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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_orthopedics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Early orthopedics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_orthopedics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_orthopedics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_orthopedics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Modern orthopedics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_orthopedics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Training" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Training"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Training</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Training-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Practice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arthroscopy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arthroscopy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Arthroscopy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arthroscopy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arthroplasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arthroplasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Arthroplasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arthroplasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Epidemiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Orthopedic surgery</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 68 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-68" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">68 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedie" title="Ortopedie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ortopedie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85" title="جراحة العظام – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جراحة العظام" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopediya" title="Ortopediya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ortopediya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Артапедыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Артапедыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Ортопедия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ортопедия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedija" title="Ortopedija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ortopedija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortop%C3%A8dia_(especialitat_m%C3%A8dica)" title="Ortopèdia (especialitat mèdica) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ortopèdia (especialitat mèdica)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedie" title="Ortopedie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ortopedie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthop%C3%A4die" title="Orthopädie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Orthopädie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopeedia" title="Ortopeedia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ortopeedia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CF%81%CE%B8o%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Ορθoπαιδική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ορθoπαιδική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedia" title="Ortopedia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ortopedia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedio" title="Ortopedio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ortopedio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedia" title="Ortopedia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ortopedia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%BE%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="ارتوپدی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ارتوپدی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthop%C3%A9die" title="Orthopédie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Orthopédie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortaip%C3%A9ide" title="Ortaipéide – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ortaipéide" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%95%ED%98%95%EC%99%B8%EA%B3%BC" title="정형외과 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="정형외과" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%95%D6%80%D5%A9%D5%B8%D5%BA%D5%A5%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Օրթոպեդիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Օրթոպեդիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="विकलांग शल्यचिकित्सा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विकलांग शल्यचिकित्सा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedija" title="Ortopedija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ortopedija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedio" title="Ortopedio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ortopedio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedah_ortopedi" title="Bedah ortopedi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bedah ortopedi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedia" title="Ortopedia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ortopedia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%93%D7%99%D7%94" title="אורתופדיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אורתופדיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%86_%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%9A%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%86" title="ಮೂಳೆ ಶಸ್ತ್ರಚಿಕಿತ್ಸೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮೂಳೆ ಶಸ್ತ್ರಚಿಕಿತ್ಸೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ორთოპედია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ორთოპედია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Ортопедия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ортопедия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Ортопедия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Ортопедия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthopaedia" title="Orthopaedia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Orthopaedia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortop%C4%93dija" title="Ortopēdija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ortopēdija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedija" title="Ortopedija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ortopedija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortop%C3%A9dia" title="Ortopédia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ortopédia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Ортопедија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ортопедија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%93%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF" title="ഓർത്തോപീഡിക് സർജറി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഓർത്തോപീഡിക് സർജറി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="अस्थिशस्त्रक्रिया – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अस्थिशस्त्रक्रिया" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembedahan_ortopedik" title="Pembedahan ortopedik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pembedahan ortopedik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthopedie" title="Orthopedie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Orthopedie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="हाडजोर्नी शल्यचिकित्सा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="हाडजोर्नी शल्यचिकित्सा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%95%B4%E5%BD%A2%E5%A4%96%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="整形外科学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="整形外科学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedi" title="Ortopedi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ortopedi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopediya" title="Ortopediya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ortopediya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="हाडजोर्नी शल्यचिकित्सा – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="हाडजोर्नी शल्यचिकित्सा" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>पालि</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedia" title="Ortopedia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ortopedia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedia" title="Ortopedia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ortopedia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopediya" title="Ortopediya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Ortopediya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedie_%C8%99i_traumatologie" title="Ortopedie și traumatologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ortopedie și traumatologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Ортопедия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ортопедия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="हाडजोर्नी शल्यचिकित्सा – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="हाडजोर्नी शल्यचिकित्सा" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirurgjia_ortopedike" title="Kirurgjia ortopedike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kirurgjia ortopedike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A8dicu_di_l%27ossa" title="Mèdicu di l'ossa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Mèdicu di l'ossa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthopedic_surgery" title="Orthopedic surgery – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Orthopedic surgery" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortop%C3%A9dia" title="Ortopédia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ortopédia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedija" title="Ortopedija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ortopedija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addimo-yaqaan" title="Addimo-yaqaan – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Addimo-yaqaan" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%95%D8%B4%D8%AA%DB%95%D8%B1%DA%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%86%D8%B1%D8%AA%DB%86%D9%BE%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="نەشتەرگەریی ئۆرتۆپدی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="نەشتەرگەریی ئۆرتۆپدی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedija" title="Ortopedija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ortopedija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedija" title="Ortopedija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ortopedija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedia" title="Ortopedia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ortopedia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedi" title="Ortopedi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ortopedi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="முடவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="முடவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C" title="ศัลยศาสตร์ออร์โทพีดิกส์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ศัลยศาสตร์ออร์โทพีดิกส์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortopedi" title="Ortopedi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ortopedi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Ортопедія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ортопедія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngo%E1%BA%A1i_ch%E1%BB%89nh_h%C3%ACnh" title="Ngoại chỉnh hình – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngoại chỉnh hình" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%AA%A8%E5%A4%96%E7%A7%91" title="骨外科 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="骨外科" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%AF%E5%BD%A2%E5%A4%96%E7%A7%91" title="矯形外科 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="矯形外科" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%AA%A8%E7%A7%91" title="骨科 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="骨科" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q216685#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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searchaux" style="display:none">Branch of surgery concerned with the musculoskeletal system</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical intervention</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: lightblue">Orthopedic</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Teardrop_fracture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Teardrop_fracture.jpg/280px-Teardrop_fracture.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Teardrop_fracture.jpg/420px-Teardrop_fracture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Teardrop_fracture.jpg/560px-Teardrop_fracture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="676" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">A fracture of the lower <a href="/wiki/Cervical_vertebrae" title="Cervical vertebrae">cervical vertebrae</a>, one of the conditions treated by orthopedic surgeons and <a href="/wiki/Neurosurgeons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurosurgeons">neurosurgeons</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019637">D019637</a></span></td></tr><tr class="noprint"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="text-align: right;">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q216685" class="extiw" title="d:Q216685">edit on Wikidata</a>]</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Orthopedic surgeon</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Occupation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Names</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">Physician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgeon" title="Surgeon">Surgeon</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Occupation type</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Specialty_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialty (medicine)">Specialty</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Activity sectors</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Medicine, Surgery</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Description</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Education required</div></th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine,_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a> (M.B.B.S.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine,_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a> (MBChB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a> (M.D.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Osteopathic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Osteopathic medicine">Doctor of Osteopathic medicine</a> (D.O.)</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Fields of<br />employment</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Hospitals, Clinics</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Orthopedic surgery</b> or <b>orthopedics</b> (<a href="/wiki/American_and_British_English_spelling_differences" title="American and British English spelling differences">alternative spelling</a> <b>orthopaedics</b>) is the branch of <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</a> concerned with conditions involving the <a href="/wiki/Musculoskeletal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Musculoskeletal system">musculoskeletal system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Orthopedic surgeons use both surgical and nonsurgical means to treat musculoskeletal <a href="/wiki/Physical_trauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical trauma">trauma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spinal_disease" title="Spinal disease">spine diseases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sports_injury" title="Sports injury">sports injuries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Degenerative_disease" title="Degenerative disease">degenerative diseases</a>, infections, <a href="/wiki/Tumor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumor">tumors</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Congenital_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital disorder">congenital disorders</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orthopedic_surgery&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary" title="International scientific vocabulary">International scientific vocabulary</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_morphemes_used_in_English" title="List of Greek morphemes used in English">List of Greek morphemes used in English</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Andry" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Andry">Nicholas Andry</a> coined the word in French as <i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">orthopédie</i></span></i>, derived from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> words <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ὀρθός</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">orthos</i></span> ("correct", "straight") and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">παιδίον</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">paidion</i></span> ("child"), and published <i>Orthopedie</i> (translated as <i>Orthopædia: Or the Art of Correcting and Preventing Deformities in Children</i><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) in 1741. The word was <a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Assimilation (linguistics)">assimilated</a> into English as <i>orthopædics</i>; the <a href="/wiki/Typographic_ligature" class="mw-redirect" title="Typographic ligature">ligature</a> <i>æ</i> was common in that era for <i>ae</i> in Greek- and Latin-based words. As the name implies, the discipline was initially developed with attention to children, but the correction of spinal and bone deformities in all stages of life eventually became the cornerstone of orthopedic practice.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Differences_in_spelling">Differences in spelling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orthopedic_surgery&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Differences in spelling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As with many words derived with the <a href="/wiki/%C3%86" title="Æ">"æ" ligature</a>, simplification to either "ae" or just "e" is common, especially in North America. In the US, the majority of college, university, and residency programmes, and even the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Orthopaedic_Surgeons" title="American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons">American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons</a>, still use the spelling with the digraph <a href="/wiki/Ae_(digraph)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ae (digraph)">ae</a>, though hospitals usually use the shortened form. Elsewhere, usage is not uniform; in Canada, both spellings are acceptable; "orthopaedics" is the normal spelling in the UK in line with other fields which retain "ae".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orthopedic_surgery&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_orthopedics">Early orthopedics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orthopedic_surgery&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early orthopedics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many developments in orthopedic surgery have resulted from experiences during wartime.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the battlefields of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the injured were treated with bandages soaked in horses' blood, which dried to form a stiff, if unsanitary, splint.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Originally, the term orthopedics meant the correcting of musculoskeletal deformities in children.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Andry" title="Nicolas Andry">Nicolas Andry</a>, a professor of medicine at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a>, coined the term in the first textbook written on the subject in 1741. He advocated the use of exercise, manipulation, and splinting to treat deformities in children. His book was directed towards parents, and while some topics would be familiar to orthopedists today, it also included 'excessive sweating of the palms' and freckles.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jean-Andr%C3%A9_Venel" title="Jean-André Venel">Jean-André Venel</a> established the first orthopedic institute in 1780, which was the first hospital dedicated to the treatment of children's skeletal deformities. He developed the club-foot shoe for children born with foot deformities and various methods to treat curvature of the spine.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Advances made in surgical technique during the 18th century, such as <a href="/wiki/John_Hunter_(surgeon)" title="John Hunter (surgeon)">John Hunter</a>'s research on <a href="/wiki/Tendon" title="Tendon">tendon</a> healing and <a href="/wiki/Percival_Pott" class="mw-redirect" title="Percival Pott">Percival Pott</a>'s work on <a href="/wiki/Pott_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Pott disease">spinal deformity</a> steadily increased the range of new methods available for effective treatment. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Chessher" title="Robert Chessher">Robert Chessher</a>, a pioneering British orthopedist, invented the double-inclined plane, used to treat lower-body bone fractures, in 1790.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Antonius_Mathijsen" title="Antonius Mathijsen">Antonius Mathijsen</a>, a Dutch military surgeon, invented the <a href="/wiki/Plaster_of_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Plaster of Paris">plaster of Paris</a> <a href="/wiki/Cast_(orthopedic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cast (orthopedic)">cast</a> in 1851. Until the 1890s, though, orthopedics was still a study limited to the correction of deformity in children. One of the first surgical procedures developed was percutaneous tenotomy. This involved cutting a tendon, originally the Achilles tendon, to help treat deformities alongside bracing and exercises. In the late 1800s and first decades of the 1900s, significant controversy arose about whether orthopedics should include surgical procedures at all.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_orthopedics">Modern orthopedics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orthopedic_surgery&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Modern orthopedics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hugh_Owen_Thomas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Hugh_Owen_Thomas.jpg/220px-Hugh_Owen_Thomas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Hugh_Owen_Thomas.jpg/330px-Hugh_Owen_Thomas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Hugh_Owen_Thomas.jpg/440px-Hugh_Owen_Thomas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="786" data-file-height="1079" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Owen_Thomas" title="Hugh Owen Thomas">Hugh Owen Thomas</a>, a pioneer of modern orthopedic surgery</figcaption></figure><p>Examples of people who aided the development of modern orthopedic surgery were <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Owen_Thomas" title="Hugh Owen Thomas">Hugh Owen Thomas</a>, a surgeon from <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>, and his nephew, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Jones_(surgeon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Jones (surgeon)">Robert Jones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomas became interested in orthopedics and <a href="/wiki/Bonesetter" class="mw-redirect" title="Bonesetter">bone-setting</a> at a young age, and after establishing his own practice, went on to expand the field into the general treatment of fracture and other musculoskeletal problems. He advocated enforced rest as the best remedy for <a href="/wiki/Bone_fracture" title="Bone fracture">fractures</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, and created the so-called "Thomas splint" to stabilize a fractured femur and prevent infection. He is also responsible for numerous other medical innovations that all carry his name: Thomas's collar to treat tuberculosis of the cervical spine, Thomas's maneuvere, an orthopedic investigation for fracture of the hip joint, the <a href="/wiki/Thomas_test" title="Thomas test">Thomas test</a>, a method of detecting hip deformity by having the patient lying flat in bed, and Thomas's wrench for reducing fractures, as well as an <a href="/wiki/Osteoclast" title="Osteoclast">osteoclast</a> to break and reset bones.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Thomas's work was not fully appreciated in his own lifetime. Only during the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> did his techniques come to be used for injured soldiers on the <a href="/wiki/Battle" title="Battle">battlefield</a>. His nephew, Sir Robert Jones, had already made great advances in orthopedics in his position as surgeon-superintendent for the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Ship_Canal" title="Manchester Ship Canal">Manchester Ship Canal</a> in 1888. He was responsible for the injured among the 20,000 workers, and he organized the first comprehensive accident service in the world, dividing the 36-mile site into three sections, and establishing a hospital and a string of first-aid posts in each section. He had the medical personnel trained in fracture management.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He personally managed 3,000 cases and performed 300 operations in his own hospital. This position enabled him to learn new techniques and improve the standard of fracture management. Physicians from around the world came to Jones' clinic to learn his techniques. Along with Alfred Tubby, Jones founded the British Orthopedic Society in 1894. </p><p><br /> During the First World War, Jones served as a <a href="/wiki/Territorial_Army_(United_Kingdom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Territorial Army (United Kingdom)">Territorial Army</a> surgeon. He observed that treatment of fractures both, at the front and in hospitals at home, was inadequate, and his efforts led to the introduction of military orthopedic hospitals. He was appointed Inspector of Military Orthopedics, with responsibility for 30,000 beds. The hospital in Ducane Road, <a href="/wiki/Hammersmith,_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Hammersmith, London">Hammersmith</a>, became the model for both British and American military orthopedic hospitals. His advocacy of the use of <a href="/wiki/Traction_splint" title="Traction splint">Thomas splint</a> for the initial treatment of <a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">femoral</a> fractures reduced mortality of open fractures of the femur from 87% to less than 8% in the period from 1916 to 1918.<sup id="cite_ref-Welsh_Biography_Online_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welsh_Biography_Online-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of <a href="/wiki/Intramedullary_rod" title="Intramedullary rod">intramedullary rods</a> to treat fractures of the femur and <a href="/wiki/Tibia" title="Tibia">tibia</a> was pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_K%C3%BCntscher" title="Gerhard Küntscher">Gerhard Küntscher</a> of Germany. This made a noticeable difference to the speed of recovery of injured German soldiers during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> and led to more widespread adoption of intramedullary fixation of fractures in the rest of the world. <a href="/wiki/Traction_(orthopedics)" title="Traction (orthopedics)">Traction</a> was the standard method of treating thigh bone fractures until the late 1970s, though, when the <a href="/wiki/Harborview_Medical_Center" title="Harborview Medical Center">Harborview Medical Center</a> group in Seattle popularized intramedullary fixation without opening up the fracture. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hip_replacement_Image_3684-PH.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Hip_replacement_Image_3684-PH.jpg/220px-Hip_replacement_Image_3684-PH.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Hip_replacement_Image_3684-PH.jpg/330px-Hip_replacement_Image_3684-PH.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Hip_replacement_Image_3684-PH.jpg/440px-Hip_replacement_Image_3684-PH.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5556" data-file-height="4468" /></a><figcaption>X-ray of a <a href="/wiki/Hip_replacement" title="Hip replacement">hip replacement</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The modern total <a href="/wiki/Hip_replacement" title="Hip replacement">hip replacement</a> was pioneered by Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Charnley" title="John Charnley">John Charnley</a>, expert in <a href="/wiki/Tribology" title="Tribology">tribology</a> at <a href="/wiki/Wrightington_Hospital" title="Wrightington Hospital">Wrightington Hospital</a>, in England in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-Wroblewski2003_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wroblewski2003-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He found that joint surfaces could be replaced by implants cemented to the bone. His design consisted of a <a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">stainless steel</a>, one-piece femoral stem and head, and a <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">polyethylene</a> acetabular component, both of which were fixed to the bone using <a href="/wiki/Poly(methyl_methacrylate)" title="Poly(methyl methacrylate)">PMMA</a> (acrylic) <a href="/wiki/Bone_cement" title="Bone cement">bone cement</a>. For over two decades, the Charnley low-friction arthroplasty and its derivative designs were the most-used systems in the world. This formed the basis for all modern hip implants. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Exeter" title="Exeter">Exeter</a> hip replacement system (with a slightly different stem geometry) was developed at the same time. Since Charnley, improvements have been continuous in the design and technique of <a href="/wiki/Joint_replacement" title="Joint replacement">joint replacement</a> (arthroplasty) with many contributors, including W. H. Harris, the son of R. I. Harris, whose team at Harvard pioneered uncemented arthroplasty techniques with the bone bonding directly to the implant. </p><p>Knee replacements, using similar technology, were started by McIntosh in <a href="/wiki/Rheumatoid_arthritis" title="Rheumatoid arthritis">rheumatoid arthritis</a> patients and later by Gunston and Marmor for <a href="/wiki/Osteoarthritis" title="Osteoarthritis">osteoarthritis</a> in the 1970s, developed by <a href="/wiki/John_Insall" title="John Insall">John Insall</a> in New York using a fixed bearing system, and by Frederick Buechel and Michael Pappas using a mobile bearing system.<sup id="cite_ref-Hamelynck2006_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamelynck2006-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>External fixation of fractures was refined by American surgeons during the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, but a major contribution was made by <a href="/wiki/Gavril_Abramovich_Ilizarov" class="mw-redirect" title="Gavril Abramovich Ilizarov">Gavril Abramovich Ilizarov</a> in the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a>. He was sent, without much orthopedic training, to look after injured Russian soldiers in <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> in the 1950s. With no equipment, he was confronted with crippling conditions of unhealed, infected, and misaligned fractures. With the help of the local bicycle shop, he devised ring external <a href="/wiki/Fixator" class="mw-redirect" title="Fixator">fixators</a> tensioned like the spokes of a bicycle. With this equipment, he achieved healing, realignment, and <a href="/wiki/Distraction_osteogenesis" title="Distraction osteogenesis">lengthening</a> to a degree unheard of elsewhere. His <a href="/wiki/Ilizarov_apparatus" title="Ilizarov apparatus">Ilizarov apparatus</a> is still used today as one of the distraction osteogenesis methods.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern orthopedic surgery and musculoskeletal research have sought to make surgery less invasive and to make implanted components better and more durable. On the other hand, since the emergence of the opioid epidemic, orthopedic surgeons have been identified as one of the highest prescribers of opioid medications.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Armstrong_2020_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armstrong_2020-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Decreasing prescription of opioids while still providing adequate pain control is a development in orthopedic surgery.<sup id="cite_ref-Armstrong_2020_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armstrong_2020-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid27428259_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27428259-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid27423648_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid27423648-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Training">Training</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orthopedic_surgery&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Training"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Repair-of-fracture-to-right-acetabulum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Repair-of-fracture-to-right-acetabulum.jpg/220px-Repair-of-fracture-to-right-acetabulum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Repair-of-fracture-to-right-acetabulum.jpg/330px-Repair-of-fracture-to-right-acetabulum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Repair-of-fracture-to-right-acetabulum.jpg/440px-Repair-of-fracture-to-right-acetabulum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4280" data-file-height="3520" /></a><figcaption>This image, taken in September 2006, shows extensive repair work to the right <a href="/wiki/Acetabulum" title="Acetabulum">acetabulum</a> six years after it was carried out (2000). The onset of arthritis, a bone/joint disease, has made further joint damage visible.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this section <b>deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orthopedic_surgery&action=edit">improve this section</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Orthopedic_surgery" title="Talk:Orthopedic surgery">talk page</a>, or create a new section, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2011</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the United States, orthopedic surgeons have typically completed four years of undergraduate education and four years of medical school and earned either a <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a> (MD) or <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicine" title="Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine">Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine</a> (DO) degree. Subsequently, these medical school graduates undergo <a href="/wiki/Residency_(medicine)" title="Residency (medicine)">residency</a> training in orthopedic surgery. The five-year residency is a categorical orthopedic surgery training. </p><p>Selection for residency training in orthopedic surgery is very competitive. Roughly 700 physicians complete orthopedic residency training per year in the United States. About 10% of current orthopedic surgery residents are women; about 20% are members of minority groups. Around 20,400 actively practicing orthopedic surgeons and residents are in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the latest Occupational Outlook Handbook (2011–2012) published by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Labor" title="United States Department of Labor">United States Department of Labor</a>, 3–4% of all practicing physicians are orthopedic surgeons. </p><p>Many orthopedic surgeons elect to do further training, or fellowships, after completing their residency training. Fellowship training in an orthopedic sub-specialty is typically one year in duration (sometimes two) and sometimes has a research component involved with the clinical and operative training. Examples of orthopedic subspecialty training in the United States are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foot_and_ankle_surgery" title="Foot and ankle surgery">Foot and ankle surgery</a></li> <li>Hand and upper extremities</li> <li>Hip and knee surgery</li> <li>Orthopedic oncologist</li> <li>Orthopedic trauma</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osseointegration" title="Osseointegration">Osseointegration</a></li> <li>Pediatric orthopedics</li> <li>Shoulder and elbow</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">Spine</a> surgery</li> <li>Surgical sports medicine</li> <li>Total joint reconstruction (<a href="/wiki/Arthroplasty" title="Arthroplasty">arthroplasty</a>)</li></ul> <p>These specialized areas of medicine are not exclusive to orthopedic surgery. For example, <a href="/wiki/Hand_surgery" title="Hand surgery">hand surgery</a> is practiced by some <a href="/wiki/Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">plastic surgeons</a>, and spine surgery is practiced by most <a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">neurosurgeons</a>. Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Foot_and_ankle_surgery" title="Foot and ankle surgery">foot and ankle surgery</a> is also practiced by doctors of <a href="/wiki/Podiatry" title="Podiatry">podiatric medicine</a> (DPM) in the United States. Some <a href="/wiki/Family_medicine" title="Family medicine">family practice</a> physicians practice <a href="/wiki/Sports_medicine" title="Sports medicine">sports medicine</a>, but their scope of practice is nonoperative. </p><p>After completion of specialty residency or <a href="/wiki/Specialist_registrar" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialist registrar">registrar</a> training, an orthopedic surgeon is then eligible for board certification by the <a href="/wiki/American_Board_of_Medical_Specialties" title="American Board of Medical Specialties">American Board of Medical Specialties</a> or the <a href="/wiki/American_Osteopathic_Association_Bureau_of_Osteopathic_Specialists" title="American Osteopathic Association Bureau of Osteopathic Specialists">American Osteopathic Association Bureau of Osteopathic Specialists</a>. Certification by the American Board of Orthopedic Surgery or the <a href="/wiki/American_Osteopathic_Board_of_Orthopedic_Surgery" title="American Osteopathic Board of Orthopedic Surgery">American Osteopathic Board of Orthopedic Surgery</a> means that the orthopedic surgeon has met the specified educational, evaluation, and examination requirements of the board.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process requires successful completion of a standardized written examination followed by an oral examination focused on the surgeon's clinical and surgical performance over a 6-month period. In Canada, the certifying organization is the <a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Physicians_and_Surgeons_of_Canada" title="Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada">Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada</a>; in Australia and New Zealand, it is the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Australasian_College_of_Surgeons" title="Royal Australasian College of Surgeons">Royal Australasian College of Surgeons</a>. </p><p>In the United States, specialists in hand surgery and orthopedic sports medicine may obtain a certificate of added qualifications in addition to their board primary certification by successfully completing a separate standardized examination. No additional certification process exists for the other subspecialties. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practice">Practice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orthopedic_surgery&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Practice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xraymachine.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Xraymachine.JPG/220px-Xraymachine.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Xraymachine.JPG/330px-Xraymachine.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Xraymachine.JPG/440px-Xraymachine.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2336" data-file-height="3504" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Radiography" title="Radiography">Radiography</a> to identify eventual <a href="/wiki/Bone_fractures" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone fractures">bone fractures</a> after a knee injury</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:X-ray3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/X-ray3.jpg/175px-X-ray3.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="427" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/X-ray3.jpg/263px-X-ray3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/X-ray3.jpg/350px-X-ray3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="684" data-file-height="1668" /></a><figcaption>Orthopedic implants to repair fractures to the radius and ulna. Note the visible break in the ulna. (right forearm)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:X_ray_internal_fixation_leg_fracture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/X_ray_internal_fixation_leg_fracture.jpg/220px-X_ray_internal_fixation_leg_fracture.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/X_ray_internal_fixation_leg_fracture.jpg/330px-X_ray_internal_fixation_leg_fracture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/X_ray_internal_fixation_leg_fracture.jpg/440px-X_ray_internal_fixation_leg_fracture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3057" /></a><figcaption>Anterior and lateral view x-rays of fractured left leg with <a href="/wiki/Internal_fixation" title="Internal fixation">internal fixation</a> after surgery</figcaption></figure> <p>According to applications for board certification from 1999 to 2003, the top 25 most common procedures (in order) performed by orthopedic surgeons are:<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Knee <a href="/wiki/Arthroscopy" title="Arthroscopy">arthroscopy</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/meniscectomy" class="extiw" title="wikt:meniscectomy">meniscectomy</a></li> <li>Shoulder <a href="/wiki/Arthroscopy" title="Arthroscopy">arthroscopy</a> and decompression</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpal_tunnel" title="Carpal tunnel">Carpal tunnel</a> release</li> <li>Knee <a href="/wiki/Arthroscopy" title="Arthroscopy">arthroscopy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chondroplasty" title="Chondroplasty">chondroplasty</a></li> <li>Removal of support implant</li> <li>Knee <a href="/wiki/Arthroscopy" title="Arthroscopy">arthroscopy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anterior_cruciate_ligament_reconstruction" title="Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction">anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knee_replacement" title="Knee replacement">Knee replacement</a></li> <li>Repair of femoral neck <a href="/wiki/Bone_fracture" title="Bone fracture">fracture</a></li> <li>Repair of trochanteric fracture</li> <li>Debridement of skin/<a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscle</a>/<a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bone</a>/ fracture</li> <li>Knee arthroscopy repair of both menisci</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hip_replacement" title="Hip replacement">Hip replacement</a></li> <li>Shoulder arthroscopy/distal <a href="/wiki/Clavicle" title="Clavicle">clavicle</a> excision</li> <li>Repair of rotator cuff tendon</li> <li>Repair fracture of <a href="/wiki/Radius_bone" class="mw-redirect" title="Radius bone">radius</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ulna" title="Ulna">ulna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laminectomy" title="Laminectomy">Laminectomy</a></li> <li>Repair of ankle fracture (bimalleolar type)</li> <li>Shoulder arthroscopy and <a href="/wiki/Debridement" title="Debridement">debridement</a></li> <li>Lumbar <a href="/wiki/Spinal_fusion" title="Spinal fusion">spinal fusion</a></li> <li>Repair fracture of the distal part of radius</li> <li>Low back <a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_disc" title="Intervertebral disc">intervertebral disc</a> surgery</li> <li>Incise finger tendon sheath</li> <li>Repair of ankle fracture (<a href="/wiki/Fibula" title="Fibula">fibula</a>)</li> <li>Repair of femoral shaft fracture</li> <li>Repair of trochanteric fracture</li></ol> <p>A typical schedule for a practicing orthopedic surgeon involves 50–55 hours of work per week divided among clinic, surgery, various administrative duties, and possibly teaching and/or research if in an academic setting. According to the <a href="/wiki/American_Association_of_Medical_Colleges" class="mw-redirect" title="American Association of Medical Colleges">American Association of Medical Colleges</a> in 2021, the average work week of an orthopedic surgeon was 57 hours.<sup id="cite_ref-Pollock_2022_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pollock_2022-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a very low estimation however, as research derived from a 2013 survey of orthopedic surgeons who self identified as "highly successful" due to their prominent positions in the field indicated average work weeks of 70 hours or more.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pollock_2022_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pollock_2022-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arthroscopy">Arthroscopy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orthopedic_surgery&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Arthroscopy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arthroscopy" title="Arthroscopy">Arthroscopy</a></div> <p>The use of arthroscopic techniques has been particularly important for injured patients. <a href="/wiki/Arthroscopy" title="Arthroscopy">Arthroscopy</a> was pioneered in the early 1950s by <a href="/wiki/Masaki_Watanabe_(surgeon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Masaki Watanabe (surgeon)">Masaki Watanabe</a> of Japan to perform minimally invasive cartilage surgery and reconstructions of torn ligaments. Arthroscopy allows patients to recover from the surgery in a matter of days, rather than the weeks to months required by conventional, "open" surgery; it is a very popular technique. Knee arthroscopy is one of the most common operations performed by orthopedic surgeons today, and is often combined with meniscectomy or chondroplasty. The majority of upper-extremity outpatient orthopedic procedures are now performed arthroscopically.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid24397703_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24397703-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arthroplasty">Arthroplasty</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orthopedic_surgery&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Arthroplasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arthroplasty" title="Arthroplasty">Arthroplasty</a></div> <p>Arthroplasty is an orthopedic surgery where the articular surface of a musculoskeletal joint is replaced, remodeled, or realigned by <a href="/wiki/Osteotomy" title="Osteotomy">osteotomy</a> or some other procedure.<sup id="cite_ref-jhu_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jhu-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is an elective procedure that is done to relieve pain and restore function to the joint after damage by arthritis (<a href="/wiki/Rheumasurgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Rheumasurgery">rheumasurgery</a>) or some other type of trauma.<sup id="cite_ref-jhu_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jhu-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As well as the standard total knee replacement surgery, the unicompartmental knee replacement, in which only one weight-bearing surface of an arthritic knee is replaced, may be performed,<sup id="cite_ref-jhu_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jhu-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it bears a significant risk of revision surgery.<sup id="cite_ref-levy_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-levy-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Joint replacements are used for other joints, most commonly the <a href="/wiki/Hip" title="Hip">hip</a><sup id="cite_ref-jhu-hip_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jhu-hip-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Shoulder" title="Shoulder">shoulder</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nihr_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nihr-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A post-surgical concern with joint replacements is wear of the bearing surfaces of components.<sup id="cite_ref-dreyer_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dreyer-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can lead to damage to the surrounding bone and contribute to eventual failure of the implant.<sup id="cite_ref-dreyer_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dreyer-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plastic chosen is usually ultra-high-molecular-weight <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">polyethylene</a>, which can also be altered in ways that may improve wear characteristics.<sup id="cite_ref-dreyer_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dreyer-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The risk of revision surgery has also been shown to be associated with surgeon volume.<sup id="cite_ref-nihr_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nihr-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orthopedic_surgery&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Epidemiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Between 2001 and 2016, the prevalence of musculoskeletal procedures drastically increased in the U.S, from 17.9% to 24.2% of all operating-room (OR) procedures performed during hospital stays.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a study of hospitalizations in the United States in 2012, spine and joint procedures were common among all age groups except infants. Spinal fusion was one of the five most common OR procedures performed in every age group except infants younger than 1 year and adults 85 years and older. Laminectomy was common among adults aged 18–84 years. Knee arthroplasty and hip replacement were in the top five OR procedures for adults aged 45 years and older.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orthopedic_surgery&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orthopedic_surgery&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><sup id="cite_ref-Anas_Jameel_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anas_Jameel-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns 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title="Cardiac surgery">Cardiac surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiothoracic_surgery" title="Cardiothoracic surgery">Cardiothoracic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_surgery" title="Endocrine surgery">Endocrine surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_surgery" title="Eye surgery">Eye surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_surgery" title="General surgery">General surgery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colorectal_surgery" title="Colorectal surgery">Colorectal surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digestive_system_surgery" title="Digestive system surgery">Digestive system surgery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_surgery" title="Oral and maxillofacial surgery">Oral and maxillofacial surgery</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Orthopedic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_surgery" title="Hand surgery">Hand surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otorhinolaryngology" title="Otorhinolaryngology">Otolaryngology</a> <ul><li><small>ENT</small></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatric_surgery" title="Pediatric surgery">Pediatric surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">Plastic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_surgery" title="Reproductive surgery">Reproductive surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_oncology" title="Surgical oncology">Surgical oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplant surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trauma_surgery" title="Trauma surgery">Trauma surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urology" title="Urology">Urology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_surgery" title="Vascular surgery">Vascular surgery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">Internal<br />medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">Allergy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiology" title="Angiology">Angiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiology" title="Cardiology">Cardiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">Endocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastroenterology" title="Gastroenterology">Gastroenterology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hepatology" title="Hepatology">Hepatology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geriatrics" title="Geriatrics">Geriatrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematology" title="Hematology">Hematology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephrology" title="Nephrology">Nephrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonology" title="Pulmonology">Pulmonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheumatology" title="Rheumatology">Rheumatology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrics and<br />gynaecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gynaecology" title="Gynaecology">Gynaecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynecologic_oncology" title="Gynecologic oncology">Gynecologic oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal%E2%80%93fetal_medicine" title="Maternal–fetal medicine">Maternal–fetal medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_endocrinology_and_infertility" title="Reproductive endocrinology and infertility">Reproductive endocrinology and infertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urogynecology" title="Urogynecology">Urogynecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">Radiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interventional_radiology" title="Interventional radiology">Interventional radiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Nuclear medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology">Medical microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfusion_medicine" title="Transfusion medicine">Transfusion medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Addiction medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_medicine" title="Adolescent medicine">Adolescent medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anesthesiology" title="Anesthesiology">Anesthesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_anesthesiology" title="Obstetric anesthesiology">Obstetric anesthesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgical_anesthesia" title="Neurosurgical anesthesia">Neurosurgical anesthesiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_medicine" title="Aviation medicine">Aviation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dermatology" title="Dermatology">Dermatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_medicine" title="Disaster medicine">Disaster medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_medicine" title="Diving medicine">Diving medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_medicine" title="Emergency medicine">Emergency medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_gathering_medicine" title="Mass gathering medicine">Mass gathering medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_medicine" title="Family medicine">Family medicine</a> / <a href="/wiki/General_practice" title="General practice">General practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_care_medicine" title="Intensive care medicine">Intensive care medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcology" title="Narcology">Narcology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Occupational medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_medicine" title="Oral medicine">Oral medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_management" title="Pain management">Pain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">Palliative care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neonatology" title="Neonatology">Neonatology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlebologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Phlebologist">Phlebology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation" title="Physical medicine and rehabilitation">Physical medicine and rehabilitation</a> (PM&R)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_healthcare" title="Prison healthcare">Prison healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_psychiatry" title="Addiction psychiatry">Addiction psychiatry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Reproductive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_medicine" title="Sexual medicine">Sexual medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venereology" title="Venereology">Venereology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_medicine" title="Sleep medicine">Sleep medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_medicine" title="Sports medicine">Sports medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplantation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_medicine" title="Tropical medicine">Tropical medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical<br />education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_school" title="Medical school">Medical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine,_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medical_Sciences" title="Bachelor of Medical Sciences">Bachelor of Medical Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Medicine" title="Master of Medicine">Master of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Surgery" title="Master of Surgery">Master of Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicine" title="Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine">Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MD%E2%80%93PhD" title="MD–PhD">MD–PhD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Scientist_Training_Program" title="Medical Scientist Training Program">Medical Scientist Training Program</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_health_professions" title="Allied health professions">Allied health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_oncology" title="Molecular oncology">Molecular oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_health" title="Rural health">Rural health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">Physician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_physician" title="Chief physician">Chief physician</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Medicine" title="Category:Medicine">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Medicine" class="extiw" title="commons:Medicine">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Medicine" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Medicine">Wikiproject</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_medicine" title="Outline of medicine">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Procedures_involving_bones_and_joints" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bone,_cartilage,_and_joint_procedures" title="Template:Bone, cartilage, and joint procedures"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bone,_cartilage,_and_joint_procedures" title="Template talk:Bone, cartilage, and joint procedures"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bone,_cartilage,_and_joint_procedures" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bone, cartilage, and joint procedures"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Procedures_involving_bones_and_joints" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Procedures involving <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bones</a> and joints</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Orthopedic surgery</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">Bones</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Face</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jaw_reduction" title="Jaw reduction">Jaw reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthognathic_surgery" title="Orthognathic surgery">Orthognathic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chin_augmentation" title="Chin augmentation">Chin augmentation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coccygectomy" title="Coccygectomy">Coccygectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laminotomy" title="Laminotomy">Laminotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laminectomy" title="Laminectomy">Laminectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laminoplasty" title="Laminoplasty">Laminoplasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpectomy" title="Corpectomy">Corpectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facetectomy" title="Facetectomy">Facetectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraminotomy" title="Foraminotomy">Foraminotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_fixation" title="Vertebral fixation">Vertebral fixation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_augmentation" title="Vertebral augmentation">Vertebral augmentation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Arm</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acromioplasty" title="Acromioplasty">Acromioplasty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leg</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Femoral_head_ostectomy" title="Femoral head ostectomy">Femoral head ostectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astragalectomy" title="Astragalectomy">Astragalectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distraction_osteogenesis" title="Distraction osteogenesis">Distraction osteogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilizarov_apparatus" title="Ilizarov apparatus">Ilizarov apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phemister_graft" title="Phemister graft">Phemister graft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ostectomy" title="Ostectomy">Ostectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_grafting" title="Bone grafting">Bone grafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteotomy" title="Osteotomy">Osteotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphysiodesis" title="Epiphysiodesis">Epiphysiodesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduction_(orthopedic_surgery)" title="Reduction (orthopedic surgery)">Reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_fixation" title="Internal fixation">Internal fixation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/External_fixation" title="External fixation">External fixation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tension_band_wiring" title="Tension band wiring">Tension band wiring</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">Cartilage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articular_cartilage_repair" title="Articular cartilage repair">Articular cartilage repair</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microfracture_surgery" title="Microfracture surgery">Microfracture surgery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knee_cartilage_replacement_therapy" title="Knee cartilage replacement therapy">Knee cartilage replacement therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autologous_chondrocyte_implantation" title="Autologous chondrocyte implantation">Autologous chondrocyte implantation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Joint" title="Joint">Joints</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_vertebral_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Human vertebral column">Spine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthrodesis" title="Arthrodesis">Arthrodesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_fusion" title="Spinal fusion">Spinal fusion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_disc" title="Intervertebral disc">Intervertebral discs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discectomy" title="Discectomy">Discectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_disc_annuloplasty" title="Intervertebral disc annuloplasty">Annuloplasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_disc_arthroplasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Intervertebral disc arthroplasty">Arthroplasty</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Arm</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shoulder_surgery" title="Shoulder surgery">Shoulder surgery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shoulder_replacement" title="Shoulder replacement">Shoulder replacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bankart_repair" title="Bankart repair">Bankart repair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaver%E2%80%93Dunn_procedure" title="Weaver–Dunn procedure">Weaver–Dunn procedure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulnar_collateral_ligament_reconstruction" title="Ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction">Ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_surgery" title="Hand surgery">Hand surgery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brunelli_procedure" title="Brunelli procedure">Brunelli procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finger_joint_replacement" title="Finger joint replacement">Finger joint replacement</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leg</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hip_resurfacing" title="Hip resurfacing">Hip resurfacing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hip_replacement" title="Hip replacement">Hip replacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotationplasty" title="Rotationplasty">Rotationplasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_cruciate_ligament_reconstruction" title="Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction">Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knee_replacement" title="Knee replacement">Knee replacement</a>/<a href="/wiki/Unicompartmental_knee_arthroplasty" title="Unicompartmental knee arthroplasty">Unicompartmental knee arthroplasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ankle_fusion" title="Ankle fusion">Ankle fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ankle_replacement" title="Ankle replacement">Ankle replacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brostr%C3%B6m_procedure" title="Broström procedure">Broström procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_arthrodesis" title="Triple arthrodesis">Triple arthrodesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthrotomy" title="Arthrotomy">Arthrotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthroplasty" title="Arthroplasty">Arthroplasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synovectomy" title="Synovectomy">Synovectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthroscopy" title="Arthroscopy">Arthroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_replacement" title="Joint replacement">Joint replacement</a></li> <li><i>imaging:</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthrogram" title="Arthrogram">Arthrogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthrocentesis" title="Arthrocentesis">Arthrocentesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthroscopic_lavage" title="Arthroscopic lavage">Arthroscopic lavage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link 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