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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Six_components" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Six_components"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Six components</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Six_components-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_an_academic_discipline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_an_academic_discipline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>As an academic discipline</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-As_an_academic_discipline-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle As an academic discipline subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-As_an_academic_discipline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Related_terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Related terms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Career_pathways" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Career_pathways"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Career pathways</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Career_pathways-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Career pathways subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Career_pathways-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bachelor_of_Business_Information_Systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bachelor_of_Business_Information_Systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Bachelor of Business Information Systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bachelor_of_Business_Information_Systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Information system</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 62 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-62" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">62 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D9%85_%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="نظم معلومات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نظم معلومات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nformasiya_sistemi" title="İnformasiya sistemi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İnformasiya sistemi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D3%99%D2%93%D0%BB%D2%AF%D0%BC%D3%99%D1%82_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Мәғлүмәт системаһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Мәғлүмәт системаһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Інфармацыйная сістэма – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Інфармацыйная сістэма" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Інфармацыйная сыстэма – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Інфармацыйная сыстэма" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Информационна система – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Информационна система" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informacijski_sistem" title="Informacijski sistem – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Informacijski sistem" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_d%27informaci%C3%B3" title="Sistema d'informació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sistema d'informació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informa%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_syst%C3%A9m" title="Informační systém – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Informační systém" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationssystem" title="Informationssystem – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Informationssystem" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationssystem" title="Informationssystem – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Informationssystem" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infos%C3%BCsteem" title="Infosüsteem – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Infosüsteem" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%AC_%CF%83%CF%85%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1" title="Πληροφοριακά συστήματα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πληροφοριακά συστήματα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_de_informaci%C3%B3n" title="Sistema de información – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sistema de información" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informa_sistemo" title="Informa sistemo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Informa sistemo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informazio-sistema" title="Informazio-sistema – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Informazio-sistema" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="سامانه اطلاعاتی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سامانه اطلاعاتی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d%27information" title="Système d'information – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Système d'information" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_de_informaci%C3%B3n" title="Sistema de información – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Sistema de información" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85" title="اطلاعاتي سيستم – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="اطلاعاتي سيستم" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>گیلکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%95%EB%B3%B4_%EC%8B%9C%EC%8A%A4%ED%85%9C" title="정보 시스템 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="정보 시스템" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A3" title="Տեղեկատվական համակարգ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տեղեկատվական համակարգ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="सूचना तंत्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सूचना तंत्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informacijski_sustavi" title="Informacijski sustavi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Informacijski sustavi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_informasi" title="Sistem informasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sistem informasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_de_information" title="Systema de information – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Systema de information" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uhlelo_lokwaziswa" title="Uhlelo lokwaziswa – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Uhlelo lokwaziswa" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%93%D7%A2" title="מערכת מידע – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מערכת מידע" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82_%D1%82%D1%83%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%83" title="Маалымат тутуму – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Маалымат тутуму" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informacin%C4%97_sistema" title="Informacinė sistema – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Informacinė sistema" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_maklumat" title="Sistem maklumat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sistem maklumat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_Informasi" title="Sistem Informasi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Sistem Informasi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemas_d%27anforma%C3%A7on" title="Sistemas d'anformaçon – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Sistemas d'anformaçon" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Мэдээллийн систем – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Мэдээллийн систем" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatiesysteem" title="Informatiesysteem – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Informatiesysteem" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%83%85%E5%A0%B1%E3%82%B7%E3%82%B9%E3%83%86%E3%83%A0" title="情報システム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="情報システム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informasjonssystem" title="Informasjonssystem – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Informasjonssystem" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axborot_tizimi" title="Axborot tizimi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Axborot tizimi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_informacyjny" title="System informacyjny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="System informacyjny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_de_informa%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Sistema de informação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sistema de informação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informaciyal%C4%B1q_sistema" title="Informaciyalıq sistema – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Informaciyalıq sistema" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_informatic" title="Sistem informatic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sistem informatic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Информационная система – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Информационная система" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemi_i_informacionit" title="Sistemi i informacionit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Sistemi i informacionit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemi_%27nfurmativi" title="Sistemi 'nfurmativi – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Sistemi 'nfurmativi" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems" title="Information systems – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Information systems" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informa%C4%8Dn%C3%BD_syst%C3%A9m" title="Informačný systém – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Informačný systém" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informacijski_sistem" title="Informacijski sistem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Informacijski sistem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Информациони систем – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Информациони систем" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informacioni_sistem" title="Informacioni sistem – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Informacioni sistem" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistim_informasi" title="Sistim informasi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Sistim informasi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tietoj%C3%A4rjestelm%C3%A4" title="Tietojärjestelmä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tietojärjestelmä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationssystem" title="Informationssystem – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Informationssystem" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_ng_impormasyon" title="Sistema ng impormasyon – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sistema ng impormasyon" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="தகவல் அமைப்புகள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தகவல் அமைப்புகள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8" title="ระบบสารสนเทศ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ระบบสารสนเทศ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilgi_sistemi" title="Bilgi sistemi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bilgi sistemi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Інформаційна система – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Інформаційна система" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BB%87_th%E1%BB%91ng_th%C3%B4ng_tin" title="Hệ thống thông tin – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hệ thống thông tin" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%A1%E6%81%AF%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F" title="信息系统 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="信息系统" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B3%87%E8%A8%8A%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="資訊系統 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="資訊系統" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%A1%E6%81%AF%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F" title="信息系统 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="信息系统" data-language-autonym="中文" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">System that supports business decisions</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Business Information System" redirects here. For the Finnish government service, see <a href="/wiki/Business_Information_System_(government_service)" title="Business Information System (government service)">Business Information System (government service)</a>.</div> <p>An <b>information system</b> (<b>IS</b>) is a formal, <a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociotechnical">sociotechnical</a>, organizational system designed to collect, process, <a href="/wiki/Information_Processing_and_Management" title="Information Processing and Management">store</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Information_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Information distribution">distribute</a> <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From a sociotechnical perspective, information systems comprise four components: task, people, structure (or roles), and technology.<sup id="cite_ref-Ohara_et_al._2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohara_et_al.-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Information systems can be defined as an integration of components for collection, storage and <a href="/wiki/Data_processing" title="Data processing">processing</a> of <a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">data</a>, comprising <a href="/wiki/Digital_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital product">digital products</a> that process data to facilitate <a href="/wiki/Decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Decision making">decision making</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the data being used to provide information and contribute to knowledge. </p><p>A <b>computer information system</b> is a system, which consists of people and computers that process or interpret information.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term is also sometimes used to simply refer to a computer system with software installed. </p><p>"<b>Information systems</b>" is also an academic field of study about systems with a specific reference to information and the complementary networks of <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">computer hardware</a> and software that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create and also <a href="/wiki/Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">distribute</a> <a href="/wiki/Data_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Data (computing)">data</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An emphasis is placed on an information system having a definitive boundary, users, processors, storage, inputs, outputs and the aforementioned communication networks.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In many organizations, the department or unit responsible for information systems and <a href="/wiki/Data_processing" title="Data processing">data processing</a> is known as "<b>information services</b>".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Any specific information system aims to support operations, management and <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An information system is the <a href="/wiki/Information_and_communication_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Information and communication technology">information and communication technology</a> (ICT) that an organization uses, and also the way in which people interact with this technology in support of business processes.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some authors make a clear distinction between information systems, <a href="/wiki/Computer_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer system">computer systems</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Business_process" title="Business process">business processes</a>. Information systems typically include an ICT component but are not purely concerned with ICT, focusing instead on the end-use of <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a>. Information systems are also different from business processes. Information systems help to control the performance of business processes.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alter<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argues that viewing an information system as a special type of <a href="/wiki/Work_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Work system">work system</a> has its advantages. A work system is a system in which humans or machines perform processes and activities using resources to produce specific products or services for customers. An information system is a work system in which activities are devoted to capturing, transmitting, storing, retrieving, manipulating and displaying information.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As such, information systems inter-relate with data systems on the one hand and activity systems on the other.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An information system is a form of <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a> system in which data represent and are processed as a form of social memory. An information system can also be considered a semi-<a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">formal language</a> which supports human decision making and action. </p><p>Information systems are the primary focus of study for organizational informatics.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_system&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Silver et al. (1995) provided two views on IS that includes software, hardware, data, people, and procedures.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery" title="Association for Computing Machinery">Association for Computing Machinery</a> defines "Information systems specialists [as] focus[ing] on integrating <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a> solutions and business processes to meet the information needs of businesses and other enterprises."<sup id="cite_ref-curricula_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-curricula-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are various types of information systems, : including <a href="/wiki/Transaction_processing_system" title="Transaction processing system">transaction processing systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decision_support_system" title="Decision support system">decision support systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_management_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge management system">knowledge management systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Learning_management_system" title="Learning management system">learning management systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Database_management_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Database management system">database management systems</a>, and office information systems. Critical to most information systems are information technologies, which are typically designed to enable humans to perform tasks for which the human brain is not well suited, such as: handling large amounts of information, performing complex calculations, and controlling many simultaneous processes. </p><p>Information technologies are a very important and malleable resource available to executives.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many companies have created a position of <a href="/wiki/Chief_information_officer" title="Chief information officer">chief information officer</a> (CIO) that sits on the executive board with the <a href="/wiki/Chief_executive_officer" title="Chief executive officer">chief executive officer</a> (CEO), <a href="/wiki/Chief_financial_officer" title="Chief financial officer">chief financial officer</a> (CFO), <a href="/wiki/Chief_operating_officer" title="Chief operating officer">chief operating officer</a> (COO), and <a href="/wiki/Chief_technical_officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief technical officer">chief technical officer</a> (CTO). The CTO may also serve as CIO, and vice versa. The <a href="/wiki/Chief_information_security_officer" title="Chief information security officer">chief information security officer</a> (CISO) focuses on <a href="/wiki/Information_security" title="Information security">information security</a> management. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Six_components">Six components</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_system&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Six components"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>six components</i> that must come together in order to produce an information system are:<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><i>Hardware</i>: The term hardware refers to machinery and equipment. In a modern information system, this category includes the computer itself and all of its support equipment. The support equipment includes input and output devices, storage devices and communications devices. In pre-computer information systems, the hardware might include ledger books and ink.</li> <li><i>Software</i>: The term software refers to computer programs and the manuals (if any) that support them. Computer programs are machine-readable instructions that direct the circuitry within the hardware parts of the system to function in ways that produce useful information from data. Programs are generally stored on some input/output medium, often a disk or tape. The "software" for pre-computer information systems included how the hardware was prepared for use (e.g., column headings in the ledger book) and instructions for using them (the guidebook for a card catalog).</li> <li><i>Data</i>: Data are facts that are used by systems to produce useful information. In modern information systems, data are generally stored in machine-readable form on disk or tape until the computer needs them. In pre-computer information systems, the data were generally stored in human-readable form.</li> <li><i>Procedures</i>: Procedures are the policies that govern the operation of an information system. "Procedures are to people what software is to hardware" is a common analogy that is used to illustrate the role of procedures in a system.</li> <li><i>People</i>: Every system needs people if it is to be useful. Often the most overlooked element of the system is the people, probably the component that most influences the success or failure of information systems. This includes "not only the users, but those who operate and service the computers, those who maintain the data, and those who support the network of computers".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Internet</i>: The internet is a combination of data and people. (Although this component is not necessary for functionality.)</li></ol> <p>Data is the bridge between hardware and people. This means that the data we collect is only data until we involve people. At that point, data becomes information. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_system&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Four-Level-Pyramid-model.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Four-Level-Pyramid-model.png/250px-Four-Level-Pyramid-model.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Four-Level-Pyramid-model.png/375px-Four-Level-Pyramid-model.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Four-Level-Pyramid-model.png/500px-Four-Level-Pyramid-model.png 2x" data-file-width="1118" data-file-height="822" /></a><figcaption>A four level hierarchy </figcaption></figure> <p>The "classic" view of Information systems found in textbooks<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the 1980s was a pyramid of systems that reflected the hierarchy of the organization, usually <a href="/wiki/Transaction_processing_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Transaction processing systems">transaction processing systems</a> at the bottom of the pyramid, followed by <a href="/wiki/Management_information_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Management information systems">management information systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decision_support_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Decision support systems">decision support systems</a>, and ending with <a href="/wiki/Executive_information_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive information systems">executive information systems</a> at the top. Although the pyramid model remains useful since it was first formulated, a number of new technologies have been developed and new categories of information systems have emerged, some of which no longer fit easily into the original pyramid model. </p><p>Some examples of such systems are: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a> system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">Computing platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_warehouses" class="mw-redirect" title="Data warehouses">Data warehouses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision_support_system" title="Decision support system">Decision support system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_resource_planning" title="Enterprise resource planning">Enterprise resource planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Enterprise systems">Enterprise systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expert_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Expert systems">Expert systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_information_system" title="Global information system">Global information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_information_system" title="Management information system">Management information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimedia_database" title="Multimedia database">Multimedia information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_automation" title="Office automation">Office automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_control_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Process control system">Process control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Search engines">Search engines</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_information_system&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Social information system (page does not exist)">Social information systems</a></li></ul> </div> <p>A computer(-based) information system is essentially an IS using computer technology to carry out some or all of its planned tasks. The basic components of computer-based information systems are: </p> <ul><li><i>Hardware</i> are the devices like the monitor, processor, printer, and keyboard, all of which work together to accept, process, show data, and information.</li> <li><i>Software</i> are the programs that allow the hardware to process the data.</li> <li><i>Databases</i> are the gathering of associated files or tables containing related data.</li> <li><i>Networks</i> are a connecting system that allows diverse computers to distribute resources.</li> <li><i>Procedures</i> are the commands for combining the components above to process information and produce the preferred output.</li></ul> <p>The first four components (hardware, software, database, and network) make up what is known as the information technology platform. Information technology workers could then use these components to create information systems that watch over safety measures, risk and the management of data. These actions are known as information technology services.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Certain information systems support parts of organizations, others support entire organizations, and still others, support groups of organizations. Each department or functional area within an organization has its own collection of application programs or information systems. These functional area information systems (FAIS) are supporting pillars for more general IS namely, <a href="/wiki/Business_intelligence" title="Business intelligence">business intelligence</a> systems and <a href="/wiki/Dashboard" title="Dashboard">dashboards</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> As the name suggests, each FAIS supports a particular function within the organization, e.g.: accounting IS, finance IS, production-operation management (POM) IS, marketing IS, and human resources IS. In finance and accounting, managers use IT systems to forecast revenues and business activity, to determine the best sources and uses of funds, and to perform audits to ensure that the organization is fundamentally sound and that all financial reports and documents are accurate. </p><p>Other types of organizational information systems are FAIS, <a href="/wiki/Transaction_processing_system" title="Transaction processing system">transaction processing systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enterprise_resource_planning" title="Enterprise resource planning">enterprise resource planning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Office_automation" title="Office automation">office automation</a> system, <a href="/wiki/Management_information_system" title="Management information system">management information system</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decision_support_system" title="Decision support system">decision support system</a>, <a href="/wiki/Expert_system" title="Expert system">expert system</a>, executive dashboard, <a href="/wiki/Supply_chain_management_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Supply chain management system">supply chain management system</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electronic_commerce" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic commerce">electronic commerce</a> system. Dashboards are a special form of IS that support all managers of the organization. They provide rapid access to timely information and direct access to structured information in the form of reports. Expert systems attempt to duplicate the work of human experts by applying reasoning capabilities, knowledge, and expertise within a specific domain. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_system&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Information technology departments in larger organizations tend to strongly influence the development, use, and application of information technology in the business. A series of methodologies and processes can be used to develop and use an information system. Many developers use a systems engineering approach such as the <a href="/wiki/System_development_life_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="System development life cycle">system development life cycle</a> (SDLC), to systematically develop an information system in stages. The stages of the system development lifecycle are planning, system analysis, and requirements, system design, development, integration and testing, implementation and operations, and maintenance. Recent research aims at enabling<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and measuring<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the ongoing, collective development of such systems within an organization by the entirety of human actors themselves. An information system can be developed in house (within the organization) or outsourced. This can be accomplished by outsourcing certain components or the entire system.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A specific case is the geographical distribution of the development team (<a href="/wiki/Offshoring" title="Offshoring">offshoring</a>, <a href="/wiki/Global_information_system" title="Global information system">global information system</a>). </p><p>A computer-based information system, following a definition of <a href="/wiki/Langefors" class="mw-redirect" title="Langefors">Langefors</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a technologically implemented medium for recording, storing, and disseminating linguistic expressions, as well as for drawing conclusions from such expressions. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_systems_in_geospatial_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic information systems in geospatial intelligence">Geographic information systems</a>, land information systems, and disaster information systems are examples of emerging information systems, but they can be broadly considered as spatial information systems. System development is done in stages which include:<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Problem recognition and specification</li> <li>Information gathering</li> <li>Requirements specification for the new system</li> <li>System design</li> <li>System construction</li> <li>System implementation</li> <li>Review and maintenance</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="As_an_academic_discipline">As an academic discipline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_system&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: As an academic discipline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Information_engineering" title="Information engineering">Information engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">Information technology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Information_management" title="Information management">Information management</a></div> <p>The field of study called <i>information systems</i> encompasses a variety of topics including systems analysis and design, computer networking, information security, database management, and decision support systems. <i><a href="/wiki/Information_management" title="Information management">Information management</a></i> deals with the practical and theoretical problems of collecting and analyzing information in a business function area including business productivity tools, applications programming and implementation, electronic commerce, digital media production, data mining, and decision support. <i>Communications and networking</i> deals with telecommunication technologies. Information systems bridges <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">business</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> using the theoretical foundations of <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computation</a> to study various business models and related <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithmic</a> processes <sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on building the IT systems <sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> within a computer science discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-Kelly_1999_1–27_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kelly_1999_1–27-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Archibald1975_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Archibald1975-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Denning1999_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denning1999-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Coy_2004_7–10_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coy_2004_7–10-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Computer information systems</i> (CIS) is a field studying computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas IS emphasizes functionality over design.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several IS scholars have debated the nature and foundations of information systems which have its roots in other reference disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Management_science" title="Management science">management science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a>, and others.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Information systems also can be defined as a collection of hardware, software, data, people, and procedures that work together to produce quality information. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_terms">Related terms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_system&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Related terms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IS-Relationships-Chart.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/IS-Relationships-Chart.jpg/220px-IS-Relationships-Chart.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/IS-Relationships-Chart.jpg/330px-IS-Relationships-Chart.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/IS-Relationships-Chart.jpg/440px-IS-Relationships-Chart.jpg 2x" data-file-width="991" data-file-height="721" /></a><figcaption>Information systems relationship to <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">information science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">business</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Similar to computer science, other disciplines can be seen as both related and foundation disciplines of IS. The domain of study of IS involves the study of theories and practices related to the social and technological phenomena, which determine the development, use, and effects of information systems in organizations and society.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But, while there may be considerable overlap of the disciplines at the boundaries, the disciplines are still differentiated by the focus, purpose, and orientation of their activities.<sup id="cite_ref-dogpile.com_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dogpile.com-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a broad scope, <i>information systems</i> is a scientific field of study that addresses the range of strategic, managerial, and operational activities involved in the gathering, processing, storing, distributing, and use of information and its associated technologies in society and organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-dogpile.com_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dogpile.com-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>information systems</i> is also used to describe an organizational function that applies IS knowledge in the industry, government agencies, and not-for-profit organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-dogpile.com_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dogpile.com-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Information systems</i> often refers to the interaction between algorithmic processes and technology. This interaction can occur within or across organizational boundaries. An information system is a technology an organization uses and also the way in which the organizations interact with the technology and the way in which the technology works with the organization's business processes. Information systems are distinct from <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a> (IT) in that an information system has an information technology component that interacts with the processes' components. </p><p>One problem with that approach is that it prevents the IS field from being interested in non-organizational use of ICT, such as in social networking, computer gaming, mobile personal usage, etc. A different way of differentiating the IS field from its neighbours is to ask, "Which aspects of reality are most meaningful in the IS field and other fields?"<sup id="cite_ref-ref-basden-2010_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref-basden-2010-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach, based on philosophy, helps to define not just the focus, purpose, and orientation, but also the dignity, destiny and, responsibility of the field among other fields.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Business_informatics" title="Business informatics">Business informatics</a> is a related discipline that is well-established in several countries, especially in Europe. While <i>Information systems</i> has been said to have an "explanation-oriented" focus, <i>business informatics</i> has a more "solution-oriented" focus and includes <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a> elements and construction and implementation-oriented elements. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career_pathways">Career pathways</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_system&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Career pathways"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Information systems workers enter a number of different careers: </p> <ul><li>Information system strategy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_information_system" title="Management information system">Management information systems</a> – A management information system (MIS) is an information system used for decision-making, and for the coordination, control, analysis, and visualization of information in an organization.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_management" title="Project management">Project management</a> – Project management is the practice of initiating, planning, executing, controlling, and closing the work of a team to achieve specific goals and meet specific success criteria at the specified time.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_architecture" title="Enterprise architecture">Enterprise architecture</a> – A well-defined practice for conducting enterprise analysis, design, planning, and implementation, using a comprehensive approach at all times, for the successful development and execution of strategy.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_development" title="Software development">IS development</a></li> <li>IS organization</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_technology_consulting" title="Information technology consulting">IS consulting</a></li> <li>IS security</li> <li>IS auditing</li></ul> <p>There is a wide variety of career paths in the information systems discipline. "Workers with specialized technical knowledge and strong communications skills will have the best prospects. Workers with management skills and an understanding of business practices and principles will have excellent opportunities, as companies are increasingly looking to technology to drive their revenue."<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Information technology is important to the operation of contemporary businesses, it offers many employment opportunities. The information systems field includes the people in organizations who design and build information systems, the people who use those systems, and the people responsible for managing those systems. The demand for traditional IT staff such as programmers, business analysts, systems analysts, and designer is significant. Many well-paid jobs exist in areas of Information technology. At the top of the list is the chief information officer (CIO). </p><p>The CIO is the executive who is in charge of the IS function. In most organizations, the CIO works with the chief executive officer (CEO), the chief financial officer (CFO), and other senior executives. Therefore, he or she actively participates in the organization's strategic planning process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bachelor_of_Business_Information_Systems">Bachelor of Business Information Systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_system&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Bachelor of Business Information Systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Business_Information_Systems" title="Bachelor of Business Information Systems">Bachelor of Business Information Systems</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bachelor_of_Business_Information_Systems&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Business_Information_Systems" title="Bachelor of Business Information Systems">Bachelor of Business Information Systems</a> (<a href="/wiki/Business_Information_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Business Information Systems">BBIS</a>), also Business Information Systems (<a href="/wiki/Business_Information_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Business Information Systems">BIS</a>), is an <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a> (IT) and <a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">management</a> focused<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> undergraduate program<sup id="cite_ref-Bachelor_of_Business_Information_Systems_mic_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bachelor_of_Business_Information_Systems_mic-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> designed to better understand the needs of rapidly growing technology in business and IT sector.<sup id="cite_ref-Bachelor_of_Business_Information_Systems_apic_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bachelor_of_Business_Information_Systems_apic-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is bachelor degree that combines elements of <a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business administration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> with majoring on <a href="/wiki/Information_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Information systems">information systems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>.The purpose of this course is to equip students with the skills and knowledge needed to effectively manage and utilize information technology in a business and IT industry.<sup id="cite_ref-Bachelor_of_Business_Information_Systems_ashford_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bachelor_of_Business_Information_Systems_ashford-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_system&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Information systems research is generally <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> concerned with the study of the effects of information systems on the behaviour of individuals, groups, and organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hevner et al. (2004)<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> categorized research in IS into two scientific paradigms including <i>behavioural science</i> which is to develop and verify theories that explain or predict human or organizational behavior and<i> design science</i> which extends the boundaries of human and organizational capabilities by creating new and innovative artifacts. </p><p>Salvatore March and Gerald Smith<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> proposed a framework for researching different aspects of information technology including outputs of the research (research outputs) and activities to carry out this research (research activities). They identified research outputs as follows: </p> <ol><li><i>Constructs</i> which are concepts that form the <a href="/wiki/Domain_knowledge" title="Domain knowledge">vocabulary of a domain</a>. They constitute a <a href="/wiki/Conceptualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Conceptualization">conceptualization</a> used to describe problems within the domain and to specify their solutions.</li> <li>A <i>model</i> which is a set of propositions or statements expressing relationships among constructs.</li> <li>A <i>method</i> which is a set of steps (an <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a> or guideline) used to perform a task. Methods are based on a set of underlying constructs and a <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge representation">representation</a> (model) of the solution space.</li> <li>An <i>instantiation</i> is the realization of an artefact in its environment.</li></ol> <p>Also research activities including: </p> <ol><li><i>Build</i> an artefact to perform a specific task.</li> <li><i>Evaluate</i> the artefact to determine if any progress has been achieved.</li> <li>Given an artefact whose performance has been evaluated, it is important to determine why and how the artefact worked or did not work within its environment. Therefore, <i>theorize</i> and <i>justify</i> theories about IT artefacts.</li></ol> <p>Although Information Systems as a discipline has been evolving for over 30 years now,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the core focus or identity of IS research is still subject to debate among scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are two main views around this debate: a narrow view focusing on the IT artifact as the core subject matter of IS research, and a broad view that focuses on the interplay between social and technical aspects of IT that is embedded into a dynamic evolving context.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A third view<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> calls on IS scholars to pay balanced attention to both the IT artifact and its context. </p><p>Since the study of information systems is an applied field, industry practitioners expect information systems research to generate findings that are immediately applicable in practice. This is not always the case however, as information systems researchers often explore behavioral issues in much more depth than practitioners would expect them to do. This may render information systems research results difficult to understand, and has led to criticism.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the last ten years, the business trend is represented by the considerable increase of Information Systems Function (ISF) role, especially with regard to the enterprise strategies and operations supporting. It became a key factor to increase <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a> and to support <a href="/wiki/Value_creation" class="mw-redirect" title="Value creation">value creation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To study an information system itself, rather than its effects, information systems models are used, such as <a href="/wiki/EATPUT" title="EATPUT">EATPUT</a>. </p><p>The international body of Information Systems researchers, the <a href="/wiki/Association_for_Information_Systems" title="Association for Information Systems">Association for Information Systems</a> (AIS), and its Senior Scholars Forum Subcommittee on Journals (202), proposed a list of 11 journals that the AIS deems as 'excellent'.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the AIS, this list of journals recognizes topical, methodological, and geographical diversity. The review processes are stringent, editorial board members are widely-respected and recognized, and there is international readership and contribution. The list is (or should be) used, along with others, as a point of reference for promotion and tenure and, more generally, to evaluate scholarly excellence. </p><p>A number of annual <a href="/wiki/Category:Information_systems_conferences" title="Category:Information systems conferences">information systems conferences</a> are run in various parts of the world, the majority of which are peer reviewed. The AIS directly runs the <a href="/wiki/International_Conference_on_Information_Systems" title="International Conference on Information Systems">International Conference on Information Systems</a> (ICIS) and the <a href="/wiki/Americas_Conference_on_Information_Systems" title="Americas Conference on Information Systems">Americas Conference on Information Systems</a> (AMCIS), while AIS affiliated conferences<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> include the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Asia_Conference_on_Information_Systems" title="Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems">Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems</a> (PACIS), <a href="/wiki/European_Conference_on_Information_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="European Conference on Information Systems">European Conference on Information Systems</a> (ECIS), the Mediterranean Conference on Information Systems (MCIS), the International Conference on Information Resources Management (Conf-IRM) and the Wuhan International Conference on E-Business (WHICEB). AIS chapter conferences<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> include <a href="/wiki/Australasian_Conference_on_Information_Systems" title="Australasian Conference on Information Systems">Australasian Conference on Information Systems</a> (ACIS), <a href="/wiki/Information_Systems_Research_in_Scandinavia" title="Information Systems Research in Scandinavia">Scandinavian Conference on Information Systems</a> (SCIS), <a href="/wiki/Information_Systems_International_Conference" title="Information Systems International Conference">Information Systems International Conference</a> (ISICO), Conference of the Italian Chapter of AIS (itAIS), Annual Mid-Western AIS Conference (MWAIS) and Annual Conference of the Southern AIS (SAIS). EDSIG,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is the special interest group on education of the AITP,<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> organizes the Conference on Information Systems and Computing Education<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Conference on Information Systems Applied Research<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which are both held annually in November. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_system&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <dl><dt>Related subjects</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formative_context" title="Formative context">Formative context</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informatics" title="Informatics">Informatics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_informatics" title="Business informatics">Business informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheminformatics" title="Cheminformatics">Cheminformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_informatics" title="Disaster informatics">Disaster informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_informatics" title="Health informatics">Health informatics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Library science">Library science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_science" title="Web science">Web sciences</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <dl><dt>Components</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Data_architect" title="Data architect">Data architect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_modeling" title="Data modeling">Data modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_processing_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Data processing system">Data processing system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_Reference_Model" title="Data Reference Model">Data Reference Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EATPUT" title="EATPUT">EATPUT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metadata" title="Metadata">Metadata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predictive_Model_Markup_Language" title="Predictive Model Markup Language">Predictive Model Markup Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_translation" title="Semantic translation">Semantic translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_schema_approach" class="mw-redirect" title="Three schema approach">Three schema approach</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <dl><dt>Implementation</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_information_system" title="Enterprise information system">Enterprise information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Modeling_Center" title="Environmental Modeling Center">Environmental Modeling Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Operations_Research_and_the_Management_Sciences" title="Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences">Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences</a> (INFORMS)</li></ul> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_system&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPiccoliPigni2018" class="citation book cs1">Piccoli, Gabriele; Pigni, Federico (July 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://prospectpressvt.com/titles/piccoli-information-systems-for-managers/"><i>Information systems for managers: with cases</i></a> (4.0 ed.). Prospect Press. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-943153-50-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-943153-50-3"><bdi>978-1-943153-50-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/information-system.html">the original</a> on 2020-08-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Computer Science education for majors of other disciplines". <i>AFIPS Joint Computer Conferences</i>: 903–906. <q>Computer science spreads out over several related disciplines, and shares with these disciplines certain sub-disciplines that traditionally have been located exclusively in the more conventional disciplines</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AFIPS+Joint+Computer+Conferences&rft.atitle=Computer+Science+education+for+majors+of+other+disciplines&rft.pages=903-906&rft.date=1975-05&rft.aulast=Archibald&rft.aufirst=J.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Denning1999-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Denning1999_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDenning1999" class="citation journal cs1">Denning, Peter (July 1999). "Computer Science: The Discipline". <i>Encyclopaedia of Computer Science (2000 Edition)</i>. <q>The Domain of Computer Science: Even though computer science addresses both human-made and natural information processes, the main effort in the discipline has been directed toward human-made processes, especially information processing systems and machines</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Computer+Science+%282000+Edition%29&rft.atitle=Computer+Science%3A+The+Discipline&rft.date=1999-07&rft.aulast=Denning&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coy_2004_7–10-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Coy_2004_7–10_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoy2004" class="citation journal cs1">Coy, Wolfgang (June 2004). "Between the disciplines". <i>ACM SIGCSE Bulletin</i>. <b>36</b> (2): 7–10. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1024338.1024340">10.1145/1024338.1024340</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0097-8418">0097-8418</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10389644">10389644</a>. <q>Computer science may be in the core of these processes. The actual question is not to ignore disciplinary boundaries with its methodological differences but to open the disciplines for collaborative work. We must learn to build bridges, not to start in the gap between disciplines</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACM+SIGCSE+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Between+the+disciplines&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=7-10&rft.date=2004-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10389644%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0097-8418&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F1024338.1024340&rft.aulast=Coy&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoganson2001" class="citation journal cs1">Hoganson, Ken (December 2001). "Alternative curriculum models for integrating computer science and information systems analysis, recommendations, pitfalls, opportunities, accreditations, and trends". <i>Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges</i>. <b>17</b> (2): 313–325. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1937-4771">1937-4771</a>. <q>... Information Systems grew out of the need to bridge the gap between business management and computer science ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Computing+Sciences+in+Colleges&rft.atitle=Alternative+curriculum+models+for+integrating+computer+science+and+information+systems+analysis%2C+recommendations%2C+pitfalls%2C+opportunities%2C+accreditations%2C+and+trends&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=313-325&rft.date=2001-12&rft.issn=1937-4771&rft.aulast=Hoganson&rft.aufirst=Ken&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavisGeistMatzkoWestall2004" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Timothy; Geist, Robert; Matzko, Sarah; Westall, James (March 2004). <i>Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education | τ´εχνη: A First Step</i>. pp. 125–129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58113-798-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58113-798-9"><bdi>978-1-58113-798-9</bdi></a>. <q>In 1999, Clemson University established a (graduate) degree program that bridges the arts and the sciences... All students in the program are required to complete graduate level work in both the arts and computer science</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technical+Symposium+on+Computer+Science+Education+%7C+%CF%84%C2%B4%CE%B5%CF%87%CE%BD%CE%B7%3A+A+First+Step&rft.pages=125-129&rft.date=2004-03&rft.isbn=978-1-58113-798-9&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft.au=Geist%2C+Robert&rft.au=Matzko%2C+Sarah&rft.au=Westall%2C+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoganson2001" class="citation journal cs1">Hoganson, Ken (December 2001). "Alternative curriculum models for integrating computer science and information systems analysis, recommendations, pitfalls, opportunities, accreditations, and trends". <i>Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges</i>. <b>17</b> (2): 313–325. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1937-4771">1937-4771</a>. <q>The field of information systems as a separate discipline is relatively new and is undergoing continuous change as technology evolves and the field matures</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Computing+Sciences+in+Colleges&rft.atitle=Alternative+curriculum+models+for+integrating+computer+science+and+information+systems+analysis%2C+recommendations%2C+pitfalls%2C+opportunities%2C+accreditations%2C+and+trends&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=313-325&rft.date=2001-12&rft.issn=1937-4771&rft.aulast=Hoganson&rft.aufirst=Ken&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhazanchiBjorn_Erik_Munkvold2000" class="citation journal cs1">Khazanchi, Deepak; Bjorn Erik Munkvold (Summer 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F381823.381834">"Is information system a science? an inquiry into the nature of the information systems discipline"</a>. <i>ACM SIGMIS Database</i>. <b>31</b> (3): 24–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F381823.381834">10.1145/381823.381834</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0095-0033">0095-0033</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52847480">52847480</a>. <q>From this we have concluded that IS is a science, i.e., a scientific discipline in contrast to purportedly non-scientific fields</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACM+SIGMIS+Database&rft.atitle=Is+information+system+a+science%3F+an+inquiry+into+the+nature+of+the+information+systems+discipline&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=24-42&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A52847480%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0095-0033&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F381823.381834&rft.aulast=Khazanchi&rft.aufirst=Deepak&rft.au=Bjorn+Erik+Munkvold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1145%252F381823.381834&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDenning2007" class="citation cs2">Denning, Peter (June 2007), <i>Ubiquity a new interview with Peter Denning on the great principles of computing</i>, vol. 2007, p. 1, <q>People from other fields are saying they have discovered information processes in their deepest structures and that collaboration with computing is essential to them.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ubiquity+a+new+interview+with+Peter+Denning+on+the+great+principles+of+computing&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2007-06&rft.aulast=Denning&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<i>Computer science is the study of information</i>" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.njit.edu/v2/archivecatalog/undergraduate/91/19-und.html">New Jersey Institute of Technology</a>, Gutenberg Information Technologies <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080915210456/http://www.njit.edu/v2/archivecatalog/undergraduate/91/19-und.html">Archived</a> September 15, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<i>Computer science is the study of computation.</i>" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csbsju.edu/computerscience/curriculum">Computer Science Department, College of Saint Benedict</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070203190237/http://www.csbsju.edu/computerscience/curriculum/">Archived</a> 2007-02-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Saint John's University</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<i>Computer Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects.</i>" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://study.massey.ac.nz/major.asp?major_code=2010&prog_code=93068">Massey University</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060619125916/http://study.massey.ac.nz/major.asp?major_code=2010&prog_code=93068">Archived</a> 2006-06-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pearson Custom Publishing & West Chester University, Custom Program for Computer Information Systems, Pearson Custom Publishing, (2009) Glossary p. 694</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolack2009" class="citation journal cs1">Polack, Jennifer (December 2009). "Planning a CIS Education Within a CS Framework". <i>Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges</i>. <b>25</b> (2): 100–106. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1937-4771">1937-4771</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Computing+Sciences+in+Colleges&rft.atitle=Planning+a+CIS+Education+Within+a+CS+Framework&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=100-106&rft.date=2009-12&rft.issn=1937-4771&rft.aulast=Polack&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayesOnkar_Sharma2003" class="citation journal cs1">Hayes, Helen; Onkar Sharma (February 2003). "A decade of experience with a common first year program for computer science, information systems and information technology majors". <i>Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges</i>. <b>18</b> (3): 217–227. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1937-4771">1937-4771</a>. <q>In 1988, a degree program in Computer Information Systems (CIS) was launched with the objective of providing an option for students who were less inclined to become programmers and were more interested in learning to design, develop, and implement Information Systems, and solve business problems using the systems approach</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Computing+Sciences+in+Colleges&rft.atitle=A+decade+of+experience+with+a+common+first+year+program+for+computer+science%2C+information+systems+and+information+technology+majors&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=217-227&rft.date=2003-02&rft.issn=1937-4771&rft.aulast=Hayes&rft.aufirst=Helen&rft.au=Onkar+Sharma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">CSTA Committee, Allen Tucker, et alia, A Model Curriculum for K-12 Computer Science (Final Report), (Association for Computing Machinery, Inc., 2006) Abstraction & p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreemanHart2004" class="citation journal cs1">Freeman, Peter; Hart, David (August 2004). "A Science of Design for Software-Intensive Systems Computer science and engineering needs an intellectually rigorous, analytical, teachable design process to ensure development of systems we all can live with". <i>Communications of the ACM</i>. <b>47</b> (8): 19–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1012037.1012054">10.1145/1012037.1012054</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0001-0782">0001-0782</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14331332">14331332</a>. <q>Though the other components' connections to the software and their role in the overall design of the system are critical, the core consideration for a software-intensive system is the software itself, and other approaches to systematizing design have yet to solve the "software problem"—which won't be solved until software design is understood scientifically</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&rft.atitle=A+Science+of+Design+for+Software-Intensive+Systems+Computer+science+and+engineering+needs+an+intellectually+rigorous%2C+analytical%2C+teachable+design+process+to+ensure+development+of+systems+we+all+can+live+with&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=19-21&rft.date=2004-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14331332%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0001-0782&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F1012037.1012054&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Hart%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Culnan, M. J. Mapping the Intellectual Structure of MIS, 1980–1985: A Co-Citation Analysis, <i>MIS Quarterly</i>, 1987, pp. 341–353.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keen, P. G. W. MIS Research: Reference Disciplines and A Cumulative Tradition, in <i>Proceedings of the First International Conference on Information Systems</i>, E. McLean (ed.), Philadelphia, PA, 1980, pp. 9–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lee, A. S. Architecture as A Reference Discipline for MIS, in <i>Information Systems Research: Contemporary Approaches and Emergent Traditions</i>, H.-E. Nisen, H. K. Klein, and R. A. Hirschheim (eds.), North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1991, pp. 573–592.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mingers, J., and Stowell, F. (eds.). Information Systems: An Emerging Discipline?, McGraw- Hill, London, 1997.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John, W., and Joe, P. (2002) "Strategic Planning for Information System." 3rd Ed. West Sussex. John Wiley & Sons Ltd</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dogpile.com-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dogpile.com_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dogpile.com_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dogpile.com_60-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160731075131/http://booksbw.com/books/computers/leslie-j/2006/files/informationsystems2006.pdf#page=30">"Scoping the Discipline of Information Systems"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.booksbw.com/books/computers/leslie-j/2006/files/informationsystems2006.pdf#page=30">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-07-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17705%2F1CAIS.00823">"Information Systems Research Relevance Revisited: Subtle Accomplishment, Unfulfilled Promise, or Serial Hypocrisy?"</a>. <i>Communications of the Association for Information Systems</i>. <b>8</b> (23): 330–346. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17705%2F1CAIS.00823">10.17705/1CAIS.00823</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+Association+for+Information+Systems&rft.atitle=Information+Systems+Research+Relevance+Revisited%3A+Subtle+Accomplishment%2C+Unfulfilled+Promise%2C+or+Serial+Hypocrisy%3F&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=330-346&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17705%2F1CAIS.00823&rft.aulast=Kock&rft.aufirst=N.&rft.au=Gray%2C+P.&rft.au=Hoving%2C+R.&rft.au=Klein%2C+H.&rft.au=Myers%2C+M.&rft.au=Rockart%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.17705%252F1CAIS.00823&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Casalino, N., Mazzone, G. 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(Eds.), Physica-Verlag, Springer, Heidelberg, Germany, pp. 89–96, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7908-2009-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7908-2009-6">978-3-7908-2009-6</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-7908-2010-2_12">10.1007/978-3-7908-2010-2_12</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aisnet.org/page/SeniorScholarListofPremierJournals">"Research - Association for Information Systems (AIS)"</a>. <i>aisnet.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-02-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=aisnet.org&rft.atitle=Research+-+Association+for+Information+Systems+%28AIS%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faisnet.org%2Fpage%2FSeniorScholarListofPremierJournals&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120215044835/http://home.aisnet.org/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=34">"AIS affiliated conferences"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.aisnet.org/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=34">the original</a> on 2012-02-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-02-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AIS+affiliated+conferences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhome.aisnet.org%2Fdisplaycommon.cfm%3Fan%3D1%26subarticlenbr%3D34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120227105218/http://ais.affiniscape.com/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=478">"AIS chapter conferences"</a>. <i>affiniscape.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ais.affiniscape.com/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=478">the original</a> on 2012-02-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-02-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=affiniscape.com&rft.atitle=AIS+chapter+conferences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fais.affiniscape.com%2Fdisplaycommon.cfm%3Fan%3D1%26subarticlenbr%3D478&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edsig.org">"EDSIG Information Systems Educators"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=EDSIG+Information+Systems+Educators&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edsig.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aitp.org">"Association of Information Technology Professionals"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Association+of+Information+Technology+Professionals&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aitp.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEDSIG" class="citation web cs1">EDSIG, ISCAP and. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edsigcon.org">"ISCAP Conferences – EDSIGCON & CONISAR"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ISCAP+Conferences+%E2%80%93+EDSIGCON+%26+CONISAR&rft.aulast=EDSIG&rft.aufirst=ISCAP+and&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edsigcon.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEDSIG" class="citation web cs1">EDSIG, ISCAP and. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.conisar.org">"ISCAP Conferences – EDSIGCON & CONISAR"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ISCAP+Conferences+%E2%80%93+EDSIGCON+%26+CONISAR&rft.aulast=EDSIG&rft.aufirst=ISCAP+and&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.conisar.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_system&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Rainer, R. Kelly and Cegielski, Casey G. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-EHEP000323.html">"Introduction to Information Systems: Enabling and Transforming Business, 3rd Edition"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100628201559/http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-EHEP000323.html">Archived</a> 2010-06-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Kroenke, David (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pearsonhighered.com/kroenke/"><i>Using MIS – 2nd Edition</i></a>.</li> <li>Lindsay, John (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oturn.net/isfi/index.html"><i>Information Systems – Fundamentals and Issues</i></a>. Kingston University, School of Information Systems</li> <li>Dostal, J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090319234044/http://mict.upol.cz/skolni_informacni_systemy.pdf">School information systems (Skolni informacni systemy).</a> In Infotech 2007 – modern information and communication technology in education. Olomouc, EU: Votobia, 2007. s. 540 – 546. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-7220-301-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-80-7220-301-7">978-80-7220-301-7</a>.</li> <li>O'Leary, Timothy and Linda. (2008). <i>Computing Essentials Introductory 2008.</i> McGraw-Hill on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171117143609/http://www.computing2008.com/">Computing2008.com</a></li> <li>Sage, S.M. "Information Systems: A brief look into history", Datamation, 63–69, Nov. 1968. – Overview of the early history of IS.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_system&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 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href="/wiki/Template:Informatics" title="Template:Informatics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Informatics" title="Template talk:Informatics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Informatics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Informatics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Information_processing" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">Information processing</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Information processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">information processes by function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">attention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence" title="Social influence">influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_control" title="Remote control">operating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Information storage">storing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">information processing abstractions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Event_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Event processing">event processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">sign processesing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal" title="Signal">signal processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_processing" title="Data processing">data processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_processing" title="Stream processing">stream processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-agent_system" title="Multi-agent system">agent processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(computer_science)" title="State (computer science)">state processing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Information processors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">natural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_computing#Nature_as_information_processing" title="Natural computing">nature as information processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_processing_theory#Humans_as_Information_Processing_Systems" title="Information processing theory">humans as information processing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_information_processing" title="Social information processing">society as information processing system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">mixed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_reality" title="Mixed reality">mixed reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">brain–computer interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_computing" title="Physical computing">physical computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">human–computer interaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">artificial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Processor_(computing)" title="Processor (computing)">processors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bio-inspired_computing" title="Bio-inspired computing">bio-inspired computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">ubiquitous computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_brain" title="Artificial brain">artificial brain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mind_uploading" title="Mind uploading">mind uploading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">virtual reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_world" title="Virtual world">virtual world</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Information processing <br />theories and concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">in biology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">computational</a> and <a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome_informatics" title="Genome informatics">genetic informatics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cellular_computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular computing">cellular computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">computational neuroscience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neurocomputing" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurocomputing">neurocomputing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">in cognitive psychology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_processing_theory" title="Information processing theory">information processing theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_informatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive informatics">cognitive informatics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neuroinformatics" title="Neuroinformatics">neuroinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_informatics" title="Behavior informatics">behavior informatics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">in computer science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neural_computation" title="Neural computation">neural computation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">computation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algorithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithms">algorithms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Information_structure" title="Information structure">information structures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_(computer_science)" title="Circuit (computer science)">computational circuits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">in philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">philosophy of artificial intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">information theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision_theory" title="Decision theory">decision theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infosphere" title="Infosphere">infosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inforg" title="Inforg">inforg</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Decoding_the_Universe" title="Decoding the Universe">Decoding the Universe</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_overload" title="Information overload">information overload</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Computer_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Computer_science" title="Template:Computer science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Computer_science" title="Template talk:Computer science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Computer_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Computer science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Computer_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Note: This template roughly follows the 2012 <a href="/wiki/ACM_Computing_Classification_System" title="ACM Computing Classification System">ACM Computing Classification System</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">Hardware</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripheral" title="Peripheral">Peripheral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very_Large_Scale_Integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Very Large Scale Integration">Very Large Scale Integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_on_a_chip" title="System on a chip">Systems on Chip (SoCs)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_computing" title="Green computing">Energy consumption (Green computing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_design_automation" title="Electronic design automation">Electronic design automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_acceleration" title="Hardware acceleration">Hardware acceleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Processor_(computing)" title="Processor (computing)">Processor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_size_categories" title="List of computer size categories">Size</a> / <a href="/wiki/Form_factor_(design)" title="Form factor (design)">Form</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Computer systems organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Computer architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_complexity" title="Computational complexity">Computational complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependability" title="Dependability">Dependability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">Embedded system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_computing" title="Real-time computing">Real-time computing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Network_architecture" title="Network architecture">Network architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Network protocol">Network protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Networking_hardware" title="Networking hardware">Network components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_scheduler" title="Network scheduler">Network scheduler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_performance" title="Network performance">Network performance evaluation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_service" title="Network service">Network service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Software organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">Interpreter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middleware" title="Middleware">Middleware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">Virtual machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_quality" title="Software quality">Software quality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Software notations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Programming_tool" title="Programming tool">tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compiler_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiler construction">Compiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">Domain-specific language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_framework" title="Software framework">Software framework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">Integrated development environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_configuration_management" title="Software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">Software library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_repository" title="Software repository">Software repository</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Software_development" title="Software development">Software development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Control variable (programming)">Control variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_development_process" title="Software development process">Software development process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Requirements_analysis" title="Requirements analysis">Requirements analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_design" title="Software design">Software design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_construction" title="Software construction">Software construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_deployment" title="Software deployment">Software deployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">Software maintenance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_team" title="Programming team">Programming team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">Theory of computation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Model_of_computation" title="Model of computation">Model of computation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stochastic_computing" title="Stochastic computing">Stochastic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">Formal language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automata_theory" title="Automata theory">Automata theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computability_theory" title="Computability theory">Computability theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">Computational complexity theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">Semantics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">Algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithm_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithm design">Algorithm design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_algorithms" title="Analysis of algorithms">Analysis of algorithms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_efficiency" title="Algorithmic efficiency">Algorithmic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_algorithm" title="Randomized algorithm">Randomized algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_geometry" title="Computational geometry">Computational geometry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mathematics of <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_mathematics" title="Discrete mathematics">Discrete mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_software" title="Mathematical software">Mathematical software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">Mathematical analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">Numerical analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">Theoretical computer science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Information systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">Database management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Information storage systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_information_system" title="Enterprise information system">Enterprise information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_software" title="Social software">Social information systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision_support_system" title="Decision support system">Decision support system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Process control">Process control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimedia_database" title="Multimedia database">Multimedia information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_mining" title="Data mining">Data mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_library" title="Digital library">Digital library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">Computing platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_marketing" title="Digital marketing">Digital marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">Information retrieval</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">Security</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">Formal methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">Security hacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_service_(telecommunication)" title="Security service (telecommunication)">Security services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrusion_detection_system" title="Intrusion detection system">Intrusion detection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_security" title="Hardware security">Hardware security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_security" title="Network security">Network security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_security" title="Information security">Information security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Application_security" title="Application security">Application security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interaction_design" title="Interaction design">Interaction design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_computing" title="Social computing">Social computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">Ubiquitous computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_accessibility" title="Computer accessibility">Accessibility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">Concurrency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">Parallel computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">Distributed computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multithreading_(computer_architecture)" title="Multithreading (computer architecture)">Multithreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiprocessing" title="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">Natural language processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" title="Knowledge representation and reasoning">Knowledge representation and reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_planning_and_scheduling" title="Automated planning and scheduling">Automated planning and scheduling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Search methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_artificial_intelligence" title="Distributed artificial intelligence">Distributed artificial intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">Machine learning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_learning" title="Supervised learning">Supervised learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unsupervised_learning" title="Unsupervised learning">Unsupervised learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_learning" title="Reinforcement learning">Reinforcement learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-task_learning" title="Multi-task learning">Multi-task learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-validation_(statistics)" title="Cross-validation (statistics)">Cross-validation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Graphics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Animation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rendering_(computer_graphics)" title="Rendering (computer graphics)">Rendering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photograph_manipulation" title="Photograph manipulation">Photograph manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">Graphics processing unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_reality" title="Mixed reality">Mixed reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">Virtual reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">Image compression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid_modeling" title="Solid modeling">Solid modeling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applied computing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum Computing">Quantum Computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-commerce" title="E-commerce">E-commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_software" title="Enterprise software">Enterprise software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_mathematics" title="Computational mathematics">Computational mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_social_science" title="Computational social science">Computational social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_engineering" title="Computational engineering">Computational engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Differentiable_computing" title="Template:Differentiable computing">Differentiable computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_informatics" title="Health informatics">Computational healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_art" title="Digital art">Digital art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_publishing" title="Electronic publishing">Electronic publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_voting" title="Electronic voting">Electronic voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_processor" title="Word processor">Word processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Educational technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Document_management_system" title="Document management system">Document management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Computer_science" title="Category:Computer science">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_computer_science" title="Outline of computer science">Outline</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/16px-Symbol_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/23px-Symbol_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/31px-Symbol_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Template:Glossaries_of_computers" title="Template:Glossaries of computers">Glossaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Systems_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Systems_science" title="Template:Systems science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Systems_science" title="Template talk:Systems science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Systems_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Systems science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Systems_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Systems_science" title="Systems science">Systems science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/System" title="System">System</a><br />types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Systems_art" title="Systems art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_system" title="Complex system">Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_human%E2%80%93environment_system" title="Coupled human–environment system">Coupled human–environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_system" title="Economic system">Economic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-agent_system" title="Multi-agent system">Multi-agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recommender_system" title="Recommender system">Recommender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_system" title="Social system">Social</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doubling_time" title="Doubling time">Doubling time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_leverage_points" title="Twelve leverage points">Leverage points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_factor" title="Limiting factor">Limiting factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">Negative feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">Positive feedback</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical<br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">Cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_systems" title="Living systems">Living systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_metabolism" title="Urban metabolism">Urban metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Systems_analysis" title="Systems analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_dynamics" title="System dynamics">Dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_pharmacology" title="Systems pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_philosophy" title="Systems philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">Theory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Systems_thinking" title="Systems thinking">Systems thinking</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_scientists" title="List of systems scientists">Scientists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russell_L._Ackoff" title="Russell L. Ackoff">Russell L. Ackoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Aladjev" title="Victor Aladjev">Victor Aladjev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ross_Ashby" class="mw-redirect" title="William Ross Ashby">William Ross Ashby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruzena_Bajcsy" title="Ruzena Bajcsy">Ruzena Bajcsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_H._B%C3%A1n%C3%A1thy" title="Béla H. Bánáthy">Béla H. Bánáthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Gregory Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Stafford_Beer" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony Stafford Beer">Anthony Stafford Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Bellman" title="Richard E. Bellman">Richard E. Bellman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Bertalanffy" title="Ludwig von Bertalanffy">Ludwig von Bertalanffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Boden" title="Margaret Boden">Margaret Boden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_E._Boulding" title="Kenneth E. Boulding">Kenneth E. Boulding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Bowen" title="Murray Bowen">Murray Bowen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Carley" title="Kathleen Carley">Kathleen Carley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Cartwright" title="Mary Cartwright">Mary Cartwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._West_Churchman" title="C. West Churchman">C. West Churchman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manfred_Clynes" title="Manfred Clynes">Manfred Clynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Dantzig" title="George Dantzig">George Dantzig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edsger_W._Dijkstra" title="Edsger W. Dijkstra">Edsger W. Dijkstra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Emery" title="Fred Emery">Fred Emery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinz_von_Foerster" title="Heinz von Foerster">Heinz von Foerster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Forrest" title="Stephanie Forrest">Stephanie Forrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Wright_Forrester" title="Jay Wright Forrester">Jay Wright Forrester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_J._Grosz" title="Barbara J. Grosz">Barbara Grosz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._S._Hall" title="Charles A. S. Hall">Charles A. S. Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Jackson_(systems_scientist)" title="Mike Jackson (systems scientist)">Mike Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydia_Kavraki" title="Lydia Kavraki">Lydia Kavraki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_J._Kay" title="James J. Kay">James J. Kay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faina_Mihajlovna_Kirillova" class="mw-redirect" title="Faina Mihajlovna Kirillova">Faina M. Kirillova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Klir" title="George Klir">George Klir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allenna_Leonard" title="Allenna Leonard">Allenna Leonard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Norton_Lorenz" title="Edward Norton Lorenz">Edward Norton Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Niklas Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humberto_Maturana" title="Humberto Maturana">Humberto Maturana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donella_Meadows" title="Donella Meadows">Donella Meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mihajlo_D._Mesarovic" title="Mihajlo D. Mesarovic">Mihajlo D. Mesarovic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Grier_Miller" title="James Grier Miller">James Grier Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radhika_Nagpal" title="Radhika Nagpal">Radhika Nagpal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_T._Odum" title="Howard T. Odum">Howard T. Odum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilya_Prigogine" title="Ilya Prigogine">Ilya Prigogine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuesen" title="Qian Xuesen">Qian Xuesen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatol_Rapoport" title="Anatol Rapoport">Anatol Rapoport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Seddon" title="John Seddon">John Seddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Senge" title="Peter Senge">Peter Senge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katia_Sycara" title="Katia Sycara">Katia Sycara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Trist" title="Eric Trist">Eric Trist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Francisco Varela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuela_M._Veloso" title="Manuela M. Veloso">Manuela M. Veloso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Warwick" title="Kevin Warwick">Kevin Warwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Wilby" title="Jennifer Wilby">Jennifer Wilby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Wilden" title="Anthony Wilden">Anthony Wilden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory in anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_archaeology" title="Systems theory in archaeology">Systems theory in archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_political_science" title="Systems theory in political science">Systems theory in political science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_sciences_organizations" title="List of systems sciences organizations">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Cybernetica" title="Principia Cybernetica">Principia Cybernetica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Systems_science" title="Category:Systems science">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Systems_science" title="Portal:Systems science">Portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q121182#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q121182#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a 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href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/972781/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Informationssystem"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4072806-7">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85066163">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119419441">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119419441">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/01092953">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="informační systémy"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph114774&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX535097">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007550724205171">Israel</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007550613505171">2</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10638971">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Information_system&oldid=1256835977">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Information_system&oldid=1256835977</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Information_systems" title="Category:Information 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