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medical imaging subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Diagnostic_medical_imaging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Diagnostic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnostic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Diagnostic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diagnostic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hybrid_scanning_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hybrid_scanning_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Hybrid scanning techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hybrid_scanning_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practical_concerns_in_nuclear_imaging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practical_concerns_in_nuclear_imaging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Practical concerns in nuclear imaging</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Practical_concerns_in_nuclear_imaging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interventional_nuclear_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interventional_nuclear_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Interventional nuclear medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interventional_nuclear_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources_of_radionuclides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_of_radionuclides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Sources of radionuclides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources_of_radionuclides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Policies_and_procedures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policies_and_procedures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Policies and procedures</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Policies_and_procedures-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Policies and procedures subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Policies_and_procedures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radiation_dose" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation_dose"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Radiation dose</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation_dose-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulatory_frameworks_and_guidelines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulatory_frameworks_and_guidelines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Regulatory frameworks and guidelines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulatory_frameworks_and_guidelines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear medicine</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 45 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-45" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">45 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerngeneeskunde" title="Kerngeneeskunde – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kerngeneeskunde" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D9%8A" title="طب نووي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="طب نووي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Ядзерная медыцына – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ядзерная медыцына" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Ядрена медицина – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ядрена медицина" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina_nuclear" title="Medicina nuclear – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Medicina nuclear" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukle%C3%A1rn%C3%AD_medic%C3%ADna" title="Nukleární medicína – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Nukleární medicína" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearmedicin" title="Nuklearmedicin – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nuklearmedicin" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearmedizin" title="Nuklearmedizin – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Nuklearmedizin" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukleaarmeditsiin" title="Nukleaarmeditsiin – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Nukleaarmeditsiin" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%99%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Πυρηνική Ιατρική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πυρηνική Ιατρική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina_nuclear" title="Medicina nuclear – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Medicina nuclear" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medikuntza_nuklear" title="Medikuntza nuklear – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Medikuntza nuklear" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B2%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="پزشکی هسته‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پزشکی هسته‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9decine_nucl%C3%A9aire" title="Médecine nucléaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Médecine nucléaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B5%EC%9D%98%ED%95%99" title="핵의학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="핵의학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A2%D5%AA%D5%B7%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Միջուկային բժշկություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միջուկային բժշկություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="नाभिकीय चिकित्सा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नाभिकीय चिकित्सा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearna_medicina" title="Nuklearna medicina – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nuklearna medicina" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukleara_medicino" title="Nukleara medicino – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Nukleara medicino" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kedokteran_nuklir" title="Kedokteran nuklir – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kedokteran nuklir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina_nuclear" title="Medicina nuclear – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Medicina nuclear" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina_nucleare" title="Medicina nucleare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Medicina nucleare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%90%D7%94_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="רפואה גרעינית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רפואה גרעינית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%A3%E0%B3%81_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಅಣು ವೈದ್ಯಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅಣು ವೈದ್ಯಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medesina_nuclear" title="Medesina nuclear – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Medesina nuclear" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D3%A9%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%85_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Цөмийн анагаах ухаан – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Цөмийн анагаах ухаан" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleaire_geneeskunde" title="Nucleaire geneeskunde – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Nucleaire geneeskunde" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukle%C3%A6rmedisin" title="Nukleærmedisin – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nukleærmedisin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yadro_tibbiyoti" title="Yadro tibbiyoti – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yadro tibbiyoti" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%8A_%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%84%D9%86%D9%87" title="هستوي درملنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="هستوي درملنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medycyna_nuklearna" title="Medycyna nuklearna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Medycyna nuklearna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina_nuclear" title="Medicina nuclear – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Medicina nuclear" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicin%C4%83_nuclear%C4%83" title="Medicină nucleară – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Medicină nucleară" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Ядерная медицина – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ядерная медицина" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mjek%C3%ABsia_nukleare" title="Mjekësia nukleare – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mjekësia nukleare" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukle%C3%A1rna_medic%C3%ADna" title="Nukleárna medicína – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Nukleárna medicína" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Medical specialty</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical intervention</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: lightblue">Nuclear medicine</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Viewer_medecine_nucleaire_keosys.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Viewer_medecine_nucleaire_keosys.JPG/280px-Viewer_medecine_nucleaire_keosys.JPG" decoding="async" width="280" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Viewer_medecine_nucleaire_keosys.JPG/420px-Viewer_medecine_nucleaire_keosys.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Viewer_medecine_nucleaire_keosys.JPG/560px-Viewer_medecine_nucleaire_keosys.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="900" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">A nuclear medicine <a href="/wiki/PET_scan" class="mw-redirect" title="PET scan">PET scan</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ICD-10_Procedure_Coding_System" title="ICD-10 Procedure Coding System">ICD-10-PCS</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd10data.com/ICD10PCS/Codes/C/C">C</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ICD-9-CM_Volume_3" title="ICD-9-CM Volume 3">ICD-9</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://icd9cm.chrisendres.com/index.php?srchtype=procs&srchtext=92&Submit=Search&action=search">92</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009683">D009683</a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/OPS-301" title="OPS-301">OPS-301 code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd-code.de/ops/code/3-70.html">3-70</a>-<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd-code.de/ops/code/3-72.html">3-72</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd-code.de/ops/code/8-53.html">8-53</a></td></tr><tr class="noprint"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="text-align: right;">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q214963" class="extiw" title="d:Q214963">edit on Wikidata</a>]</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Nuclear medicine</b> (<b>nuclear radiology</b>, <b>nucleology</b>),<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">medical specialty</a> involving the application of <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactive</a> substances in the <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis" title="Diagnosis">diagnosis</a> and treatment of <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a>. Nuclear imaging is, in a sense, <i><a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">radiology</a> done inside out</i>, because it records <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a> <a href="/wiki/Radiant_exitance" title="Radiant exitance">emitted</a> from within the body rather than <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a> that is <a href="/wiki/Transmittance" title="Transmittance">transmitted</a> through the body from external sources like <a href="/wiki/X-ray_generator" class="mw-redirect" title="X-ray generator">X-ray generators</a>. In addition, nuclear medicine scans differ from radiology, as the emphasis is not on imaging anatomy, but on the function. For such reason, it is called a <a href="/wiki/Functional_imaging" title="Functional imaging">physiological imaging modality</a>. <a href="/wiki/Single_photon_emission_computed_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Single photon emission computed tomography">Single photon emission computed tomography</a> (SPECT) and <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">positron emission tomography</a> (PET) scans are the two most common imaging modalities in nuclear medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnostic_medical_imaging">Diagnostic medical imaging</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_medicine&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Diagnostic medical imaging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diagnostic">Diagnostic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_medicine&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Diagnostic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In nuclear medicine imaging, <a href="/wiki/Radiopharmaceuticals" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiopharmaceuticals">radiopharmaceuticals</a> are taken internally, for example, through inhalation, intravenously, or orally. Then, external detectors (<a href="/wiki/Gamma_camera" title="Gamma camera">gamma cameras</a>) capture and form images from the radiation emitted by the radiopharmaceuticals. This process is unlike a diagnostic X-ray, where external radiation is passed through the body to form an image.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There are several techniques of diagnostic nuclear medicine. </p> <ul><li>2D: <i><a href="/wiki/Scintigraphy" title="Scintigraphy">Scintigraphy</a></i> ("scint") is the use of internal radionuclides to create two-dimensional images.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nl_bone_scan2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A nuclear medicine whole body bone scan. The nuclear medicine whole body bone scan is generally used in evaluations of various bone-related pathology, such as for bone pain, stress fracture, nonmalignant bone lesions, bone infections, or the spread of cancer to the bone."><img alt="A nuclear medicine whole body bone scan. The nuclear medicine whole body bone scan is generally used in evaluations of various bone-related pathology, such as for bone pain, stress fracture, nonmalignant bone lesions, bone infections, or the spread of cancer to the bone." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Nl_bone_scan2.jpg/61px-Nl_bone_scan2.jpg" decoding="async" width="61" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Nl_bone_scan2.jpg/92px-Nl_bone_scan2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Nl_bone_scan2.jpg/123px-Nl_bone_scan2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="494" data-file-height="965" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A nuclear medicine whole body bone scan. The nuclear medicine whole body bone scan is generally used in evaluations of various bone-related pathology, such as for bone pain, stress fracture, nonmalignant bone lesions, bone infections, or the spread of cancer to the bone.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nl_mpi2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Nuclear medicine myocardial perfusion scan with thallium-201 for the rest images (bottom rows) and Tc-Sestamibi for the stress images (top rows). The nuclear medicine myocardial perfusion scan plays a pivotal role in the non-invasive evaluation of coronary artery disease. The study not only identifies patients with coronary artery disease; it also provides overall prognostic information or overall risk of adverse cardiac events for the patient."><img alt="Nuclear medicine myocardial perfusion scan with thallium-201 for the rest images (bottom rows) and Tc-Sestamibi for the stress images (top rows). The nuclear medicine myocardial perfusion scan plays a pivotal role in the non-invasive evaluation of coronary artery disease. The study not only identifies patients with coronary artery disease; it also provides overall prognostic information or overall risk of adverse cardiac events for the patient." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Nl_mpi2.jpg/120px-Nl_mpi2.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Nl_mpi2.jpg/180px-Nl_mpi2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Nl_mpi2.jpg/240px-Nl_mpi2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="995" data-file-height="981" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Nuclear medicine myocardial perfusion scan with <a href="/wiki/Thallium-201" class="mw-redirect" title="Thallium-201">thallium-201</a> for the rest images (bottom rows) and <a href="/wiki/Technetium_(99mTc)_sestamibi" title="Technetium (99mTc) sestamibi">Tc-Sestamibi</a> for the stress images (top rows). The nuclear medicine myocardial perfusion scan plays a pivotal role in the non-invasive evaluation of <a href="/wiki/Coronary_artery_disease" title="Coronary artery disease">coronary artery disease</a>. The study not only identifies patients with coronary artery disease; it also provides overall prognostic information or overall risk of adverse cardiac events for the patient.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Parathyroid_subtraction.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A nuclear medicine parathyroid scan demonstrates a parathyroid adenoma adjacent to the left inferior pole of the thyroid gland. The above study was performed with Technetium-Sestamibi (1st column) and iodine-123 (2nd column) simultaneous imaging and the subtraction technique (3rd column)."><img alt="A nuclear medicine parathyroid scan demonstrates a parathyroid adenoma adjacent to the left inferior pole of the thyroid gland. The above study was performed with Technetium-Sestamibi (1st column) and iodine-123 (2nd column) simultaneous imaging and the subtraction technique (3rd column)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Parathyroid_subtraction.jpg/120px-Parathyroid_subtraction.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Parathyroid_subtraction.jpg/180px-Parathyroid_subtraction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Parathyroid_subtraction.jpg/240px-Parathyroid_subtraction.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="976" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A nuclear medicine parathyroid scan demonstrates a <a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_adenoma" title="Parathyroid adenoma">parathyroid adenoma</a> adjacent to the left inferior pole of the thyroid gland. The above study was performed with Technetium-Sestamibi (1st column) and <a href="/wiki/Iodine-123" title="Iodine-123">iodine-123</a> (2nd column) simultaneous imaging and the subtraction technique (3rd column).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:HIDA.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Normal hepatobiliary scan (HIDA scan). The nuclear medicine hepatobiliary scan is clinically useful in the detection of the gallbladder disease."><img alt="Normal hepatobiliary scan (HIDA scan). The nuclear medicine hepatobiliary scan is clinically useful in the detection of the gallbladder disease." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/HIDA.jpg/120px-HIDA.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/HIDA.jpg/180px-HIDA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/HIDA.jpg/240px-HIDA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="995" data-file-height="964" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Normal hepatobiliary scan (<a href="/wiki/Cholescintigraphy" title="Cholescintigraphy">HIDA scan</a>). The nuclear medicine hepatobiliary scan is clinically useful in the detection of the gallbladder disease.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ventperf.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Normal pulmonary ventilation and perfusion (V/Q) scan. The nuclear medicine V/Q scan is useful in the evaluation of pulmonary embolism."><img alt="Normal pulmonary ventilation and perfusion (V/Q) scan. The nuclear medicine V/Q scan is useful in the evaluation of pulmonary embolism." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ventperf.jpg/120px-Ventperf.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ventperf.jpg/180px-Ventperf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ventperf.jpg/240px-Ventperf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Normal pulmonary ventilation and perfusion (V/Q) scan. The nuclear medicine V/Q scan is useful in the evaluation of <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_embolism" title="Pulmonary embolism">pulmonary embolism</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Thyroid_scan.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Thyroid scan with iodine-123 for evaluation of hyperthyroidism."><img alt="Thyroid scan with iodine-123 for evaluation of hyperthyroidism." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Thyroid_scan.jpg/120px-Thyroid_scan.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Thyroid_scan.jpg/180px-Thyroid_scan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Thyroid_scan.jpg/240px-Thyroid_scan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="995" data-file-height="974" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Thyroid scan with iodine-123 for evaluation of hyperthyroidism.</div> </li> </ul> <ul><li>3D: <i><a href="/wiki/Single_photon_emission_computed_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Single photon emission computed tomography">SPECT</a></i> is a 3D tomographic technique that uses gamma camera data from many projections and can be reconstructed in different planes. <i><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">Positron emission tomography</a></i> (PET) uses coincidence detection to image functional processes.</li></ul> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hemangioma_scan.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A nuclear medicine SPECT liver scan with technetium-99m labeled autologous red blood cells. A focus of high uptake (arrow) in the liver is consistent with a hemangioma."><img alt="A nuclear medicine SPECT liver scan with technetium-99m labeled autologous red blood cells. A focus of high uptake (arrow) in the liver is consistent with a hemangioma." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Hemangioma_scan.jpg/109px-Hemangioma_scan.jpg" decoding="async" width="109" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Hemangioma_scan.jpg/163px-Hemangioma_scan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Hemangioma_scan.jpg/218px-Hemangioma_scan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="328" data-file-height="361" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A nuclear medicine SPECT liver scan with technetium-99m labeled autologous red blood cells. A focus of high uptake (arrow) in the liver is consistent with a <a href="/wiki/Hemangioma" title="Hemangioma">hemangioma</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PET-MIPS-anim.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Maximum intensity projection (MIP) of a whole-body positron emission tomography (PET) acquisition of a 79 kg female after intravenous injection of 371 MBq of 18F-FDG (one hour prior measurement)."><img alt="Maximum intensity projection (MIP) of a whole-body positron emission tomography (PET) acquisition of a 79 kg female after intravenous injection of 371 MBq of 18F-FDG (one hour prior measurement)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/PET-MIPS-anim.gif/79px-PET-MIPS-anim.gif" decoding="async" width="79" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/PET-MIPS-anim.gif/119px-PET-MIPS-anim.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/PET-MIPS-anim.gif/159px-PET-MIPS-anim.gif 2x" data-file-width="446" data-file-height="672" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Maximum intensity projection (MIP) of a whole-body positron emission tomography (PET) acquisition of a 79 kg female after intravenous injection of 371 MBq of 18F-FDG (one hour prior measurement).</div> </li> </ul> <p>Nuclear medicine tests differ from most other imaging modalities in that nuclear medicine scans primarily show the physiological function of the system being investigated as opposed to traditional anatomical imaging such as CT or MRI. Nuclear medicine imaging studies are generally more organ-, tissue- or disease-specific (e.g.: lungs scan, heart scan, bone scan, brain scan, tumor, infection, Parkinson etc.) than those in conventional radiology imaging, which focus on a particular section of the body (e.g.: chest X-ray, abdomen/pelvis CT scan, head CT scan, etc.). In addition, there are nuclear medicine studies that allow imaging of the whole body based on certain cellular receptors or functions. Examples are whole body <a href="/wiki/PET_scan" class="mw-redirect" title="PET scan">PET scans</a> or <a href="/wiki/PET-CT" title="PET-CT">PET/CT</a> scans, <a href="/wiki/Gallium_scan" title="Gallium scan">gallium scans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indium_white_blood_cell_scan" class="mw-redirect" title="Indium white blood cell scan">indium white blood cell scans</a>, <a href="/wiki/MIBG" class="mw-redirect" title="MIBG">MIBG</a> and <a href="/wiki/Octreotide_scan" title="Octreotide scan">octreotide scans</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iodine_wb_scan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Iodine_wb_scan.jpg/220px-Iodine_wb_scan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Iodine_wb_scan.jpg/330px-Iodine_wb_scan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Iodine_wb_scan.jpg/440px-Iodine_wb_scan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="995" data-file-height="990" /></a><figcaption>Iodine-123 whole body scan for thyroid cancer evaluation. The study above was performed after the total thyroidectomy and TSH stimulation with thyroid hormone medication withdrawal. The study shows a small residual thyroid tissue in the neck and a mediastinum lesion, consistent with the thyroid cancer metastatic disease. The observable uptakes in the stomach and bladder are normal physiologic findings.</figcaption></figure> <p>While the ability of nuclear metabolism to image disease processes from differences in metabolism is unsurpassed, it is not unique. Certain techniques such as <a href="/wiki/FMRI" class="mw-redirect" title="FMRI">fMRI</a> image tissues (particularly cerebral tissues) by blood flow and thus show metabolism. Also, contrast-enhancement techniques in both CT and MRI show regions of tissue that are handling pharmaceuticals differently, due to an inflammatory process. </p><p>Diagnostic tests in nuclear medicine exploit the way that the body handles substances differently when there is disease or pathology present. The radionuclide introduced into the body is often chemically bound to a complex that acts characteristically within the body; this is commonly known as a <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_tracer" title="Radioactive tracer">tracer</a>. In the presence of disease, a tracer will often be distributed around the body and/or processed differently. For example, the ligand methylene-diphosphonate (<a href="/wiki/Medronic_acid" title="Medronic acid">MDP</a>) can be preferentially taken up by bone. By chemically attaching <a href="/wiki/Technetium-99m" title="Technetium-99m">technetium-99m</a> to MDP, radioactivity can be transported and attached to bone via the hydroxyapatite for imaging. Any increased physiological function, such as due to a fracture in the bone, will usually mean increased concentration of the tracer. This often results in the appearance of a "hot spot", which is a focal increase in radio accumulation or a general increase in radio accumulation throughout the physiological system. Some disease processes result in the exclusion of a tracer, resulting in the appearance of a "cold spot". Many tracer complexes have been developed to image or treat many different organs, glands, and physiological processes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hybrid_scanning_techniques">Hybrid scanning techniques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_medicine&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Hybrid scanning techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some centers, the nuclear medicine scans can be superimposed, using software or hybrid cameras, on images from modalities such as CT or MRI to highlight the part of the body in which the radiopharmaceutical is concentrated. This practice is often referred to as image fusion or co-registration, for example SPECT/CT and PET/CT. The fusion imaging technique in nuclear medicine provides information about the anatomy and function, which would otherwise be unavailable or would require a more invasive procedure or surgery. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nl_petct.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Normal whole body PET/CT scan with FDG-18. The whole body PET/CT scan is commonly used in the detection, staging and follow-up of various cancers."><img alt="Normal whole body PET/CT scan with FDG-18. The whole body PET/CT scan is commonly used in the detection, staging and follow-up of various cancers." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Nl_petct.jpg/120px-Nl_petct.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Nl_petct.jpg/180px-Nl_petct.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Nl_petct.jpg/240px-Nl_petct.jpg 2x" data-file-width="995" data-file-height="984" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Normal whole body PET/CT scan with <a href="/wiki/Fludeoxyglucose_(18F)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fludeoxyglucose (18F)">FDG</a>-18. The whole body PET/CT scan is commonly used in the detection, staging and follow-up of various cancers.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Abnl_petct.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Abnormal whole body PET/CT scan with multiple metastases from a cancer. The whole body PET/CT scan has become an important tool in the evaluation of cancer."><img alt="Abnormal whole body PET/CT scan with multiple metastases from a cancer. The whole body PET/CT scan has become an important tool in the evaluation of cancer." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Abnl_petct.jpg/120px-Abnl_petct.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Abnl_petct.jpg/180px-Abnl_petct.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Abnl_petct.jpg/240px-Abnl_petct.jpg 2x" data-file-width="995" data-file-height="859" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Abnormal whole body PET/CT scan with multiple metastases from a cancer. The whole body PET/CT scan has become an important tool in the evaluation of cancer.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Practical_concerns_in_nuclear_imaging">Practical concerns in nuclear imaging</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_medicine&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Practical concerns in nuclear imaging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the risks of low-level radiation exposures are not well understood, a cautious approach has been universally adopted that all human radiation exposures should be kept <a href="/wiki/As_Low_As_Reasonably_Practicable" class="mw-redirect" title="As Low As Reasonably Practicable">As Low As Reasonably Practicable</a>, "ALARP". (Originally, this was known as "As Low As Reasonably Achievable" (ALARA), but this has changed in modern draftings of the legislation to add more emphasis on the "Reasonably" and less on the "Achievable".) </p><p>Working with the ALARP principle, before a patient is exposed for a nuclear medicine examination, the benefit of the examination must be identified. This needs to take into account the particular circumstances of the patient in question, where appropriate. For instance, if a patient is unlikely to be able to tolerate a sufficient amount of the procedure to achieve a diagnosis, then it would be inappropriate to proceed with injecting the patient with the radioactive tracer. </p><p>When the benefit does justify the procedure, then the radiation exposure (the amount of radiation given to the patient) should also be kept "ALARP". This means that the images produced in nuclear medicine should never be better than required for confident diagnosis. Giving larger radiation exposures can reduce the noise in an image and make it more photographically appealing, but if the clinical question can be answered without this level of detail, then this is inappropriate. </p><p>As a result, the <a href="/wiki/Radiation_dose" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation dose">radiation dose</a> from nuclear medicine imaging varies greatly depending on the type of study. The effective radiation dose can be lower than or comparable to or can far exceed the general day-to-day environmental annual <a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">background radiation</a> dose. Likewise, it can also be less than, in the range of, or higher than the radiation dose from an abdomen/pelvis CT scan. </p><p>Some nuclear medicine procedures require special patient preparation before the study to obtain the most accurate result. Pre-imaging preparations may include dietary preparation or the withholding of certain medications. Patients are encouraged to consult with the nuclear medicine department prior to a scan. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analysis">Analysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_medicine&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The result of the nuclear medicine imaging process is a dataset comprising one or more images. In multi-image datasets the array of images may represent a time sequence (i.e. cine or movie) often called a "dynamic" dataset, a cardiac gated time sequence, or a spatial sequence where the gamma-camera is moved relative to the patient. <a href="/wiki/Single_photon_emission_computed_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Single photon emission computed tomography">SPECT</a> (single photon emission computed tomography) is the process by which images acquired from a rotating gamma-camera are reconstructed to produce an image of a "slice" through the patient at a particular position. A collection of parallel slices form a slice-stack, a <a href="/wiki/3D_computer_graphics" title="3D computer graphics">three-dimensional</a> representation of the distribution of radionuclide in the patient. </p><p>The nuclear medicine computer may require millions of lines of source code to provide quantitative analysis packages for each of the specific imaging techniques available in nuclear medicine.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Time sequences can be further analysed using <a href="/wiki/Receptor-ligand_kinetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Receptor-ligand kinetics">kinetic</a> models such as <a href="/wiki/Multi-compartment_model" title="Multi-compartment model">multi-compartment models</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Patlak_plot" title="Patlak plot">Patlak plot</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interventional_nuclear_medicine">Interventional nuclear medicine</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_medicine&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Interventional nuclear medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Unsealed_source_radiotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Unsealed source radiotherapy">Unsealed source radiotherapy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brachytherapy" title="Brachytherapy">Brachytherapy</a></div> <p>Radionuclide therapy can be used to treat conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Hyperthyroidism" title="Hyperthyroidism">hyperthyroidism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_cancer" title="Thyroid cancer">thyroid cancer</a>, skin cancer and blood disorders. </p><p>In nuclear medicine therapy, the radiation treatment dose is administered internally (e.g. intravenous or oral routes) or externally direct above the area to treat in form of a compound (e.g. in case of skin cancer). </p><p>The radiopharmaceuticals used in nuclear medicine therapy emit ionizing radiation that travels only a short distance, thereby minimizing unwanted side effects and damage to noninvolved organs or nearby structures. Most nuclear medicine therapies can be performed as outpatient procedures since there are few side effects from the treatment and the radiation exposure to the general public can be kept within a safe limit. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Common nuclear medicine <a href="/wiki/Unsealed_source_radiotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Unsealed source radiotherapy">(unsealed source) therapies</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Substance </th> <th>Condition </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Iodine-131" title="Iodine-131">Iodine-131</a>-sodium iodide </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hyperthyroidism" title="Hyperthyroidism">Hyperthyroidism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_cancer" title="Thyroid cancer">thyroid cancer</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Yttrium-90-<a href="/wiki/Ibritumomab_tiuxetan" title="Ibritumomab tiuxetan">ibritumomab tiuxetan</a> (Zevalin) and Iodine-131-<a href="/wiki/Tositumomab" title="Tositumomab">tositumomab</a> (Bexxar) </td> <td>Refractory <a href="/wiki/Lymphoma" title="Lymphoma">lymphoma</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><sup>131</sup>I-MIBG (<a href="/wiki/Metaiodobenzylguanidine" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaiodobenzylguanidine">metaiodobenzylguanidine</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrine_tumor" title="Neuroendocrine tumor">Neuroendocrine tumors</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Samarium-153" class="mw-redirect" title="Samarium-153">Samarium-153</a> or <a href="/wiki/Strontium-89" title="Strontium-89">Strontium-89</a> </td> <td>Palliative <a href="/wiki/Bone_pain" title="Bone pain">bone pain</a> treatment </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium">Rhenium</a>-188 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Squamous_cell_carcinoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Squamous cell carcinoma">Squamous cell carcinoma</a> or <a href="/wiki/Basal-cell_carcinoma" title="Basal-cell carcinoma">basal cell carcinoma</a> of the skin </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In some centers the nuclear medicine department may also use implanted capsules of isotopes (<a href="/wiki/Brachytherapy" title="Brachytherapy">brachytherapy</a>) to treat cancer. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Commonly used radiation sources (radionuclides) for brachytherapy<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Radionuclide </th> <th>Type </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">Half-life</a> </th> <th>Energy </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Caesium-137" title="Caesium-137">Caesium-137</a> (<sup>137</sup>Cs) </td> <td>γ-ray </td> <td>30.17 years </td> <td>0.662 <a href="/wiki/MeV" class="mw-redirect" title="MeV">MeV</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60">Cobalt-60</a> (<sup>60</sup>Co) </td> <td>γ-ray </td> <td>5.26 years </td> <td>1.17, 1.33 MeV </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Iridium-192" title="Iridium-192">Iridium-192</a> (<sup>192</sup>Ir) </td> <td>β<sup>−</sup>-particles </td> <td>73.8 days </td> <td>0.38 MeV (mean) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Iodine-125" title="Iodine-125">Iodine-125</a> (<sup>125</sup>I) </td> <td>γ-rays </td> <td>59.6 days </td> <td>27.4, 31.4 and 35.5 keV </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Palladium-103" class="mw-redirect" title="Palladium-103">Palladium-103</a> (<sup>103</sup>Pd) </td> <td>γ-ray </td> <td>17.0 days </td> <td>21 keV (mean) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ruthenium-106" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruthenium-106">Ruthenium-106</a> (<sup>106</sup>Ru) </td> <td>β<sup>−</sup>-particles </td> <td>1.02 years </td> <td>3.54 MeV </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_medicine&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The history of nuclear medicine contains contributions from scientists across different disciplines in physics, chemistry, engineering, and medicine. The multidisciplinary nature of nuclear medicine makes it difficult for medical historians to determine the birthdate of nuclear medicine. This can probably be best placed between the discovery of artificial radioactivity in 1934 and the production of radionuclides by <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory" title="Oak Ridge National Laboratory">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a> for medicine-related use, in 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-Edwards_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edwards-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The origins of this medical idea date back as far as the mid-1920s in <a href="/wiki/Freiburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Freiburg">Freiburg</a>, Germany, when <a href="/wiki/George_de_Hevesy" title="George de Hevesy">George de Hevesy</a> made experiments with radionuclides administered to rats, thus displaying metabolic pathways of these substances and establishing the <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_tracer" title="Radioactive tracer">tracer</a> principle. Possibly, the genesis of this medical field took place in 1936, when <a href="/wiki/John_H._Lawrence" title="John H. Lawrence">John Lawrence</a>, known as "the father of nuclear medicine", took a leave of absence from his faculty position at <a href="/wiki/Yale_Medical_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Yale Medical School">Yale Medical School</a>, to visit his brother <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a> at his new radiation laboratory (now known as the <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</a>) in <a href="/wiki/Berkeley,_California" title="Berkeley, California">Berkeley</a>, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>. Later on, John Lawrence made the first application in patients of an artificial radionuclide when he used <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus-32" title="Phosphorus-32">phosphorus-32</a> to treat <a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many historians consider the discovery of artificially produced radionuclides by <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot-Curie" title="Frédéric Joliot-Curie">Frédéric Joliot-Curie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie" title="Irène Joliot-Curie">Irène Joliot-Curie</a> in 1934 as the most significant milestone in nuclear medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-Edwards_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edwards-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In February 1934, they reported the first artificial production of radioactive material in the journal <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)"><i>Nature</i></a>, after discovering radioactivity in aluminum foil that was irradiated with a polonium preparation. Their work built upon earlier discoveries by <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Konrad_Roentgen" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen">Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen</a> for X-ray, <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a> for radioactive uranium salts, and <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a> (mother of Irène Curie) for radioactive thorium, polonium and coining the term "radioactivity." <a href="/wiki/Taro_Takemi" title="Taro Takemi">Taro Takemi</a> studied the application of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a> to medicine in the 1930s. The history of nuclear medicine will not be complete without mentioning these early pioneers. </p><p>Nuclear medicine gained public recognition as a potential specialty when on May 11, 1946, an article in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) by Massachusetts General Hospital's Dr. <a href="/wiki/Saul_Hertz" title="Saul Hertz">Saul Hertz</a> and Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Dr. Arthur Roberts, described the successful use of treating Graves' Disease with radioactive iodine (RAI) was published.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid21025609_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21025609-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sam_Seidlin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sam Seidlin (page does not exist)">Sam Seidlin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20274882_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20274882-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> brought further development in the field describing a successful treatment of a patient with thyroid cancer metastases using radioiodine (<a href="/wiki/I-131" class="mw-redirect" title="I-131">I-131</a>). These articles are considered by many historians as the most important articles ever published in nuclear medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-nmtext_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nmtext-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the earliest use of I-131 was devoted to therapy of thyroid cancer, its use was later expanded to include imaging of the thyroid gland, quantification of the thyroid function, and therapy for hyperthyroidism. Among the many radionuclides that were discovered for medical-use, none were as important as the discovery and development of <a href="/wiki/Technetium-99m" title="Technetium-99m">Technetium-99m</a>. It was first discovered in 1937 by C. Perrier and E. Segre as an artificial element to fill space number 43 in the Periodic Table. The development of a <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide_generator" title="Radionuclide generator">generator</a> system to produce Technetium-99m in the 1960s became a practical method for medical use. Today, Technetium-99m is the most utilized element in nuclear medicine and is employed in a wide variety of nuclear medicine imaging studies. </p><p>Widespread clinical use of nuclear medicine began in the early 1950s, as knowledge expanded about radionuclides, detection of radioactivity, and using certain radionuclides to trace biochemical processes. Pioneering works by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Benedict_Cassen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Benedict Cassen (page does not exist)">Benedict Cassen</a> in developing the first <a href="/wiki/Rectilinear_scanner" title="Rectilinear scanner">rectilinear scanner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hal_O._Anger" class="mw-redirect" title="Hal O. Anger">Hal O. Anger</a>'s scintillation camera (<a href="/wiki/Anger_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Anger camera">Anger camera</a>) broadened the young discipline of nuclear medicine into a full-fledged medical imaging specialty. </p><p>By the early 1960s, in southern <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niels_A._Lassen" title="Niels A. Lassen">Niels A. Lassen</a>, <a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_H._Ingvar" class="extiw" title="sv:David H. Ingvar">David H. Ingvar</a>, and <a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Skinh%C3%B8j" class="extiw" title="da:Erik Skinhøj">Erik Skinhøj</a> developed techniques that provided the first blood flow maps of the brain, which initially involved <a href="/wiki/Xenon-133" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenon-133">xenon-133</a> inhalation;<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an intra-arterial equivalent was developed soon after, enabling measurement of the local distribution of cerebral activity for patients with <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychiatry" title="Neuropsychiatry">neuropsychiatric</a> disorders such as schizophrenia.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later versions would have 254 <a href="/wiki/Scintillator" title="Scintillator">scintillators</a> so a two-dimensional image could be produced on a color monitor. It allowed them to construct images reflecting brain activation from speaking, reading, visual or auditory perception and voluntary movement.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The technique was also used to investigate, e.g., imagined sequential movements, mental calculation and mental spatial navigation.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 1970s most organs of the body could be visualized using nuclear medicine procedures. In 1971, <a href="/wiki/American_Medical_Association" title="American Medical Association">American Medical Association</a> officially recognized nuclear medicine as a medical specialty.<sup id="cite_ref-snm_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-snm-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1972, the <a href="/wiki/American_Board_of_Nuclear_Medicine" title="American Board of Nuclear Medicine">American Board of Nuclear Medicine</a> was established, and in 1974, the <a href="/wiki/American_Osteopathic_Board_of_Nuclear_Medicine" title="American Osteopathic Board of Nuclear Medicine">American Osteopathic Board of Nuclear Medicine</a> was established, cementing nuclear medicine as a stand-alone medical specialty. </p><p>In the 1980s, radiopharmaceuticals were designed for use in diagnosis of heart disease. The development of single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), around the same time, led to three-dimensional reconstruction of the heart and establishment of the field of nuclear cardiology. </p><p>More recent developments in nuclear medicine include the invention of the first positron emission tomography scanner (<a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">PET</a>). The concept of emission and transmission tomography, later developed into single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), was introduced by <a href="/wiki/David_E._Kuhl" title="David E. Kuhl">David E. Kuhl</a> and Roy Edwards in the late 1950s.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Their work led to the design and construction of several tomographic instruments at the University of Pennsylvania. Tomographic imaging techniques were further developed at the <a href="/wiki/Washington_University_School_of_Medicine" title="Washington University School of Medicine">Washington University School of Medicine</a>. These innovations led to fusion imaging with SPECT and CT by Bruce Hasegawa from <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Francisco" title="University of California, San Francisco">University of California, San Francisco</a> (UCSF), and the first PET/CT prototype by D. W. Townsend from <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh" title="University of Pittsburgh">University of Pittsburgh</a> in 1998.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>PET and PET/CT imaging experienced slower growth in its early years owing to the cost of the modality and the requirement for an on-site or nearby cyclotron. However, an administrative decision to approve medical reimbursement of limited PET and PET/CT applications in oncology has led to phenomenal growth and widespread acceptance over the last few years, which also was facilitated by establishing 18F-labelled tracers for standard procedures, allowing work at non-cyclotron-equipped sites. PET/CT imaging is now an integral part of oncology for diagnosis, staging and treatment monitoring. A fully integrated MRI/PET scanner is on the market from early 2011.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources_of_radionuclides">Sources of radionuclides</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_medicine&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sources of radionuclides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Radiopharmacology" title="Radiopharmacology">Radiopharmacology</a></div> <p><sup>99m</sup>Tc is normally supplied to hospitals through a <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide_generator" title="Radionuclide generator">radionuclide generator</a> containing the parent radionuclide <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum-99" class="mw-redirect" title="Molybdenum-99">molybdenum-99</a>. <sup>99</sup>Mo is <a href="/wiki/Technetium-99m#Production" title="Technetium-99m">typically obtained</a> as a fission product of <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235"><sup>235</sup>U</a> in nuclear reactors, however global supply shortages have led to the exploration of <a href="/wiki/Technetium-99m#Production" title="Technetium-99m">other methods of production</a>. About a third of the world's supply, and most of Europe's supply, of medical isotopes is produced at the <a href="/wiki/Petten_nuclear_reactor" title="Petten nuclear reactor">Petten nuclear reactor</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>. Another third of the world's supply, and most of North America's supply, was produced at the <a href="/wiki/Chalk_River_Laboratories" title="Chalk River Laboratories">Chalk River Laboratories</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chalk_River,_Ontario" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalk River, Ontario">Chalk River</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a>, Canada until its permanent shutdown in 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most commonly used radioisotope in PET, <a href="/wiki/Fluorine-18" title="Fluorine-18"><sup>18</sup>F</a>, is not produced in a nuclear reactor, but rather in a circular accelerator called a <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotron</a>. The cyclotron is used to accelerate <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> to bombard the stable heavy isotope of oxygen <a href="/wiki/Oxygen-18" title="Oxygen-18"><sup>18</sup>O</a>. The <sup>18</sup>O constitutes about 0.20% of ordinary <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> (mostly <a href="/wiki/Oxygen-16" title="Oxygen-16">oxygen-16</a>), from which it is extracted. The <sup>18</sup>F is then typically used to make <a href="/wiki/Fludeoxyglucose_(18F)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fludeoxyglucose (18F)">FDG</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:10px; text-align:center;"> <caption>Common isotopes used in nuclear medicine <sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Isotope</th> <th rowspan="2">Z</th> <th rowspan="2">T<sub>1/2</sub></th> <th rowspan="2">Decay<br />mode</th> <th rowspan="2">Gamma<br />energy<br />(keV)</th> <th rowspan="2">Maximum<br />β energy<br />(keV) / <br />Abundance<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Name</th> <th>Symbol </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7" style="background:#ffffcc;">Imaging </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fluorine-18" title="Fluorine-18">fluorine-18</a></td> <td><sup>18</sup>F</td> <td>9</td> <td>109.77 m</td> <td>β<sup>+</sup></td> <td>511 (193%)</td> <td>634 (97%) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gallium-67" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallium-67">gallium-67</a></td> <td><sup>67</sup>Ga</td> <td>31</td> <td>3.26 d</td> <td>ec</td> <td>93 (39%),<br />185 (21%),<br />300 (17%)</td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Krypton-81m" class="mw-redirect" title="Krypton-81m">krypton-81m</a></td> <td><sup>81m</sup>Kr</td> <td>36</td> <td>13.1 s</td> <td>IT</td> <td>190 (68%)</td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rubidium-82" title="Rubidium-82">rubidium-82</a></td> <td><sup>82</sup>Rb</td> <td>37</td> <td>1.27 m</td> <td>β<sup>+</sup></td> <td>511 (191%)</td> <td>3381 (81.8%)<br />2605 (13.1%)<br />1906 (0.14%)<br />1209 (0.32%) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-13" title="Nitrogen-13">nitrogen-13</a></td> <td><sup>13</sup>N</td> <td>7</td> <td>9.97 m</td> <td>β<sup>+</sup></td> <td>511 (200%)</td> <td>1198 (99.8%) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Technetium-99m" title="Technetium-99m">technetium-99m</a></td> <td><sup>99m</sup>Tc</td> <td>43</td> <td>6.01 h</td> <td>IT</td> <td>140 (89%)</td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Indium-111" title="Indium-111">indium-111</a></td> <td><sup>111</sup>In</td> <td>49</td> <td>2.80 d</td> <td>ec</td> <td>171 (90%),<br />245 (94%)</td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Iodine-123" title="Iodine-123">iodine-123</a></td> <td><sup>123</sup>I</td> <td>53</td> <td>13.3 h</td> <td>ec</td> <td>159 (83%)</td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Xenon-133" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenon-133">xenon-133</a></td> <td><sup>133</sup>Xe</td> <td>54</td> <td>5.24 d</td> <td>β<sup>−</sup></td> <td>81 (31%)</td> <td>346 (99.1%)<br />267 (0.9%) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Thallium-201" class="mw-redirect" title="Thallium-201">thallium-201</a></td> <td><sup>201</sup>Tl</td> <td>81</td> <td>3.04 d</td> <td>ec</td> <td>69–83<sup>*</sup> (94%),<br />167 (10%)</td> <td>- </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="7" style="background:#ffffcc;">Therapy </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Yttrium-90" title="Yttrium-90">yttrium-90</a></td> <td><sup>90</sup>Y</td> <td>39</td> <td>2.67 d</td> <td>β<sup>−</sup></td> <td>-</td> <td>2279 (99.98%) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Iodine-131" title="Iodine-131">iodine-131</a></td> <td><sup>131</sup>I</td> <td>53</td> <td>8.02 d</td> <td>β<sup>−</sup></td> <td>364 (81%)</td> <td>807 (0.4%)<br />606 (89.4%)<br />334 (7.2%)<br />248 (2.1%) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_lutetium" title="Isotopes of lutetium">lutetium-177</a> </td> <td><sup>177</sup>Lu </td> <td>71 </td> <td>6.65 d </td> <td>β<sup>−</sup> </td> <td>113 (6.6%)<br />208 (11%) </td> <td>498 (79.3%)<br />385 (9.1%)<br />177 (11.6%) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;" colspan="7"> <p><small>Z = atomic number, the number of protons<br />T<sub>1/2</sub> = half-life<br />decay = mode of decay</small><br /> <small>photons = principal photon energies in kilo-electron volts, <a href="/wiki/Electron_volt" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron volt">keV</a>, (abundance/decay)</small><br /> <small>β = beta maximum energy in kilo-electron volts, <a href="/wiki/Electron_volt" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron volt">keV</a>, (abundance/decay)</small><br /> <small>β<sup>+</sup> = <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay#β+_decay" title="Beta decay">β<sup>+</sup> decay</a>; β<sup>−</sup> = <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay#β−_decay" title="Beta decay">β<sup>−</sup> decay</a>; IT = <a href="/wiki/Isomeric_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomeric transition">isomeric transition</a>; ec = <a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">electron capture</a></small><br /> <small>* X-rays from progeny, <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, Hg</small> </p> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A typical nuclear medicine study involves administration of a <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">radionuclide</a> into the body by intravenous injection in liquid or aggregate form, ingestion while combined with food, inhalation as a gas or aerosol, or rarely, injection of a radionuclide that has undergone <a href="/wiki/Micro-encapsulation" title="Micro-encapsulation">micro-encapsulation</a>. Some studies require the labeling of a patient's own blood cells with a radionuclide (<a href="/wiki/Leukocyte_scintigraphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukocyte scintigraphy">leukocyte scintigraphy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cell</a> scintigraphy). Most diagnostic radionuclides emit <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma rays</a> either directly from their decay or indirectly through <a href="/wiki/Electron%E2%80%93positron_annihilation" title="Electron–positron annihilation">electron–positron annihilation</a>, while the cell-damaging properties of <a href="/wiki/Beta_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta particles">beta particles</a> are used in therapeutic applications. Refined radionuclides for use in nuclear medicine are derived from <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">fission</a> or fusion processes in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a>, which produce radionuclides with longer half-lives, or <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotrons</a>, which produce radionuclides with shorter half-lives, or take advantage of natural decay processes in dedicated generators, i.e. molybdenum/technetium or strontium/rubidium. </p><p>The most commonly used intravenous radionuclides are technetium-99m, iodine-123, iodine-131, thallium-201, gallium-67, fluorine-18 <a href="/wiki/Fluorodeoxyglucose" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorodeoxyglucose">fluorodeoxyglucose</a>, and indium-111 labeled <a href="/wiki/Leukocyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukocyte">leukocytes</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The most commonly used gaseous/aerosol radionuclides are xenon-133, krypton-81m, (<a href="/wiki/Aerosolised" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerosolised">aerosolised</a>) technetium-99m.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Policies_and_procedures">Policies and procedures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_medicine&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Policies and procedures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiation_dose">Radiation dose</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_medicine&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Radiation dose"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A patient undergoing a nuclear medicine procedure will receive a <a href="/wiki/Radiation_dose" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation dose">radiation dose</a>. Under present international guidelines it is assumed that any radiation dose, however small, presents a risk. The radiation dose delivered to a patient in a nuclear medicine investigation, though unproven, is generally accepted to present a very small risk of inducing cancer. In this respect it is similar to the risk from X-ray investigations except that the dose is delivered internally rather than from an external source such as an X-ray machine, and dosage amounts are typically significantly higher than those of X-rays. </p><p>The radiation dose from a nuclear medicine investigation is expressed as an <a href="/wiki/Effective_dose_(radiation_safety)" class="mw-redirect" title="Effective dose (radiation safety)">effective dose</a> with units of <a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sieverts</a> (usually given in millisieverts, mSv). The effective dose resulting from an investigation is influenced by the amount of radioactivity administered in mega<a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">becquerels</a> (MBq), the <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">physical properties</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Radiopharmaceutical" title="Radiopharmaceutical">radiopharmaceutical</a> used, its distribution in the body and its rate of clearance from the body. </p><p>Effective doses can range from 6 μSv (0.006 mSv) for a 3 MBq <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a>-51 EDTA measurement of <a href="/wiki/Glomerular_filtration_rate" title="Glomerular filtration rate">glomerular filtration rate</a> to 11.2 mSv (11,200 μSv) for an 80 MBq <a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">thallium</a>-201 <a href="/wiki/Myocardial_perfusion_imaging" title="Myocardial perfusion imaging">myocardial imaging</a> procedure. The common bone scan with 600 MBq of technetium-99m <a href="/wiki/Technetium_(99mTc)_medronic_acid" title="Technetium (99mTc) medronic acid">MDP</a> has an effective dose of approximately 2.9 mSv (2,900 μSv).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Formerly, units of measurement were: </p> <ul><li>the <a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curie</a> (Ci), equal to 3.7 × 10<sup>10</sup> Bq, and also equal to 1.0 grams of <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ra-226" class="mw-redirect" title="Ra-226">Ra-226</a>);</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Rad_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rad (unit)">rad</a> (radiation absorbed dose), now replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">gray</a>; and</li> <li>the rem (<a href="/wiki/R%C3%B6ntgen_equivalent_man" class="mw-redirect" title="Röntgen equivalent man">Röntgen equivalent man</a>), now replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The rad and rem are essentially equivalent for almost all nuclear medicine procedures, and only <a href="/wiki/Alpha_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha radiation">alpha radiation</a> will produce a higher Rem or Sv value, due to its much higher <a href="/wiki/Relative_Biological_Effectiveness" class="mw-redirect" title="Relative Biological Effectiveness">Relative Biological Effectiveness</a> (RBE). Alpha emitters are nowadays rarely used in nuclear medicine, but were used extensively before the advent of nuclear reactor and accelerator produced radionuclides. The concepts involved in radiation exposure to humans are covered by the field of <a href="/wiki/Health_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Health Physics">Health Physics</a>; the development and practice of safe and effective nuclear medicinal techniques is a key focus of <a href="/wiki/Medical_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical Physics">Medical Physics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulatory_frameworks_and_guidelines">Regulatory frameworks and guidelines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_medicine&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Regulatory frameworks and guidelines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Different countries around the world maintain regulatory frameworks that are responsible for the management and use of radionuclides in different medical settings. For example, in the US, the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" title="Nuclear Regulatory Commission">Nuclear Regulatory Commission</a> (NRC) and the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) have guidelines in place for hospitals to follow.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the NRC, if radioactive materials aren't involved, like X-rays for example, they are not regulated by the agency and instead are regulated by the individual states.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> International organizations, such as the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> (IAEA), have regularly published different articles and guidelines for best practices in nuclear medicine as well as reporting on emerging technologies in nuclear medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other factors that are considered in nuclear medicine include a patient's medical history as well as post-treatment management. Groups like <a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Radiological_Protection" title="International Commission on Radiological Protection">International Commission on Radiological Protection</a> have published information on how to manage the release of patients from a hospital with unsealed radionuclides.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_medicine&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nuclear_Medicine_Societies" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Nuclear Medicine Societies">List of Nuclear Medicine Societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine_physician" title="Nuclear medicine physician">Nuclear medicine physician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_pharmacy" title="Nuclear pharmacy">Nuclear pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiographer" title="Radiographer">Radiographer</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_medicine&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.texaschildrens.org/departments/nuclear-radiology">https://www.texaschildrens.org/departments/nuclear-radiology</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.answers.com/Q/What_is_nucleology">What is nucleology?</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150227082414/http://www.saintpetershcs.com/Nuclear-Medicine/">"Nuclear Medicine"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saintpetershcs.com/Nuclear-Medicine">the original</a> on 27 February 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Society of Nuclear Medicine. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9726478-9-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9726478-9-2"><bdi>978-0-9726478-9-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Patient%27s+Guide+to+Nuclear+Medicine+Procedures%3A+English-Spanish.&rft.pub=Society+of+Nuclear+Medicine&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-9726478-9-2&rft.aulast=Mas&rft.aufirst=JC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+medicine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylorSchusterNaomi_Alazraki2000" class="citation book cs1">Taylor A, Schuster DM, Naomi Alazraki N (2000). <i>A Clinicians' Guide to Nuclear Medicine</i> (2nd ed.). Society of Nuclear Medicine. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-932004-72-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-932004-72-7"><bdi>978-0-932004-72-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Clinicians%27+Guide+to+Nuclear+Medicine&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Society+of+Nuclear+Medicine&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-932004-72-7&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Schuster%2C+DM&rft.au=Naomi+Alazraki%2C+N&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+medicine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShumateKoobyAlazraki2007" class="citation book cs1">Shumate MJ, Kooby DA, Alazraki NP (2007). <i>A Clinician's Guide to Nuclear Oncology: Practical Molecular Imaging and Radionuclide Therapies</i>. Society of Nuclear Medicine. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9726478-8-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9726478-8-5"><bdi>978-0-9726478-8-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Clinician%27s+Guide+to+Nuclear+Oncology%3A+Practical+Molecular+Imaging+and+Radionuclide+Therapies&rft.pub=Society+of+Nuclear+Medicine&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-9726478-8-5&rft.aulast=Shumate&rft.aufirst=MJ&rft.au=Kooby%2C+DA&rft.au=Alazraki%2C+NP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+medicine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllGambhir2004" class="citation book cs1">Ell P, Gambhir S (2004). <i>Nuclear Medicine in Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment</i>. Churchill Livingstone. p. 1950. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-443-07312-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-443-07312-0"><bdi>978-0-443-07312-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Medicine+in+Clinical+Diagnosis+and+Treatment&rft.pages=1950&rft.pub=Churchill+Livingstone&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-443-07312-0&rft.aulast=Ell&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Gambhir%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+medicine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesHoggSeeram2013" class="citation book cs1">Jones DW, Hogg P, Seeram E (2013). <i>Practical SPECT/CT In Nuclear Medicine</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1447147022" title="Special:BookSources/978-1447147022"><bdi>978-1447147022</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Practical+SPECT%2FCT+In+Nuclear+Medicine&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1447147022&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=DW&rft.au=Hogg%2C+P&rft.au=Seeram%2C+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+medicine" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_medicine&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nuclear_medicine" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Nuclear medicine">Nuclear medicine</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Basic_Physics_of_Nuclear_Medicine" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Basic Physics of Nuclear Medicine">Basic Physics of Nuclear Medicine</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/40px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/60px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/80px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikinews has related news: <div><ul><li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Canada_pursues_new_nuclear_research_reactor_to_produce_medical_isotopes" class="extiw" title="wikinews:Canada pursues new nuclear research reactor to produce medical isotopes"> Canada pursues new nuclear research reactor to produce medical isotopes </a></li><li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Canadian_nuclear_reactor_shutdown_causes_worldwide_medical_isotope_shortage" class="extiw" title="wikinews:Canadian nuclear reactor shutdown causes worldwide medical isotope shortage"> Canadian nuclear reactor shutdown causes worldwide medical isotope shortage</a></li></ul></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo28578">Solving the Medical Isotope Crisis</a> Hearing before the Subcommittee on Energy and Environment of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, One Hundred Eleventh Congress, First Session, September 9, 2009</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Nuclear medicine</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Nuclear+medicine">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_endocrinology_and_infertility" title="Reproductive endocrinology and infertility">Reproductive endocrinology and infertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urogynecology" title="Urogynecology">Urogynecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">Radiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interventional_radiology" title="Interventional radiology">Interventional radiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology">Medical microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfusion_medicine" title="Transfusion medicine">Transfusion medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Addiction medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_medicine" title="Adolescent medicine">Adolescent medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anesthesiology" title="Anesthesiology">Anesthesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_anesthesiology" title="Obstetric anesthesiology">Obstetric anesthesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgical_anesthesia" title="Neurosurgical anesthesia">Neurosurgical anesthesiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_medicine" title="Aviation medicine">Aviation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dermatology" title="Dermatology">Dermatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_medicine" title="Disaster medicine">Disaster medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_medicine" title="Diving medicine">Diving medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_medicine" title="Emergency medicine">Emergency medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_gathering_medicine" title="Mass gathering medicine">Mass gathering medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_medicine" title="Family medicine">Family medicine</a> / <a href="/wiki/General_practice" title="General practice">General practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_care_medicine" title="Intensive care medicine">Intensive care medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcology" title="Narcology">Narcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Occupational medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_medicine" title="Oral medicine">Oral medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_management" title="Pain management">Pain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">Palliative care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neonatology" title="Neonatology">Neonatology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlebologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Phlebologist">Phlebology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation" title="Physical medicine and rehabilitation">Physical medicine and rehabilitation</a> (PM&R)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_healthcare" title="Prison healthcare">Prison healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_psychiatry" title="Addiction psychiatry">Addiction psychiatry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Reproductive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_medicine" title="Sexual medicine">Sexual medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venereology" title="Venereology">Venereology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_medicine" title="Sleep medicine">Sleep medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_medicine" title="Sports medicine">Sports medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplantation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_medicine" title="Tropical medicine">Tropical medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical<br />education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_school" title="Medical school">Medical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine,_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medical_Sciences" title="Bachelor of Medical Sciences">Bachelor of Medical Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Medicine" title="Master of Medicine">Master of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Surgery" title="Master of Surgery">Master of Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicine" title="Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine">Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MD%E2%80%93PhD" title="MD–PhD">MD–PhD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Scientist_Training_Program" title="Medical Scientist Training Program">Medical Scientist Training Program</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_health_professions" title="Allied health professions">Allied health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_oncology" title="Molecular oncology">Molecular oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_health" title="Rural health">Rural health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">Physician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_physician" title="Chief physician">Chief physician</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Medicine" title="Category:Medicine">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Medicine" class="extiw" title="commons:Medicine">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Medicine" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Medicine">Wikiproject</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_medicine" title="Outline of medicine">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nuclear_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist ｜ above = * [[Outline of nuclear technology|Outline]] mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_technology" title="Template:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_technology" title="Template talk:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuclear_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">braking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">Fuel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">Tritium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">Deuterium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">Helium-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_material" title="Fertile material">Fertile material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fissile_material" title="Fissile material">Fissile material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">Isotope separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_material" title="Nuclear material">Nuclear material</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">depleted</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Thorium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">Activation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">Capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_poison" title="Neutron poison">Poison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_cross_section" title="Neutron cross section">Cross section</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_generator" title="Neutron generator">Generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_reflector" title="Neutron reflector">Reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_temperature" title="Neutron temperature">Temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron">Fast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron#Fusion_neutrons" title="Neutron">Fusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Power</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Nuclear power by country">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">Power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_nuclear_power_plants" title="Economics of nuclear power plants">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents">Accidents and incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_policy" title="Nuclear energy policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multi-mission_radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator">MMRTG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_propulsion" title="Nuclear propulsion">Propulsion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_thermal_rocket" title="Nuclear thermal rocket">rocket</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_safety_and_security" title="Nuclear safety and security">Safety and security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown" title="Nuclear meltdown">Nuclear meltdown</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Imaging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autoradiograph" title="Autoradiograph">Autoradiograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RadBall" title="RadBall">RadBall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scintigraphy" title="Scintigraphy">Scintigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography" title="Single-photon emission computed tomography">Single-photon emission (SPECT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">Positron-emission tomography (PET)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Therapy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron_therapy" title="Fast neutron therapy">Fast-neutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture_therapy_of_cancer" title="Neutron capture therapy of cancer">Neutron capture therapy of cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targeted_alpha-particle_therapy" title="Targeted alpha-particle therapy">Targeted alpha-particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_therapy" title="Proton therapy">Proton-beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomotherapy" title="Tomotherapy">Tomotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brachytherapy" title="Brachytherapy">Brachytherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiosurgery" title="Radiosurgery">Radiosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiopharmacology" title="Radiopharmacology">Radiopharmacology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Irradiation" title="Irradiation">Processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_gardening" title="Atomic gardening">Atomic gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron-beam_processing" title="Electron-beam processing">Electron-beam processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_irradiation" title="Food irradiation">Food irradiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone_irradiation" title="Gemstone irradiation">Gemstone irradiation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Weapons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">Delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Disarmament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_ethics" title="Nuclear ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">Explosion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions" title="Effects of nuclear explosions">effects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Proliferation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">Testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High-altitude_nuclear_explosion" title="High-altitude nuclear explosion">high-altitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Underground nuclear weapons testing">underground</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">Yield</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">TNTe</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">States with nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_nuclear_weapons_stockpiles_and_nuclear_tests_by_country" title="Historical nuclear weapons stockpiles and nuclear tests by country">Historical stockpiles and tests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of nuclear weapons tests">Tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States">Tests in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_mass_destruction_treaties" title="List of weapons of mass destruction treaties">WMD treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-weapon-free_zone" title="Nuclear-weapon-free zone">Weapon-free zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons" title="List of nuclear weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Waste</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">Actinide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reprocessed_uranium" title="Reprocessed uranium">Reprocessed uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactor-grade_plutonium" title="Reactor-grade plutonium">Reactor-grade plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minor_actinide" title="Minor actinide">Minor actinide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Activation_product" title="Activation product">Activation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Fission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long-lived_fission_product" title="Long-lived fission product">LLFP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Disposal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle" title="Nuclear fuel cycle">Fuel cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-level_waste" title="High-level waste">High-level (HLW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-level_waste" title="Low-level waste">Low-level (LLW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_decommissioning" title="Nuclear decommissioning">Nuclear decommissioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_geological_repository" title="Deep geological repository">Repository</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">Reprocessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">Spent fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_cask_storage" title="Dry cask storage">cask</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">Transmutation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Debate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_debate" title="Nuclear weapons debate">Nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Ribbon_Commission_on_America%27s_Nuclear_Future" title="Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future">Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining_debate" title="Uranium mining debate">Uranium mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">Nuclear power phase-out</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Nuclear_reactors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactors</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fission" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor#Fission" title="Nuclear reactor">Fission</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div style="float: left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">Moderator</a></b></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Light-water_reactor" title="Light-water reactor">Light water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqueous_homogeneous_reactor" title="Aqueous homogeneous reactor">Aqueous homogeneous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">Boiling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GE_BWR" title="GE BWR">BWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_boiling_water_reactor" title="Advanced boiling water reactor">ABWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Simplified_Boiling_Water_Reactor" title="Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor">ESBWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerena_boiling_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerena boiling water reactor">Kerena</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor" title="Natural nuclear fission reactor">Natural fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">Pressurized</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AP1000" title="AP1000">AP1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APR-1400" title="APR-1400">APR-1400</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APR%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="APR+">APR+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APWR" class="mw-redirect" title="APWR">APWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ATMEA1" class="mw-redirect" title="ATMEA1">ATMEA1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAP1400" title="CAP1400">CAP1400</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CPR-1000" title="CPR-1000">CPR-1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPR_(nuclear_reactor)" title="EPR (nuclear reactor)">EPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualong_One" title="Hualong One">HPR-1000</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ACPR1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACPR1000">ACPR1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACP1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACP1000">ACP1000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VVER" title="VVER">VVER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPWR-900" title="IPWR-900">IPWR-900</a></li> <li>many others</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercritical_water_reactor" title="Supercritical water reactor">Supercritical (SCWR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heavy-water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy-water reactor">Heavy water</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;;background:whitesmoke;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Deuterium_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuterium oxide">D<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_heavy-water_reactor" title="Pressurized heavy-water reactor">Pressurized</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CANDU_reactor" title="CANDU reactor">CANDU</a> <ul><li>CANDU 6</li> <li>CANDU 9</li> <li>EC6</li> <li>AFCR</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACR-1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACR-1000">ACR-1000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolinas%E2%80%93Virginia_Tube_Reactor" title="Carolinas–Virginia Tube Reactor">CVTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR" title="IPHWR">IPHWR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-220" title="IPHWR-220">IPHWR-220</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR#IPHWR-540" title="IPHWR">IPHWR-540</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-700" title="IPHWR-700">IPHWR-700</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Argentina">PHWR KWU</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MZFR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MZFR (page does not exist)">MZFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%85gestaverket" class="mw-redirect" title="Ågestaverket">R3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R4_nuclear_reactor" title="R4 nuclear reactor">R4 Marviken</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWLWR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWLWR (page does not exist)">HWLWR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugen_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Fugen Nuclear Power Plant">ATR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentilly_Nuclear_Generating_Station#Gentilly-1" title="Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station">HW BLWR 250</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam-generating_heavy_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam-generating heavy water reactor">Steam-generating (SGHWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_heavy-water_reactor" title="Advanced heavy-water reactor">AHWR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WR-1" title="WR-1">WR-1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWGCR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWGCR (page does not exist)">HWGCR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brennilis_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant">EL-4</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernkraftwerk_Niederaichbach&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kernkraftwerk Niederaichbach (page does not exist)">KKN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KS_150" title="KS 150">KS 150</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucens_reactor" title="Lucens reactor">Lucens</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Graphite-moderated_reactor" title="Graphite-moderated reactor">Graphite</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></span></span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="H2O" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant">AM-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beloyarsk_Nuclear_Power_Station#Early_reactors" title="Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station">AMB-X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EGP-6" title="EGP-6">EGP-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RBMK" title="RBMK">RBMK</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_reactor" title="Gas-cooled reactor">Gas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UNGG_reactor" title="UNGG reactor"><i>Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz</i> (UNGG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnox" title="Magnox">Magnox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Gas-cooled_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor">Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine_modular_helium_reactor" title="Gas turbine modular helium reactor">GTMHR</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MHR-T&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MHR-T (page does not exist)">MHR-T</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UHTREX" title="UHTREX">UHTREX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very-high-temperature_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Very-high-temperature reactor">VHTR (HTGR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pebble-bed_reactor" title="Pebble-bed reactor">PBR (PBMR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AVR_reactor" title="AVR reactor">AVR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-10" title="HTR-10">HTR-10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-PM" title="HTR-PM">HTR-PM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/THTR-300" title="THTR-300">THTR-300</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prismatic_block_reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prismatic block reactor (page does not exist)">PMR</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten salt reactor">Molten-salt</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fluorides" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/FLiBe" title="FLiBe">Fluorides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuji_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Fuji Molten Salt Reactor">Fuji MSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_fluoride_thorium_reactor" title="Liquid fluoride thorium reactor">Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment" title="Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment">Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Integral Molten Salt Reactor">Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-500" class="mw-redirect" title="TMSR-500">TMSR-500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-LF1" title="TMSR-LF1">TMSR-LF1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">None<br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor" title="Fast-neutron reactor">fast-neutron</a>)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder reactor">Breeder (FBR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_fast_reactor" title="Integral fast reactor">Integral (IFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor" title="Liquid metal cooled reactor">Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small,_sealed,_transportable,_autonomous_reactor" title="Small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor">Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traveling_wave_reactor" title="Traveling wave reactor">Traveling-wave (TWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_Multiplier_Module" title="Energy Multiplier Module">Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_moderation_water_reactor" title="Reduced moderation water reactor">Reduced-moderation (RMWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_Breeder_Test_Reactor" title="Fast Breeder Test Reactor">Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_fluid_reactor" title="Dual fluid reactor">Dual fluid reactor (DFR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Sodium-cooled fast reactor">Sodium (SFR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BN-350_reactor" title="BN-350 reactor">BN-350</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-600_reactor" title="BN-600 reactor">BN-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-800_reactor" title="BN-800 reactor">BN-800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-1200_reactor" title="BN-1200 reactor">BN-1200</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CFR-600" title="CFR-600">CFR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ph%C3%A9nix" title="Phénix">Phénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superph%C3%A9nix" title="Superphénix">Superphénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prototype_Fast_Breeder_Reactor" title="Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor">PFBR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FBR-600" title="FBR-600">FBR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Experimental_Fast_Reactor" title="China Experimental Fast Reactor">CEFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dounreay#Prototype_Fast_Reactor_(PFR)" title="Dounreay">PFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRISM_(reactor)" title="PRISM (reactor)">PRISM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Lead-cooled fast reactor">Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Gas-cooled fast reactor">Helium gas (GFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stable_salt_reactor" title="Stable salt reactor">Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_nuclear_reactor" title="Organic nuclear reactor">Organic nuclear reactor</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arbus-reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arbus-reactor (page does not exist)">Arbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piqua_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Piqua Nuclear Generating Station">Piqua</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion" title="Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion">Aircraft Reactor Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fusion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor#Fusion_reactors" title="Nuclear reactor">Fusion</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>by <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_fusion#Confinement" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermonuclear fusion">confinement</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_confinement_fusion" title="Magnetic confinement fusion">Magnetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field-reversed_configuration" title="Field-reversed configuration">Field-reversed configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levitated_dipole" title="Levitated dipole">Levitated dipole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversed_field_pinch" title="Reversed field pinch">Reversed field pinch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spheromak" title="Spheromak">Spheromak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellarator" title="Stellarator">Stellarator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokamak" title="Tokamak">Tokamak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Inertial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bubble_fusion" title="Bubble fusion">Bubble <span style="font-size:85%;">(acoustic)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusor" title="Fusor">Fusor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_electrostatic_confinement" title="Inertial electrostatic confinement">electrostatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Laser-driven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetized_target_fusion" title="Magnetized target fusion">Magnetized-target</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-pinch" title="Z-pinch">Z-pinch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dense_plasma_focus" title="Dense plasma focus">Dense plasma focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migma" title="Migma">Migma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion" title="Muon-catalyzed fusion">Muon-catalyzed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polywell" title="Polywell">Polywell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroelectric_fusion" title="Pyroelectric fusion">Pyroelectric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/32px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/48px-Radioactive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/64px-Radioactive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="446" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Nuclear_technology" title="Portal:Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" 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