic ageing">internal and external causes</a> to skin ageing. For example, ageing skin receives less blood flow and lower glandular activity. </p><p>A validated comprehensive grading scale has categorized the clinical findings of skin ageing as laxity (sagging), rhytids (wrinkles), and the various facets of photoageing, including <a href="/wiki/Erythema" title="Erythema">erythema</a> (redness), and <a href="/wiki/Telangiectasia" title="Telangiectasia">telangiectasia</a>, dyspigmentation (brown discolouration), solar elastosis (yellowing), keratoses (abnormal growths) and poor texture.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cortisol" title="Cortisol">Cortisol</a> causes degradation of <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Cutroneo2004_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cutroneo2004-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> accelerating skin ageing.<sup id="cite_ref-Oikarinen2004_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oikarinen2004-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Anti-ageing_supplements" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-ageing supplements">Anti-ageing supplements</a> are used to treat skin ageing.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Photoageing">Photoageing</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Photoageing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Photoageing" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoageing">Photoageing</a></div> <p>Photoageing has two main concerns: an increased risk for <a href="/wiki/Skin_cancer" title="Skin cancer">skin cancer</a> and the appearance of damaged skin. In younger skin, sun damage will heal faster since the cells in the <a href="/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis">epidermis</a> have a faster turnover rate, while in the older population the skin becomes thinner and the epidermis turnover rate for cell repair is lower, which may result in the <a href="/wiki/Dermis" title="Dermis">dermis</a> layer being damaged.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilchrest_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilchrest-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="UV-induced_DNA_damage">UV-induced DNA damage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: UV-induced DNA damage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">UV-irradiation</a> of human skin cells generates <a href="/wiki/DNA_damage_(naturally_occurring)" title="DNA damage (naturally occurring)">damages in DNA</a> through direct <a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">photochemical reactions</a> at adjacent <a href="/wiki/Thymine" title="Thymine">thymine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cytosine" title="Cytosine">cytosine</a> residues on the same strand of DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee2020_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee2020-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyclobutane <a href="/wiki/Pyrimidine_dimer" title="Pyrimidine dimer">pyrimidine dimers</a> formed by two adjacent thymine bases, or by two adjacent cytosine bases, in DNA are the most frequent types of DNA damage induced by UV. Humans, as well as other organisms, are capable of repairing such UV-induced damages by the process of <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide_excision_repair" title="Nucleotide excision repair">nucleotide excision repair</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee2020_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee2020-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In humans this repair process protects against skin cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee2020_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee2020-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Though most human skin is covered with <a href="/wiki/Hair_follicle" title="Hair follicle">hair follicles</a>, some parts can be <a href="/wiki/Nudity#Evolution_of_hairlessness" title="Nudity">hairless</a>. There are two general types of skin, hairy and <a href="/wiki/Glabrous_skin" class="mw-redirect" title="Glabrous skin">glabrous skin</a> (hairless).<sup id="cite_ref-lookingbill_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lookingbill-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The adjective <a href="/wiki/List_of_medical_roots,_suffixes_and_prefixes#C" title="List of medical roots, suffixes and prefixes"><i>cutaneous</i></a> means "of the skin" (from Latin <i>cutis</i>, skin).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Functions">Functions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Functions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Skin performs the following functions: </p> <ol><li><b>Protection</b>: an anatomical barrier from pathogens and damage between the internal and external environment in bodily defence; <a href="/wiki/Langerhans_cell" title="Langerhans cell">Langerhans cells</a> in the skin are part of the <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system" title="Adaptive immune system">adaptive immune system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Proksch_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Proksch-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Madison_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Madison-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perspiration contains <a href="/wiki/Lysozyme" title="Lysozyme">lysozyme</a> that break the bonds within the cell walls of bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sensation" class="extiw" title="wikt:sensation">Sensation</a></b>: contains a variety of nerve endings that react to <a href="/wiki/Thermoreceptor" title="Thermoreceptor">heat and cold</a>, touch, pressure, vibration, and tissue injury; see <a href="/wiki/Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">somatosensory system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hapticity" title="Hapticity">haptics</a>.</li> <li><b>Heat regulation</b>: the skin contains a blood supply far greater than its requirements, which allows precise control of energy loss by radiation, convection and conduction. Dilated blood vessels increase perfusion and heat loss, while constricted vessels greatly reduce cutaneous blood flow and conserve heat.</li> <li><b>Control of evaporation</b>: the skin provides a relatively dry and semi-impermeable barrier to fluid loss.<sup id="cite_ref-Madison_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Madison-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Loss of this function contributes to the massive fluid loss in <a href="/wiki/Burn_(injury)" class="mw-redirect" title="Burn (injury)">burns</a>.</li> <li><b>Aesthetics and communication</b>: others see our skin and can assess our mood, physical state and attractiveness.</li> <li><b>Storage and synthesis</b>: acts as a storage centre for lipids and water, as well as a means of synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">vitamin D</a> by action of <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">UV</a> on certain parts of the skin.</li> <li><b>Excretion</b>: <a href="/wiki/Sweat" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweat">sweat</a> contains <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a>, however its concentration is 1/130th that of <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">urine</a>, hence <a href="/wiki/Excretion" title="Excretion">excretion</a> by sweating is at most a secondary function to temperature regulation.</li> <li><b>Absorption</b>: the cells comprising the outermost 0.25–0.40 mm of the skin are "almost exclusively supplied by external oxygen", although the "contribution to total respiration is negligible".<sup id="cite_ref-Stücker2002_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stücker2002-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, medicine can be administered through the skin, by ointments or by means of adhesive <a href="/wiki/Transdermal_patch" title="Transdermal patch">patch</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Nicotine_patch" title="Nicotine patch">nicotine patch</a> or <a href="/wiki/Iontophoresis" title="Iontophoresis">iontophoresis</a>. The skin is an important site of transport in many other organisms.</li> <li><b>Water resistance</b>: The skin acts as a water-resistant barrier so essential nutrients are not washed out of the body.<sup id="cite_ref-Madison_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Madison-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skin_flora">Skin flora</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Skin flora"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Skin_flora" title="Skin flora">Skin flora</a></div> <p>The human skin is a rich environment for microbes.<sup id="cite_ref-Grice_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grice-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pappas_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pappas-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 1,000 species of <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> from 19 bacterial <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a> have been found.<sup id="cite_ref-Pappas_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pappas-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Grice_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grice-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most come from only four phyla: <a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a> (51.8%), <a href="/wiki/Bacillota" title="Bacillota">Bacillota</a> (24.4%), <a href="/wiki/Pseudomonadota" title="Pseudomonadota">Pseudomonadota</a> (16.5%), and <a href="/wiki/Bacteroidota" title="Bacteroidota">Bacteroidota</a> (6.3%). <a href="/wiki/Propionibacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Propionibacteria">Propionibacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Staphylococci" class="mw-redirect" title="Staphylococci">Staphylococci</a> species were the main species in <a href="/wiki/Sebaceous" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebaceous">sebaceous</a> areas. There are three main ecological areas: moist, dry and sebaceous. In moist places on the body <a href="/wiki/Corynebacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Corynebacteria">Corynebacteria</a> together with <a href="/wiki/Staphylococci" class="mw-redirect" title="Staphylococci">Staphylococci</a> dominate. In dry areas, there is a mixture of species but dominated by <a href="/wiki/Betaproteobacteria" title="Betaproteobacteria">Betaproteobacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flavobacteriales" title="Flavobacteriales">Flavobacteriales</a>. Ecologically, sebaceous areas had greater species richness than moist and dry ones. The areas with least similarity between people in species were the spaces between <a href="/wiki/Finger" title="Finger">fingers</a>, the spaces between <a href="/wiki/Toe" title="Toe">toes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Axillae" class="mw-redirect" title="Axillae">axillae</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Umbilical_cord" title="Umbilical cord">umbilical cord</a> stump. Most similarly were beside the <a href="/wiki/Nostril" title="Nostril">nostril</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nare" class="mw-redirect" title="Nare">nares</a> (inside the nostril), and on the back. </p><p>Reflecting upon the diversity of the human skin researchers on the human skin <a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">microbiome</a> have observed: "hairy, moist underarms lie a short distance from smooth dry forearms, but these two niches are likely as ecologically dissimilar as rainforests are to deserts."<sup id="cite_ref-Grice_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grice-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/NIH" class="mw-redirect" title="NIH">NIH</a> conducted the <a href="/wiki/Human_Microbiome_Project" title="Human Microbiome Project">Human Microbiome Project</a> to characterize the human microbiota, which includes that on the skin and the role of this microbiome in health and disease.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Microorganisms like <i><a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus" title="Staphylococcus">Staphylococcus</a> epidermidis</i> colonize the skin surface. The density of skin flora depends on region of the skin. The disinfected skin surface gets recolonized from bacteria residing in the deeper areas of the hair follicle, gut and urogenital openings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Clinical significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Skin_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin disease">skin disease</a></div> <p>Diseases of the skin include <a href="/wiki/Skin_infection" title="Skin infection">skin infections</a> and <a href="/wiki/Skin_neoplasm" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin neoplasm">skin neoplasms</a> (including skin cancer). <a href="/wiki/Dermatology" title="Dermatology">Dermatology</a> is the branch of <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> that deals with conditions of the skin.<sup id="cite_ref-lookingbill_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lookingbill-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are seven cervical, twelve thoracic, five lumbar, and five sacral.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (March 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Certain diseases like shingles, caused by varicella-zoster infection, have pain sensations and eruptive rashes involving dermatomal distribution. Dermatomes are helpful in the diagnosis of vertebral spinal injury levels. Aside from the dermatomes, the epidermis cells are susceptible to neoplastic changes, resulting in various cancer types.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The skin is also valuable for diagnosis of other conditions, since many <a href="/wiki/Medical_signs" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical signs">medical signs</a> <a href="/wiki/Category:Symptoms_and_signs:_Skin_and_subcutaneous_tissue" title="Category:Symptoms and signs: Skin and subcutaneous tissue">show through the skin</a>. <a href="/wiki/Skin_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin color">Skin color</a> affects the visibility of these signs, a source of misdiagnosis in unaware medical personnel.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Society and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hygiene_and_skin_care">Hygiene and skin care</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Hygiene and skin care"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Exfoliation_(cosmetology)" title="Exfoliation (cosmetology)">Exfoliation (cosmetology)</a></div> <p>The skin supports its own <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> of <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeasts</a> and bacteria, which cannot be removed by any amount of cleaning. Estimates place the number of individual bacteria on the surface of human skin at 7.8 million per square centimetre (50 million per square inch), though this figure varies greatly over the average 1.9 square metres (20 sq ft) of human skin. Oily surfaces, such as the face, may contain over 78 million bacteria per square centimetre (500 million per square inch). Despite these vast quantities, all of the bacteria found on the skin's surface would fit into a volume the size of a pea.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, the microorganisms keep one another in check and are part of a healthy skin. When the balance is disturbed, there may be an overgrowth and infection, such as when <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a> kill <a href="/wiki/Microbe" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbe">microbes</a>, resulting in an overgrowth of yeast. The skin is continuous with the inner <a href="/wiki/Epithelial" class="mw-redirect" title="Epithelial">epithelial</a> lining of the body at the orifices, each of which supports its own complement of microbes. </p><p>Cosmetics should be used carefully on the skin because these may cause allergic reactions. Each season requires suitable clothing in order to facilitate the evaporation of the sweat. Sunlight, water and air play an important role in keeping the skin healthy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Oily_skin">Oily skin</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Oily skin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Oily skin is caused by over-active sebaceous glands, that produce a substance called <a href="/wiki/Sebum" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebum">sebum</a>, a naturally healthy skin lubricant.<sup id="cite_ref-Hcare_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hcare-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A high <a href="/wiki/Glycemic_index" title="Glycemic index">glycemic-index</a> diet and <a href="/wiki/Dairy_product" title="Dairy product">dairy products</a> (except for cheese) consumption increase <a href="/wiki/Insulin-like_growth_factor_1" title="Insulin-like growth factor 1">IGF-1</a> generation, which in turn increases sebum production.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overwashing the skin does not cause sebum overproduction but may cause dryness.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the skin produces excessive <a href="/wiki/Sebum" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebum">sebum</a>, it becomes heavy and thick in texture, known as oily skin.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_44-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oily skin is typified by shininess, blemishes and <a href="/wiki/Pimples" class="mw-redirect" title="Pimples">pimples</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hcare_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hcare-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oily-skin type is not necessarily bad, since such skin is less prone to wrinkling, or other signs of ageing,<sup id="cite_ref-Hcare_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hcare-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because the oil helps to keep needed moisture locked into the <a href="/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis">epidermis</a> (outermost layer of skin). The negative aspect of the oily-skin type is that oily complexions are especially susceptible to clogged pores, <a href="/wiki/Blackhead" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackhead">blackheads</a>, and buildup of dead skin cells on the surface of the skin.<sup id="cite_ref-Hcare_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hcare-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oily skin can be <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sallow_(color)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sallow (color) (page does not exist)">sallow</a> and rough in texture and tends to have large, clearly visible pores everywhere, except around the eyes and neck.<sup id="cite_ref-Hcare_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hcare-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Permeability">Permeability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Permeability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Human skin has a low <a href="/wiki/Permeation" title="Permeation">permeability</a>; that is, most foreign substances are unable to penetrate and diffuse through the skin. Skin's outermost layer, the stratum corneum, is an effective barrier to most <a href="/wiki/Inorganic" class="mw-redirect" title="Inorganic">inorganic</a> nanosized particles.<sup id="cite_ref-Baroli2010_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baroli2010-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Filipe2009_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Filipe2009-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This protects the body from external particles such as toxins by not allowing them to come into contact with internal tissues. However, in some cases it is desirable to allow particles entry to the body through the skin. Potential medical applications of such particle transfer has prompted developments in <a href="/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">nanomedicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> to increase skin permeability. One application of transcutaneous particle delivery could be to locate and treat cancer. Nanomedical researchers seek to target the epidermis and other layers of active cell division where <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticles" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoparticles">nanoparticles</a> can interact directly with cells that have lost their growth-control mechanisms (<a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer cells</a>). Such direct interaction could be used to more accurately diagnose properties of specific tumours or to treat them by delivering drugs with cellular specificity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nanoparticles">Nanoparticles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Nanoparticles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nanoparticles 40 nm in diameter and smaller have been successful in penetrating the skin.<sup id="cite_ref-Vogt_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vogt-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sonavane2008_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sonavane2008-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ryman-Rasmussen2006_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ryman-Rasmussen2006-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research confirms that nanoparticles larger than 40 nm do not penetrate the skin past the stratum corneum.<sup id="cite_ref-Vogt_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vogt-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most particles that do penetrate will diffuse through skin cells, but some will travel down <a href="/wiki/Hair_follicle" title="Hair follicle">hair follicles</a> and reach the dermis layer. </p><p>The permeability of skin relative to different shapes of nanoparticles has also been studied. Research has shown that spherical particles have a better ability to penetrate the skin compared to <a href="/wiki/Rectangle" title="Rectangle">oblong</a> (ellipsoidal) particles because spheres are symmetric in all three spatial dimensions.<sup id="cite_ref-Ryman-Rasmussen2006_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ryman-Rasmussen2006-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study compared the two shapes and recorded data that showed spherical particles located deep in the epidermis and dermis whereas ellipsoidal particles were mainly found in the stratum corneum and epidermal layers.<sup id="cite_ref-Ryman-Rasmussen2006_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ryman-Rasmussen2006-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nanorods" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanorods">Nanorods</a> are used in experiments because of their unique <a href="/wiki/Fluorescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorescent">fluorescent</a> properties but have shown mediocre penetration. </p><p>Nanoparticles of different materials have shown skin's permeability limitations. In many experiments, gold nanoparticles 40 nm in diameter or smaller are used and have shown to penetrate to the epidermis. <a href="/wiki/Titanium_dioxide" title="Titanium dioxide">Titanium oxide</a> (TiO<sub>2</sub>), <a href="/wiki/Zinc_oxide" title="Zinc oxide">zinc oxide</a> (ZnO), and <a href="/wiki/Silver_nanoparticles" class="mw-redirect" title="Silver nanoparticles">silver nanoparticles</a> are ineffective in penetrating the skin past the stratum corneum.<sup id="cite_ref-Filipe2009_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Filipe2009-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Larese2009_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larese2009-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_selenide" title="Cadmium selenide">Cadmium selenide</a> (CdSe) <a href="/wiki/Quantum_dots" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum dots">quantum dots</a> have proven to penetrate very effectively when they have certain properties. Because CdSe is toxic to living organisms, the particle must be covered in a surface group. An experiment comparing the permeability of quantum dots coated in <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene_glycol" title="Polyethylene glycol">polyethylene glycol</a> (PEG), PEG-<a href="/wiki/Amine" title="Amine">amine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carboxylic_acid" title="Carboxylic acid">carboxylic acid</a> concluded the PEG and PEG-amine surface groups allowed for the greatest penetration of particles. The carboxylic acid coated particles did not penetrate past the stratum corneum.<sup id="cite_ref-Ryman-Rasmussen2006_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ryman-Rasmussen2006-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Increasing_permeability">Increasing permeability</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Increasing permeability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scientists previously believed that the skin was an effective barrier to inorganic particles. Damage from mechanical stressors was believed to be the only way to increase its permeability.<sup id="cite_ref-Mortensen2008_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mortensen2008-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recently, simpler and more effective methods for increasing skin permeability have been developed. <b><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet radiation">Ultraviolet radiation</a> (UVR)</b> slightly damages the surface of skin and causes a time-dependent defect allowing easier penetration of nanoparticles.<sup id="cite_ref-Mortensen2_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mortensen2-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The UVR's high energy causes a restructuring of cells, weakening the boundary between the stratum corneum and the epidermal layer.<sup id="cite_ref-Mortensen2_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mortensen2-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mortensen2008_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mortensen2008-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The damage of the skin is typically measured by the <a href="/wiki/Transepidermal_water_loss" title="Transepidermal water loss">transepidermal water loss</a> (TEWL), though it may take 3–5 days for the TEWL to reach its peak value. When the TEWL reaches its highest value, the maximum density of nanoparticles is able to permeate the skin. While the effect of increased permeability after UVR exposure can lead to an increase in the number of particles that permeate the skin, the specific permeability of skin after UVR exposure relative to particles of different sizes and materials has not been determined.<sup id="cite_ref-Mortensen2_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mortensen2-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are other methods to increase nanoparticle penetration by skin damage: <b>tape stripping</b> is the process in which tape is applied to skin then lifted to remove the top layer of skin; <b><a href="/wiki/Abrasion_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrasion (medical)">skin abrasion</a></b> is done by shaving the top 5–10 μm off the surface of the skin; <b>chemical enhancement</b> applies chemicals such as <a href="/wiki/Polyvinylpyrrolidone" title="Polyvinylpyrrolidone">polyvinylpyrrolidone</a> (PVP), <a href="/wiki/Dimethyl_sulfoxide" title="Dimethyl sulfoxide">dimethyl sulfoxide</a> (DMSO), and <a href="/wiki/Oleic_acid" title="Oleic acid">oleic acid</a> to the surface of the skin to increase permeability;<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12727808_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12727808-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mark_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b><a href="/wiki/Electroporation" title="Electroporation">electroporation</a></b> increases skin permeability by the application of short pulses of <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric fields</a>. The pulses are high voltage and on the order of milliseconds when applied. <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">Charged molecules</a> penetrate the skin more frequently than neutral molecules after the skin has been exposed to electric field pulses. Results have shown molecules on the order of 100 μm to easily permeate electroporated skin.<sup id="cite_ref-Mark_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Applications">Applications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A large area of interest in nanomedicine is the <a href="/wiki/Transdermal_patch" title="Transdermal patch">transdermal patch</a> because of the possibility of a painless application of therapeutic agents with very few side effects. Transdermal patches have been limited to administer a small number of drugs, such as <a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">nicotine</a>, because of the limitations in permeability of the skin. Development of techniques that increase skin permeability has led to more drugs that can be applied via transdermal patches and more options for patients.<sup id="cite_ref-Mark_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Increasing the permeability of skin allows nanoparticles to penetrate and target <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> cells. Nanoparticles along with <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">multi-modal imaging</a> techniques have been used as a way to diagnose cancer <a href="/wiki/Non-invasive" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-invasive">non-invasively</a>. Skin with high permeability allowed quantum dots with an <a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibody</a> attached to the surface for active targeting to successfully penetrate and identify cancerous <a href="/wiki/Tumours" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumours">tumours</a> in mice. Tumour targeting is beneficial because the particles can be excited using <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorescence microscopy">fluorescence microscopy</a> and emit light energy and heat that will destroy cancer cells.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sunblock_and_sunscreen">Sunblock and sunscreen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Sunblock and sunscreen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sunblock and sunscreen are different important skin-care products though both offer full protection from the sun.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Sunblock</b>—<a href="/wiki/Sunscreen#Sunblock" title="Sunscreen">Sunblock</a> is opaque and stronger than sunscreen, since it is able to block most of the <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">UVA/UVB rays</a> and radiation from the sun, and does not need to be reapplied several times in a day. Titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are two of the important ingredients in sunblock.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Sunscreen</b>—<a href="/wiki/Sunscreen" title="Sunscreen">Sunscreen</a> is more transparent once applied to the skin and also has the ability to protect against UVA/UVB rays, although the sunscreen's ingredients have the ability to break down at a faster rate once exposed to sunlight, and some of the radiation is able to penetrate to the skin. In order for sunscreen to be more effective it is necessary to consistently reapply and use one with a higher sun protection factor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diet">Diet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Diet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A" title="Vitamin A">Vitamin A</a>, also known as <a href="/wiki/Retinoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Retinoids">retinoids</a>, benefits the skin by normalizing <a href="/wiki/Keratinization" class="mw-redirect" title="Keratinization">keratinization</a>, downregulating <a href="/wiki/Sebum" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebum">sebum</a> production, which contributes to <a href="/wiki/Acne" title="Acne">acne</a>, and reversing and treating photodamage, striae, and <a href="/wiki/Cellulite" title="Cellulite">cellulite</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">Vitamin D</a> and analogues are used to downregulate the cutaneous immune system and epithelial proliferation while promoting differentiation. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C" title="Vitamin C">Vitamin C</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidant</a> that regulates collagen synthesis, forms barrier lipids, regenerates vitamin E, and provides photoprotection. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_E" title="Vitamin E">Vitamin E</a> is a membrane antioxidant that protects against oxidative damage and also provides protection against harmful <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">UV</a> rays. <sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several scientific studies confirmed that changes in baseline nutritional status affects skin condition. <sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mayo_Clinic" title="Mayo Clinic">Mayo Clinic</a> lists foods they state help the skin: fruits and vegetables, whole-grains, dark leafy greens, nuts, and seeds.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_mantle" title="Acid mantle">Acid mantle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropodermic_bibliopegy" title="Anthropodermic bibliopegy">Anthropodermic bibliopegy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_skin" title="Artificial skin">Artificial skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callus" title="Callus">Callus</a> – thick area of skin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cutaneous_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="List of cutaneous conditions">List of cutaneous conditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutaneous_structure_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Cutaneous structure development">Cutaneous structure development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fingerprint" title="Fingerprint">Fingerprint</a> – skin on fingertips</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">Human body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperpigmentation" title="Hyperpigmentation">Hyperpigmentation</a> – about excess skin colour</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertriginous" title="Intertriginous">Intertriginous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meissner%27s_corpuscle" class="mw-redirect" title="Meissner's corpuscle">Meissner's corpuscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nude_beaches" class="mw-redirect" title="Nude beaches">Nude beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nude_swimming" title="Nude swimming">Nude swimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nudity" title="Nudity">Nudity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacinian_corpuscle" title="Pacinian corpuscle">Pacinian corpuscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyphenol_antioxidant" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyphenol antioxidant">Polyphenol antioxidant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_cancer" title="Skin cancer">Skin cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_lesion" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin lesion">Skin lesion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_repair" title="Skin repair">Skin repair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunbathing" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunbathing">Sunbathing</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-porcine2018Janu-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-porcine2018Janu_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHerron2009" class="citation web cs1">Herron AJ (5 December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ivis.org/proceedings/acvp/2009/Herron.pdf?LA=1">"Pigs as Dermatologic Models of Human Skin Disease"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>ivis.org</i>. DVM Center for Comparative Medicine and Department of Pathology Baylor College of Medicine Houston, Texas<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2018</span>. <q>pig skin has been shown to be the most similar to human skin. Pig skin is structurally similar to human epidermal thickness and dermal-epidermal thickness ratios. Pigs and humans have similar hair follicle and blood vessel patterns in the skin. Biochemically pigs contain dermal collagen and elastic content that is more similar to humans than other laboratory animals. Finally pigs have similar physical and molecular responses to various growth factors.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ivis.org&rft.atitle=Pigs+as+Dermatologic+Models+of+Human+Skin+Disease&rft.date=2009-12-05&rft.aulast=Herron&rft.aufirst=AJ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ivis.org%2Fproceedings%2Facvp%2F2009%2FHerron.pdf%3FLA%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-porcine2018Janu2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-porcine2018Janu2_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiuKimBrownMadsen" class="citation web cs1">Liu J, Kim D, Brown L, Madsen T, Bouchard GF. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180127084036/http://www.sinclairresearch.com/assets/25_Wound-Healing-AALAS-2009.pdf">"Comparison of Human, Porcine and Rodent Wound Healing With New Miniature Swine Study Data"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>sinclairresearch.com</i>. Sinclair Research Centre, Auxvasse, MO, USA; Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory, Columbia, MO, USA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sinclairresearch.com/assets/25_Wound-Healing-AALAS-2009.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 27 January 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2018</span>. <q>Pig skin is anatomically, physiologically, biochemically and immunologically similar to human skin</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sinclairresearch.com&rft.atitle=Comparison+of+Human%2C+Porcine+and+Rodent+Wound+Healing+With+New+Miniature+Swine+Study+Data&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Kim%2C+D&rft.au=Brown%2C+L&rft.au=Madsen%2C+T&rft.au=Bouchard%2C+GF&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sinclairresearch.com%2Fassets%2F25_Wound-Healing-AALAS-2009.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maton-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Maton_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatonHopkinsMcLaughlinJohnson1893" class="citation book cs1">Maton A, Hopkins J, McLaughlin CW, Johnson S, Warner MQ, LaHart D, Wright JD (1893). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho"><i>Human Biology and Health</i></a></span>. 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"Role of vitamins in skin care". <i>Nutrition</i>. <b>17</b> (10): 839–844. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0899-9007%2801%2900660-8">10.1016/S0899-9007(01)00660-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11684391">11684391</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nutrition&rft.atitle=Role+of+vitamins+in+skin+care&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=839-844&rft.date=2001-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0899-9007%2801%2900660-8&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11684391&rft.aulast=Shapiro&rft.aufirst=SS&rft.au=Saliou%2C+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoelsmavan_de_VijverGoldbohmKlöpping-Ketelaars2003" class="citation journal cs1">Boelsma E, van de Vijver LP, Goldbohm RA, Klöpping-Ketelaars IA, Hendriks HF, Roza L (February 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F77.2.348">"Human skin condition and its associations with nutrient concentrations in serum and diet"</a>. <i>The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition</i>. <b>77</b> (2): 348–355. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F77.2.348">10.1093/ajcn/77.2.348</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12540393">12540393</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Clinical+Nutrition&rft.atitle=Human+skin+condition+and+its+associations+with+nutrient+concentrations+in+serum+and+diet&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=348-355&rft.date=2003-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fajcn%2F77.2.348&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12540393&rft.aulast=Boelsma&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=van+de+Vijver%2C+LP&rft.au=Goldbohm%2C+RA&rft.au=Kl%C3%B6pping-Ketelaars%2C+IA&rft.au=Hendriks%2C+HF&rft.au=Roza%2C+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fajcn%252F77.2.348&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/adult-health/expert-answers/healthy-skin/faq-20058184">"Foods for healthy skin"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Mayo_Clinic" title="Mayo Clinic">Mayo Clinic</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mayo+Clinic&rft.atitle=Foods+for+healthy+skin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mayoclinic.org%2Fhealthy-lifestyle%2Fadult-health%2Fexpert-answers%2Fhealthy-skin%2Ffaq-20058184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_skin&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span 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.sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/human_skin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/human skin">human skin</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Human_skin" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Human skin">Human skin</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/skinconditions.html">"Skin Conditions"</a>. <i>MedlinePlus</i>. U.S. National Library of Medicine<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MedlinePlus&rft.atitle=Skin+Conditions&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nlm.nih.gov%2Fmedlineplus%2Fskinconditions.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+skin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Skin_and_related_structures" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Skin_microanatomy" title="Template:Skin microanatomy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Skin_microanatomy" title="Template talk:Skin microanatomy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a 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href="/wiki/Stratum_lucidum" title="Stratum lucidum">Stratum lucidum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratum_granulosum" title="Stratum granulosum">Stratum granulosum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratum_spinosum" title="Stratum spinosum">Stratum spinosum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malpighian_layer" title="Malpighian layer">Malpighian layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratum_basale" title="Stratum basale">Stratum basale</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Basement_membrane" title="Basement membrane">Basement membrane</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keratinocyte" title="Keratinocyte">Basal keratinocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamina_lucida" title="Lamina lucida">Lamina lucida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamina_densa" title="Lamina densa">Lamina densa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dermis" title="Dermis">Dermis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Papillary_dermis" class="mw-redirect" title="Papillary dermis">Papillary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dermal_papillae" class="mw-redirect" title="Dermal papillae">Dermal papillae</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reticular_dermis" class="mw-redirect" title="Reticular dermis">Reticular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subcutaneous_tissue" title="Subcutaneous tissue">Subcutaneous tissue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Panniculus" title="Panniculus">Panniculus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Pannus" title="Pannus">Pannus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Panniculus_adiposus" title="Panniculus adiposus">Panniculus adiposus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panniculus_carnosus" title="Panniculus carnosus">Panniculus carnosus</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Membranous_layer" title="Membranous layer">Membranous layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loose_connective_tissue" title="Loose connective tissue">Loose connective tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superficial_fascia" class="mw-redirect" title="Superficial fascia">Superficial fascia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Skin_appendage" title="Skin appendage">Adnexa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Skin_gland" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin gland">Skin glands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sweat_gland" title="Sweat gland">Sweat glands</a>: <a href="/wiki/Apocrine_sweat_gland" title="Apocrine sweat gland">Apocrine sweat gland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eccrine_sweat_gland" title="Eccrine sweat gland">Eccrine sweat gland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebaceous_gland" title="Sebaceous gland">Sebaceous</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hair" title="Hair">Hair</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Root_sheath_(hair)" title="Root sheath (hair)">Root sheath</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outer_root_sheath" title="Outer root sheath">Outer root sheath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_root_sheath" title="Inner root sheath">Inner root sheath</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henle%27s_layer" title="Henle's layer">Henle's layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huxley%27s_layer" title="Huxley's layer">Huxley's layer</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hair_shaft" class="mw-redirect" title="Hair shaft">Hair shaft</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuticle_(hair)" title="Cuticle (hair)">Cuticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cortex_(hair)" title="Cortex (hair)">Cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medulla_(hair)" title="Medulla (hair)">Medulla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix_(hair)" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrix (hair)">Bulb with matrix cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair_follicle" title="Hair follicle">Hair follicle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">Muscle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrector_pili_muscle" title="Arrector pili muscle">Arrector pili muscle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pilosebaceous_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilosebaceous unit">Pilosebaceous unit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Hair <a href="/wiki/Sebaceous_gland" title="Sebaceous gland">sebaceous gland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nail_(anatomy)" title="Nail (anatomy)">Nail</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nail_matrix" class="mw-redirect" title="Nail matrix">Nail matrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nail_(anatomy)" title="Nail (anatomy)">Nail plate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lunula_(anatomy)" title="Lunula (anatomy)">Lunula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eponychium" title="Eponychium">Eponychium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paronychium" class="mw-redirect" title="Paronychium">Paronychium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyponychium" title="Hyponychium">Hyponychium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_regional_anatomy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_regional_anatomy" title="Template:Human regional anatomy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_regional_anatomy" title="Template talk:Human regional anatomy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_regional_anatomy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human regional anatomy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_regional_anatomy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_body#Regional_groups" title="Human body">Human regional anatomy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">Body</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Skin</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_head" title="Human head">Head</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hair" title="Hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Face" title="Face">Face</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forehead" title="Forehead">Forehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheek" title="Cheek">Cheek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chin" title="Chin">Chin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyebrow" title="Eyebrow">Eyebrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyelid" title="Eyelid">Eyelid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nose" title="Human nose">Nose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">Mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lip" title="Lip">Lip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">Tongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_tooth" title="Human tooth">Tooth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear" title="Ear">Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaw" title="Jaw">Jaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandible" title="Mandible">Mandible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_bone" title="Occipital bone">Occiput</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalp" title="Scalp">Scalp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_(anatomy)" title="Temple (anatomy)">Temple</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neck" title="Neck">Neck</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adam%27s_apple" title="Adam's apple">Adam's apple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Throat" title="Throat">Throat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nape" title="Nape">Nape</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Torso" title="Torso">Torso</a> (Trunk)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdomen" title="Abdomen">Abdomen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Waist" title="Waist">Waist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midriff" title="Midriff">Midriff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navel" title="Navel">Navel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">Vertebral column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_back" title="Human back">Back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorax" title="Thorax">Thorax</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breast" title="Breast">Breast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nipple" title="Nipple">Nipple</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">Pelvis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_organ" title="Sex organ">Genitalia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_penis" title="Human penis">Penis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scrotum" title="Scrotum">Scrotum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">Vulva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_anus" title="Human anus">Anus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Limb_(anatomy)" title="Limb (anatomy)">Limbs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arm" title="Arm">Arm</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shoulder" title="Shoulder">Shoulder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axilla" title="Axilla">Axilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbow" title="Elbow">Elbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forearm" title="Forearm">Forearm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrist" title="Wrist">Wrist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand" title="Hand">Hand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finger" title="Finger">Finger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nail_(anatomy)" title="Nail (anatomy)">Fingernail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thumb" title="Thumb">Thumb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_finger" title="Index finger">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_finger" title="Middle finger">Middle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_finger" title="Ring finger">Ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_finger" title="Little finger">Little</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_leg" title="Human leg">Leg</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buttocks" title="Buttocks">Buttocks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hip" title="Hip">Hip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thigh" title="Thigh">Thigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knee" title="Knee">Knee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calf_(leg)" title="Calf (leg)">Calf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foot" title="Foot">Foot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ankle" title="Ankle">Ankle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heel" title="Heel">Heel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toe" title="Toe">Toe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nail_(anatomy)" title="Nail (anatomy)">Toenail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sole_(foot)" title="Sole (foot)">Sole</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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