CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Atomism - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"a8cc5eb8-4db5-468f-b58f-f59b9752ea42","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Atomism","wgTitle":"Atomism","wgCurRevisionId":1256604680,"wgRevisionId":1256604680,"wgArticleId":5756554,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text","CS1 maint: location missing publisher","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from September 2023","Articles with permanently dead external links","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from March 2018","Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata", "All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from June 2021","Articles that may contain original research from June 2021","All articles that may contain original research","All articles with minor POV problems","Articles with minor POV problems from March 2012","All accuracy disputes","Articles with disputed statements from April 2023","All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases","Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from March 2018","Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2024","Atomism","Metaphysical theories","Presocratic philosophy"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Atomism","wgRelevantArticleId":5756554,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{ "levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":60000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q178668","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles" :"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming", "ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Atomism - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomism"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomism"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Atomism rootpage-Atomism skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Atomism" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Atomism" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Atomism" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Atomism" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Reductionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reductionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Reductionism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reductionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Antiquity</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Antiquity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Antiquity subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Greek_atomism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greek_atomism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Greek atomism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greek_atomism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Democritus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Democritus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Democritus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Democritus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unit-point_atomism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unit-point_atomism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Unit-point atomism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unit-point_atomism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geometry_and_atoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geometry_and_atoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Geometry and atoms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geometry_and_atoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rejection_in_Aristotelianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rejection_in_Aristotelianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>Rejection in Aristotelianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rejection_in_Aristotelianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epicurus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epicurus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.5</span> <span>Epicurus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epicurus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_Indian_atomism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Indian_atomism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Ancient Indian atomism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Indian_atomism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Roman_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Roman_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Late Roman Republic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Roman_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lucretius_revives_Epicurus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lucretius_revives_Epicurus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Lucretius revives Epicurus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lucretius_revives_Epicurus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-"Atoms"_and_"vacuum"_vs._religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Atoms"_and_"vacuum"_vs._religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1.1</span> <span>"Atoms" and "vacuum" vs. religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Atoms"_and_"vacuum"_vs._religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Roman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Galen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Galen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Galen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Galen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Middle Ages subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medieval_Hinduism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Hinduism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Medieval Hinduism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Hinduism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Medieval Buddhism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Medieval Islam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Al-Ghazali_and_Asharite_atomism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Al-Ghazali_and_Asharite_atomism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Al-Ghazali and Asharite atomism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Al-Ghazali_and_Asharite_atomism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Averroes_rejects_atomism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Averroes_rejects_atomism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Averroes rejects atomism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Averroes_rejects_atomism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Christendom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Christendom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Medieval Christendom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Christendom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scholasticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholasticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Scholasticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholasticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nicholas_of_Autrecourt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nicholas_of_Autrecourt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>Nicholas of Autrecourt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nicholas_of_Autrecourt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atomist_renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atomist_renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Atomist renaissance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Atomist_renaissance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Atomist renaissance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Atomist_renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-17th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#17th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>17th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-17th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Northumberland_circle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northumberland_circle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Northumberland circle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northumberland_circle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Galileo_Galilei" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Galileo_Galilei"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Galileo Galilei</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Galileo_Galilei-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Perceived_vs._real_properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perceived_vs._real_properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2.1</span> <span>Perceived vs. real properties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perceived_vs._real_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-René_Descartes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#René_Descartes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>René Descartes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-René_Descartes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pierre_Gassendi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pierre_Gassendi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.4</span> <span>Pierre Gassendi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pierre_Gassendi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Johann_Chrysostom_Magnenus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Johann_Chrysostom_Magnenus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.5</span> <span>Johann Chrysostom Magnenus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Johann_Chrysostom_Magnenus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atomism_and_corpuscularianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atomism_and_corpuscularianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Atomism and corpuscularianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atomism_and_corpuscularianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mikhail_Lomonosov" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mikhail_Lomonosov"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Mikhail Lomonosov</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mikhail_Lomonosov-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_atomic_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_atomic_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Modern atomic theory</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_atomic_theory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern atomic theory subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_atomic_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Late_18th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_18th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Late 18th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_18th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-John_Dalton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Dalton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>John Dalton</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Dalton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atomic_theory_debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atomic_theory_debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>Atomic theory debate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atomic_theory_debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Experimental_verification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Experimental_verification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Experimental verification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Experimental_verification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Atomism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 60 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-60" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">60 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B0%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الذرية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الذرية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="পৰমাণুত্ব – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="পৰমাণুত্ব" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomismu" title="Atomismu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Atomismu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomizm" title="Atomizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Atomizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="পরমাণুবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পরমাণুবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Атамізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Атамізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Атамізм – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Атамізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Атомизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Атомизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomizam" title="Atomizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Atomizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomisme" title="Atomisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Atomisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomismus" title="Atomismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Atomismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomismus" title="Atomismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Atomismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Atomism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomismo" title="Atomismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Atomismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomismo" title="Atomismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Atomismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomismo" title="Atomismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Atomismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%85%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="مکتب اتم‌گرایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مکتب اتم‌گرایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomisme" title="Atomisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Atomisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamhachas" title="Adamhachas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Adamhachas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomismo" title="Atomismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Atomismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9B%90%EC%9E%90%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="원자주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="원자주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Ատոմիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ատոմիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="अणुवाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अणुवाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomizam" title="Atomizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Atomizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomisme" title="Atomisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Atomisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomismo" title="Atomismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Atomismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%99%D7%AA" title="האסכולה האטומיסטית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="האסכולה האטומיסטית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Атомистика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Атомистика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Атомистика – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Атомистика" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomizmas" title="Atomizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Atomizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6r%C3%B6g_atomizmus" title="Görög atomizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Görög atomizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%85" title="اتوميزم – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="اتوميزم" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomisme_(natuurfilosofie)" title="Atomisme (natuurfilosofie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Atomisme (natuurfilosofie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%AB%96" title="原子論 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="原子論" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomisme" title="Atomisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Atomisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomisme" title="Atomisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Atomisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomisme" title="Atomisme – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Atomisme" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomisme" title="Atomisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Atomisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomizm" title="Atomizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Atomizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%85_(%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%85_%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%AF_%D8%B0%D8%B1%DB%90_%D9%BE%D9%87_%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1)" title="اتوميزم (د اتوم يا د ذرې په اصليت باور) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اتوميزم (د اتوم يا د ذرې په اصليت باور)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomizm" title="Atomizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Atomizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomismo" title="Atomismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Atomismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Atomism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Атомизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Атомизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Atomism" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomizmi" title="Atomizmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Atomizmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Atomism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomizmus" title="Atomizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Atomizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%86%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="ئەتۆمیزم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەتۆمیزم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomizam" title="Atomizam – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Atomizam" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomizam" title="Atomizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Atomizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomismi" title="Atomismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Atomismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Atomism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Атомизм – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Атомизм" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomculuk" title="Atomculuk – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Atomculuk" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Атомістика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Атомістика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_ph%C3%A1i_nguy%C3%AAn_t%E1%BB%AD" title="Trường phái nguyên tử – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Trường phái nguyên tử" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%AE%BA" title="原子论 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="原子论" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%98%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="אטאמיזם – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אטאמיזם" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%AB%96" title="原子論 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="原子論" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q178668#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Atomism" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Atomism"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Atomism"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Atomism" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Atomism" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&oldid=1256604680" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Atomism&id=1256604680&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FAtomism"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FAtomism"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Atomism&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q178668" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Natural philosophy holding that the world comprises fundamental indivisible components</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the natural philosophy regarding the fundamental composition of the physical world. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Atomism_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Atomism (disambiguation)">Atomism (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p><b>Atomism</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἄτομον</span></span>, <i>atomon</i>, i.e. "uncuttable, indivisible")<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> proposing that the physical universe is composed of fundamental indivisible components known as <a href="/wiki/Atoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Atoms">atoms</a>. </p><p>References to the concept of atomism and its <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> appeared in both <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">ancient Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Indian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Indian philosophy">ancient Indian</a> philosophical traditions. <a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a> is the earliest figure whose commitment to atomism is well attested and he is usually credited with inventing atomism.<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He and other ancient Greek atomists theorized that nature consists of two fundamental <a href="/wiki/Principle_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Principle (philosophy)">principles</a>: <i>atom</i> and <a href="/wiki/Void_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Void (philosophy)"><i>void</i></a>. Clusters of different shapes, arrangements, and positions give rise to the various macroscopic <a href="/wiki/Substance_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance (philosophy)">substances</a> in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SEP_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhists</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a> (<abbr title="floruit ('flourished' – known to have been active at a particular time or during a particular period)">fl.</abbr> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 6th or 7th century) and others, developed distinctive theories of atomism, for example, involving momentary (instantaneous) atoms (<a href="/wiki/Kalapa_(atomism)" title="Kalapa (atomism)"><i>kalapa</i>s</a>) that flash in and out of existence. </p><p>The particles of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical matter">chemical matter</a> for which <a href="/wiki/Chemists" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemists">chemists</a> and other natural philosophers of the early 19th century found experimental evidence were thought to be indivisible, and therefore were given by <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> the name "atom", long used by the atomist philosophy. Although the connection to historical atomism is at best tenuous, <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">elementary particles</a> have become a modern analogue of philosophical atoms. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reductionism">Reductionism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Reductionism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philosophical atomism is a <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductive</a> argument, proposing not only that everything is composed of atoms and void, but that nothing they compose really exists: the only things that really exist are atoms ricocheting off each other <a href="/wiki/Mechanism_(philosophy)" title="Mechanism (philosophy)">mechanistically</a> in an otherwise empty <a href="/wiki/Void_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Void (philosophy)">void</a>. One proponent of this theory was the Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>By convention sweet is sweet, by convention bitter is bitter, by convention hot is hot, by convention cold is cold, by convention color is color. But in reality there are atoms and the void.</p></blockquote> <p>Atomism stands in contrast to a <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance theory</a> wherein a prime material continuum remains qualitatively invariant under division (for example, the ratio of the four <a href="/wiki/Classical_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical elements">classical elements</a> would be the same in any portion of a homogeneous material). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Antiquity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greek_atomism">Greek atomism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Greek atomism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Democritus">Democritus</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Democritus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bust_of_Democritus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Bust_of_Democritus.jpg/170px-Bust_of_Democritus.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Bust_of_Democritus.jpg/255px-Bust_of_Democritus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Bust_of_Democritus.jpg/340px-Bust_of_Democritus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1252" data-file-height="2254" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the 5th century BC, <a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a> and his pupil <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a> proposed that all matter was composed of small indivisible particles which they called "atoms".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenny2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nothing whatsoever is known about Leucippus except that he was the teacher of Democritus.<sup id="cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenny2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Democritus, by contrast, wrote prolifically, producing over eighty known treatises, none of which have survived to the present day complete.<sup id="cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenny2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a massive number of fragments and quotations of his writings have survived.<sup id="cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenny2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are the main source of information on his teachings about atoms.<sup id="cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenny2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Democritus's argument for the existence of atoms hinged on the idea that it is impossible to keep dividing matter infinitely - and that matter must therefore be made up of extremely tiny particles.<sup id="cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenny2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The atomistic theory aimed to remove the "distinction which the <a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatic school</a> drew between the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">Absolute</a>, or the only real existence, and the world of change around us."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Democritus believed that atoms are too small for human senses to detect, that they are infinitely many, that they come in infinitely many varieties, and that they have always existed.<sup id="cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenny2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They float in a vacuum, which Democritus called the <a href="/wiki/Void_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Void (philosophy)"> "void"</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenny2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and they vary in form, order, and posture.<sup id="cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenny2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some atoms, he maintained, are convex, others concave, some shaped like hooks, and others like <a href="/wiki/Eye_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Eye (disambiguation)"> eyes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenny2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are constantly moving and colliding into each other.<sup id="cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenny2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Democritus wrote that atoms and void are the only things that exist and that all other things are merely said to exist by <a href="/wiki/Social_convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Social convention">social convention</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenny2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The objects humans see in everyday life are composed of many atoms united by random collisions and their forms and materials are determined by what kinds of atom make them up.<sup id="cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenny2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, human perceptions are caused by atoms as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenny2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bitter_(taste)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bitter (taste)"> Bitterness</a> is caused by small, angular, jagged atoms passing across the tongue;<sup id="cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenny2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas <a href="/wiki/Sweetness" title="Sweetness">sweetness</a> is caused by larger, smoother, more rounded atoms passing across the tongue.<sup id="cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenny2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Previously, <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a> had denied the existence of motion, change and void. He believed all existence to be a single, all-encompassing and unchanging mass (a concept known as <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monism</a>), and that change and motion were mere illusions. He explicitly rejected sensory experience as the path to an understanding of the universe and instead used purely abstract reasoning. He believed there is no such thing as void, equating it with non-being. This in turn meant that motion is impossible, because there is no void to move into.<sup id="cite_ref-FromAtomosToAtom_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FromAtomosToAtom-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parmenides doesn't mention or explicitly deny the existence of the void, stating instead that what is not does not exist.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-History_of_Western_Philosophy_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_of_Western_Philosophy-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also wrote all that <em>is</em> must be an indivisible unity, for if it were manifold, then there would have to be a void that could divide it. Finally, he stated that the all encompassing Unity is unchanging, for the Unity already encompasses all that is and can be.<sup id="cite_ref-FromAtomosToAtom_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FromAtomosToAtom-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Democritus rejected Parmenides' belief that change is an illusion. He believed change was real, and if it was not then at least the illusion had to be explained. He thus supported the concept of void, and stated that the universe is made up of many Parmenidean entities that move around in the void.<sup id="cite_ref-FromAtomosToAtom_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FromAtomosToAtom-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The void is infinite and provides the space in which the atoms can pack or scatter differently. The different possible packings and scatterings within the void make up the shifting outlines and bulk of the objects that organisms feel, see, eat, hear, smell, and taste. While organisms may feel hot or cold, hot and cold actually have no real existence. They are simply sensations produced in organisms by the different packings and scatterings of the atoms in the void that compose the object that organisms sense as being "hot" or "cold". </p><p>The work of Democritus survives only in secondhand reports, some of which are unreliable or conflicting. Much of the best evidence of Democritus' theory of atomism is reported by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BCE) in his discussions of Democritus' and <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s contrasting views on the types of indivisibles composing the natural world.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unit-point_atomism">Unit-point atomism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Unit-point atomism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to some <a href="/wiki/20th_century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="20th century philosophy">twentieth-century philosophers</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b>unit-point atomism</b> was the philosophy of the <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreans" class="mw-redirect" title="Pythagoreans">Pythagoreans</a>, a conscious repudiation of <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a>. It stated that atoms were infinitesimally small ("point") yet possessed corporeality. It was a predecessor of <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritean</a> atomism. Most recent students of <a href="/wiki/Presocratic_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Presocratic philosophy">presocratic philosophy</a>, such as <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_von_Fritz" class="extiw" title="de:Kurt von Fritz">Kurt von Fritz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Burkert" title="Walter Burkert">Walter Burkert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Vlastos" title="Gregory Vlastos">Gregory Vlastos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Barnes" title="Jonathan Barnes">Jonathan Barnes</a>, and Daniel W. Graham have rejected that any form of atomism can be applied to the early Pythagoreans (before <a href="/wiki/Ecphantus_of_Syracuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecphantus of Syracuse">Ecphantus of Syracuse</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unit-point atomism was invoked in order to make sense of a statement ascribed to <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno of Elea</a> in <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Parmenides_(dialogue)" title="Parmenides (dialogue)">Parmenides</a></i>: "these writings of mine were meant to protect the arguments of Parmenides against those who make fun of him. . . My answer is addressed to the partisans of the many. . ."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The anti-Parmenidean pluralists were supposedly unit-point atomists whose philosophy was essentially a reaction against the Eleatics. This hypothesis, however, to explain <a href="/wiki/Zeno%27s_paradoxes" title="Zeno's paradoxes">Zeno's paradoxes</a>, has been thoroughly discredited.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geometry_and_atoms">Geometry and atoms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Geometry and atoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Original_research plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit">improve it</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifying</a> the claims made and adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a>. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 427</span> – <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 347</span> BCE) argued that atoms just crashing into other atoms could never produce the beauty and form of the world. In Plato's <a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)"> <i>Timaeus</i></a> <small>(28b–29a)</small> the character of Timeaus insisted that the <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmos</a> was not eternal but was created, although its creator framed it after an eternal, unchanging model.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table border="1" cellpadding="7" style="float:right; margin-left:20px; margin-right:5px; width:280px; text-align:center; border-collapse: collapse"> <tbody><tr> <th>Element </th> <th colspan="2">Polyhedron </th> <th>Number of Faces </th> <th>Number of Triangles </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Fire</b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tetrahedron" title="Tetrahedron">Tetrahedron</a><br /> <p><small>(<a href="/wiki/File:Tetrahedron.gif" title="File:Tetrahedron.gif">Animation</a>)</small> </p> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tetrahedron.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tetrahedron"><img alt="Tetrahedron" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Tetrahedron.svg/50px-Tetrahedron.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Tetrahedron.svg/75px-Tetrahedron.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Tetrahedron.svg/100px-Tetrahedron.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="540" /></a></span> </td> <td>4 </td> <td>24 </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Air</b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Octahedron" title="Octahedron">Octahedron</a><br /> <p><small>(<a href="/wiki/File:Octahedron.gif" title="File:Octahedron.gif">Animation</a>)</small> </p> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Octahedron.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Octahedron"><img alt="Octahedron" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Octahedron.svg/50px-Octahedron.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Octahedron.svg/75px-Octahedron.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Octahedron.svg/100px-Octahedron.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="840" data-file-height="832" /></a></span> </td> <td>8 </td> <td>48 </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Water</b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Icosahedron" title="Icosahedron">Icosahedron</a><br /> <p><small>(<a href="/wiki/File:Icosahedron.gif" title="File:Icosahedron.gif">Animation</a>)</small> </p> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Icosahedron.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Icosahedron"><img alt="Icosahedron" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Icosahedron.svg/50px-Icosahedron.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="48" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Icosahedron.svg/75px-Icosahedron.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Icosahedron.svg/100px-Icosahedron.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="492" /></a></span> </td> <td>20 </td> <td>120 </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Earth</b> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cube_(geometry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cube (geometry)">Cube</a><br /> <p><small>(<a href="/wiki/File:Hexahedron.gif" title="File:Hexahedron.gif">Animation</a>)</small> </p> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hexahedron.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hexahedron (cube)"><img alt="Hexahedron (cube)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Hexahedron.svg/50px-Hexahedron.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Hexahedron.svg/75px-Hexahedron.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Hexahedron.svg/100px-Hexahedron.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </td> <td>6 </td> <td>24 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5"><i><b>Geometrical simple bodies according to Plato</b></i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>One part of that creation were the <a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">four simple bodies of fire, air, water, and earth</a>. But Plato did not consider these <a href="/wiki/Corpuscularianism" title="Corpuscularianism">corpuscles</a> to be the most basic level of reality, for in his view they were made up of an unchanging level of reality, which was mathematical. These simple bodies were <a href="/wiki/Platonic_solid" title="Platonic solid"> geometric solids</a>, the faces of which were, in turn, made up of triangles. The square faces of the cube were each made up of four <a href="/wiki/Triangle#Types_of_triangle" title="Triangle">isosceles right-angled triangles</a> and the triangular faces of the tetrahedron, octahedron, and icosahedron were each made up of six right-angled triangles. </p><p>Plato postulated the geometric structure of the simple bodies of the four elements as summarized in the adjacent table. The cube, with its flat base and stability, was assigned to earth; the tetrahedron was assigned to fire because its penetrating points and sharp edges made it mobile. The points and edges of the octahedron and icosahedron were blunter and so these less mobile bodies were assigned to air and water. Since the simple bodies could be decomposed into triangles, and the triangles reassembled into atoms of different elements, Plato's model offered a plausible account of changes among the primary substances.<sup id="cite_ref-lloyd:early:74_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lloyd:early:74-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cornford:210–239_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cornford:210–239-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rejection_in_Aristotelianism">Rejection in Aristotelianism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Rejection in Aristotelianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sometime before 330 BC <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> asserted that the elements of fire, air, earth, and water were not made of atoms, but were continuous. Aristotle considered the existence of a void, which was required by atomic theories, to violate physical principles. Change took place not by the rearrangement of atoms to make new structures, but by transformation of matter from what it was in <a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality" title="Potentiality and actuality">potential to a new actuality</a>. A piece of wet clay, when acted upon by a potter, takes on its potential to be an actual drinking mug. Aristotle has often been criticized for rejecting atomism, but in ancient Greece the atomic theories of Democritus remained "pure speculations, incapable of being put to any experimental test".<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lloyd:early:108–109_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lloyd:early:108–109-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:BALANCE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:BALANCE"><span title="The material near this tag seems to express a non-neutral point of view. (March 2012)">unbalanced opinion?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Aristotle theorized <i><a href="/wiki/Minima_naturalia" title="Minima naturalia">minima naturalia</a></i> as the smallest parts into which a homogeneous natural substance (e.g., flesh, bone, or wood) could be divided and still retain its essential character. Unlike the atomism of Democritus, these Aristotelian "natural minima" were not conceptualized as physically indivisible. Instead, Aristotle's concept was rooted in his <a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">hylomorphic</a> worldview, which held that every physical thing is a compound of matter (Greek <i>hyle</i>) and of an immaterial <a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">substantial form</a> (Greek <i>morphe</i>) that imparts its essential nature and structure. To use an analogy we could pose a rubber ball: we could imagine the rubber to be the matter that gives the ball the ability to take on another form, and the spherical shape to be the form that gives it its identity of "ball". Using this analogy, though, we should keep in mind that in fact rubber itself would already be considered a composite of form and matter, as it has identity and determinacy to a certain extent, pure or primary matter is completely unformed, unintelligible and with infinite potential to undergo change. </p><p>Aristotle's intuition was that there is some smallest size beyond which matter could no longer be structured as flesh, or bone, or wood, or some other such organic substance that for Aristotle (living before the invention of the microscope) could be considered homogeneous. For instance, if flesh were divided beyond its natural minimum, what would be left might be a large amount of the element water, and smaller amounts of the other elements. But whatever water or other elements were left, they would no longer have the "nature" of flesh: in hylomorphic terms, they would no longer be matter structured by the form of flesh; instead the remaining water, e.g., would be matter structured by the form of water, not by the form of flesh. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Epicurus">Epicurus</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Epicurus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Epikouros_Met_11.90.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Epikouros_Met_11.90.jpg/150px-Epikouros_Met_11.90.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Epikouros_Met_11.90.jpg/225px-Epikouros_Met_11.90.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Epikouros_Met_11.90.jpg/300px-Epikouros_Met_11.90.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2700" data-file-height="4050" /></a><figcaption>Epicurus</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> (341–270 BCE) studied atomism with <a href="/wiki/Nausiphanes" title="Nausiphanes">Nausiphanes</a> who had been a student of Democritus. Although Epicurus was certain of the existence of atoms and the void, he was less sure we could adequately explain specific natural phenomena such as earthquakes, lightning, comets, or the phases of the Moon.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Few of Epicurus' writings survive, and those that do reflect his interest in applying Democritus' theories to assist people in taking <a href="/wiki/Responsibility_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Responsibility (disambiguation)">responsibility</a> for themselves and for their own happiness—since he held there are no gods around that can help them. (Epicurus regarded the role of gods as exemplifying moral ideals.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Indian_atomism">Ancient Indian atomism <span class="anchor" id="India"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ancient Indian atomism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Indian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Indian philosophy">ancient Indian philosophy</a>, preliminary instances of atomism are found in the works of <a href="/wiki/Vedic" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic">Vedic</a> sage <a href="/wiki/Aruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Aruni">Aruni</a>, who lived in the 8th century BCE,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (April 2023)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Atomism#Dubious" title="Talk:Atomism">discuss</a></i>]</sup> especially his proposition that "particles too small to be seen mass together into the substances and objects of experience" known as <i>kaṇa</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <i>kana</i> refers to "particles" not atoms (<a href="/wiki/Paramanu" title="Paramanu">paramanu</a>). Some scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Jacobi" title="Hermann Jacobi">Hermann Jacobi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Randall_Collins" title="Randall Collins">Randall Collins</a> have compared Aruni to <a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales of Miletus</a> in their scientific methodology, calling them both as "primitive physicists" or "proto-materialist thinkers".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, the <a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Ajivika" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajivika">Ajivika</a> schools of atomism originated as early as the 7th century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-r79_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r79-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jmk_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jmk-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bhattacharya posits that Charvaka may have been one of several atheistic, materialist schools that existed in ancient India.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kanada_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanada (philosopher)">Kanada</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a> school of <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a> that also represents the earliest Indian <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a> schools developed theories on how <i>kaṇa</i>s combined into more complex objects.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several of these doctrines of atomism are, in some respects, "suggestively similar" to that of Democritus.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> McEvilley (2002) assumes that such similarities are due to extensive cultural contact and diffusion, probably in both directions.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a>–<a href="/wiki/Vaisesika" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaisesika">Vaisesika</a> school developed one of the earliest forms of atomism; scholars<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (March 2018)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> date the Nyaya and Vaisesika texts from the 9th to 4th centuries BCE. Vaisesika atomists posited the four elemental atom types, but in Vaisesika physics atoms had 25 different possible qualities, divided between general <a href="/wiki/Intensive_and_extensive_properties" title="Intensive and extensive properties">extensive</a> properties and specific (intensive) properties. The Nyaya–Vaisesika atomists had elaborate theories of how atoms combine. In Vaisesika atomism, atoms first combine into <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">tryaṇuka</i></span>s (triads) and <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">dvyaṇuka</i></span> (dyad) before they aggregate into bodies of a kind that can be perceived.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Roman_Republic">Late Roman Republic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Late Roman Republic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lucretius_revives_Epicurus">Lucretius revives Epicurus</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Lucretius revives Epicurus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lucretius_pointing_to_the_casus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Lucretius_pointing_to_the_casus.jpg/220px-Lucretius_pointing_to_the_casus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="359" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Lucretius_pointing_to_the_casus.jpg/330px-Lucretius_pointing_to_the_casus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Lucretius_pointing_to_the_casus.jpg/440px-Lucretius_pointing_to_the_casus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1965" data-file-height="3204" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Epicurus' ideas re-appear in the works of his <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman</a> follower <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 99 BC – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 55 BC), who wrote <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Nature_of_Things" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Nature of Things">On the Nature of Things</a></i>. This <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a> scientific work in poetic form illustrates several segments of Epicurean theory on how the universe came into its current stage; it shows that the phenomena we perceive are actually composite forms. The atoms and the void are eternal and in constant motion. Atomic collisions create objects, which are still composed of the same eternal atoms whose motion for a while is incorporated into the created entity. Lucretius also explains human sensations and meteorological phenomena in terms of atomic motion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id=""Atoms"_and_"vacuum"_vs._religion"><span id=".22Atoms.22_and_.22vacuum.22_vs._religion"></span>"Atoms" and "vacuum" vs. religion</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: "Atoms" and "vacuum" vs. religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his epic poem <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Nature_of_Things" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Nature of Things">On the Nature of Things</a>,</i> Lucretius depicts Epicurus as the hero who crushed the monster <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a> through educating the people in what was possible in atoms and what was <i>not</i> possible in atoms. However,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="not clearly contradictory, see talk page section 'Strange assertion of contradiction' (May 2024)"><i>non sequitur</i></span></a></i>]</sup> Epicurus expressed a non-aggressive attitude characterized by his statement:<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The man who best knows how to meet external threats makes into one family all the creatures he can; and those he can not, he at any rate does not treat as aliens; and where he finds even this impossible, he avoids all dealings, and, so far as is advantageous, excludes them from his life.</p></blockquote> <p>However, according to science historian Charles Coulston Gillispie: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Encased in the Epicurean philosophy, the atomic doctrine could never be welcome to moral authority. ... Epicurean gods neither created the world nor paid it ... attention. "Nature," says Lucretius, "is free and uncontrolled by proud masters and runs the universe by herself without the aid of gods." Only the atomists among ... Greek science ... was the one view of nature quite incompatible with theology. Like a pair of eighteenth-century philosophers, Epicurus and Lucretius introduced atomism as a vehicle of enlightenment. They meant to refute the pretensions of religion ... and release men from superstition and the undignified fear of capricious gods. Consequently, a hint of Epicureanism came to seem the mark of the beast in Christian Europe. No thinker, unless it is Machiavelli, has been more maligned by misrepresentation.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>The possibility of a vacuum was accepted—or rejected—together with atoms and atomism, for the vacuum was part of that same theory. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Democritus and Lucretius denied the impossibility of a vacuum, being of the opinion that there must be a vacuum between the discrete particles (atoms) of which, they thought, all matter is composed. In general, however, the belief that a vacuum is impossible was almost universally held until the end of the sixteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ... The time was certainly ripe for the revival of the belief in the possibility of a vacuum, but to the clerics the very name of the vacuum was anathema, being associated with the atomistic theories of Epicurus and Lucretius, which were felt to be heretical.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_Empire">Roman Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Roman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Galen">Galen</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Galen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galenus_(cropped)3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Galenus_%28cropped%293.jpg/140px-Galenus_%28cropped%293.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Galenus_%28cropped%293.jpg/210px-Galenus_%28cropped%293.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Galenus_%28cropped%293.jpg 2x" data-file-width="258" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></figcaption></figure> <p>While Aristotelian philosophy eclipsed the importance of the atomists in late Roman and medieval Europe, their work was still preserved and exposited through commentaries on the works of Aristotle. In the 2nd century, <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> (AD 129–216) presented extensive discussions of the Greek atomists, especially Epicurus, in his Aristotle commentaries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_Hinduism">Medieval Hinduism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Medieval Hinduism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ajivika</a> is a "<a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Nastika</a>" school of thought whose metaphysics included a theory of atoms or atomism which was later adapted in the <a href="/wiki/Vai%C5%9Be%E1%B9%A3ika" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaiśeṣika">Vaiśeṣika</a> school, which postulated that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to <i>paramāṇu</i> (<a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>), and one's experiences are derived from the interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence.<sup id="cite_ref-olil_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-olil-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Everything was composed of atoms, qualities emerged from aggregates of atoms, but the aggregation and nature of these atoms was predetermined by cosmic forces.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kanada_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanada (philosopher)">The school founder's traditional name <i>Kanada</i></a> means 'atom eater',<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and he is known for developing the foundations of an atomistic approach to physics and philosophy in the Sanskrit text <i><a href="/wiki/Vai%C5%9Be%E1%B9%A3ika_S%C5%ABtra" title="Vaiśeṣika Sūtra">Vaiśeṣika Sūtra</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His text is also known as <i>Kanada Sutras</i>, or Aphorisms of Kanada.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kak_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kak-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_Buddhism">Medieval Buddhism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Medieval Buddhism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dignaga_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Statue of Dignagi, Golden Abode of Shakyamuni Buddha, Elista, Kalmykia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Dignaga_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Dignaga_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Dignaga_%28cropped%29.jpg/226px-Dignaga_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Dignaga_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-Dignaga_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="754" data-file-height="789" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Medieval <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_atomism" title="Buddhist atomism">Buddhist atomism</a>, flourishing around the 7th century, was very different from the atomist doctrines taught in early Buddhism. Medieval Buddhist philosophers <a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a> considered atoms to be point-sized, durationless, and made of energy. In discussing the two systems, <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Shcherbatskoy" title="Fyodor Shcherbatskoy">Fyodor Shcherbatskoy</a> (1930) stresses their commonality, the postulate of "absolute qualities" (<i>guna-dharma</i>) underlying all empirical phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Still later, the <a href="/wiki/Abhidhammattha-sangaha" title="Abhidhammattha-sangaha">Abhidhammattha-sangaha</a>, a text dated to the 11th or 12th century, postulates the existence of <i><a href="/wiki/Rupa-kalapa" class="mw-redirect" title="Rupa-kalapa">rupa-kalapa</a></i>, imagined as the smallest units of the physical world, of varying <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81bh%C5%ABta#Buddhism" title="Mahābhūta">elementary</a> composition.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Invisible under normal circumstances, the <i>rupa-kalapa</i> are said to become visible as a result of meditative <a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samadhi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_Islam">Medieval Islam</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Medieval Islam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy#Atomism" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early Islamic philosophy: Atomism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam">Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam</a></div> <p>Atomistic philosophies are found very early in <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a> and were influenced originally by earlier Greek and, to some extent, Indian philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sachau_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sachau-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Islamic speculative theology in general approached issues in physics from an atomistic framework.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Al-Ghazali_and_Asharite_atomism">Al-Ghazali and Asharite atomism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Al-Ghazali and Asharite atomism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Ghaz%C4%81l%C4%AB,_Sayr_mulhimah_min_al-Sharq_wa-al-Gharb.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Al-Ghaz%C4%81l%C4%AB%2C_Sayr_mulhimah_min_al-Sharq_wa-al-Gharb.png/150px-Al-Ghaz%C4%81l%C4%AB%2C_Sayr_mulhimah_min_al-Sharq_wa-al-Gharb.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Al-Ghaz%C4%81l%C4%AB%2C_Sayr_mulhimah_min_al-Sharq_wa-al-Gharb.png/225px-Al-Ghaz%C4%81l%C4%AB%2C_Sayr_mulhimah_min_al-Sharq_wa-al-Gharb.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Al-Ghaz%C4%81l%C4%AB%2C_Sayr_mulhimah_min_al-Sharq_wa-al-Gharb.png/300px-Al-Ghaz%C4%81l%C4%AB%2C_Sayr_mulhimah_min_al-Sharq_wa-al-Gharb.png 2x" data-file-width="565" data-file-height="754" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The most successful form of Islamic atomism was in the <a href="/wiki/Asharite" class="mw-redirect" title="Asharite">Asharite</a> school of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic theology">Islamic theology</a>, most notably in the work of the theologian <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a> (1058–1111). In Asharite atomism, atoms are the only perpetual, material things in existence, and all else in the world is "accidental" meaning something that lasts for only an instant. Nothing accidental can be the cause of anything else, except perception, as it exists for a moment. Contingent events are not subject to natural physical causes, but are the direct result of God's constant intervention, without which nothing could happen. Thus nature is completely dependent on God, which meshes with other Asharite Islamic ideas on causation, or the lack thereof (Gardet 2001). Al-Ghazali also used the theory to support his theory of <a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">occasionalism</a>. In a sense, the Asharite theory of atomism has far more in common with Indian atomism than it does with Greek atomism.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Averroes_rejects_atomism">Averroes rejects atomism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Averroes rejects atomism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other traditions in Islam rejected the atomism of the Asharites and expounded on many Greek texts, especially those of Aristotle. An active school of philosophers in Al-Andalus, including the noted commentator <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> (1126–1198 CE) explicitly rejected the thought of al-Ghazali and turned to an extensive evaluation of the thought of Aristotle. Averroes commented in detail on most of the works of Aristotle and his commentaries became <a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">very influential</a> in Jewish and Christian scholastic thought. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_Christendom">Medieval Christendom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Medieval Christendom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to historian of atomism Joshua Gregory, there was no serious work done with atomism from the time of Galen until <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Beeckman" title="Isaac Beeckman">Isaac Beeckman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Gassendi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a> resurrected it in the 17th century; "the gap between these two 'modern naturalists' and the ancient Atomists marked "the exile of the atom" and "it is universally admitted that the Middle Ages had abandoned Atomism, and virtually lost it." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Scholasticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the ancient atomists' works were unavailable, <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic</a> thinkers gradually became aware of Aristotle's critiques of atomism as <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>'s commentaries were translated into <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>. Although the atomism of Epicurus had fallen out of favor in the centuries of <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Minima_naturalia" title="Minima naturalia">minima naturalia</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> received extensive consideration. Speculation on <i>minima naturalia</i> provided philosophical background for the mechanistic philosophy of early modern thinkers such as Descartes, and for the alchemical works of <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Geber" title="Pseudo-Geber">Geber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Sennert" title="Daniel Sennert">Daniel Sennert</a>, who in turn influenced the <a href="/wiki/Corpuscularianism" title="Corpuscularianism">corpuscularian</a> alchemist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>, one of the founders of modern chemistry.<sup id="cite_ref-Murdoch2001_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murdoch2001-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chalmers2009_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chalmers2009-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A chief theme in late Roman and Scholastic commentary on this concept was reconciling <i>minima naturalia</i> with the general Aristotelian principle of <a href="/wiki/Infinite_divisibility" title="Infinite divisibility">infinite divisibility</a>. Commentators like <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> reconciled these aspects of Aristotle's thought by distinguishing between mathematical and "natural" divisibility. With few exceptions, much of the curriculum in the universities of Europe was based on such Aristotelianism for most of the Middle Ages.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nicholas_of_Autrecourt">Nicholas of Autrecourt</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Nicholas of Autrecourt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicholas_of_Autrecourt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Nicholas_of_Autrecourt.jpg/150px-Nicholas_of_Autrecourt.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Nicholas_of_Autrecourt.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="182" data-file-height="220" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Autrecourt" title="Nicholas of Autrecourt">Nicholas of Autrecourt</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Medieval_universities" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval universities">medieval universities</a> there were, however, expressions of atomism. For example, in the 14th century <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Autrecourt" title="Nicholas of Autrecourt">Nicholas of Autrecourt</a> considered that matter, space, and time were all made up of indivisible atoms, points, and instants and that all generation and corruption took place by the rearrangement of material atoms. The similarities of his ideas with those of <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a> suggest that Nicholas may have been familiar with Ghazali's work, perhaps through <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>' refutation of it.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Atomist_renaissance">Atomist renaissance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Atomist renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="17th_century">17th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: 17th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 17th century, a renewed interest arose in <a href="/wiki/Epicurean" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicurean">Epicurean</a> atomism and <a href="/wiki/Corpuscularianism" title="Corpuscularianism">corpuscularianism</a> as a hybrid or an alternative to <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Aristotelian physics</a>. The main figures in the rebirth of atomism were <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Beeckman" title="Isaac Beeckman">Isaac Beeckman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>, as well as other notable figures. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Northumberland_circle">Northumberland circle</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Northumberland circle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Francis_Bacon_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Portrait_of_Francis_Bacon_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Portrait_of_Francis_Bacon_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Portrait_of_Francis_Bacon_%28cropped%29.jpg/225px-Portrait_of_Francis_Bacon_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Portrait_of_Francis_Bacon_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-Portrait_of_Francis_Bacon_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="738" data-file-height="969" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></figcaption></figure> <p>One of the first groups of atomists in England was a cadre of amateur scientists known as the Northumberland circle, led by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Percy,_9th_Earl_of_Northumberland" title="Henry Percy, 9th Earl of Northumberland">Henry Percy, 9th Earl of Northumberland</a> (1564–1632). Although they published little of account, they helped to disseminate atomistic ideas among the burgeoning scientific culture of England, and may have been particularly influential to <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>, who became an atomist around 1605, though he later rejected some of the claims of atomism. Though they revived the classical form of atomism, this group was among the scientific avant-garde: the Northumberland circle contained nearly half of the confirmed Copernicans prior to 1610 (the year of Galileo's <a href="/wiki/Sidereus_Nuncius" title="Sidereus Nuncius"><i>The Starry Messenger</i></a>). Other influential atomists of late 16th and early 17th centuries include <a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> (who also changed his stance on atomism late in his career), and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hariot" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Hariot">Thomas Hariot</a>. A number of different atomistic theories were blossoming in France at this time, as well (Clericuzio 2000). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Galileo_Galilei">Galileo Galilei</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Galileo Galilei"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei.jpg/150px-Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei.jpg/225px-Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei.jpg/300px-Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei.jpg 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="448" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> (1564–1642) was an advocate of atomism in his 1612 <i>Discourse on Floating Bodies</i> (Redondi 1969). In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Assayer" title="The Assayer">The Assayer</a></i>, Galileo offered a more complete physical system based on a <a href="#Corpuscularianism">corpuscular</a> theory of matter, in which all phenomena—with the exception of sound—are produced by "matter in motion". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Perceived_vs._real_properties">Perceived vs. real properties</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Perceived vs. real properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Atomism was associated by its leading proponents with the idea that some of the apparent properties of objects are artifacts of the perceiving mind, that is, "secondary" qualities as distinguished from "primary" qualities.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Galileo identified some basic problems with Aristotelian physics through his experiments. He utilized a theory of atomism as a partial replacement, but he was never unequivocally committed to it. For example, his experiments with falling bodies and inclined planes led him to the concepts of circular inertial motion and accelerating free-fall. The current Aristotelian theories of impetus and terrestrial motion were inadequate to explain these. While atomism did not explain the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_fall" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of fall">law of fall</a> either, it was a more promising framework in which to develop an explanation because motion was conserved in ancient atomism (unlike Aristotelian physics). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="René_Descartes"><span id="Ren.C3.A9_Descartes"></span>René Descartes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: René Descartes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes_(cropped)3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Portrait of René Descartes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes_%28cropped%293.jpg/150px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes_%28cropped%293.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes_%28cropped%293.jpg/225px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes_%28cropped%293.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes_%28cropped%293.jpg/300px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes_%28cropped%293.jpg 2x" data-file-width="436" data-file-height="432" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>' (1596–1650) <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_explanations_of_gravitation#Vortex" title="Mechanical explanations of gravitation">"mechanical" philosophy</a> of corpuscularism had much in common with atomism, and is considered, in some senses, to be a different version of it. Descartes thought everything physical in the universe to be made of tiny <i>vortices</i> of matter. Like the ancient atomists, Descartes claimed that sensations, such as taste or temperature, are caused by the shape and size of tiny pieces of matter. In <i>Principles of Philosophy</i> (1644) he writes: "The nature of body consists just in extension—not in weight, hardness, colour or the like."<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main difference between atomism and Descartes' concept was the existence of the void. For him, there could be no vacuum, and all matter was constantly swirling to prevent a void as corpuscles moved through other matter. Another key distinction between Descartes' view and classical atomism is the <a href="/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">mind/body duality</a> of Descartes, which allowed for an independent realm of existence for thought, soul, and most importantly, God. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pierre_Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Pierre Gassendi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pierre_Gassendi_(Unknown_artist).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Pierre_Gassendi_%28Unknown_artist%29.jpg/149px-Pierre_Gassendi_%28Unknown_artist%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="149" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Pierre_Gassendi_%28Unknown_artist%29.jpg/225px-Pierre_Gassendi_%28Unknown_artist%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Pierre_Gassendi_%28Unknown_artist%29.jpg/299px-Pierre_Gassendi_%28Unknown_artist%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="823" data-file-height="930" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</a> (1592–1655) was a Catholic priest from France who was also an avid natural philosopher. Gassendi's concept of atomism was closer to classical atomism, but with no atheistic overtone. He was particularly intrigued by the Greek atomists, so he set out to "purify" atomism from its heretical and atheistic philosophical conclusions (Dijksterhius 1969). Gassendi formulated his atomistic conception of <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">mechanical philosophy</a> partly in response to Descartes; he particularly opposed Descartes' reductionist view that only purely mechanical explanations of physics are valid, as well as the application of geometry to the whole of physics (Clericuzio 2000). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Johann_Chrysostom_Magnenus">Johann Chrysostom Magnenus</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Johann Chrysostom Magnenus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burning_Incense.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Burning_Incense.jpg/149px-Burning_Incense.jpg" decoding="async" width="149" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Burning_Incense.jpg/224px-Burning_Incense.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Burning_Incense.jpg/299px-Burning_Incense.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1378" data-file-height="1548" /></a><figcaption>Burning incense</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Johann_Chrysostom_Magnenus" title="Johann Chrysostom Magnenus">Johann Chrysostom Magnenus</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1590</span> – <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1679</span>) published his <i>Democritus reviviscens</i> in 1646. Magnenus was the first to arrive at a scientific estimate of the size of an "atom" (i.e. of what would today be called a <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a>). Measuring how much <a href="/wiki/Incense" title="Incense">incense</a> had to be burned before it could be smelled everywhere in a large church, he calculated the number of molecules in a grain of incense to be of the order 10<sup>18</sup>, only about one order of magnitude below the actual figure.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atomism_and_corpuscularianism">Atomism and corpuscularianism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Atomism and corpuscularianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Corpuscularianism" title="Corpuscularianism">Corpuscularianism</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portret_van_Robert_Boyle,_RP-P-OB-4578_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Portret_van_Robert_Boyle%2C_RP-P-OB-4578_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Portret_van_Robert_Boyle%2C_RP-P-OB-4578_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Portret_van_Robert_Boyle%2C_RP-P-OB-4578_%28cropped%29.jpg/224px-Portret_van_Robert_Boyle%2C_RP-P-OB-4578_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Portret_van_Robert_Boyle%2C_RP-P-OB-4578_%28cropped%29.jpg/299px-Portret_van_Robert_Boyle%2C_RP-P-OB-4578_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1363" data-file-height="1749" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Corpuscularianism" title="Corpuscularianism">Corpuscularianism</a> is similar to atomism, except that where atoms were supposed to be indivisible, corpuscles could in principle be divided. In this manner, for example, it was theorized that mercury could penetrate into metals and modify their inner structure, a step on the way towards transmutative production of gold. Corpuscularianism was associated by its leading proponents with the idea that some of the properties that objects appear to have are artifacts of the perceiving mind: 'secondary' qualities as distinguished from 'primary' qualities.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not all corpuscularianism made use of the primary-secondary quality distinction, however. An influential tradition in medieval and early modern alchemy argued that chemical analysis revealed the existence of robust corpuscles that retained their identity in chemical compounds (to use the modern term). <a href="/wiki/William_R._Newman" title="William R. Newman">William R. Newman</a> has dubbed this approach to matter theory "chymical atomism," and has argued for its significance to both the mechanical philosophy and to the chemical atomism that emerged in the early 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Isaac_Newton_by_James_Thronill,_after_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Isaac_Newton_by_James_Thronill%2C_after_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller.jpg/150px-Isaac_Newton_by_James_Thronill%2C_after_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Isaac_Newton_by_James_Thronill%2C_after_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller.jpg/225px-Isaac_Newton_by_James_Thronill%2C_after_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Isaac_Newton_by_James_Thronill%2C_after_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller.jpg/299px-Isaac_Newton_by_James_Thronill%2C_after_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1162" data-file-height="1452" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Corpuscularianism stayed a dominant theory over the next several hundred years and retained its links with <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a> in the work of scientists such as <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a> (1627–1692) and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> in the 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Levere_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levere-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was used by Newton, for instance, in his development of the <a href="/wiki/Corpuscular_theory_of_light" title="Corpuscular theory of light">corpuscular theory of light</a>. The form that came to be accepted by most English scientists after Robert Boyle was an amalgam of the systems of Descartes and Gassendi. In <a href="/wiki/The_Sceptical_Chymist" title="The Sceptical Chymist"><i>The Sceptical Chymist</i></a> (1661), Boyle demonstrates problems that arise from chemistry, and offers up atomism as a possible explanation. The unifying principle that would eventually lead to the acceptance of a hybrid corpuscular–atomism was <a href="/wiki/Mechanism_(philosophy)" title="Mechanism (philosophy)">mechanical philosophy</a>, which became widely accepted by <a href="/wiki/Physical_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical sciences">physical sciences</a>. Boyle referred to indivisible particles as <i>minima naturalia</i> or <i>prima naturalia</i>, and only very rarely used the term "atom".<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mikhail_Lomonosov">Mikhail Lomonosov</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Mikhail Lomonosov"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mikhail_Lomonosov_by_L._Miropolskiy_after_G._C._Prenner_(1787).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Mikhail_Lomonosov_by_L._Miropolskiy_after_G._C._Prenner_%281787%29.jpg/150px-Mikhail_Lomonosov_by_L._Miropolskiy_after_G._C._Prenner_%281787%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Mikhail_Lomonosov_by_L._Miropolskiy_after_G._C._Prenner_%281787%29.jpg/225px-Mikhail_Lomonosov_by_L._Miropolskiy_after_G._C._Prenner_%281787%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Mikhail_Lomonosov_by_L._Miropolskiy_after_G._C._Prenner_%281787%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="254" data-file-height="409" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Mikhail Lomonosov</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In his 1744 paper <i>Meditations on the Cause of Heat and Cold</i>, Russian polymath <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Mikhail Lomonosov</a> specifically defined corpuscles as composite particles: "An element is part of a body which is not composed of any other smaller body ... A corpuscle is a collection of elements which constitute one small mass.."<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a later study (1748), he uses the term "atom" instead of "element", and "particula" (particle) or "molecule" instead of "corpuscle." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_atomic_theory">Modern atomic theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Modern atomic theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic theory">Atomic theory</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_18th_century">Late 18th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Late 18th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ru%C4%91er_Bo%C5%A1kovi%C4%87_(Roger_Boscovich).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Ru%C4%91er_Bo%C5%A1kovi%C4%87_%28Roger_Boscovich%29.jpg/149px-Ru%C4%91er_Bo%C5%A1kovi%C4%87_%28Roger_Boscovich%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="149" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Ru%C4%91er_Bo%C5%A1kovi%C4%87_%28Roger_Boscovich%29.jpg/224px-Ru%C4%91er_Bo%C5%A1kovi%C4%87_%28Roger_Boscovich%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Ru%C4%91er_Bo%C5%A1kovi%C4%87_%28Roger_Boscovich%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="231" data-file-height="306" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roger_Joseph_Boscovich" title="Roger Joseph Boscovich">Roger Boscovich</a></figcaption></figure> <p>By the late 18th century, the useful practices of engineering and technology began to influence philosophical explanations of the composition of matter. Those who speculated on the ultimate nature of matter began to verify their "thought experiments" with some repeatable <a href="/wiki/Scientific_demonstration" title="Scientific demonstration">demonstrations</a>, when they could. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ragusa" title="Republic of Ragusa">Ragusan</a> polymath <a href="/wiki/Roger_Boscovich" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger Boscovich">Roger Boscovich</a> (1711–1787) provided the first general mathematical theory of atomism based on the ideas of Newton and Leibniz, but transforming them so as to provide a programme for atomic physics.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="John_Dalton">John Dalton</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: John Dalton"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Dalton_by_Charles_Turner_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/John_Dalton_by_Charles_Turner_%28cropped%29.jpg/149px-John_Dalton_by_Charles_Turner_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="149" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/John_Dalton_by_Charles_Turner_%28cropped%29.jpg/224px-John_Dalton_by_Charles_Turner_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/John_Dalton_by_Charles_Turner_%28cropped%29.jpg/299px-John_Dalton_by_Charles_Turner_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="379" data-file-height="591" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1808, English physicist <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> (1766–1844) assimilated the known experimental work of many people to summarize the <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a> on the composition of matter.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He noticed that distilled water everywhere analyzed to the same elements, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>. Similarly, other purified substances decomposed to the same elements in the same proportions by weight. </p> <dl><dd>Therefore we may conclude that the ultimate particles of all homogeneous bodies are perfectly alike in weight, figure, etc. In other words, every particle of water is like every other particle of water; every particle of hydrogen is like every other particle of hydrogen, etc.</dd></dl> <p>Furthermore, he concluded that there was a unique atom for each element, using <a href="/wiki/Lavoisier" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a>'s definition of an element as a substance that could not be <a href="/wiki/Analysis" title="Analysis">analyzed</a> into something simpler. Thus, Dalton concluded the following. </p> <dl><dd>Chemical <a href="/wiki/Chemical_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical analysis">analysis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">synthesis</a> go no farther than to the separation of particles one from another, and to their reunion. No new creation or destruction of matter is within the reach of chemical agency. We might as well attempt to introduce a new planet into the solar system, or to annihilate one already in existence, as to create or destroy a particle of hydrogen. All the changes we can produce, consist in separating particles that are in a state of cohesion or combination, and joining those that were previously at a distance.</dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Dalton;_Formulae_for_water_and_ammonia._1807_Wellcome_M0004648.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/John_Dalton%3B_Formulae_for_water_and_ammonia._1807_Wellcome_M0004648.jpg/220px-John_Dalton%3B_Formulae_for_water_and_ammonia._1807_Wellcome_M0004648.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/John_Dalton%3B_Formulae_for_water_and_ammonia._1807_Wellcome_M0004648.jpg/330px-John_Dalton%3B_Formulae_for_water_and_ammonia._1807_Wellcome_M0004648.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/John_Dalton%3B_Formulae_for_water_and_ammonia._1807_Wellcome_M0004648.jpg/440px-John_Dalton%3B_Formulae_for_water_and_ammonia._1807_Wellcome_M0004648.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4300" data-file-height="2450" /></a><figcaption>John Dalton's alternative formulae for water and ammonia</figcaption></figure> <p>And then he proceeded to give a list of relative weights in the compositions of several common compounds, summarizing:<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>1st. That <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> is a binary compound of hydrogen and oxygen, and the relative weights of the two elementary atoms are as 1:7, nearly;</dd></dl> <dl><dd>2nd. That <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> is a binary compound of hydrogen and azote <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, and the relative weights of the two atoms are as 1:5, nearly...</dd></dl> <p>Dalton concluded that the fixed proportions of elements by weight suggested that the atoms of one element combined with only a limited number of atoms of the other elements to form the substances that he listed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Atomic_theory_debate">Atomic theory debate</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Atomic theory debate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_William_Williamson,_ante_1904_-_Accademia_delle_Scienze_di_Torino_0116_B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Alexander_William_Williamson%2C_ante_1904_-_Accademia_delle_Scienze_di_Torino_0116_B.jpg/150px-Alexander_William_Williamson%2C_ante_1904_-_Accademia_delle_Scienze_di_Torino_0116_B.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Alexander_William_Williamson%2C_ante_1904_-_Accademia_delle_Scienze_di_Torino_0116_B.jpg/224px-Alexander_William_Williamson%2C_ante_1904_-_Accademia_delle_Scienze_di_Torino_0116_B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Alexander_William_Williamson%2C_ante_1904_-_Accademia_delle_Scienze_di_Torino_0116_B.jpg/299px-Alexander_William_Williamson%2C_ante_1904_-_Accademia_delle_Scienze_di_Torino_0116_B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1036" data-file-height="1508" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alexander_William_Williamson" title="Alexander William Williamson">Alexander William Williamson</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Dalton's <a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic theory">atomic theory</a> remained controversial throughout the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whilst the Law of definite proportion was accepted, the hypothesis that this was due to atoms was not so widely accepted. For example, in 1826 when <a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Sir Humphry Davy</a> presented Dalton the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Medal" title="Royal Medal">Royal Medal</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>, Davy said that the theory only became useful when the atomic conjecture was ignored.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> English chemist <a href="/wiki/Sir_Benjamin_Collins_Brodie,_2nd_Baronet" title="Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 2nd Baronet">Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie</a> in 1866 published the first part of his Calculus of Chemical Operations<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as a non-atomic alternative to the atomic theory. He described atomic theory as a 'Thoroughly materialistic bit of joiners work'.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> English chemist <a href="/wiki/Alexander_William_Williamson" title="Alexander William Williamson">Alexander Williamson</a> used his Presidential Address to the London Chemical Society in 1869<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to defend the atomic theory against its critics and doubters. This in turn led to further meetings at which the positivists again attacked the supposition that there were atoms. The matter was finally resolved in Dalton's favour in the early 20th century with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">atomic physics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Experimental_verification">Experimental verification</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Experimental verification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean_Perrin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of Jean Perrin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Jean_Perrin.jpg/150px-Jean_Perrin.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Jean_Perrin.jpg/224px-Jean_Perrin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Jean_Perrin.jpg/299px-Jean_Perrin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="622" data-file-height="856" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin" title="Jean Baptiste Perrin">Jean Perrin</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic theory">Atoms and molecules</a> had long been theorized as the constituents of matter, and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> published a <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Cber_die_von_der_molekularkinetischen_Theorie_der_W%C3%A4rme_geforderte_Bewegung_von_in_ruhenden_Fl%C3%BCssigkeiten_suspendierten_Teilchen" title="Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen">paper in 1905</a> that explained how the motion that Scottish botanist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Brown_(botanist,_born_1773)" title="Robert Brown (botanist, born 1773)">Robert Brown</a> had observed was a result of the pollen being moved by individual water molecules, making one of his first contributions to science. This explanation of <a href="/wiki/Brownian_motion" title="Brownian motion">Brownian motion</a> served as convincing evidence that atoms and molecules exist, and was further verified experimentally by French physicist <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin" title="Jean Baptiste Perrin">Jean Perrin</a> (1870–1942) in 1908. Perrin was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1926 "for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter". The direction of the force of atomic bombardment is constantly changing, and at different times the particle is hit more on one side than another, leading to the seemingly random nature of the motion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminative materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_principle" title="First principle">First principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereological_nihilism" title="Mereological nihilism">Mereological nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montonen%E2%80%93Olive_duality#Philosophical_implications" title="Montonen–Olive duality">Montonen–Olive duality#Philosophical implications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_pluralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontological pluralism">Ontological pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prima_materia" title="Prima materia">Prima materia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process philosophy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=a)/tomos"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἄτομον</span></span></a>. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Liddell" title="Henry Liddell">Liddell, Henry George</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Scott_(philologist)" title="Robert Scott (philologist)">Scott, Robert</a>; <i><a href="/wiki/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="A Greek–English Lexicon">A Greek–English Lexicon</a></i> at the <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHarper" class="citation web cs1">Harper, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/?term=atom">"atom"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=atom&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2F%3Fterm%3Datom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The term 'atomism' is recorded in English since 1670–80 (<i><a href="/wiki/Random_House_Webster%27s_Unabridged_Dictionary" title="Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary">Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary</a></i>, 2001, "atomism").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SEP-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SEP_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SEP_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Berryman, Sylvia, "Ancient Atomism", <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/atomism-ancient/">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <i>Metaphysics</i> I, 4, 985<sup>b</sup> 10–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakewell1907" class="citation book cs1">Bakewell, C. M. (Ed.). (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uPcPAAAAYAAJ"><i>Source Book in Ancient Philosophy</i></a>. Charles Scribner's sons. p. 60.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Source+Book+in+Ancient+Philosophy&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+sons&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Bakewell&rft.aufirst=C.+M.+%28Ed.%29.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuPcPAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The atomists, Leucippus and Democritus: fragments, a text and translation with a commentary</i> by C.C.W. Taylor, University of Toronto Press Incorporated, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8020-4390-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8020-4390-9">0-8020-4390-9</a>, pp. 157-158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPullman1998" class="citation book cs1">Pullman, Bernard (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IQs5hur-BpgC&pg=PA56"><i>The Atom in the History of Human Thought</i></a>. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 31–33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515040-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515040-7"><bdi>978-0-19-515040-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atom+in+the+History+of+Human+Thought&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pages=31-33&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-515040-7&rft.aulast=Pullman&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIQs5hur-BpgC%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohenLefebvre2017" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Henri; Lefebvre, Claire, eds. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zIrCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA427"><i>Handbook of Categorization in Cognitive Science</i></a> (Second ed.). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier. p. 427. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-101107-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-101107-2"><bdi>978-0-08-101107-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Categorization+in+Cognitive+Science&rft.place=Amsterdam%2C+the+Netherlands&rft.pages=427&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-08-101107-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzIrCDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA427&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kenny2004-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kenny2004_10-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenny2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Kenny, Anthony</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cpYUDAAAQBAJ&q=Democritus"><i>Ancient Philosophy</i></a>. A New History of Western Philosophy. Vol. 1. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 26–28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-875273-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-875273-3"><bdi>0-19-875273-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Philosophy&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.series=A+New+History+of+Western+Philosophy&rft.pages=26-28&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-19-875273-3&rft.aulast=Kenny&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcpYUDAAAQBAJ%26q%3DDemocritus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrederic_Harrison1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Harrison" title="Frederic Harrison">Frederic Harrison</a> (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newcalendargrea03harrgoog/page/n118/mode/2up"><i>The new calendar of great men: biographies of the 558 worthies of all ages</i></a>. London and New York: Mac Millan & Co. p. 90. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20210611170127/http://archive.org/stream/newcalendargrea03harrgoog/newcalendargrea03harrgoog_djvu.txt">Archived</a> from the original on June 11, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 11,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+new+calendar+of+great+men%3A+biographies+of+the+558+worthies+of+all+ages&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Mac+Millan+%26+Co&rft.date=1982&rft.au=Frederic+Harrison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewcalendargrea03harrgoog%2Fpage%2Fn118%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FromAtomosToAtom-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FromAtomosToAtom_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FromAtomosToAtom_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FromAtomosToAtom_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refMelsen1952">Melsen (1952)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philoctetes.free.fr/parmenides.pdf">"Poem of Parmenides : on nature"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Poem+of+Parmenides+%3A+on+nature&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphiloctetes.free.fr%2Fparmenides.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221028124823/http://www.parmenides-of-elea.net/Parmenide%27s_poem.pdf">"Parmenides' Poem"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.parmenides-of-elea.net/Parmenide%27s_poem.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 28 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Parmenides%27+Poem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.parmenides-of-elea.net%2FParmenide%2527s_poem.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-History_of_Western_Philosophy-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-History_of_Western_Philosophy_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertrand_Russell1946" class="citation book cs1">Bertrand Russell (1946). <i>History of Western Philosophy</i>. London: Routledge. p. 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415325059" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415325059"><bdi>978-0415325059</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Western+Philosophy&rft.place=London&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1946&rft.isbn=978-0415325059&rft.au=Bertrand+Russell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berryman, Sylvia, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/democritus">Democritus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a> (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tannery" title="Paul Tannery">Paul Tannery</a> (1887), <i>Pour l'histoire de la science Hellène</i> (Paris), and <a href="/wiki/John_Raven" title="John Raven">J. E. Raven</a> (1948), <i>Pythagoreans and Eleatics</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), are the major purveyors of this view.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Vlastos" title="Gregory Vlastos">Gregory Vlastos</a> and Daniel W. Graham (1996), <i>Studies in Greek Philosophy: The Presocratics</i> (Princeton: Princeton University Press), 257.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Barnes" title="Jonathan Barnes">Jonathan Barnes</a> (1982), <i>The Presocratic Philosophers</i> (London: Routledge), 232–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0180:text=Tim.:section=68b">"Plato, Timaeus, section 68b"</a>. <i>www.perseus.tufts.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-07-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.perseus.tufts.edu&rft.atitle=Plato%2C+Timaeus%2C+section+68b&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0180%3Atext%3DTim.%3Asection%3D68b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lloyd:early:74-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lloyd:early:74_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lloyd 1970, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earlygreekscienc00gerl/page/74">p74–77</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cornford:210–239-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cornford:210–239_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornford1957" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/F._M._Cornford" title="F. M. Cornford">Cornford, Francis Macdonald</a> (1957). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/platoscosmologyt00plat"><i>Plato's Cosmology: The </i>Timaeus<i> of Plato</i></a></span>. New York: Liberal Arts Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/platoscosmologyt00plat/page/210">210–239</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-386-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-386-0"><bdi>978-0-87220-386-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plato%27s+Cosmology%3A+The+Timaeus+of+Plato&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=210-239&rft.pub=Liberal+Arts+Press&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=978-0-87220-386-0&rft.aulast=Cornford&rft.aufirst=Francis+Macdonald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fplatoscosmologyt00plat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lloyd 1968, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aristotlegrowths0000lloy/page/165">p.165</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lloyd:early:108–109-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lloyd:early:108–109_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lloyd 1970, <a href="//archive.org/details/earlygreekscienc00gerl/page/108" class="extiw" title="iarchive:earlygreekscienc00gerl/page/108">p108–109</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Mym7xTLfNfIC&dq=%22talk+of+the+Greeks+failing+to+use+the+experimental+method,+since+it+was+either+impracticable+or+quite+impossible+to+devise+experiments+that+would+resolve+the+issues+in+question.%22&pg=PT144">[1]</a> "...it hardly makes sense to talk of the Greeks failing to use the experimental method, since it was either impracticable or quite impossible to devise experiments that would resolve the issues in question."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lloyd 1973, p25–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2002" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, McEvilley (2002). <i>The shape of ancient thought : comparative studies in Greek and Indian philosophies</i>. New York: Allworth Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1581152035" title="Special:BookSources/1581152035"><bdi>1581152035</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48013687">48013687</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+shape+of+ancient+thought+%3A+comparative+studies+in+Greek+and+Indian+philosophies&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Allworth+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48013687&rft.isbn=1581152035&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=McEvilley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmiya_Kumar_BagchiAmita_Chatterjee2014" class="citation book cs1">Amiya Kumar Bagchi; Amita Chatterjee, eds. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/910847914"><i>Marxism : with and beyond Marx</i></a>. London. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-56176-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-56176-7"><bdi>978-1-317-56176-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/910847914">910847914</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marxism+%3A+with+and+beyond+Marx&rft.place=London&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F910847914&rft.isbn=978-1-317-56176-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F910847914&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGangopadhyaya1981" class="citation book cs1">Gangopadhyaya, Mrinalkanti (1981). <i>Indian Atomism: History and Sources</i>. Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Humanities Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-391-02177-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-391-02177-8"><bdi>978-0-391-02177-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10916778">10916778</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Atomism%3A+History+and+Sources&rft.place=Atlantic+Highlands%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Humanities+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10916778&rft.isbn=978-0-391-02177-8&rft.aulast=Gangopadhyaya&rft.aufirst=Mrinalkanti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIannone2001" class="citation book cs1">Iannone, A. Pablo (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ISBN0415179955&pg=PA83"><i>Dictionary of World Philosophy</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 83, 356. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17995-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17995-9"><bdi>978-0-415-17995-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44541769">44541769</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+World+Philosophy&rft.pages=83%2C+356&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44541769&rft.isbn=978-0-415-17995-9&rft.aulast=Iannone&rft.aufirst=A.+Pablo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DISBN0415179955%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged September 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-r79-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-r79_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1957">Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957</a>, pp. 227–249)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jmk-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jmk_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John M. Koller (1977), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1397613">Skepticism in Early Indian Thought</a>, <i>Philosophy East and West</i>, 27(2): 155-164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dale Riepe (1996), <i>Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought</i>, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120812932" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120812932">978-8120812932</a>, pages 53-58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ramkrishna Bhattacharya (2013), The base text and its commentaries: Problem of representing and understanding the Charvaka / Lokayata, Argument: Biannual Philosophical Journal, Issue 1, Volume 3, pages 133-150</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas McEvilley, <i>The Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies</i>, Allwarth Press, 2002, pp.317–321, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58115-203-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-58115-203-5">1-58115-203-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard King, Indian philosophy: an introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought, Edinburgh University Press, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7486-0954-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7486-0954-7">0-7486-0954-7</a>, pp.105-107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Will Durant</a> wrote in <i>Our Oriental Heritage</i> (2011): "Two systems of Indian thought propound physical theories suggestively similar to those of Greece. <a href="/wiki/Kanada_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanada (philosopher)">Kanada</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a> philosophy, held that the world was composed of atoms as many in kind as the various elements more nearly approximated to <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a> by teaching that all atoms were of the same kind, producing different effects by diverse modes of combinations. The Vaisheshika believed <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a> to be varieties of the same substance; <a href="/wiki/Udayana" title="Udayana">Udayana</a> taught that all heat comes from the sun; and <a href="/wiki/V%C4%81caspati_Mi%C5%9Bra" class="mw-redirect" title="Vācaspati Miśra">Vachaspati</a>, like Newton, interpreted light as composed of minute particles emitted by substances and striking the eye."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2018)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeremy D. Popkin (ed.), <i>The Legacies of Richard Popkin</i> (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gJZtBiQU6ekC&pg=PA53">p.53</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerryman2022" class="citation cs2">Berryman, Sylvia (2022), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2022/entries/atomism-ancient/">"Ancient Atomism"</a>, in Zalta, Edward N.; Nodelman, Uri (eds.), <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Winter 2022 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-10-06</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Atomism&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Winter+2022&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Berryman&rft.aufirst=Sylvia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fwin2022%2Fentries%2Fatomism-ancient%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epicurus.net/en/principal.html">"Principal Doctrines: Epicurus - Quotation #39"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070407084128/http://www.epicurus.net/en/principal.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 April 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Principal+Doctrines%3A+Epicurus+-+Quotation+%2339&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epicurus.net%2Fen%2Fprincipal.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:4_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillispie1960" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Coulston_Gillispie" title="Charles Coulston Gillispie">Gillispie, C. C.</a> (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/edgeofobjectivit00char"><i>The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas</i></a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 97–98.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Edge+of+Objectivity%3A+An+Essay+in+the+History+of+Scientific+Ideas&rft.pages=97-98&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Gillispie&rft.aufirst=C.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fedgeofobjectivit00char&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiddleton1964" class="citation book cs1">Middleton, W. E. Knowles. (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/historyofbaromet00midd"><i>The history of the barometer</i></a>. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press. p. 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+the+barometer&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Baltimore%2C+Johns+Hopkins+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Middleton&rft.aufirst=W.+E.+Knowles.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofbaromet00midd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiddleton1964" class="citation book cs1">Middleton, W. E. Knowles. (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/historyofbaromet00midd"><i>The history of the barometer</i></a>. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press. p. 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+the+barometer&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Baltimore%2C+Johns+Hopkins+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Middleton&rft.aufirst=W.+E.+Knowles.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofbaromet00midd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-olil-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-olil_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oliver Leaman, <i>Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy.</i> Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415173629" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415173629">978-0415173629</a>, 1999, page 269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBasham1951" class="citation book cs1">Basham, A.L. (1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BiGQzc5lRGYC"><i>History and Doctrines of the Ājīvikas</i></a> (2nd ed.). Delhi, India: Moltilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 2002). pp. 262–270. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-1204-2" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-1204-2"><bdi>81-208-1204-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+and+Doctrines+of+the+%C4%80j%C4%ABvikas&rft.place=Delhi%2C+India&rft.pages=262-270&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Moltilal+Banarsidass+%28Reprint%3A+2002%29&rft.date=1951&rft.isbn=81-208-1204-2&rft.aulast=Basham&rft.aufirst=A.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBiGQzc5lRGYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeaneane_D._Fowler2002" class="citation book cs1">Jeaneane D. Fowler (2002). <i>Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism</i>. Sussex Academic Press. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-898723-93-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-898723-93-6"><bdi>978-1-898723-93-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Perspectives+of+Reality%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Philosophy+of+Hinduism&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Sussex+Academic+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-898723-93-6&rft.au=Jeaneane+D.+Fowler&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/thevaiasesikasut00kanauoft/thevaiasesikasut00kanauoft_djvu.txt">"The Vaisesika sutras of Kanada. Translated by Nandalal Sinha"</a> Full Text at archive.org</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiepe1961" class="citation book cs1">Riepe, Dale Maurice (1961). <i>Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought</i>. Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint 1996). pp. 227–229. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1293-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1293-2"><bdi>978-81-208-1293-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naturalistic+Tradition+in+Indian+Thought&rft.pages=227-229&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+%28Reprint+1996%29&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1293-2&rft.aulast=Riepe&rft.aufirst=Dale+Maurice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kak-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kak_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kak, S. 'Matter and Mind: The Vaisheshika Sutra of Kanada' (2016), Mount Meru Publishing, Mississauga, Ontario, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-988207-13-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-988207-13-1">978-1-988207-13-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Buddhists denied the existence of substantial matter altogether. Movement consists for them of moments, it is a staccato movement, momentary flashes of a stream of energy... "Everything is evanescent," ... says the Buddhist, because there is no stuff ... Both systems [Sānkhya and later Indian Buddhism] share in common a tendency to push the analysis of Existence up to its minutest, last elements which are imagined as absolute qualities, or things possessing only one unique quality. They are called "qualities" (guna-dharma) in both systems in the sense of absolute qualities, a kind of atomic, or intra-atomic, energies of which the empirical things are composed. Both systems, therefore, agree in denying the objective reality of the categories of Substance and Quality, ... and of the relation of Inference uniting them. There is in Sānkhya philosophy no separate existence of qualities. What we call quality is but a particular manifestation of a subtle entity. To every new unit of quality corresponds a subtle quantum of matter which is called guna "quality", but represents a subtle substantive entity. The same applies to early Buddhism where all qualities are substantive ... or, more precisely, dynamic entities, although they are also called dharmas ("qualities")." Stcherbatsky (1962 [1930]). Vol. 1. p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1245/Abhidhammattha-sangaha">Abhidhammattha-sangaha</a>, Britannica Online (1998, 2005).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shankman, Richard (2008), The Experience of Samadhi: An In-depth Exploration of Buddhist Meditation, Shambhala, p. 178</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaeed2006" class="citation book cs1">Saeed, Abdullah (2006). <i>Islamic Thought: An Introduction</i>. Routledge. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415364096" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415364096"><bdi>978-0415364096</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Thought%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0415364096&rft.aulast=Saeed&rft.aufirst=Abdullah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Marmura1976" class="citation book cs1">Michael Marmura (1976). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontois00savo_0">"God and his creation:Two medieval Islamic views"</a></span>. In R. M. Savory (ed.). <i>Introduction to Islamic Civilization</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontois00savo_0/page/49">49</a>. <q>Islamic atomism indian greek.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=God+and+his+creation%3ATwo+medieval+Islamic+views&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Islamic+Civilization&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.au=Michael+Marmura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontois00savo_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sachau-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sachau_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlberuni,_Abu_Al-Rahain_Muhammad_Ibn_Ahmad2015" class="citation book cs1">Alberuni, Abu Al-Rahain Muhammad Ibn Ahmad (2015) [1910]. Sachau, Edward C. (and trans.) (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/images/alberuni.pdf"><i>Alberuni's India [The Indika of Alberuni]</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (facsimile reprint ed.). Scholar's Choice [Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co.] p. xxxiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-297-45719-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-297-45719-7"><bdi>978-1-297-45719-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alberuni%27s+India+%5BThe+Indika+of+Alberuni%5D&rft.pages=xxxiii&rft.edition=facsimile+reprint&rft.pub=Scholar%27s+Choice+%5BKegan+Paul%2C+Trench%2C+Tr%C3%BCbner+and+Co.%5D&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-297-45719-7&rft.au=Alberuni%2C+Abu+Al-Rahain+Muhammad+Ibn+Ahmad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infinityfoundation.com%2Fmandala%2Fimages%2Falberuni.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-natural/"><i>Arabic and Islamic Natural Philosophy and Natural Science</i></a>. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabic+and+Islamic+Natural+Philosophy+and+Natural+Science&rft.pub=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Farabic-islamic-natural%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShlomo_Pines1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Shlomo_Pines" title="Shlomo Pines">Shlomo Pines</a> (1986). <i>Studies in Arabic versions of Greek texts and in mediaeval science</i>. Vol. 2. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. pp. 355–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-965-223-626-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-965-223-626-5"><bdi>978-965-223-626-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Arabic+versions+of+Greek+texts+and+in+mediaeval+science&rft.pages=355-6&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-965-223-626-5&rft.au=Shlomo+Pines&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Murdoch2001-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Murdoch2001_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Emery_MurdochChristoph_Herbert_LüthyWilliam_Royall_Newman2001" class="citation book cs1">John Emery Murdoch; Christoph Herbert Lüthy; William Royall Newman (1 January 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wc97ODIpuH8C&pg=PA101">"The Medieval and Renaissance Tradition of Minima Naturalia"</a>. <i>Late Medieval and Early Modern Corpuscular Matter Theories</i>. BRILL. pp. 91–133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11516-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11516-3"><bdi>978-90-04-11516-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Medieval+and+Renaissance+Tradition+of+Minima+Naturalia&rft.btitle=Late+Medieval+and+Early+Modern+Corpuscular+Matter+Theories&rft.pages=91-133&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2001-01-01&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11516-3&rft.au=John+Emery+Murdoch&rft.au=Christoph+Herbert+L%C3%BCthy&rft.au=William+Royall+Newman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dwc97ODIpuH8C%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chalmers2009-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chalmers2009_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlan_Chalmers2009" class="citation book cs1">Alan Chalmers (4 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qMsQyBVlkl4C&pg=PA76"><i>The Scientist's Atom and the Philosopher's Stone: How Science Succeeded and Philosophy Failed to Gain Knowledge of Atoms</i></a>. Springer. pp. 75–96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-2362-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-481-2362-9"><bdi>978-90-481-2362-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientist%27s+Atom+and+the+Philosopher%27s+Stone%3A+How+Science+Succeeded+and+Philosophy+Failed+to+Gain+Knowledge+of+Atoms&rft.pages=75-96&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2009-06-04&rft.isbn=978-90-481-2362-9&rft.au=Alan+Chalmers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqMsQyBVlkl4C%26pg%3DPA76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kargon 1966<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2018)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marmura, 1973–74</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vernonpratt.com/conceptualisations/d06bl2_1mechanical.htm">The Mechanical Philosophy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080611053822/http://www.vernonpratt.com/conceptualisations/d06bl2_1mechanical.htm">Archived</a> June 11, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> - Early modern 'atomism' ("corpuscularianism" as it was known)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDescartes2008" class="citation book cs1">Descartes, R. (2008) [1644]. Bennett, J. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.earlymoderntexts.com/assets/pdfs/descartes1644part2.pdf"><i>Principles of Philosophy</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Part II, § 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Philosophy&rft.pages=Part+II%2C+%C2%A7+4.&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Descartes&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlymoderntexts.com%2Fassets%2Fpdfs%2Fdescartes1644part2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuedenbergSchwarz2013" class="citation book cs1">Ruedenberg, Klaus; Schwarz, W. H. Eugen (2013). "Three Millennia of Atoms and Molecules". <i>Pioneers of Quantum Chemistry</i>. ACS Symposium Series. Vol. 1122. pp. 1–45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fbk-2013-1122.ch001">10.1021/bk-2013-1122.ch001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780841227163" title="Special:BookSources/9780841227163"><bdi>9780841227163</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Three+Millennia+of+Atoms+and+Molecules&rft.btitle=Pioneers+of+Quantum+Chemistry&rft.series=ACS+Symposium+Series&rft.pages=1-45&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fbk-2013-1122.ch001&rft.isbn=9780841227163&rft.aulast=Ruedenberg&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rft.au=Schwarz%2C+W.+H.+Eugen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vernonpratt.com/conceptualisations/d06bl2_1mechanical.htm">The Mechanical Philosophy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080611053822/http://www.vernonpratt.com/conceptualisations/d06bl2_1mechanical.htm">Archived</a> June 11, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> - Early modern 'atomism' ("corpuscularianism" as it was known)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William R. Newman, “The Significance of ‘Chymical Atomism’,” in Edith Sylla and W. R. Newman, eds., <i>Evidence and Interpretation: Studies on Early Science and Medicine in Honor of John E. Murdoch</i> (Leiden: Brill, 2009), pp. 248-264</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Newman, <i>Atoms and Alchemy: Chymistry and the Experimental Origins of the Scientific Revolution</i> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Levere-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Levere_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevere2001" class="citation book cs1">Levere, Trevor, H. (2001). <i>Transforming Matter – A History of Chemistry for Alchemy to the Buckyball</i>. The Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6610-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6610-4"><bdi>978-0-8018-6610-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transforming+Matter+%E2%80%93+A+History+of+Chemistry+for+Alchemy+to+the+Buckyball&rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-6610-4&rft.aulast=Levere&rft.aufirst=Trevor%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophypages.com/dy/c9.htm">Corpuscularianism</a> - Philosophical Dictionary</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChalmers2019" class="citation cs2">Chalmers, Alan (2019), Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atomism-modern/#AtoMec">"Atomism from the 17th to the 20th Century"</a>, <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Spring 2019 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, p. "2.1 Atomism and the Mechanical Philosophy"</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Atomism+from+the+17th+to+the+20th+Century&rft.pages=%222.1+Atomism+and+the+Mechanical+Philosophy%22&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Chalmers&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fatomism-modern%2F%23AtoMec&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLomonosov1970" class="citation book cs1">Lomonosov, Mikhail Vasil'evich (1970) [1750]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mikhailvasilevic017733mbp/page/n71/mode/1up">"Meditations on the Cause of Heat and Cold"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Henry_M._Leicester" title="Henry M. Leicester">Leicester, Henry M.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mikhailvasilevic017733mbp"><i>Mikhail Vasil'evich Lomonosov on the Corpuscular Theory</i></a>. Harvard University Press. pp. 56–57.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Meditations+on+the+Cause+of+Heat+and+Cold&rft.btitle=Mikhail+Vasil%27evich+Lomonosov+on+the+Corpuscular+Theory&rft.pages=56-57&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Lomonosov&rft.aufirst=Mikhail+Vasil%27evich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmikhailvasilevic017733mbp%2Fpage%2Fn71%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Lancelot_Law_Whyte" title="Lancelot Law Whyte">Whyte, Lancelot</a>, Essay on Atomism, 1961, p.54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalton1808" class="citation book cs1">Dalton, John (1808). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newsystemofchemi01daltuoft"><i>A new system of chemical philosophy</i></a>. London. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-153-05671-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-153-05671-7"><bdi>978-1-153-05671-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 July</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+new+system+of+chemical+philosophy&rft.pub=London&rft.date=1808&rft.isbn=978-1-153-05671-7&rft.aulast=Dalton&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewsystemofchemi01daltuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030802193611/http://webserver.lemoyne.edu/faculty/giunta/dalton.html">"A New System of Chemical Philosophy"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webserver.lemoyne.edu/faculty/giunta/dalton.html">the original</a> on 2003-08-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2003-07-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+New+System+of+Chemical+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebserver.lemoyne.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fgiunta%2Fdalton.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brock 1967, p.1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavy" class="citation book cs1">Davy, J. (ed.). <i>Collected Works of Sir Humphry Davy</i>. Bart. p. 93 vol 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Collected+Works+of+Sir+Humphry+Davy&rft.pages=93+vol+8&rft.pub=Bart.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrodie1866" class="citation book cs1">Brodie, Sir Benjamin Collins (1866). <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society</i>. pp. 781–859 vol I56.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.pages=781-859+vol+I56&rft.date=1866&rft.aulast=Brodie&rft.aufirst=Sir+Benjamin+Collins&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brock 1967, p.12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brock 1967, p.15</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="References_2">References</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrock1967" class="citation book cs1">Brock, W.H., ed. (1967). <i>The Atomic Debates</i>. Leicester University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atomic+Debates&rft.pub=Leicester+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Clericuzio, Antonio. <i>Elements, Principles, and Corpuscles; a study of atomism and chemistry in the seventeenth century</i>. Dordrecht; Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F._M._Cornford" title="F. M. Cornford">Cornford, Francis MacDonald.</a> <i>Plato's Cosmology: The </i>Timaeus<i> of Plato</i>. New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1957.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Jan_Dijksterhuis" title="Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis">Dijksterhuis, E.</a> <i>The Mechanization of the World Picture</i>. Trans. by C. Dikshoorn. New York: Oxford University Press, 1969. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-02396-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-02396-4">0-691-02396-4</a></li> <li>Firth, Raymond. <i>Religion: A Humanist Interpretation</i>. Routledge, 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-12897-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-12897-8">0-415-12897-8</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalilei1957" class="citation book cs1">Galilei, G. (1957) [1623]. "The Assayer". In Drake, S. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mercaba.es/renacimiento/escritos_menores_de_galileo.pdf"><i>Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Doubleday.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Assayer&rft.btitle=Discoveries+and+Opinions+of+Galileo&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Galilei&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mercaba.es%2Frenacimiento%2Fescritos_menores_de_galileo.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Gangopadhyaya, Mrinalkanti. <i>Indian Atomism: history and sources</i>. Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1981. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-391-02177-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-391-02177-X">0-391-02177-X</a></li> <li>Gardet, L. "djuz'" in <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam CD-ROM Edition, v. 1.1</i>. Leiden: Brill, 2001.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillispie1960" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Coulston_Gillispie" title="Charles Coulston Gillispie">Gillispie, C. C.</a> (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/edgeofobjectivit00char"><i>The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas</i></a>. Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Edge+of+Objectivity%3A+An+Essay+in+the+History+of+Scientific+Ideas&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Gillispie&rft.aufirst=C.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fedgeofobjectivit00char&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Gregory, Joshua C. <i>A Short History of Atomism</i>. London: A. and C. Black, Ltd, 1981.</li> <li>Kargon, Robert Hugh. <i>Atomism in England from Hariot to Newton</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G._E._R._Lloyd" title="G. E. R. Lloyd">Lloyd, Geoffrey</a> (1968). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aristotlegrowths0000lloy"><i>Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of his Thought</i></a></span>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09456-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09456-6"><bdi>978-0-521-09456-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristotle%3A+The+Growth+and+Structure+of+his+Thought&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0-521-09456-6&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faristotlegrowths0000lloy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1970" class="citation book cs1">Lloyd, Geoffrey (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earlygreekscienc00gerl/page/74"><i>Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle</i></a>. London; New York: <a href="/wiki/Chatto_and_Windus" class="mw-redirect" title="Chatto and Windus">Chatto and Windus</a>; <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_%26_Company" title="W. W. Norton & Company">W. W. Norton & Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00583-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00583-7"><bdi>978-0-393-00583-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Greek+Science%3A+Thales+to+Aristotle&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Chatto+and+Windus%3B+W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-393-00583-7&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fearlygreekscienc00gerl%2Fpage%2F74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Lloyd, Geoffrey (1973). <i>Greek Science After Aristotle</i>. New York: W. W. Norton, . <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-00780-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-00780-4">0-393-00780-4</a></li> <li>Marmura, Michael E. "Causation in Islamic Thought." <i>Dictionary of the History of Ideas</i>. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973–74</li> <li>McEvilley, Thomas (2002). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Shape_of_Ancient_Thought" title="The Shape of Ancient Thought">The Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies</a></i>. New York: Allworth Communications Inc. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58115-203-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-58115-203-5">1-58115-203-5</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="refMelsen1952" class="citation book cs1">Melsen, Andrew G. van (2004) [First published 1952]. <i>From Atomos to Atom: The History of the Concept Atom</i>. Translated by Henry J. Koren. Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-49584-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-49584-1"><bdi>0-486-49584-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Atomos+to+Atom%3A+The+History+of+the+Concept+Atom&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-486-49584-1&rft.aulast=Melsen&rft.aufirst=Andrew+G.+van&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1957" class="citation book cs1">Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; Moore, Charles (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinindi00radh"><i>A Source Book in Indian Philosophy</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01958-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01958-1"><bdi>978-0-691-01958-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Source+Book+in+Indian+Philosophy&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=978-0-691-01958-1&rft.aulast=Radhakrishnan&rft.aufirst=Sarvepalli&rft.au=Moore%2C+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsourcebookinindi00radh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Redondi, Pietro. <i>Galileo Heretic</i>. Translated by Raymond Rosenthal. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-02426-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-02426-X">0-691-02426-X</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiepe1964" class="citation book cs1">Riepe, Dale (1964). <i>The Naturalistic Tradition of Indian Thought</i> (2nd ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Naturalistic+Tradition+of+Indian+Thought&rft.place=Delhi&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Riepe&rft.aufirst=Dale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtomism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomism&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/atomism" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:atomism">atomism</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist1.xml;chunk.id=dv1-21"><i>Dictionary of the History of Ideas</i>:</a> Atomism: Antiquity to the Seventeenth Century</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist1.xml;chunk.id=dv1-22"><i>Dictionary of the History of Ideas</i>:</a> Atomism in the Seventeenth Century</li> <li>Jonathan Schaffer, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061221163403/http://people.umass.edu/schaffer/papers/Fundamental.pdf">"Is There a Fundamental Level?"</a> <i>Nous</i> 37 (2003): 498–517. By a philosopher who opposes atomism</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/democritus/">Article on traditional Greek atomism</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atomism-modern/">Atomism from the 17th to the 20th Century</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Greek_schools_of_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Greek_schools_of_philosophy" title="Template:Ancient Greek schools of philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Greek_schools_of_philosophy" title="Template talk:Ancient Greek schools of philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Greek_schools_of_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Greek schools of philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Greek_schools_of_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek schools of philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proto-philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epimenides_of_Knossos" class="mw-redirect" title="Epimenides of Knossos">Epimenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pherecydes_of_Syros" title="Pherecydes of Syros">Pherecydes</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Seven_Sages" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_Greece" title="Seven Sages of Greece">Seven Sages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solon_of_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Solon of Athens">Solon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pittacus_of_Mytilene" title="Pittacus of Mytilene">Pittacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_of_Priene" title="Bias of Priene">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periander_of_Corinth" class="mw-redirect" title="Periander of Corinth">Periander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleobulus_of_Lindos" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleobulus of Lindos">Cleobulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilon_of_Sparta" title="Chilon of Sparta">Chilon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Pre-Socratic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Ionian" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Milesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Apollonia" title="Diogenes of Apollonia">Diogenes</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Italian" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_(philosophy)" title="Italian school (philosophy)">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagorean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippasus" title="Hippasus">Hippasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philolaus" title="Philolaus">Philolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archytas" title="Archytas">Archytas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamiskos" title="Lamiskos">Lamiskos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcmaeon_of_Croton" title="Alcmaeon of Croton">Alcmaeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brontinus" title="Brontinus">Brontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theano_(philosopher)" title="Theano (philosopher)">Theano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damo_(philosopher)" title="Damo (philosopher)">Damo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calliphon_of_Croton" title="Calliphon of Croton">Calliphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermotimus_of_Clazomenae" title="Hermotimus of Clazomenae">Hermotimus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Cos" title="Metrodorus of Cos">Metrodorus of Cos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arignote" title="Arignote">Arignote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myia" title="Myia">Myia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurytus_(Pythagorean)" title="Eurytus (Pythagorean)">Eurytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pythagoreans" title="Category:Pythagoreans">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skeptic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xenophanes" title="Xenophanes">Xenophanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeniades" title="Xeniades">Xeniades</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melissus_of_Samos" title="Melissus of Samos">Melissus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippo_(philosopher)" title="Hippo (philosopher)">Hippo</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">Pluralist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archelaus_(philosopher)" title="Archelaus (philosopher)">Archelaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_elder)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the elder)">Metrodorus of Lampsacus</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_(philosophy)" title="Italian school (philosophy)">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acron" title="Acron">Acron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_of_Sicily" title="Pausanias of Sicily">Pausanias</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Atomist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prodicus" title="Prodicus">Prodicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippias" title="Hippias">Hippias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrasymachus" title="Thrasymachus">Thrasymachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damon_of_Athens" title="Damon of Athens">Damon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sophists" title="Category:Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_(philosophy)" title="Italian school (philosophy)">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callicles" title="Callicles">Callicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophron_(sophist)" title="Lycophron (sophist)">Lycophron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysodorus_(sophist)" title="Dionysodorus (sophist)">Dionysodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthydemus_of_Chios" title="Euthydemus of Chios">Euthydemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sophists" title="Category:Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Greek philosophy">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Category:Pupils_of_Socrates" title="Category:Pupils of Socrates">students</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crates_of_Thebes" title="Crates of Thebes">Crates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menippus" title="Menippus">Menippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Cynic_philosophers" title="List of Cynic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus" title="Aristippus">Aristippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus_the_Younger" title="Aristippus the Younger">Aristippus the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodorus_the_Atheist" title="Theodorus the Atheist">Theodorus the Atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegesias_of_Cyrene" title="Hegesias of Cyrene">Hegesias of Cyrene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anniceris" title="Anniceris">Anniceris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cyrenaic_philosophers" title="Category:Cyrenaic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phaedo_of_Elis" title="Phaedo of Elis">Phaedo of Elis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menedemus" title="Menedemus">Menedemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asclepiades_of_Phlius" title="Asclepiades of Phlius">Asclepiades of Phlius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euclid_of_Megara" title="Euclid of Megara">Euclid of Megara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyas" title="Ichthyas">Ichthyas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrasymachus_of_Corinth" title="Thrasymachus of Corinth">Thrasymachus of Corinth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilpo" title="Stilpo">Stilpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicarete_of_Megara" title="Nicarete of Megara">Nicarete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasicles_of_Thebes" title="Pasicles of Thebes">Pasicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryson_of_Achaea" title="Bryson of Achaea">Bryson</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dialecticians" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Dialecticians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinomachus" title="Clinomachus">Clinomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_Cronus" title="Apollonius Cronus">Apollonius Cronus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphantus" title="Euphantus">Euphantus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Chalcedon" title="Dionysius of Chalcedon">Dionysius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus Cronus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_the_Dialectician" title="Philo the Dialectician">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexinus" title="Alexinus">Alexinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthoides" title="Panthoides">Panthoides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speusippus" title="Speusippus">Speusippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocrates" title="Xenocrates">Xenocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_of_Lampsacus" title="Strato of Lampsacus">Strato of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyco_of_Troas" title="Lyco of Troas">Lyco of Troas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias" title="Alexander of Aphrodisias">Alexander of Aphrodisias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peripatetic_philosophers" title="Category:Peripatetic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timon_of_Phlius" title="Timon of Phlius">Timon of Phlius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aenesidemus" title="Aenesidemus">Aenesidemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrippa_the_Skeptic" title="Agrippa the Skeptic">Agrippa the Skeptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Skeptic_philosophers" title="Category:Ancient Skeptic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleanthes" title="Cleanthes">Cleanthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panaetius" title="Panaetius">Panaetius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Annaeus_Cornutus" title="Lucius Annaeus Cornutus">Lucius Annaeus Cornutus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musonius_Rufus" class="mw-redirect" title="Musonius Rufus">Musonius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stoic_philosophers" title="List of Stoic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_younger)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger)">Metrodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Sidon" title="Zeno of Sidon">Zeno of Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philodemus" title="Philodemus">Philodemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Oenoanda" title="Diogenes of Oenoanda">Diogenes of Oenoanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Epicurean_philosophers" title="List of Epicurean philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Academic Skeptic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcesilaus" title="Arcesilaus">Arcesilaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carneades" title="Carneades">Carneades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Larissa" title="Philo of Larissa">Philo of Larissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_of_Ascalon" title="Antiochus of Ascalon">Antiochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudorus_of_Alexandria" title="Eudorus of Alexandria">Eudorus of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_the_Platonist" title="Gaius the Platonist">Gaius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcinous_(philosopher)" title="Alcinous (philosopher)">Alcinous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagorean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigidius_Figulus" title="Nigidius Figulus">Nigidius Figulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Tyana" title="Apollonius of Tyana">Apollonius of Tyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderatus_of_Gades" title="Moderatus of Gades">Moderatus of Gades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachus" title="Nicomachus">Nicomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numenius_of_Apamea" title="Numenius of Apamea">Numenius of Apamea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Neo-Pythagoreans" title="Category:Neo-Pythagoreans">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Saccas" title="Ammonius Saccas">Ammonius Saccas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_students_of_Plotinus" title="List of students of Plotinus">students</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch_of_Athens" title="Plutarch of Athens">Plutarch of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrianus" title="Syrianus">Syrianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Hermiae" title="Ammonius Hermiae">Ammonius Hermiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascius" title="Damascius">Damascius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicetes_of_Smyrna" title="Nicetes of Smyrna">Nicetes of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dio_Chrysostom" title="Dio Chrysostom">Dio Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Favorinus" title="Favorinus">Favorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Roman-era_Sophists" title="Category:Roman-era Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indian_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indian_philosophy" title="Template:Indian philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indian_philosophy" title="Template talk:Indian philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indian_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indian philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indian_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheism_in_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheism in Hinduism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_logic" title="Indian logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_views_on_monotheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu views on monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion#Philosophy" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">Artha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Āstika</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a>: <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaiva">Shaiva</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rase%C5%9Bvara" title="Raseśvara">Raseśvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashupata_Shaivism" title="Pashupata Shaivism">Pashupata Shaivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇiniya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Nāstika</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada#Syādvāda" title="Anekantavada">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika" class="mw-redirect" title="Svatantrika">Svatantrika</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism#Philosophy_and_teachings" title="Sikhism">Sikh Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaiva">Shaiva</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pratyabhijna" title="Pratyabhijna">Pratyabhijna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashupata_Shaivism" title="Pashupata Shaivism">Pashupata Shaivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Shaiva Siddhanta</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Integral_yoga" title="Integral yoga">Integral yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhism" title="Gandhism">Gandhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._N._Roy#Radical_humanist" title="M. N. Roy">Radical Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_utilization_theory" title="Progressive utilization theory">Progressive utilization theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Texts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Abhinavabharati" title="Abhinavabharati">Abhinavabharati</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Purana" title="Bhagavata Purana">Bhagavata Purana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sutras" title="Brahma Sutras"><i>Brahma Sutra</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dharmashastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmashastra">Dharmashastra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Hindu texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_Agamas_(%C5%9Av%C4%93t%C4%81mbara)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jain Agamas (Śvētāmbara)">Jain Agamas</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kamasutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamasutra">Kamasutra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mimamsa_Sutras" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimamsa Sutras">Mimamsa Sutras</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muktik%C4%81" title="Muktikā">All 108 texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukhya_Upanishads" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukhya Upanishads">Principal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyayakusumanjali" title="Nyayakusumanjali">Nyayakusumanjali</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Panchadasi" title="Panchadasi">Panchadasi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samkhyapravachana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Samkhyapravachana Sutra">Samkhyapravachana Sutra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha" title="Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha">Sarvadarsanasangraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Sutras_of_Vasugupta" title="Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta">Shiva Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarka-Sangraha" title="Tarka-Sangraha">Tarka-Sangraha</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tattvacint%C4%81ma%E1%B9%87i" class="mw-redirect" title="Tattvacintāmaṇi">Tattvacintāmaṇi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tirukku%E1%B9%9Fa%E1%B8%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkuṟaḷ">Tirukkuṟaḷ</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads#Classification" title="Upanishads">Minor</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vai%C5%9Be%E1%B9%A3ika_S%C5%ABtra" title="Vaiśeṣika Sūtra">Vaiśeṣika Sūtra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedangas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sutras of Patanjali</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasistha" title="Yoga Vasistha">Yoga Vasistha</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">More...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81rila_Bha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa" title="Kumārila Bhaṭṭa">Kumārila Bhaṭṭa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Dana_Mi%C5%9Bra" title="Maṇḍana Miśra">Maṇḍana Miśra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valluvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Valluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avatsara" title="Avatsara">Avatsara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%81chaspati_Misra" title="Vāchaspati Misra">Vāchaspati Misra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Aruni">Uddalaka Aruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajnavalkya" title="Yajnavalkya">Yājñavalkya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C4%81rg%C4%AB_V%C4%81chaknav%C4%AB" title="Gārgī Vāchaknavī">Gārgī Vāchaknavī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patanjali" title="Patanjali">Patañjali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%E1%B9%87%C4%81da_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaṇāda (philosopher)">Kanada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapila" title="Kapila">Kapila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brihadratha_Ikshvaku" title="Brihadratha Ikshvaku">Brihadratha Ikshvaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaimini" title="Jaimini">Jaimini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyasa" title="Vyasa">Vyasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akshapada_Gotama" class="mw-redirect" title="Akshapada Gotama">Akshapada Gotama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padmasambh%C4%81va" class="mw-redirect" title="Padmasambhāva">Padmasambhāva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramana_Maharshi" title="Ramana Maharshi">Ramana Maharshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayananda_Saraswati" title="Dayananda Saraswati">Dayananda Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta_Desika" title="Vedanta Desika">Vedanta Desika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raikva" title="Raikva">Raikva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadananda_(of_Vedantasara)" title="Sadananda (of Vedantasara)">Sadananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakayanya" title="Sakayanya">Sakayanya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyakama_Jabala" class="mw-redirect" title="Satyakama Jabala">Satyakama Jabala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhvacharya" title="Madhvacharya">Madhvacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guru_Nanak" title="Guru Nanak">Guru Nanak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indian_philosophers" title="Category:Indian philosophers">More...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhava" title="Abhava">Abhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhasavada" title="Abhasavada">Abhasavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-difference_(Abheda)" title="Non-difference (Abheda)">Abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adarsana" title="Adarsana">Adarsana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrishta" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrishta">Adrishta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aham_(Kashmir_Shaivism)" title="Aham (Kashmir Shaivism)">Aham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aishvarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Aishvarya">Aishvarya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrodha" title="Akrodha">Akrodha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aksara" class="mw-redirect" title="Aksara">Aksara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatta">Anatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ananta_(infinite)" title="Ananta (infinite)">Ananta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anavastha" title="Anavastha">Anavastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anupalabdhi" title="Anupalabdhi">Anupalabdhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apauru%E1%B9%A3hey%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Apauruṣheyā">Apauruṣheyā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">Artha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiddhatva" title="Asiddhatva">Asiddhatva</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Asatkalpa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Asatkalpa (page does not exist)">Asatkalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Ātman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avyakta" title="Avyakta">Avyakta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhrama_(Hinduism)" title="Bhrama (Hinduism)">Bhrama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhuman" title="Bhuman">Bhuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhumika" title="Bhumika">Bhumika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catu%E1%B9%A3ko%E1%B9%ADi" title="Catuṣkoṭi">Catuṣkoṭi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaitanya_(consciousness)" title="Chaitanya (consciousness)">Chaitanya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chidabhasa" title="Chidabhasa">Chidabhasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cittabhumi" title="Cittabhumi">Cittabhumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">Devatas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhi_(Hindu_thought)" title="Dhi (Hindu thought)">Dhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravya" title="Dravya">Dravya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhrti" title="Dhrti">Dhrti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekagrata" title="Ekagrata">Ekagrata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu%E1%B9%87a" title="Guṇa">Guṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hit%C4%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hitā (page does not exist)">Hitā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idam" title="Idam">Idam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikshana" title="Ikshana">Ikshana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishvaratva" title="Ishvaratva">Ishvaratva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jivatva" title="Jivatva">Jivatva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasaya_(attachment)" title="Kasaya (attachment)">Kasaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshetrajna" title="Kshetrajna">Kshetrajna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshana" title="Lakshana">Lakshana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsya_Nyaya" title="Matsya Nyaya">Matsya Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithyatva" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithyatva">Mithyatva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Mokṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nididhyasana" class="mw-redirect" title="Nididhyasana">Nididhyasana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvāṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niyama" title="Niyama">Niyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pad%C4%81rtha" title="Padārtha">Padārtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramatman" title="Paramatman">Paramatman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramananda_(Hinduism)" title="Paramananda (Hinduism)">Paramananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parameshashakti" title="Parameshashakti">Parameshashakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinama-vada_(Hindu_thought)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parinama-vada (Hindu thought)">Parinama-vada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pradhana" title="Pradhana">Pradhana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prajna_(Vedic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prajna (Vedic)">Prajna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prak%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Prakṛti">Prakṛti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratibimbavada" title="Pratibimbavada">Pratibimbavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purusha" title="Purusha">Puruṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajamandala" title="Rajamandala">Rājamaṇḍala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%9Ata" title="Ṛta">Ṛta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakshi_(Witness)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakshi (Witness)">Sakshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satkaryavada" title="Satkaryavada">Satkaryavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabda_Brahman" title="Shabda Brahman">Shabda Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spho%E1%B9%ADa" title="Sphoṭa">Sphoṭa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sthiti" title="Sthiti">Sthiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutram" title="Sutram">Sutram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrya" title="Svatantrya">Svātantrya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svecchamrityu_(Iccha-mrityu)" class="mw-redirect" title="Svecchamrityu (Iccha-mrityu)">Iccha-mrityu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada#Syādvāda" title="Anekantavada">Syādvāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taijasa" title="Taijasa">Taijasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajjalan" title="Tajjalan">Tajjalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanmatras" title="Tanmatras">Tanmatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ty%C4%81ga" title="Tyāga">Tyāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uparati" title="Uparati">Uparati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upekkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Upekkha">Upekkhā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utsaha" class="mw-redirect" title="Utsaha">Utsaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivartavada" title="Vivartavada">Vivartavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viraj" class="mw-redirect" title="Viraj">Viraj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamas" title="Yamas">Yamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_philosophical_concepts" title="Category:Hindu philosophical concepts">More...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q178668#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q178668#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q178668#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/312342684">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/820644/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4143327-0">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85009328">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11943992c">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11943992c">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00562388">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="atomismus"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph118656&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX545544">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007585852105171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027386910">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=44606">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atomism&oldid=1256604680">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atomism&oldid=1256604680</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Atomism" title="Category:Atomism">Atomism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Metaphysical_theories" title="Category:Metaphysical theories">Metaphysical theories</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Presocratic_philosophy" title="Category:Presocratic philosophy">Presocratic philosophy</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek_(to_1453)-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text">Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">CS1 maint: location missing publisher</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_September_2023" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from September 2023">Articles with dead external links from September 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2018" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from March 2018">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from March 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_June_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from June 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_that_may_contain_original_research_from_June_2021" title="Category:Articles that may contain original research from June 2021">Articles that may contain original research from June 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_that_may_contain_original_research" title="Category:All articles that may contain original research">All articles that may contain original research</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_minor_POV_problems" title="Category:All articles with minor POV problems">All articles with minor POV problems</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_minor_POV_problems_from_March_2012" title="Category:Articles with minor POV problems from March 2012">Articles with minor POV problems from March 2012</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_accuracy_disputes" title="Category:All accuracy disputes">All accuracy disputes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_disputed_statements_from_April_2023" title="Category:Articles with disputed statements from April 2023">Articles with disputed statements from April 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases" title="Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases">All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases_from_March_2018" title="Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from March 2018">Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from March 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_May_2024" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2024">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2024</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 10 November 2024, at 19:09<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atomism&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-694cf4987f-vrtfj","wgBackendResponseTime":203,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.156","walltime":"1.367","ppvisitednodes":{"value":8593,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":227049,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":10510,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":14,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":231951,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1098.116 1 -total"," 39.74% 436.396 1 Template:Reflist"," 15.26% 167.604 39 Template:Cite_book"," 10.10% 110.881 13 Template:Navbox"," 9.61% 105.560 2 Template:Lang"," 8.77% 96.293 6 Template:Cite_web"," 8.26% 90.758 1 Template:Greek_schools_of_philosophy"," 7.86% 86.278 1 Template:Cite_OEtymD"," 7.73% 84.843 7 Template:Fix"," 6.23% 68.406 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.651","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":16519074,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAlan_Chalmers2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlberuni,_Abu_Al-Rahain_Muhammad_Ibn_Ahmad2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmiya_Kumar_BagchiAmita_Chatterjee2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBakewell1907\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBasham1951\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerryman2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBertrand_Russell1946\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrock1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrodie1866\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChalmers2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohenLefebvre2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCornford1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDalton1808\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavy\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDescartes2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrederic_Harrison1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalilei1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGangopadhyaya1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGillispie1960\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFIannone2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeaneane_D._Fowler2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Emery_MurdochChristoph_Herbert_LüthyWilliam_Royall_Newman2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenny2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevere2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLomonosov1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Marmura1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiddleton1964\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPullman1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiepe1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiepe1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuedenbergSchwarz2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaeed2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShlomo_Pines1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas2002\"] = 1,\n [\"India\"] = 1,\n [\"refMelsen1952\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 4,\n [\"Circa\"] = 7,\n [\"Citation\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite OEtymD\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 39,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 5,\n [\"Cn\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Dubious\"] = 1,\n [\"Em\"] = 1,\n [\"Floruit\"] = 1,\n [\"Greek schools of philosophy\"] = 1,\n [\"Harv\"] = 1,\n [\"IAST\"] = 2,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 12,\n [\"Indian Philosophy\"] = 1,\n [\"LSJ\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Lopsided\"] = 1,\n [\"Main article\"] = 2,\n [\"Non sequitur\"] = 1,\n [\"Original research\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n [\"Who\"] = 1,\n [\"Wiktionary\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6b7f745dd4-llpcz","timestamp":"20241125144138","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Atomism","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atomism","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q178668","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q178668","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-07-28T04:17:10Z","dateModified":"2024-11-10T19:09:06Z","headline":"natural philosophy"}</script> </body> </html>