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<span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" 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href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Republik_Rakyat_Tiongkok_(1949-1976)" title="Sejarah Republik Rakyat Tiongkok (1949-1976) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Republik Rakyat Tiongkok (1949-1976)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_Mao_Ts%C3%A9-tung_(1949%E2%80%931976)" title="Era Mao Tsé-tung (1949–1976) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Era Mao Tsé-tung (1949–1976)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)" title="History of the People's Republic of China 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role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)" 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22History+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China%22+1949%E2%80%931976">"History of the People's Republic of China" 1949–1976</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22History+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China%22+1949%E2%80%931976+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22History+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China%22+1949%E2%80%931976&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22History+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China%22+1949%E2%80%931976+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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.navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ededed;">Maoist China</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; font-weight: bold;">1949–1976</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Nikita_Khrushchev,_Mao_Zedong,_Ho_Chi_Minh_and_Soong_Ching-ling.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Nikita_Khrushchev%2C_Mao_Zedong%2C_Ho_Chi_Minh_and_Soong_Ching-ling.jpg/220px-Nikita_Khrushchev%2C_Mao_Zedong%2C_Ho_Chi_Minh_and_Soong_Ching-ling.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Nikita_Khrushchev%2C_Mao_Zedong%2C_Ho_Chi_Minh_and_Soong_Ching-ling.jpg/330px-Nikita_Khrushchev%2C_Mao_Zedong%2C_Ho_Chi_Minh_and_Soong_Ching-ling.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Nikita_Khrushchev%2C_Mao_Zedong%2C_Ho_Chi_Minh_and_Soong_Ching-ling.jpg/440px-Nikita_Khrushchev%2C_Mao_Zedong%2C_Ho_Chi_Minh_and_Soong_Ching-ling.jpg 2x" data-file-width="970" data-file-height="530" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Mao Zedong with Nikita Khrushchev, Ho Chi Minh and Soong Ching-ling during a state dinner in Beijing, 1959</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Including</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Leader(s)</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">President(s)</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Liu_Shaoqi" title="Liu Shaoqi">Liu Shaoqi</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Soong_Ching-ling" title="Soong Ching-ling">Soong Ching-ling</a> (acting)<br /><a href="/wiki/Dong_Biwu" title="Dong Biwu">Dong Biwu</a> (acting)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Prime Minister(s)</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Enlai" title="Zhou Enlai">Zhou Enlai</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Key events</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">Proclamation of the People's Republic of China</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><b>Chronology</b> <br /><table style="background:var(--background-color-neutral, #eaecf0); color: inherit; border-top: 1px solid #aaa;" width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <td width="50%" style="text-align:left;"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/10px-Arrleft.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/15px-Arrleft.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/20px-Arrleft.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="110" data-file-height="133" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="History of the Republic of China">History of the Republic of China</a></td> <td width="50%" style="text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1976%E2%80%931989)" title="History of the People's Republic of China 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1222630338">.mw-parser-output .prc-body{max-width:20em}.mw-parser-output .prc-title{font-size:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .prc-title a{white-space:normal}.mw-parser-output .prc-emblem{padding-bottom:1em}.mw-parser-output .prc-heading{border-top:thin solid #707070;border-bottom:thin solid #707070;background-color:white;font-size:1em}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks prc-body hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title prc-title"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">History of the People's Republic of China</a></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image prc-emblem"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(2).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="National emblem of the People's Republic of China"><img alt="National emblem of the People's Republic of China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg/85px-National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg/128px-National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg/170px-National_Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_%282%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="976" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title prc-heading" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1949–1976: Mao era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Reform_Movement" title="Land Reform Movement">Land Reform Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_to_Suppress_Counterrevolutionaries" title="Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries">Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-anti_and_Five-anti_Campaigns" title="Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns">Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_five-year_plan_(China)" title="First five-year plan (China)">First five-year plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Principles_of_Peaceful_Coexistence" title="Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence">Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufan_movement" title="Sufan movement">Sufan movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Flowers_Campaign" title="Hundred Flowers Campaign">Hundred Flowers Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Rightist_Campaign" title="Anti-Rightist Campaign">Anti-Rightist Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_Fair" title="Canton Fair">Canton Fair</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine" title="Great Chinese Famine">Great Chinese Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Bombs,_One_Satellite" title="Two Bombs, One Satellite">Two Bombs, One Satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Thousand_Cadres_Conference" title="Seven Thousand Cadres Conference">Seven Thousand Cadres Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Education_Movement" title="Socialist Education Movement">Socialist Education Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Front_(China)" title="Third Front (China)">Third Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UN_General_Assembly_Resolution_2758" class="mw-redirect" title="UN General Assembly Resolution 2758">UN representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">Richard Nixon visit</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title prc-heading" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1976%E2%80%931989)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (1976–1989)">1976–1989: Deng era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boluan_Fanzheng" title="Boluan Fanzheng">Boluan Fanzheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1978_Truth_Criterion_Controversy" title="1978 Truth Criterion Controversy">1978 Truth Criterion Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Enlightenment_(China)" title="New Enlightenment (China)">New Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforms_and_Opening_Up" class="mw-redirect" title="Reforms and Opening Up">Reforms and Opening Up</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_economic_zones_of_China" title="Special economic zones of China">Special economic zones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="China–United States relations">China–United States relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three_Communiqu%C3%A9s" title="Three Communiqués">Three Communiqués</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Modernizations" title="Four Modernizations">Four Modernizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_War" title="Sino-Vietnamese War">Sino-Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Spring" title="Beijing Spring">Beijing Spring</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strike_Hard_Against_Crime_Campaign_(1983)" title="Strike Hard Against Crime Campaign (1983)">Strike Hard Against Crime Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-British_Joint_Declaration" title="Sino-British Joint Declaration">Sino-British Joint Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_against_spiritual_pollution" title="Campaign against spiritual pollution">Campaign against spiritual pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_liberalization" title="Bourgeois liberalization">Bourgeois liberalization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-bourgeois_liberalization" title="Anti-bourgeois liberalization">Opposition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/863_Program" title="863 Program">863 Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_Chinese_student_demonstrations" title="1986 Chinese student demonstrations">1986 Chinese student demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Portuguese_Joint_Declaration" title="Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration">Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title prc-heading" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1989%E2%80%932002)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (1989–2002)">1989–2002: Jiang era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Stock_Exchange" title="Shanghai Stock Exchange">Shanghai Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudong_New_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Pudong New District">Pudong New District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping%27s_southern_tour" title="Deng Xiaoping's southern tour">Deng's southern tour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_consensus" class="mw-redirect" title="1992 consensus">1992 consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_country,_two_systems" title="One country, two systems">One country, two systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handover_of_Hong_Kong" title="Handover of Hong Kong">Handover of Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handover_of_Macau" title="Handover of Macau">Handover of Macau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998_China_floods" title="1998 China floods">1998 floods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US_bombing_of_the_Chinese_embassy_in_Belgrade" class="mw-redirect" title="US bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade">US bombing of the Belgrade embassy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Persecution of Falun Gong</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Western_Development" title="China Western Development">China Western Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hainan_Island_incident" title="Hainan Island incident">Hainan Island incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APEC_China_2001" title="APEC China 2001">APEC China 2001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_and_the_World_Trade_Organization" title="China and the World Trade Organization">Accession to the WTO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_on_China%E2%80%93Africa_Cooperation" title="Forum on China–Africa Cooperation">Forum on China–Africa Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation" title="Shanghai Cooperation Organisation">Shanghai Cooperation Organisation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title prc-heading" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(2002%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (2002–present)">2002–2012: Hu era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2002%E2%80%932004_SARS_outbreak" title="2002–2004 SARS outbreak">2002–2004 SARS outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shenzhou_5" title="Shenzhou 5">Shenzhou 5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_Pan%E2%80%93Blue_visits_to_mainland_China" class="mw-redirect" title="2005 Pan–Blue visits to mainland China">Visit of Lien Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South%E2%80%93North_Water_Transfer_Project" title="South–North Water Transfer Project">South–North Water Transfer Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qinghai%E2%80%93Tibet_railway" title="Qinghai–Tibet railway">Qinghai–Tibet railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Sichuan_earthquake" title="2008 Sichuan earthquake">2008 Sichuan earthquake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Links" title="Three Links">Three Links with Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Summer_Olympics" title="2008 Summer Olympics">2008 Summer Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_2010" title="Expo 2010">Expo 2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BRICS" title="BRICS">BRICS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Gorges_Dam" title="Three Gorges Dam">Three Gorges Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West%E2%80%93East_Gas_Pipeline" title="West–East Gas Pipeline">West–East Gas Pipeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_rail_in_China" title="High-speed rail in China">High-speed rail</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title prc-heading" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(2002%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the People's Republic of China (2002–present)">2012–present: Xi era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corruption_campaign_under_Xi_Jinping" title="Anti-corruption campaign under Xi Jinping">Anti-corruption campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belt_and_Road_Initiative" title="Belt and Road Initiative">Belt and Road Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chang%27e_3" title="Chang'e 3">Chang'e 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercomputing_in_China" title="Supercomputing in China">Supercomputing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APEC_China_2014" title="APEC China 2014">APEC China 2014</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma-Xi_Meeting" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma-Xi Meeting">Meeting with Ma Ying-Jeou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_G20_Hangzhou_summit" title="2016 G20 Hangzhou summit">2016 G20 Hangzhou summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiong%27an" title="Xiong'an">Xiong'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/9th_BRICS_summit" title="9th BRICS summit">9th BRICS summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">Persecution of Uyghurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_internment_camps" title="Xinjiang internment camps">Xinjiang internment camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_trade_war" title="China–United States trade war">China–United States trade war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_International_Import_Expo" title="China International Import Expo">China International Import Expo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">Space program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932020_Hong_Kong_protests" title="2019–2020 Hong Kong protests">2019–2020 Hong Kong protests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020_Hong_Kong_national_security_law" title="2020 Hong Kong national security law">2020 Hong Kong national security law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China" title="COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Xi_Jinping_Administration_reform_spree" title="2020–2021 Xi Jinping Administration reform spree">2020–2021 reform spree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Winter_Olympics" title="2022 Winter Olympics">2022 Winter Olympics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Constitutional history of the People's Republic of China">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Beijing" title="History of Beijing">Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Shanghai" title="History of Shanghai">Shanghai</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="border-top:1px solid #707070;padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.5em;font-weight:bold;border-bottom:1px solid #707070;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Culture of the People's Republic of China">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_China" title="Economy of China">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_China" title="Geography of China">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_China" title="Politics of China">Politics</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.5em;border-bottom:1px solid #707070;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Template:History of the People's Republic of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Template talk:History of the People's Republic of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the People's Republic of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The time period in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">founding of the People's Republic</a> in 1949 until <a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Mao_Zedong" title="Death and state funeral of Mao Zedong">Mao's death</a> in 1976 is commonly known as <b>Maoist China</b> and <b>Red China</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">history of the People's Republic of China</a> is often divided distinctly by historians into the <b>Mao era</b> and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">post-Mao era</a>. The country's Mao era lasted from the founding of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_republic" title="People's republic">People's republic</a> on 1 October 1949<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a>'s consolidation of power and policy reversal at the <a href="/wiki/3rd_Plenary_Session_of_the_11th_Central_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party">Third Plenum of the 11th Party Congress</a> on 22 December 1978. The Mao era focuses on <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>'s social movements from the early 1950s on, including <a href="/wiki/Land_Reform_Movement_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Land Reform Movement (China)">land reform</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine" title="Great Chinese Famine">Great Chinese Famine</a>, one of the worst famines in human history,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> occurred during this era. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1949:_Proclamation_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China"><span id="1949:_Proclamation_of_the_People.27s_Republic_of_China"></span>1949: Proclamation of the People's Republic of China</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: 1949: Proclamation of the People's Republic of China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">Proclamation of the People's Republic of China</a></div><p>On September 29, 1949, the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference" title="Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference">Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference</a> unanimously adopted the <a href="/wiki/Common_Program" title="Common Program">Common Program</a> as the basic political program for the country following the success of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 25">: 25 </span></sup> The founding of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> (PRC) was formally proclaimed by <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party">Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party</a>, on October 1, 1949, at 3:00 pm in <a href="/wiki/Tiananmen_Square" title="Tiananmen Square">Tiananmen Square</a> in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>. The establishment of the <a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="State Council of the People's Republic of China">Central People's Government of the PRC</a>, the government of the new nation, was officially declared during the proclamation speech at the founding ceremony.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Chinese_National_Day_Parade" title="Chinese National Day Parade">military parade</a> took place during the foundation ceremony. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_1950s:_Social_revolution">Early 1950s: Social revolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early 1950s: Social revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The People's Republic of China was founded on a land that was ravaged by a <a href="/wiki/Century_of_Humiliation" class="mw-redirect" title="Century of Humiliation">century of foreign invasion and civil wars</a>. Both urban and rural communities, as well as both agriculture and industry, experienced significant growth between 1949 and 1959.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mao's government carried out <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Land_Reform" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Land Reform">land reform</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-fa-land-reform_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fa-land-reform-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 554–556">: 554–556 </span></sup> instituted <a href="/wiki/Collective_farming" title="Collective farming">collectivisation</a><sup id="cite_ref-pf-collectivization_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pf-collectivization-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 51–52">: 51–52 </span></sup> and implemented the <i><a href="/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">laogai</a></i> camp system.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Economically, the country followed up on the Soviet model of <a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Five-year plans of the Soviet Union">five-year plans</a> with its own first <a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_China" title="Five-year plans of China">five-year plan</a> from 1953 to 1957.<sup id="cite_ref-alpha-history-1st-5-year-plan_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alpha-history-1st-5-year-plan-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The country went through a transformation whereby means of production were transferred from private to public entities, and through <a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">nationalization</a> of industry in 1955, the state controlled the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_China" title="Economy of China">economy</a> in a similar fashion to the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Economy of the Soviet Union">economy of the Soviet Union</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Korean_War">Korean War</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Korean War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Volunteer_Army" title="People's Volunteer Army">People's Volunteer Army</a></div> <p>China's role in the Korean war has been evaluated by each participant in sharply different ways.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon after its founding, the newly born People's Republic of China was drawn into its first international conflict. On June 25, 1950, <a href="/wiki/Kim_Il_Sung" title="Kim Il Sung">Kim Il Sung</a>'s <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korean</a> forces crossed the <a href="/wiki/38th_parallel_north" title="38th parallel north">38th parallel</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-stokesbury-korean-war_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stokesbury-korean-war-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> invaded <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>, and eventually advanced as far as the <a href="/wiki/Pusan_Perimeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Pusan Perimeter">Pusan Perimeter</a> in south-east Korea. <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> forces entered the war on side of the South, and American General <a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a>, having forced a Communist retreat, proposed to end the war by Christmas 1950. The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and China saw a UN (and consequently, American) victory as a major political victory to the United States, a prospect seen as dangerous in the beginnings of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. However, Stalin had no desire to go to war with the United States, and left China the responsibility of saving the regime in <a href="/wiki/Pyongyang" title="Pyongyang">Pyongyang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-china-korean-war-baum_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-china-korean-war-baum-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Up to this time, the Truman Administration was thoroughly disgusted with the corruption of <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>'s government and considered simply recognizing the PRC. On June 27, the US 7th Fleet was sent to the Taiwan Straits both to prevent a Communist invasion of the island and to prevent an attempted reconquest of the mainland. China meanwhile warned that it would not accept a US-backed Korea on its border. After the UN forces liberated <a href="/wiki/Seoul" title="Seoul">Seoul</a> in September, Beijing countered by saying that ROK troops could cross into North Korea, but not American ones. MacArthur ignored this, believing that the South Korean army was too weak to attack on its own. After Pyongyang fell in October, the UN troops approached the strategically sensitive Yalu River area. China responded by sending waves of troops south, in what became known as the People's Volunteers in order to disassociate them from the PLA. The Chinese army was poorly equipped but contained many veterans of the civil war and the conflict with Japan. In addition, it possessed huge reserves of manpower. The United States was on its way to the height of military power, and historians contend that Mao's participation in the war asserted China as a new power to not be taken lightly. Known as the <i>Resist America, Aid Korea</i> Campaign in China, the first major offensive of the Chinese forces was pushed back in October, but by Christmas 1950, the "<a href="/wiki/People%27s_Volunteer_Army" title="People's Volunteer Army">People's Volunteer Army</a>" under the command of Gen. <a href="/wiki/Peng_Dehuai" title="Peng Dehuai">Peng Dehuai</a> had forced the United Nations to retreat back to the 38th Parallel. However, the war was very costly to the Chinese side, as more than just "volunteers" were mobilised, and because of the lack of experience in modern warfare and the lack of modern military technology, China's casualties vastly outnumbered that of the United Nations. On 11 April 1951, a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Seventh_Fleet" title="United States Seventh Fleet">U.S. Seventh Fleet</a> destroyer approached close to the port of <a href="/wiki/Shantou" title="Shantou">Swatow (Shantou)</a>, on the southeast coast of China, provoking China to send an armada of more than forty armed powered junks to confront and surround the destroyer for nearly five hours before the destroyer departed the area without either side widening the conflict by initiating hostile fire.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Declining a UN armistice, the two sides fought intermittently on both sides of the 38th Parallel until the armistice was signed on July 27, 1953. The Korean War ended any possibility of normalised relations with the United States for years. Meanwhile, Chinese forces invaded and annexed Tibet in October 1950. Tibet had been nominally subject to the Chinese emperors in past centuries, but declared its independence in 1912. </p><p>Under Mao's direction, China built its first <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a> in its nuclear program, <a href="/wiki/Project_596" title="Project 596">Project 596</a>, testing it on October 16, 1964, at <a href="/wiki/Lop_Nor" class="mw-redirect" title="Lop Nor">Lop Nor</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-morton-bomb_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-morton-bomb-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 74">: 74 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-minor-nuclear-program_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-minor-nuclear-program-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 573">: 573 </span></sup> it was the fifth country to conduct a successful nuclear test. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1953–1957"><span id="1953.E2.80.931957"></span>1953–1957</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 1953–1957"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Korean War had been enormously costly to China, especially coming on the heels of the civil war, and it delayed postwar reconstruction. In 1949, Mao Zedong declared that the nation would "<a href="/wiki/Leaning_to_One_Side" title="Leaning to One Side">lean to one side</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> meaning that the Soviet Union and the communist bloc would be its principal allies.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three months after the PRC was established in October 1949, Mao and his delegation traveled to Moscow. They were not received warmly by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Stalin</a>, who doubted if they really were Marxist-Leninists and not simply a group of Chinese nationalists. He had also recognized Chiang Kai-Shek's government, and furthermore distrusted any communist movement that was not under his direct control. After a meeting with Mao, the Soviet leader remarked "What sort of a man is Mao? He seems to have some idea of revolution involving the peasants, but not the workers." Eventually, a frustrated Mao was ready to go home, but <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Enlai" title="Zhou Enlai">Zhou Enlai</a> refused to leave without a formal agreement. Thus, the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Friendship was signed and the Chinese at last departed in February 1950. </p><p>According to Hua-yu Li, writing in <i>Mao and the Economic Stalinization of China, 1948–1953</i> in 1953, Mao, misled by glowing reports in <i>History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolshevik): Short Course</i>, authorized by Stalin of social and economic progress in the Soviet Union, abandoned the liberal economic programs of "New Democracy" and instituted the "general line for socialist transition", a program to build socialism based on Soviet models. He was reportedly moved in part by personal and national rivalry with Stalin and the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Soviet Union provided considerable economic aid and training during the 1950s. Many Chinese students were sent to study in Moscow. Factories and other infrastructure projects were all based on Soviet designs, for China was an agrarian country with little established industry. In 1953, Mao Zedong told the Indonesian ambassador that they had little to export except agricultural products. Several jointly owned Sino-Soviet corporations were established, but Mao considered these to impinge on Chinese sovereignty and in 1954 they were quietly dissolved. </p><p>By 1956, Mao was becoming bored with the day-to-day running of the state and also worried about growing red tape and bureaucracy. The 8th Party Congress that year declared that socialism had more-or-less been established and so the next few years would be devoted to rest and consolidation. </p><p>In February 1957, Mao gave one of his most famous addresses in which he said, "Let a hundred flowers bloom, let a hundred schools of thought contend." The <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Flowers_Campaign" title="Hundred Flowers Campaign">Hundred Flowers Campaign</a> was promoted by the CCP as a way of furthering socialist ideology through open debate, but many took it as an invitation to express open disdain for the Communist Party. Many began to voice their opposition to the Party-State's rule. Thoroughly shocked, Mao put an end to this and then launched the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Rightist_Campaign" title="Anti-Rightist Campaign">Anti-Rightist Campaign</a>. Scores of intellectuals and common workers were purged, jailed, or <a href="/wiki/Forced_disappearance" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced disappearance">disappeared</a>. Many were not "<a href="/wiki/Political_rehabilitation#China" title="Political rehabilitation">rehabilitated</a>" until the 1970s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Great_Leap_Forward">Great Leap Forward</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Great Leap Forward"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a></div> <p>Mao's social and cultural programs, including <a href="/wiki/Collectivization" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivization">collectivization</a>, were most popular in the early 1950s. However, China's strained relations with new Soviet leader <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> and newfound contradictions between the Chinese and Soviet schools of <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a> seeded a novel and radical drive to reform China's economic system in its entirety. This split developed after Stalin's death in 1953 when new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced him. The "secret speech" in 1956 stunned the communist world. China rejected de-Stalinization and in fact displayed large Stalin portraits at the May Day celebrations that year. Mao declared that despite some faults, Stalin had basically been a good, well-meaning Marxist. He felt that the Soviets were not treating China as an equal partner. Cultural differences also contributed to friction between the two communist giants. Khrushchev's idea of peaceful competition with the United States rather than overt hostility did not resonate well with Beijing. Mao said that "Do you think the capitalists will put down their butcher knife and become Buddhas?" </p><p>Khrushchev's 1958 suggestion of a joint Sino-Soviet fleet to counter the US 7th Fleet was angrily rejected by Mao Zedong, who told the Soviet ambassador "If you want to talk about joint cooperation, fine. We can practice joint cooperation in government, military, cultural, and economic matters and you can leave us with a guerrilla force." When the Soviet premier himself visited China the following year, Mao again asked him to explain what a joint fleet was. He stated that the Soviets were not welcome to put any troops on Chinese soil in peacetime and added "Listen carefully. We have worked long and hard to drive out the Americans, the British, the Japanese, and others. Never again will we allow foreigners to use our territory for their purposes." Khrushchev also thought that the Chinese were too soft on the <a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a> (Tibet's spiritual leader) and failed to support them in a border dispute with India, saying that the territory in question was "just a frozen waste where nobody lives." </p><p>Leading into the Great Leap Forward, China experienced a population boom that strained its food supply, despite rising agricultural yields.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 81">: 81 </span></sup> Increased yields could not keep pace a population that benefitted from a major decrease in mortality (due to successful public health campaigns and the end of war) and high fertility rate.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 81">: 81 </span></sup>The Chinese government recognized the country's dilemma of feeding its rapidly growing population without the means to make significant capital improvements in agriculture.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 82">: 82 </span></sup> Viewing human labor as an underutilized <a href="/wiki/Factors_of_production" title="Factors of production">factor of production</a>, the government intensified the mobilization of masses of people to increase labor inputs in agriculture.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 82">: 82 </span></sup> </p><p>Under Mao's leadership, China <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">broke with the Soviet model</a> and announced a new economic program, the "<a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a>", in 1958, aimed at rapidly raising industrial and agricultural production. Specific to industrial production, Mao announced the goal of surpassing the steel production output of <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> by 1968. Giant cooperatives, otherwise known as <a href="/wiki/People%27s_commune" title="People's commune">people's communes</a>, were formed. Within a year almost all Chinese villages had been reformed into working communes of several thousand people in size, where people would live and work together as envisioned by an ideal communist society. Rather than build steel mills, small "backyard furnaces" would be used. </p><p>The results, however, were <a href="/wiki/Economic_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic disaster">disastrous</a>. Normal market mechanisms were disrupted, agricultural production fell behind, and people exhausted themselves producing shoddy, unsellable goods. Because of the reliance on the government providing and distributing food and resources and their rapid depletion due to poor planning, starvation appeared even in fertile agricultural areas. From 1960 to 1961, the combination of poor planning during the Great Leap Forward, political movements incited by the government, as well as unusual weather patterns and natural disasters resulted in <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Famine (China)">widespread famine</a> and many deaths. A significant number of the deaths were not from famine but were killed or overworked by the authorities. According to various sources, the resulting death toll was likely between 20 and 40 million. The steel produced in backyard furnaces at low temperatures proved to be useless. Finally, the peasants hated the lack of privacy and the militarization of their lives. </p><p>One of the loudest opponents of the GLF was Defense Minister <a href="/wiki/Peng_Dehuai" title="Peng Dehuai">Peng Dehuai</a>. Peng was a believer in orthodox Soviet-style economic planning and totally against experimentations. Several years earlier, he had been instrumental in trying to develop the PLA into a well-equipped, professional fighting force, as opposed to Mao's belief that soldiers who were revolutionary enough could overcome any obstacle. The army had had no ranks during the civil war and Korea. This system worked rather poorly in those conflicts, and so a rank system (modeled after the Soviet one) was implemented in 1954. </p><p>While taking a trip through the countryside, Peng was horrified at the wreckage of the Great Leap Forward. Everywhere fields were dotted with abandoned communes, ruined crops, and lumps of useless pig iron. Afterwards, he accused Mao of being responsible for this disaster and was in turn denounced as a rightist and removed from office. Peng then lived retired in disgrace for the next several years until he was arrested and beaten by Red Guards during the Cultural Revolution. He survived the torture, but sustained permanent injuries and died in 1974. After Mao's death, Peng was posthumously rehabilitated with full honors. </p><p>The already strained Sino-Soviet relationship deteriorated sharply in 1959, when the Soviets started to restrict the flow of scientific and technological information to China. The dispute escalated, and the Soviets withdrew all of their personnel from China by August 1960, leaving many construction projects dormant. In the same year, the Soviets and the Chinese began to have disputes openly in international forums. The relationship between the two powers reached a low point in 1969 with the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a>, when Soviet and Chinese troops met in combat on the <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchurian</a> border. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Third_Front">Third Front</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Third Front"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Third_Front_(China)" title="Third Front (China)">Third Front (China)</a></div> <p>After the failure of the Great Leap Forward, China's leadership slowed the pace of industrialization.<sup id="cite_ref-:022_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:022-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 3">: 3 </span></sup> It invested more on in China's coastal regions and focused on the production of consumer goods.<sup id="cite_ref-:022_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:022-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 3">: 3 </span></sup> After an April 1964 General Staff report concluded that the concentration of China's industry in its major coastal cities made it vulnerable to attack by foreign powers, Mao argued for the development of basic industry and national defense industry in protected locations in China's interior.<sup id="cite_ref-:022_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:022-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 4, 54">: 4, 54 </span></sup> This resulted in the building of the Third Front, which involved massive projects including railroad infrastructure,<sup id="cite_ref-:022_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:022-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 153–164">: 153–164 </span></sup> aerospace industry including satellite launch facilities,<sup id="cite_ref-:022_29-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:022-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 218–219">: 218–219 </span></sup> and steel production industry including <a href="/wiki/Panzhihua_Iron_and_Steel" title="Panzhihua Iron and Steel">Panzhihua Iron and Steel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:022_29-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:022-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 9">: 9 </span></sup> </p><p>Development of the Third Front slowed in 1966 during the Cultural Revolution, but accelerated again after the Sino-Soviet border conflict at Zhenbao Island, which increased the perceived risk of Soviet Invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-:022_29-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:022-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 12, 150">: 12, 150 </span></sup> Third Front construction again decreased after United States President <a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China</a> and the resulting rapprochement between the United States and China.<sup id="cite_ref-:022_29-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:022-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 225–229">: 225–229 </span></sup> When Reform and Opening up began after Mao's death, China began to gradually wind down Third Front projects.<sup id="cite_ref-:92_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:92-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 180">: 180 </span></sup> The Third Front distributed physical and human capital around the country, ultimately decreased regional disparities and created favorable conditions for later market development.<sup id="cite_ref-:92_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:92-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 177–182">: 177–182 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_Revolution">Cultural Revolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cultural Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cultural_Revolution&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a <a href="/wiki/Social_movement" title="Social movement">sociopolitical movement</a> in the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a> (PRC). It was launched by <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> in 1966 and lasted until <a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Mao_Zedong" title="Death and state funeral of Mao Zedong">his death</a> in 1976. Its stated goal was to preserve <a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Ideology of the Chinese Communist Party">Chinese socialism</a> by purging remnants of <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalist</a> and traditional elements from <a href="/wiki/Chinese_culture" title="Chinese culture">Chinese society</a>. Though it failed to achieve its main objectives, the Cultural Revolution marked the effective return of Mao to the center of power in China after <a href="/wiki/Seven_Thousand_Cadres_Conference" title="Seven Thousand Cadres Conference">his political sidelining</a>, in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine" title="Great Chinese Famine">Great Chinese Famine</a>. </p><p>In May 1966, with the help of the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution_Group" title="Cultural Revolution Group">Cultural Revolution Group</a>, Mao launched the Revolution and said that <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeois elements</a> had infiltrated the government and society with the aim of restoring capitalism. Mao called on young people to <a href="/wiki/Bombard_the_Headquarters" title="Bombard the Headquarters">bombard the headquarters</a>, and proclaimed that "to rebel is justified". Mass upheaval began in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> with <a href="/wiki/Red_August" title="Red August">Red August</a> in 1966. Many young people, mainly students, responded by forming <a href="/wiki/Cadre_system_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Cadre system of the Chinese Communist Party">cadres</a> of <a href="/wiki/Red_Guards" title="Red Guards">Red Guards</a> throughout the country. A selection of Mao's sayings were compiled into the <a href="/wiki/Quotations_from_Chairman_Mao_Tse-tung" title="Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung"><i>Little Red Book</i></a>, which became revered within <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong%27s_cult_of_personality" title="Mao Zedong's cult of personality">his cult of personality</a>. In 1967, emboldened radicals began <a href="/wiki/Seizure_of_power_(Cultural_Revolution)" title="Seizure of power (Cultural Revolution)">seizing power</a> from local governments and party branches, establishing new <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_committee_(China)" title="Revolutionary committee (China)">revolutionary committees</a> in their place. These committees often split into rival factions, precipitating <a href="/wiki/Violent_Struggle" title="Violent Struggle">armed clashes among the radicals</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Lin_Biao_incident" title="Lin Biao incident">fall of Lin Biao</a> in 1971, the <a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a> became influential in 1972, and the Revolution continued until Mao's death in 1976, soon followed by the arrest of the Gang of Four. </p><p>The Cultural Revolution was characterized by violence and chaos across Chinese society, including <a href="/wiki/Guangxi_Massacre" title="Guangxi Massacre">a massacre in Guangxi</a> that included acts of <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibalism</a>, as well as massacres in Beijing, <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia_incident" title="Inner Mongolia incident">Inner Mongolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guangdong_Cultural_Revolution_Massacre" title="Guangdong Cultural Revolution Massacre">Guangdong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yunnan_Cultural_Revolution_Massacre_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Yunnan Cultural Revolution Massacre (disambiguation)">Yunnan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hunan_Cultural_Revolution_Massacre_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Hunan Cultural Revolution Massacre (disambiguation)">Hunan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cultural_Revolution_Song-2011a_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cultural_Revolution_Song-2011a-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimates of the death toll vary widely, typically ranging from 1–2 million. Red Guards sought to destroy the <a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a> (old ideas, old culture, old customs, and old habits), which often took the form of destroying historical artifacts, cultural and religious sites, and targeting others deemed to be representative of the Four Olds. Tens of millions were persecuted, including senior officials: most notably, president <a href="/wiki/Liu_Shaoqi" title="Liu Shaoqi">Liu Shaoqi</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peng_Dehuai" title="Peng Dehuai">Peng Dehuai</a>, and <a href="/wiki/He_Long" title="He Long">He Long</a>. Millions were persecuted for being members of the <a href="/wiki/Five_Black_Categories" title="Five Black Categories">Five Black Categories</a>. Intellectuals and scientists were considered to be the <a href="/wiki/Stinking_Old_Ninth" title="Stinking Old Ninth">Stinking Old Ninth</a>, and many were persecuted. The country's schools and universities were closed, and the <a href="/wiki/Gaokao" title="Gaokao">National College Entrance Examination</a> were cancelled. Over 10 million <a href="/wiki/Sent-down_youth" title="Sent-down youth">youth from urban areas</a> were relocated under the <a href="/wiki/Down_to_the_Countryside_Movement" title="Down to the Countryside Movement">Down to the Countryside Movement</a> policy. </p> In December 1978, Deng Xiaoping became the new <a href="/wiki/Paramount_leader" title="Paramount leader">paramount leader of China</a>, replacing Mao's successor <a href="/wiki/Hua_Guofeng" title="Hua Guofeng">Hua Guofeng</a>. Deng and his allies introduced the <i><a href="/wiki/Boluan_Fanzheng" title="Boluan Fanzheng">Boluan Fanzheng</a></i> program and initiated <a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">reforms and opening of China</a>, which, together with the <a href="/wiki/New_Enlightenment_(China)" title="New Enlightenment (China)">New Enlightenment movement</a>, gradually dismantled the ideology of Cultural Revolution. In 1981, the Communist Party publicly acknowledged numerous failures of the Cultural Revolution, declaring it "responsible for the most severe setback and the heaviest losses suffered by the people, the country, and the party since the founding of the People's Republic." Given its broad scope and social impact, memories and perspectives of the Cultural Revolution are varied and complex in contemporary China. It is often referred to as the "ten years of chaos" (<span lang="zh">十年动乱</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">shí nián dòngluàn</span></i>) or "ten years of havoc" (<span lang="zh">十年浩劫</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">shí nián hàojié</span></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Urban–rural_divide"><span id="Urban.E2.80.93rural_divide"></span>Urban–rural divide</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Urban–rural divide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The urban–rural divide was the most important division in Maoist China when it came to the distribution of food, clothing, housing and health care.<sup id="cite_ref-wemheuer25_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wemheuer25-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 25">: 25 </span></sup> Rural status carried no entitlement to a state ration card, wages or social security. As a result, Maoist China is sometimes described as a dual society.<sup id="cite_ref-wemheuer25_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wemheuer25-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 24">: 24 </span></sup> The model of development in Mao's China was to develop <a href="/wiki/Heavy_industry" title="Heavy industry">heavy industry</a> through the exploitation of the rural population. In order to minimize the cost of staple foods for the urban population, farmers were compelled to sell any agricultural surplus above a specified level to the state at artificially low prices.<sup id="cite_ref-wemheuer25_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wemheuer25-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 24">: 24 </span></sup> In some regions the state also ate into the rural grain supply, causing shortages for the locals.<sup id="cite_ref-wemheuer25_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wemheuer25-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 104">: 104 </span></sup> The rural population endured the worst of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine" title="Great Chinese Famine">Great Leap Famine</a> in part because the state could seize as much grain as it needed, even under starvation conditions. The appropriated grain was largely used to feed the urban population, although some of it was exported.<sup id="cite_ref-wemheuer25_34-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wemheuer25-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 135–136">: 135–136 </span></sup> </p><p>The difference in treatment of urban and rural areas was a major push factor for internal migration, which lead to increased restrictions on mobility. The ways to acquire an urban <a href="/wiki/Hukou" title="Hukou">hukou</a> were limited, including serving in the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a>, passing the national university entrance examination or being recruited by an urban work unit as a permanent worker.<sup id="cite_ref-wemheuer25_34-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wemheuer25-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 25">: 25 </span></sup> Because of these restrictions, the rural proportion of the population was higher in 1978 than it had been in 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mao_Zedong's_legacy"><span id="Mao_Zedong.27s_legacy"></span>Mao Zedong's legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Mao Zedong's legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The history of the People's Republic from 1949 to 1976 is accorded the name "Mao era"-China. A proper evaluation of the period is, in essence, an evaluation of Mao's legacy. Since Mao's death there has been generated a great deal of controversy about him amongst both historians and political analysts.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mao's poor management of the food supply and overemphasis on village industry is often blamed for the millions of deaths by famine during the "Mao era". However, there were also positive changes as a result from his management. Before 1949, for instance, the illiteracy rate in Mainland China was 80%, and life expectancy was a meager 35 years. At his death, illiteracy had declined to less than 7%, and average life expectancy had increased by 30 years. In addition, China's population which had remained constant at 400,000,000 from the <a href="/wiki/Opium_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Opium War">Opium War</a> to the end of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Civil War</a>, mushroomed more than 700,000,000 as of Mao's death. Under Mao's regime, some argue that China ended its "Century of Humiliation" and resumed its status as a major power on the international stage. Mao also industrialized China to a considerable extent and ensured China's sovereignty during his rule. In addition, Mao tried to abolish Confucianist and feudal norms.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 285px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 280px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Birth_rate_in_China.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Birth and death rate in China"><img alt="Birth and death rate in China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Birth_rate_in_China.svg/250px-Birth_rate_in_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Birth_rate_in_China.svg/375px-Birth_rate_in_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Birth_rate_in_China.svg/500px-Birth_rate_in_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="659" data-file-height="372" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Birth and death rate in China</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 285px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 280px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:China_population_growth.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="China's population growth"><img alt="China's population growth" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/China_population_growth.svg/250px-China_population_growth.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/China_population_growth.svg/375px-China_population_growth.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/China_population_growth.svg/500px-China_population_growth.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="841" data-file-height="519" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">China's population growth</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 285px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 280px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Life_expectancy_by_world_region,_from_1770_to_2018.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Life expectancy by world region"><img alt="Life expectancy by world region" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Life_expectancy_by_world_region%2C_from_1770_to_2018.svg/250px-Life_expectancy_by_world_region%2C_from_1770_to_2018.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Life_expectancy_by_world_region%2C_from_1770_to_2018.svg/375px-Life_expectancy_by_world_region%2C_from_1770_to_2018.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Life_expectancy_by_world_region%2C_from_1770_to_2018.svg/500px-Life_expectancy_by_world_region%2C_from_1770_to_2018.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Life expectancy by world region</div> </li> </ul> <p>China's economy in 1976 was three times its 1949 size (but the size of the Chinese economy in 1949 was one-tenth of the size of the economy in 1936), and whilst Mao-era China acquired some of the attributes of a superpower such as: nuclear weapons and a space programme; the nation was still quite poor and backwards compared to the Soviet Union, the United States, Japan, or Western Europe. Fairly significant economic growth in 1962–1966 was wiped out by the Cultural Revolution. Other critics of Mao fault him for not encouraging birth control and for creating an unnecessary demographic bump by encouraging the masses, "The more people, the more power", which later Chinese leaders forcibly responded to with the controversial <a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">one-child policy</a>. The ideology surrounding Mao's interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a>, also known as <a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a>, was codified into China's Constitution as a guiding ideology. Internationally, it has influenced many communists around the world, including third world revolutionary movements such as <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Kampuchea" title="Democratic Kampuchea">Cambodia</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge" title="Khmer Rouge">Khmer Rouge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Shining_Path" title="Shining Path">Shining Path</a> and the revolutionary movement in <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>. In practice, <i>Mao Zedong Thought</i> is defunct inside China aside from anecdotes about the CCP's legitimacy and China's revolutionary origins. Of those that remain, some regard the <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> reforms to be a betrayal of Mao's legacy.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wage_reform_in_China,_1949%E2%80%931976" title="Wage reform in China, 1949–1976">Wage reform in China, 1949–1976</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_premiers_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China#List" title="List of vice premiers of the People's Republic of China">List of vice premiers of the People's Republic of China</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFThompson2023" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Elizabeth M. (September 23, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre1953042800"><i>Status of Red China</i></a>. CQ Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2Fcqresrre1953042800">10.4135/cqresrre1953042800</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:264578188">264578188</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Status+of+Red+China&rft.pub=CQ+Press&rft.date=2023-09-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2Fcqresrre1953042800&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A264578188%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.cqpress.com%2Fcqresearcher%2Fdocument.php%3Fid%3Dcqresrre1953042800&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+%281949%E2%80%931976%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeaslee1956" class="citation cs2">Peaslee, Amos J. 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An analysis of the Korean war in history textbooks from the United States, South Korea, Japan, and China." <i>Social Studies</i> 100.5 (2009): 222–232. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John_Hoge/publication/249038081_Whose_History_An_Analysis_of_the_Korean_War_in_History_Textbooks_from_the_United_States_South_Korea_Japan_and_China/links/55108ab00cf20352196c0c69/Whose-History-An-Analysis-of-the-Korean-War-in-History-Textbooks-from-the-United-States-South-Korea-Japan-and-China.pdf">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stokesbury-korean-war-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stokesbury-korean-war_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStokesbury1990" class="citation book cs1">Stokesbury, James L (1990). <i>A Short History of the Korean War</i>. New York: Harper Perennial. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0688095130" title="Special:BookSources/978-0688095130"><bdi>978-0688095130</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+the+Korean+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0688095130&rft.aulast=Stokesbury&rft.aufirst=James+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+%281949%E2%80%931976%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-china-korean-war-baum-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-china-korean-war-baum_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaum2021" class="citation web cs1">Baum, Richard (June 20, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wondriumdaily.com/china-and-the-korean-war/">"China and the Korean War"</a>. <i>Wondrium Daily</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 13,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wondrium+Daily&rft.atitle=China+and+the+Korean+War&rft.date=2021-06-20&rft.aulast=Baum&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wondriumdaily.com%2Fchina-and-the-korean-war%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+%281949%E2%80%931976%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Who's in Charge Here", Alexander, James Edwin, Jan/Feb 1997 Naval History Magazine, United States Naval Institute, Annapolis, pp. 49–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Pleased, but not satisfied – My Journey through Life – The Navy Years</i>, James Edwin Alexander, Macedon Production Company, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-939965-33-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-939965-33-X">0-939965-33-X</a>, pp. 74–77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"An Anecdotal History – USS <i>John A. Bole</i>", edited by James Edwin Alexander, published in cooperation with USS <i>John A. Bole</i> Association, Macedon Production Company, 2000, Chapter 6, "Claude Gray's Diary", p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-morton-bomb-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-morton-bomb_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalperin1965" class="citation journal cs1">Halperin, Morton H. (1965). 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"China's Nuclear Development Program". <i>Asian Survey</i>. <b>16</b> (6): 571–579. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2643520">10.2307/2643520</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2643520">2643520</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Survey&rft.atitle=China%27s+Nuclear+Development+Program&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=571-579&rft.date=1976-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2643520&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2643520%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Minor&rft.aufirst=Michael+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+%281949%E2%80%931976%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMao1949" class="citation web cs1">Mao, Zedong (June 30, 1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/119300">"On the People's Democratic Dictatorship: In Commemoration of the Twenty-Eighth Anniversary of the Communist Party of China"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Wilson_Center_Digital_Archive" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilson Center Digital Archive">Wilson Center Digital Archive</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Rowman & Littlefield. p. 266. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7425-4053-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7425-4053-7"><bdi>0-7425-4053-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao+and+the+Economic+Stalinization+of+China%2C+1948%E2%80%931953&rft.pages=266&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-7425-4053-7&rft.au=Hua-yu+Li&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scarecrowpress.com%2FCatalog%2FSingleBook.shtml%3Fcommand%3DSearch%26db%3D%255EDB%2FCATALOG.db%26eqSKUdata%3D0742540545&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+%281949%E2%80%931976%29" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged January 2020">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chapters.scarecrowpress.com/07/425/0742540545ch1.pdf">Introduction Mao and the Economic Stalinization of China, 1948–1953</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120425051946/http://chapters.scarecrowpress.com/07/425/0742540545ch1.pdf">Archived</a> 2012-04-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_28-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrell2023" class="citation book cs1">Harrell, Stevan (2023). <i>An Ecological History of Modern China</i>. 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(2020). <i>Mao's Third Front: The Militarization of Cold War China</i>. Cambridge, United Kingdom: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108784788">10.1017/9781108784788</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-78478-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-78478-8"><bdi>978-1-108-78478-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1145096137">1145096137</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218936313">218936313</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao%27s+Third+Front%3A+The+Militarization+of+Cold+War+China&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1145096137&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A218936313%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108784788&rft.isbn=978-1-108-78478-8&rft.aulast=Meyskens&rft.aufirst=Covell+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+%281949%E2%80%931976%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:92-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:92_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:92_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarquisQiao2022" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Marquis" title="Christopher Marquis">Marquis, Christopher</a>; Qiao, Kunyuan (2022). <i>Mao and Markets: The Communist Roots of Chinese Enterprise</i>. New Haven: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv3006z6k">10.2307/j.ctv3006z6k</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-26883-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-26883-6"><bdi>978-0-300-26883-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv3006z6k">j.ctv3006z6k</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1348572572">1348572572</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:253067190">253067190</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao+and+Markets%3A+The+Communist+Roots+of+Chinese+Enterprise&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctv3006z6k%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv3006z6k&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1348572572&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A253067190%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.isbn=978-0-300-26883-6&rft.aulast=Marquis&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Qiao%2C+Kunyuan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+%281949%E2%80%931976%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cultural_Revolution_Song-2011a-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cultural_Revolution_Song-2011a_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSong2011" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Song_Yongyi" title="Song Yongyi">Song, Yongyi</a> (August 25, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/chronology-mass-killings-during-chinese-cultural-revolution-1966-1976.html">"Chronology of Mass Killings during the Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Sciences_Po" title="Sciences Po">Sciences Po</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240114034126/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/chronology-mass-killings-during-chinese-cultural-revolution-1966-1976.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 14, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 27,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sciences+Po&rft.atitle=Chronology+of+Mass+Killings+during+the+Chinese+Cultural+Revolution+%281966%E2%80%931976%29&rft.date=2011-08-25&rft.aulast=Song&rft.aufirst=Yongyi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencespo.fr%2Fmass-violence-war-massacre-resistance%2Fen%2Fdocument%2Fchronology-mass-killings-during-chinese-cultural-revolution-1966-1976.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+%281949%E2%80%931976%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://culturalrevolution.pitt.edu/media/cr10-glossary.pdf">"Translation Glossary for the CR/10 Project"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh" title="University of Pittsburgh">University of Pittsburgh</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 28,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Pittsburgh&rft.atitle=Translation+Glossary+for+the+CR%2F10+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fculturalrevolution.pitt.edu%2Fmedia%2Fcr10-glossary.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+%281949%E2%80%931976%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLu2004" class="citation book cs1">Lu, Xing (2004). <i>Rhetoric of the Chinese Cultural Revolution: The Impact on Chinese Thought</i>. p. 2. <q>Known to the Chinese as the ten years of chaos [...]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rhetoric+of+the+Chinese+Cultural+Revolution%3A+The+Impact+on+Chinese+Thought&rft.pages=2&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Lu&rft.aufirst=Xing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+%281949%E2%80%931976%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wemheuer25-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wemheuer25_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wemheuer25_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wemheuer25_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wemheuer25_34-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wemheuer25_34-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wemheuer25_34-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWemheuer2019" class="citation book cs1">Wemheuer, Felix (2019). <i>A Social History of Maoist China: Conflict and Change, 1949–1976</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781316421826">10.1017/9781316421826</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1316421826" title="Special:BookSources/978-1316421826"><bdi>978-1316421826</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Social+History+of+Maoist+China%3A+Conflict+and+Change%2C+1949%E2%80%931976&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781316421826&rft.isbn=978-1316421826&rft.aulast=Wemheuer&rft.aufirst=Felix&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+%281949%E2%80%931976%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKroeber2016" class="citation book cs1">Kroeber, Arthur R. (2016). <i>China's Economy: What Everyone Needs to Know</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190946470" title="Special:BookSources/978-0190946470"><bdi>978-0190946470</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Economy%3A+What+Everyone+Needs+to+Know&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0190946470&rft.aulast=Kroeber&rft.aufirst=Arthur+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+%281949%E2%80%931976%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchram1994" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stuart_R._Schram" title="Stuart R. Schram">Schram, Stuart R.</a> (March 1994). "Mao Zedong a Hundred Years on: The Legacy of a Ruler". <i><a href="/wiki/The_China_Quarterly" title="The China Quarterly">The China Quarterly</a></i>. <b>137</b>: 125–143. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0305741000034068">10.1017/S0305741000034068</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0305-7410">0305-7410</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+China+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Mao+Zedong+a+Hundred+Years+on%3A+The+Legacy+of+a+Ruler&rft.volume=137&rft.pages=125-143&rft.date=1994-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0305741000034068&rft.issn=0305-7410&rft.aulast=Schram&rft.aufirst=Stuart+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+%281949%E2%80%931976%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/FC31Ad02.html">Asia Times Online: Part 1: Demon and deity</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070402233022/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/FC31Ad02.html">Archived</a> April 2, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> By Henry C. Liu</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fenby, <i>The Penguin History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power, 1850 to the Present</i> (2019) pp 353–530.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lowell Dittmer, "The Legacy of Mao Zedong." <i>Asian Survey</i> 20.5 (1980): 552–573.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Catchpole, Brian. <i>A map history of modern China</i> (1976), new maps and diagrams</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Cheng, Linsun (2009). <i>Berkshire Encyclopedia of China</i>. Great Barrington, Mass.: Berkshire Pub. Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1933782683" title="Special:BookSources/978-1933782683"><bdi>978-1933782683</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Berkshire+Encyclopedia+of+China&rft.place=Great+Barrington%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Berkshire+Pub.+Group&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1933782683&rft.aulast=Cheng&rft.aufirst=Linsun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+%281949%E2%80%931976%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Chesneaux, Jean et al. <i>China: The People's Republic, 1949–1976</i> (1977) by French scholars</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (2010). <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521196208" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521196208"><bdi>978-0521196208</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Illustrated+History+of+China&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0521196208&rft.aulast=Ebrey&rft.aufirst=Patricia+Buckley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+%281949%E2%80%931976%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_K._Fairbank" class="mw-redirect" title="John K. Fairbank">Fairbank, John King</a> and Goldman, Merle. <i>China: A New History.</i> 2nd ed. Harvard U. Press, (2006). 640 pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/China-New-History-Second-Enlarged/dp/0674018281">excerpt</a> pp 343–471.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Fenby" title="Jonathan Fenby">Fenby, Jonathan</a>. <i>The Penguin History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power 1850 to the Present</i> (3rd ed. 2019) popular history.</li> <li>Garver, John W. <i>China's Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People's Republic</i> (2nd ed. 2018)</li> <li>Guillermaz, Jacques. <i>The Chinese Communist Party In Power, 1949–1976</i> (1977) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Chinese-Communist-Party-Power-1949-1976/dp/0891580417/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Hsü, Immanuel Chung-yueh. <i>The Rise of Modern China,</i> 6th ed. (Oxford University Press, 1999). Detailed coverage of 1644–1999, in 1136 pp.</li> <li>Kissinger, Henry. <i>On China</i> (2011)</li> <li>Leung, Edwin Pak-wah. <i>Historical dictionary of revolutionary China, 1839–1976</i> (1992) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000unse">online free to borrow</a></li> <li>Leung, Edwin Pak-wah. <i>Political Leaders of Modern China: A Biographical Dictionary</i> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Meisner" title="Maurice Meisner">Meisner, Maurice</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Mao%27s_China_and_After" title="Mao's China and After">Mao's China and After</a>: A history of the People's Republic</i> (Simon and Schuster, 1999).</li> <li>Meisner, Maurice. <i>Mao Zedong: A Political and Intellectual Portrait</i> (Polity, 2006).</li> <li>Perkins, Dorothy. <i>Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture.</i> Facts on File, 1999. 662 pp.</li> <li>Price, Rohan B.E. <i>Resistance in Colonial and Communist China (1950–1963) Anatomy of a Riot</i> (Routledge, 2020).</li> <li>Rummel, Rudolph J. <i>China's bloody century: Genocide and mass murder since 1900</i> (Routledge, 2017).</li> <li>Salisbury, Harrison E. <i>The New Emperors: China in the Era of Mao and Deng</i> (1993)</li> <li>Schoppa, R. Keith. <i>The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History.</i> Columbia U. Press, 2000. 356 pp.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShort2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Short" title="Philip Short">Short, Philip</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4y6mACbLWGsC"><i>Mao: A Life</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Owl_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Owl Books">Owl Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0805066388" title="Special:BookSources/978-0805066388"><bdi>978-0805066388</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao%3A+A+Life&rft.pub=Owl+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0805066388&rft.aulast=Short&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4y6mACbLWGsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+%281949%E2%80%931976%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Spence" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan Spence">Spence, Jonathan D.</a> <i>Mao Zedong</i> (1999) 214 pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/maozedong00spen">online free to borrow</a></li> <li>Spence, Jonathan D. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Search_for_Modern_China" title="The Search for Modern China">The Search for Modern China</a></i> (1999), 876 pp; survey from 1644 to 1990s</li> <li>Wang, Ke-wen, ed. <i>Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism.</i> Garland, 1998. 442 pp.</li> <li>Zeng, Jinghan. <i>The Chinese Communist Party's capacity to rule: ideology, legitimacy and party cohesion.</i> (Springer, 2015).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Harding, Harry. "The study of Chinese politics: toward a third generation of scholarship." <i>World Politics</i> 36.2 (1984): 284–307.</li> <li>Wu, Guo. "Recalling bitterness: Historiography, memory, and myth in Maoist China." <i>Twentieth-Century China</i> 39.3 (2014): 245–268. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Guo_Wu5/publication/316920205_Recalling_Bitterness_Historiography_Memory_and_Myth_in_Maoist_China/links/5bb13c91299bf13e6059638c/Recalling-Bitterness-Historiography-Memory-and-Myth-in-Maoist-China.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Yu, Bin. "The Study of Chinese Foreign Policy: Problems and Prospect." <i>World Politics</i> 46.2 (1994): 235–261.</li> <li>Zhang, Chunman. "Review Essay: How to Merge Western Theories and Chinese Indigenous Theories to Study Chinese Politics?." <i>Journal of Chinese Political Science</i> 22.2 (2017): 283–294. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.edu/download/53980761/How_to_merge_western_theories_and_Chinese_indigenous_theories.pdf">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2023">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%931976)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://monthlyreview.org/091214dongping.php">Farmers, Mao, and Discontent in China: From the Great Leap Forward to the Present</a> by Dongping Han, <i><a href="/wiki/Monthly_Review" title="Monthly Review">Monthly Review</a></i>, November 2009</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:China_topics" title="Template:China topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:China_topics" title="Template talk:China topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:China_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:China topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="China_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_China" title="Outline of China">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_China" title="Military history of China">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="History of the Chinese language">Language</a></li> <li>Economic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_before_1912" title="Economic history of China before 1912">before 1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Economic history of China (1912–1949)">1912–1949</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1949%E2%80%93present)" title="Economic history of China (1949–present)">1949–present</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Chinese_history" title="Ethnic groups in Chinese history">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_foreign_relations_of_China" title="History of foreign relations of China">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_monarchs" title="List of Chinese monarchs">Monarchs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_China" title="Prehistory of China">Prehistoric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">Neolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_River_civilization" title="Yellow River civilization">Yellow River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_civilization" title="Yangtze civilization">Yangtze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_civilization" title="Liao civilization">Liao</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_China" title="History of China">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Imperial_China" title="History of China">Imperial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Wei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Wu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin (266–420)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin (1115–1234)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">Century of humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Modern_China" title="History of China">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of the People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">Tiananmen Square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Economic reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China" title="COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">persecution of Uyghurs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_China" title="Geography of China">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_China" title="Borders of China">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_China" title="List of extreme points of China">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_China" title="Geology of China">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_disasters_in_China" title="Natural disasters in China">Natural disasters</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_China" title="List of regions of China">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_China" title="East China">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_China" title="North China">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Central_China" title="South Central China">South Central</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_China" title="Central China">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_China" title="South China">South</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_China" title="Western China">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_China" title="Northwestern China">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_China" title="Southwestern China">Southwestern</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Terrain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bays_of_China" title="Category:Bays of China">Bays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canyons_and_gorges_of_China" title="Category:Canyons and gorges of China">Canyons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Caves_of_China" title="Category:Caves of China">Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deserts_of_China" title="Category:Deserts of China">Deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Grasslands_of_China" title="Category:Grasslands of China">Grasslands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hills_of_China" title="Category:Hills of China">Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_China" title="List of islands of China">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_China" title="Category:Mountains of China">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_ranges_of_China" title="Category:Mountain ranges of China">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_passes_of_China" title="Category:Mountain passes of China">passes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peninsulas_of_China" title="Category:Peninsulas of China">Peninsulas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China_Plain" title="Northeast China Plain">Northeast</a> / <a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North</a> / <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Valleys_of_China" title="Category:Valleys of China">Valleys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_China" title="List of volcanoes in China">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Canals_in_China" title="Category:Canals in China">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_China" title="List of lakes of China">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_China" title="List of rivers of China">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Waterfalls_of_China" title="Category:Waterfalls of China">Waterfalls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wetlands_of_China" title="Category:Wetlands of China">Wetlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources_of_China" title="Water resources of China">Water resources</a></li> <li>Seas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohai_Sea" title="Bohai Sea">Bohai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Sea" title="Yellow Sea">Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_China_Sea" title="East China Sea">East China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_China_Sea" title="South China Sea">South China</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_China" title="Environment of China">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_China" title="Climate change in China">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_policy_of_China" title="Climate policy of China">Climate policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_China" title="Environmental issues in China">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_in_China" title="Environmental policy in China">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_protected_areas_of_China" title="List of protected areas of China">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_China" title="List of national parks of China">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nature_reserves_in_China" title="Category:Nature reserves in China">Nature reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_UNESCO_Biosphere_Reserves_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of UNESCO Biosphere Reserves in China">UNESCO Biosphere Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_China" title="Wildlife of China">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Fauna of China">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_China" title="Flora of China">Flora</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baselines_of_the_Chinese_territorial_sea" title="Baselines of the Chinese territorial sea">Baseline islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Border_crossings_of_China" title="Category:Border crossings of China">Border crossings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_China" title="List of cities in China">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_China" title="Administrative divisions of China">Province-level subdivisions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_China" title="Politics of China">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Law" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Law of the People's Republic of China">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_system_of_China" title="Judicial system of China">Judicial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_China" title="Human rights in China">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in China">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Tibet" title="Human rights in Tibet">in Tibet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_China" title="Law enforcement in China">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">Penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_laws_in_China" title="Naming laws in China">Naming laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationality law of China">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_China" title="Terrorism in China">Terrorism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_China" title="Government of China">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_service_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Civil service of the People's Republic of China">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_China" title="Constitution of China">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_China" title="Democracy in China">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_democracy_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese democracy movement">Pro-democratisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_China" title="Elections in China">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy_in_China" title="Environmental policy in China">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_China" title="Foreign relations of China">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress" title="National People's Congress">National People's Congress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Committee_of_the_National_People%27s_Congress" title="Standing Committee of the National People's Congress">Standing Committee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_China" title="National security of China">National security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_China" title="List of political parties in China">Political parties and movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party">General Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party">Politburo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_front_(China)" title="United front (China)">United front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_People%27s_Political_Consultative_Conference" title="Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference">Political Consultative Conference</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_stage_of_socialism" title="Primary stage of socialism">Primary stage of socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_China" title="President of China">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_China" title="Vice President of China">Vice President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="State Council of the People's Republic of China">State Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_China" title="Premier of China">Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_Premier_of_China" title="Vice Premier of China">Vice Premier</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_country,_two_systems" title="One country, two systems">One country, two systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of China">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_military_history_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Outline of the military history of the People's Republic of China">Outline of military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Military_Commission_(China)" title="Central Military Commission (China)">Central Military Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Defense_(China)" title="Ministry of National Defense (China)">Ministry of National Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Ground_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Ground Force">Ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Navy" title="People's Liberation Army Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Air_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Air Force">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Rocket_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Rocket Force">Rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Strategic_Support_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force">Strategic Support</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Armed_Police" title="People's Armed Police">People's Armed Police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Coast_Guard" title="China Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militia_(China)" title="Militia (China)">Militia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Militia" title="Maritime Militia">Maritime Militia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_China" title="Economy of China">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_China" title="Agriculture in China">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_in_China" title="Aquaculture in China">Aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_China" title="Banking in China">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Bank_of_China" title="People's Bank of China">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renminbi" title="Renminbi">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China_(1949%E2%80%93present)" title="Economic history of China (1949–present)">Economic history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_economic_zones_of_China" title="Special economic zones of China">Special economic zones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-commerce_in_China" title="E-commerce in China">E-commerce</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Online_advertising_in_China" title="Online advertising in China">Online advertising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_China" title="Energy policy of China">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_in_China" title="Coal in China">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_China" title="Petroleum industry in China">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_China" title="Renewable energy in China">Renewable</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_China" title="Foreign aid to China">Foreign aid received</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_foreign_aid" title="Chinese foreign aid">Foreign aid program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_GDP_of_China" title="Historical GDP of China">Historical GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_of_China" title="Industry of China">Industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry_in_China" title="Chemical industry in China">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining_in_China" title="Gold mining in China">Gold mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry_in_China" title="Semiconductor industry in China">Semiconductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_China" title="Steel industry in China">Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_China" title="Textile industry in China">Textiles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_China" title="Poverty in China">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_China" title="Standard of living in China">Standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_China" title="Taxation in China">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_China" title="Tourism in China">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_trade_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="History of trade of the People's Republic of China">Trade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Infrastructure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture in China">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_China" title="Housing in China">Housing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in China">Telecommunications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_China" title="Internet in China">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China" title="Water supply and sanitation in China">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_China" title="Transport in China">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_China" title="Automotive industry in China">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_aviation_in_China" title="Civil aviation in China">Civil aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_China" title="Rail transport in China">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipping_industry_of_China" title="Shipping industry of China">Shipping industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">Space program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_China" title="Category:Society of China">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_China" title="Abortion in China">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_China" title="Censorship in China">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Dream" title="Chinese Dream">Chinese Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_China" title="Crime in China">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_China" title="Corruption in China">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_China" title="Prostitution in China">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_China" title="Sex trafficking in China">Sex trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_China" title="Education in China">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_China" title="Literacy in China">Literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonious_Society" title="Harmonious Society">Harmonious Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_China" title="Health in China">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_China" title="Food safety in China">Food safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_incidents_in_China" title="Food safety incidents in China">incidents</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_China" title="HIV/AIDS in China">HIV/AIDS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_intellectualism" title="Chinese intellectualism">Intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Written Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_China" title="Propaganda in China">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_China" title="Public holidays in China">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_society_in_China" title="Rural society in China">Rural society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_China" title="Science and technology in China">Science and technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_China" title="Technological and industrial history of China">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_China" title="Sexuality in China">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_issues_in_China" title="Social issues in China">Social issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy_in_China" title="Patriarchy in China">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_China" title="Racism in China">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_discrimination_in_China" title="Regional discrimination in China">Regional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_in_China" title="Suicide in China">Suicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_social_relations" title="Chinese social relations">Social relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_China" title="Social structure of China">Structure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_China" title="Time in China">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_society_in_China" title="Urban society in China">Urban society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_in_China" title="Welfare in China">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of China">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_China" title="Archaeology of China">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archives_in_China" title="Archives in China">Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_art" title="Chinese art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy" title="Chinese calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_China" title="Cinema of China">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_cuisine" title="Chinese cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_China" title="Dance in China">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libraries_in_China" title="Libraries in China">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_literature" title="Chinese literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_poetry" title="Chinese poetry">Poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_martial_arts" title="Chinese martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_China" title="Mass media in China">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_China" title="Music of China">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_China" title="Names of China">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_China" title="Smoking in China">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_China" title="Sport in China">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_tea_culture" title="Chinese tea culture">Tea culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_variety_art" title="Chinese variety art">Variety art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_Historical_and_Cultural_Site_Protected_at_the_National_Level" class="mw-redirect" title="Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level">Major Historical and Cultural Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_China" title="List of World Heritage Sites in China">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fours_of_China" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Fours of China</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Treasures_of_the_Study" title="Four Treasures of the Study">Four Treasures of the Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions" title="Four Great Inventions">Four Great Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Gentlemen" title="Four Gentlemen">Four Gentlemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowers_of_the_Four_Seasons" title="Flowers of the Four Seasons">Flowers of the Four Seasons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Beauties" title="Four Beauties">Four Beauties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_Chinese_Novels" title="Classic Chinese Novels">Four Classic Novels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_arts" title="Four arts">Four arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Symbols" title="Four Symbols">Four Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Holy_Beasts" title="Four Holy Beasts">Four Holy Beasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Pillars_of_Destiny" title="Four Pillars of Destiny">Four Pillars of Destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Paragons_of_the_Early_Tang" title="Four Paragons of the Early Tang">Four Paragons of the Early Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Ming dynasty">Four Masters of the Ming dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Masters_of_the_Yuan_dynasty" title="Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty">Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Wangs" title="Four Wangs">Four Wangs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four" title="Gang of Four">Gang of Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Olds" title="Four Olds">Four Olds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Pests_campaign" title="Four Pests campaign">Four Pests campaign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_China" title="Demographics of China">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emigration" title="Chinese emigration">Emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_China" title="List of ethnic groups in China">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eunuchs_in_China" title="Eunuchs in China">Eunuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_in_China" title="Migration in China">Internal migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_administrative_divisions_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Chinese administrative divisions by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Statistics_of_China" title="National Bureau of Statistics of China">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_China" title="Population history of China">Population history</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Post-80s" title="Post-80s">Post-80s</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Post-90s" title="Post-90s">Post-90s</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a 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