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id="toc-Historical_context-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Administrative_and_economic_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrative_and_economic_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Administrative and economic reforms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrative_and_economic_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_restructuring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_restructuring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Military restructuring</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_restructuring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spread_of_Enlightment_ideals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spread_of_Enlightment_ideals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Spread of Enlightment ideals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spread_of_Enlightment_ideals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creation_of_new_ruling_institutions_in_Spain_and_Americas,_1808–1810" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creation_of_new_ruling_institutions_in_Spain_and_Americas,_1808–1810"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Creation of new ruling institutions in Spain and Americas, 1808–1810</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Creation_of_new_ruling_institutions_in_Spain_and_Americas,_1808–1810-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Creation of new ruling institutions in Spain and Americas, 1808–1810 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Creation_of_new_ruling_institutions_in_Spain_and_Americas,_1808–1810-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Collapse_of_the_Bourbon_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collapse_of_the_Bourbon_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Collapse of the Bourbon dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collapse_of_the_Bourbon_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spanish_institutional_revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spanish_institutional_revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Spanish institutional revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spanish_institutional_revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Response_in_Spanish_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Response_in_Spanish_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Response in Spanish America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Response_in_Spanish_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Military_campaigns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_campaigns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Military campaigns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_campaigns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Civil_wars_for_disputed_sovereignty,_1810–1814" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_wars_for_disputed_sovereignty,_1810–1814"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Civil wars for disputed sovereignty, 1810–1814</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_wars_for_disputed_sovereignty,_1810–1814-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Major_cities_and_regional_rivalries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_cities_and_regional_rivalries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1.1</span> <span>Major cities and regional rivalries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_cities_and_regional_rivalries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_and_racial_tensions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_and_racial_tensions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1.2</span> <span>Social and racial tensions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_and_racial_tensions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-King's_war_against_independence,_1814–1820" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#King's_war_against_independence,_1814–1820"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>King's war against independence, 1814–1820</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-King's_war_against_independence,_1814–1820-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Restoration_of_Ferdinand_VII" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restoration_of_Ferdinand_VII"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2.1</span> <span>Restoration of Ferdinand VII</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Restoration_of_Ferdinand_VII-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Royalist_military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Royalist_military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2.2</span> <span>Royalist military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Royalist_military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pro-independence_advances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pro-independence_advances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2.3</span> <span>Pro-independence advances</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pro-independence_advances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Independence_consolidated,_1820–1825" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independence_consolidated,_1820–1825"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Independence consolidated, 1820–1825</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Independence_consolidated,_1820–1825-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-New_Spain_and_Central_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Spain_and_Central_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3.1</span> <span>New Spain and Central America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Spain_and_Central_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3.2</span> <span>South America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Last_royalist_bastions,_1825–1833" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Last_royalist_bastions,_1825–1833"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Last royalist bastions, 1825–1833</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Last_royalist_bastions,_1825–1833-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Effects of independence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects_of_independence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Effects of independence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Economics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Role of women</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_and_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_and_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Government and politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government_and_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_support" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_support"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Foreign support</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Foreign_support-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Foreign support subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Foreign_support-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Portuguese_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portuguese_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Portuguese Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portuguese_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overview" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Overview</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Overview-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Overview subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wars,_battles,_and_revolts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wars,_battles,_and_revolts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Wars, battles, and revolts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wars,_battles,_and_revolts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pro-independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pro-independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Pro-independence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pro-independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Royalists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Royalists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Royalists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Royalists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spanish_America_and_Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spanish_America_and_Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Spanish America and Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spanish_America_and_Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_involvement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_involvement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Foreign involvement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_involvement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Spanish American wars of independence</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 42 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-42" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">42 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaans-Amerikaanse_Vryheidsoorlo%C3%AB" title="Spaans-Amerikaanse Vryheidsoorloë – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Spaans-Amerikaanse Vryheidsoorloë" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="حروب استقلال أمريكا الإسبانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حروب استقلال أمريكا الإسبانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_d%27independencia_hispanoamericanes" title="Guerres d'independencia hispanoamericanes – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Guerres d'independencia hispanoamericanes" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%8C_%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%85_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9_%D1%83_%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%86%D1%8B" title="Вайна за незалежнасць іспанскіх калоній у Амерыцы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вайна за незалежнасць іспанскіх калоній у Амерыцы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borba_za_nezavisnost_zemalja_Latinske_Amerike" title="Borba za nezavisnost zemalja Latinske Amerike – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Borba za nezavisnost zemalja Latinske Amerike" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_d%27independ%C3%A8ncia_hispanoamericanes" title="Guerres d'independència hispanoamericanes – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerres d'independència hispanoamericanes" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanoamerick%C3%A9_v%C3%A1lky_za_nez%C3%A1vislost" title="Hispanoamerické války za nezávislost – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hispanoamerické války za nezávislost" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spansk-amerikanske_frihedskrig" title="Spansk-amerikanske frihedskrig – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Spansk-amerikanske frihedskrig" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCdamerikanische_Unabh%C3%A4ngigkeitskriege" title="Südamerikanische Unabhängigkeitskriege – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Südamerikanische Unabhängigkeitskriege" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%AF_%CF%80%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%B9_%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%BE%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Ισπανοαμερικανικοί πόλεμοι ανεξαρτησίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ισπανοαμερικανικοί πόλεμοι ανεξαρτησίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerras_de_independencia_hispanoamericanas" title="Guerras de independencia hispanoamericanas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerras de independencia hispanoamericanas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sendependigo_de_Hispanameriko" title="Sendependigo de Hispanameriko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sendependigo de Hispanameriko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameriketako_Espainiar_lurraldeen_independentzia_gerrak" title="Ameriketako Espainiar lurraldeen independentzia gerrak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ameriketako Espainiar lurraldeen independentzia gerrak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="جنگ‌های استقلال آمریکا از اسپانیا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ‌های استقلال آمریکا از اسپانیا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_d%27ind%C3%A9pendance_hispano-am%C3%A9ricaines" title="Guerres d'indépendance hispano-américaines – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerres d'indépendance hispano-américaines" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerras_de_independencia_hispanoamericanas" title="Guerras de independencia hispanoamericanas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Guerras de independencia hispanoamericanas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8A%A4%ED%8E%98%EC%9D%B8%EB%A0%B9_%EC%95%84%EB%A9%94%EB%A6%AC%EC%B9%B4_%EB%8F%85%EB%A6%BD_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="스페인령 아메리카 독립 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="스페인령 아메리카 독립 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%BD%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4_%D4%B1%D5%B4%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4_(1810-1826)" title="Իսպանական գաղութների անկախության պատերազմ Ամերիկայում (1810-1826) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իսպանական գաղութների անկախության պատերազմ Ամերիկայում (1810-1826)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borba_za_neovisnost_Latinske_Amerike" title="Borba za neovisnost Latinske Amerike – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Borba za neovisnost Latinske Amerike" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_kemerdekaan_Amerika_Latin" title="Perang kemerdekaan Amerika Latin – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang kemerdekaan Amerika Latin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_d%27indipendenza_ispanoamericane" title="Guerre d'indipendenza ispanoamericane – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerre d'indipendenza ispanoamericane" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98_%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A_%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98" title="ომი დამოუკიდებლობისათვის ესპანეთის ამერიკულ კოლონიებში – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ომი დამოუკიდებლობისათვის ესპანეთის ამერიკულ კოლონიებში" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bella_libertatis_Hispano-Americana" title="Bella libertatis Hispano-Americana – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Bella libertatis Hispano-Americana" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaans-Amerikaanse_onafhankelijkheidsoorlogen" title="Spaans-Amerikaanse onafhankelijkheidsoorlogen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Spaans-Amerikaanse onafhankelijkheidsoorlogen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B9%E3%83%91%E3%83%8E%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E7%8B%AC%E7%AB%8B%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89" title="イスパノアメリカ独立戦争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イスパノアメリカ独立戦争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_hispanoamerikanske_uavhengighetskrigene" title="De hispanoamerikanske uavhengighetskrigene – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="De hispanoamerikanske uavhengighetskrigene" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%AE%D9%BE%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%DB%8D_%D9%87%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%8A_%D8%AC%DA%AB%DA%93%DB%90" title="د خپلواکۍ هسپانوي امريکايي جګړې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د خپلواکۍ هسپانوي امريکايي جګړې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojna_kolonii_hiszpa%C5%84skich_o_niepodleg%C5%82o%C5%9B%C4%87" title="Wojna kolonii hiszpańskich o niepodległość – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wojna kolonii hiszpańskich o niepodległość" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerras_de_independ%C3%AAncia_na_Am%C3%A9rica_espanhola" title="Guerras de independência na América espanhola – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerras de independência na América espanhola" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%83zboaiele_de_independen%C8%9B%C4%83_ale_statelor_hispano-americane" title="Războaiele de independență ale statelor hispano-americane – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Războaiele de independență ale statelor hispano-americane" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ispa%C3%B1a_Amirika_Kacharikuna_Awqanakuy" title="Ispaña Amirika Kacharikuna Awqanakuy – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Ispaña Amirika Kacharikuna Awqanakuy" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B2_%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Война за независимость испанских колоний в Америке – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Война за независимость испанских колоний в Америке" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osamosvojitev_Latinske_Amerike" title="Osamosvojitev Latinske Amerike – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Osamosvojitev Latinske Amerike" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%A8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Ратови за независност Шпанске Америке – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ратови за независност Шпанске Америке" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borba_za_nezavisnost_Latinske_Amerike" title="Borba za nezavisnost Latinske Amerike – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Borba za nezavisnost Latinske Amerike" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espanjalaisen_Amerikan_itsen%C3%A4isyyssodat" title="Espanjalaisen Amerikan itsenäisyyssodat – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Espanjalaisen Amerikan itsenäisyyssodat" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanskamerikanska_sj%C3%A4lvst%C3%A4ndighetskrigen" title="Spanskamerikanska självständighetskrigen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Spanskamerikanska självständighetskrigen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="எசுப்பானிய அமெரிக்காவில் விடுதலைப் போர்கள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="எசுப்பானிய அமெரிக்காவில் விடுதலைப் போர்கள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0spanyol_Amerikan_ba%C4%9F%C4%B1ms%C4%B1zl%C4%B1k_sava%C5%9Flar%C4%B1" title="İspanyol Amerikan bağımsızlık savaşları – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İspanyol Amerikan bağımsızlık savaşları" 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href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1808–1833 series of armed conflicts in the Americas</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Spanish American wars of independence</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Revolutions" title="Atlantic Revolutions">Atlantic Revolutions</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><div style="background-color:black;border-collapse:collapse;border:1px solid black;width:200px;display:table;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:1px 0 0 1px"><div style="display:table;background-color:black;border-collapse:collapse"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 1px 1px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Congreso_de_Chilpancingo.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Congreso_de_Chilpancingo.png/200px-Congreso_de_Chilpancingo.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Congreso_de_Chilpancingo.png/300px-Congreso_de_Chilpancingo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Congreso_de_Chilpancingo.png/400px-Congreso_de_Chilpancingo.png 2x" data-file-width="2806" data-file-height="1206" /></a></span></div></div></div><div style="display:table;background-color:black;border-collapse:collapse"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 1px 1px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Congreso_de_C%C3%BAcuta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Congreso_de_C%C3%BAcuta.jpg/99px-Congreso_de_C%C3%BAcuta.jpg" decoding="async" width="99" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Congreso_de_C%C3%BAcuta.jpg/149px-Congreso_de_C%C3%BAcuta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Congreso_de_C%C3%BAcuta.jpg/198px-Congreso_de_C%C3%BAcuta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="390" data-file-height="561" /></a></span></div><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 1px 1px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cruce_Andes_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Cruce_Andes_1.jpg/99px-Cruce_Andes_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="99" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Cruce_Andes_1.jpg/149px-Cruce_Andes_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Cruce_Andes_1.jpg/198px-Cruce_Andes_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="611" data-file-height="881" /></a></span></div></div></div><div style="display:table;background-color:black;border-collapse:collapse"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 1px 1px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1812SpanishConstitutionMap.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/1812SpanishConstitutionMap.svg/200px-1812SpanishConstitutionMap.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/1812SpanishConstitutionMap.svg/300px-1812SpanishConstitutionMap.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/1812SpanishConstitutionMap.svg/400px-1812SpanishConstitutionMap.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="443" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div></div><br />From left to right, top to bottom: the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Chilpancingo" title="Congress of Chilpancingo">Congress of Chilpancingo</a> (1813), the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_C%C3%BAcuta" title="Congress of Cúcuta">Congress of Cúcuta</a> (1821), the <a href="/wiki/Crossing_of_the_Andes" title="Crossing of the Andes">Crossing of the Andes</a> (1817), the extent of the Spanish Empire on the eve of the conflict in 1810, according to the <a href="/wiki/Cortes_de_C%C3%A1diz" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortes de Cádiz">Cortes de Cádiz</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>25 September 1808 – 29 September 1833</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <a href="/wiki/Patriot_Governments_(Spanish_American_independence)" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriot Governments (Spanish American independence)">Patriot</a> victory</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> <p>Disintegration of Spanish America<sup id="ref_Note_C_1" class="reference"><a href="#cnote_Note_C">[Note C]</a></sup> </p> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>List</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/State_flag_of_Bolivia_%281825-1826%29.svg/23px-State_flag_of_Bolivia_%281825-1826%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/State_flag_of_Bolivia_%281825-1826%29.svg/35px-State_flag_of_Bolivia_%281825-1826%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/State_flag_of_Bolivia_%281825-1826%29.svg/45px-State_flag_of_Bolivia_%281825-1826%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="683" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile"><img alt="Chile" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_Chile_%281812-1814%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chile_%281812-1814%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_Chile_%281812-1814%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Chile_%281812-1814%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_Chile_%281812-1814%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Chile_%281812-1814%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile"><img alt="Chile" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_Chile_of_the_transition_%281817%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chile_of_the_transition_%281817%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_Chile_of_the_transition_%281817%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Chile_of_the_transition_%281817%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_Chile_of_the_transition_%281817%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Chile_of_the_transition_%281817%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Chile_%281818-1912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chile_%281818-1912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Chile_%281818-1912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Chile_%281818-1912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Chile_%281818-1912%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Chile_%281818-1912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="555" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Gran_Colombia" title="Gran Colombia"><img alt="Gran Colombia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Gran_Colombia_%281819%E2%80%931820%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Gran_Colombia_%281819%E2%80%931820%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Gran_Colombia_%281819%E2%80%931820%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Gran_Colombia_%281819%E2%80%931820%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Gran_Colombia_%281819%E2%80%931820%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Gran_Colombia_%281819%E2%80%931820%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Gran_Colombia_%281820%E2%80%931821%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Gran_Colombia_%281820%E2%80%931821%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Gran_Colombia_%281820%E2%80%931821%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Gran_Colombia_%281820%E2%80%931821%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Gran_Colombia_%281820%E2%80%931821%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Gran_Colombia_%281820%E2%80%931821%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Gran_Colombia" title="Gran Colombia">Gran Colombia</a> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_Miranda.svg/23px-Flag_of_Miranda.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_Miranda.svg/35px-Flag_of_Miranda.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_Miranda.svg/45px-Flag_of_Miranda.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Colombia"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flag_of_New_Granada_%281811-1814%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_New_Granada_%281811-1814%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flag_of_New_Granada_%281811-1814%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_New_Granada_%281811-1814%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Flag_of_New_Granada_%281811-1814%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_New_Granada_%281811-1814%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_New_Granada" title="United Provinces of New Granada">Colombia</a></span></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Ecuador_%281822%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ecuador_%281822%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Ecuador_%281822%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ecuador_%281822%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_Ecuador_%281822%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ecuador_%281822%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg/23px-Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg/35px-Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg/46px-Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First Mexican Empire</a> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Flag_of_Mexico_%281821-1823%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281821-1823%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Flag_of_Mexico_%281821-1823%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281821-1823%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Flag_of_Mexico_%281821-1823%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281821-1823%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Army#Independence" title="Mexican Army">Insurgents</a> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg/17px-Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg/26px-Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg/34px-Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1052" /></a></span> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg/17px-Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg/26px-Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg/34px-Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1495" data-file-height="1394" /></a></span> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png/17px-Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png/26px-Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png/34px-Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png 2x" data-file-width="522" data-file-height="438" /></a></span> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bandera_y_Estandarte_de_Morelos.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Bandera_y_Estandarte_de_Morelos.svg/17px-Bandera_y_Estandarte_de_Morelos.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Bandera_y_Estandarte_de_Morelos.svg/26px-Bandera_y_Estandarte_de_Morelos.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Bandera_y_Estandarte_de_Morelos.svg/34px-Bandera_y_Estandarte_de_Morelos.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="883" data-file-height="723" /></a></span> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg/17px-Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg/26px-Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg/34px-Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2806" data-file-height="1684" /></a></span></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Three_Guarantees" title="Army of the Three Guarantees">Army of the Three Guarantees</a></li></ul></li> <li><span data-sort-value="Central America"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Central_America.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Central_America.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Central_America.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Central_America.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Flag_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Central_America.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Central_America.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Federal_Republic_of_Central_America" title="Federal Republic of Central America">Federal Republic of Central America</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Protectorate_of_Peru" title="Protectorate of Peru"><img alt="Protectorate of Peru" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Flag_of_Peru_%281821-1822%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Peru_%281821-1822%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Flag_of_Peru_%281821-1822%29.svg/31px-Flag_of_Peru_%281821-1822%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Flag_of_Peru_%281821-1822%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Peru_%281821-1822%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru"><img alt="Peru" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flag_of_Peru_%281822%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Peru_%281822%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flag_of_Peru_%281822%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Peru_%281822%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flag_of_Peru_%281822%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Peru_%281822%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru"><img alt="Peru" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Peru_%281822-1825%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Peru_%281822-1825%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Peru_%281822-1825%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Peru_%281822-1825%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Peru_%281822-1825%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Peru_%281822-1825%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_Peru_%281825%E2%80%931884%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Peru_%281825%E2%80%931884%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_Peru_%281825%E2%80%931884%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Peru_%281825%E2%80%931884%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_Peru_%281825%E2%80%931884%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Peru_%281825%E2%80%931884%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Independence_of_Maynas" title="War of Independence of Maynas">Maynas</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="United Provinces of the Río de la Plata"><img alt="United Provinces of the Río de la Plata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_Belgrano_%281812%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belgrano_%281812%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_Belgrano_%281812%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belgrano_%281812%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_Belgrano_%281812%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Belgrano_%281812%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span><span data-sort-value="Río de la Plata"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_Argentina_%281818%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Argentina_%281818%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_Argentina_%281818%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Argentina_%281818%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_Argentina_%281818%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Argentina_%281818%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="United Provinces of the Río de la Plata">United Provinces</a></span> <ul><li><span data-sort-value="Paraguay"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Paraguay_1811.svg/23px-Flag_of_Paraguay_1811.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Paraguay_1811.svg/35px-Flag_of_Paraguay_1811.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Paraguay_1811.svg/45px-Flag_of_Paraguay_1811.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Independence_of_Paraguay" title="Independence of Paraguay">Paraguay</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span data-sort-value="West Florida"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/West_Florida_Flag.svg/21px-West_Florida_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/West_Florida_Flag.svg/32px-West_Florida_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/West_Florida_Flag.svg/42px-West_Florida_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="367" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_West_Florida" title="Republic of West Florida">West Florida</a></span> (annexed by United States)</li></ul> </li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_recognition" title="Diplomatic recognition">Diplomatic recognition</a> in 1821 (<a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Portugal,_Brazil_and_the_Algarves" title="United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves">Portugal</a>), 1822 (US), and 1825 (UK).</li> <li>Spain retained the islands of <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> until the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> of 1898.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banda_Oriental" title="Banda Oriental">Banda Oriental</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Texas" title="Spanish Texas">Spanish Texas</a> become part of the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Portugal,_Brazil_and_the_Algarves" title="United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves">United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First Mexican Empire</a> respectively.</li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Participants</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Patriot_governments" title="Patriot governments">Patriots</a></b></li><li><span data-sort-value="United Kingdom"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></span> <span class="nowrap">(1815–1819)</span><sup id="ref_Note_I_1" class="reference"><a href="#cnote_Note_I">[Note I]</a></sup></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281818-1819%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281818-1819%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281818-1819%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281818-1819%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281818-1819%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281818-1819%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> <span class="nowrap">(1810–1819)</span><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous</a> allies</li></ul></div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royalist_(Spanish_American_independence)" title="Royalist (Spanish American independence)">Royalists</a></li><li><span data-sort-value="Spain"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Indigenous allies</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Units involved</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Bandera_de_la_Provincia_de_Mendoza.svg/14px-Bandera_de_la_Provincia_de_Mendoza.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Bandera_de_la_Provincia_de_Mendoza.svg/22px-Bandera_de_la_Provincia_de_Mendoza.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Bandera_de_la_Provincia_de_Mendoza.svg/29px-Bandera_de_la_Provincia_de_Mendoza.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="610" data-file-height="720" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Andes" title="Army of the Andes">Army of the Andes</a><sup id="ref_Note_F_1" class="reference"><a href="#cnote_Note_F">[Note F]</a></sup></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile"><img alt="Chile" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Chile_%281818-1912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chile_%281818-1912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Chile_%281818-1912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Chile_%281818-1912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Chile_%281818-1912%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Chile_%281818-1912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="555" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Chilean_Armed_Forces" title="Chilean Armed Forces">Armed forces of Chile</a><sup id="ref_Note_G_1" class="reference"><a href="#cnote_Note_G">[Note G]</a></sup></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Gran_Colombia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Gran_Colombia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Gran_Colombia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Gran_Colombia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Gran_Colombia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Gran_Colombia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Military_Forces_of_Colombia" title="Military Forces of Colombia">Armed forces of Gran Colombia</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Flag_of_Mexico_%281821-1823%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281821-1823%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Flag_of_Mexico_%281821-1823%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281821-1823%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Flag_of_Mexico_%281821-1823%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281821-1823%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Armed_forces_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed forces of Mexico">Armed forces of Mexico</a><sup id="ref_Note_E_1" class="reference"><a href="#cnote_Note_E">[Note E]</a></sup></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Peru_%281822-1825%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Peru_%281822-1825%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Peru_%281822-1825%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Peru_%281822-1825%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Peru_%281822-1825%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Peru_%281822-1825%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Armed_forces_of_Peru" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed forces of Peru">Armed forces of Peru</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_Artigas.svg/23px-Flag_of_Artigas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_Artigas.svg/35px-Flag_of_Artigas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_Artigas.svg/45px-Flag_of_Artigas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Banda_Oriental" title="Banda Oriental">Orientals forces</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Magee-Gutierrez_Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_Flag.svg/23px-Magee-Gutierrez_Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Magee-Gutierrez_Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_Flag.svg/35px-Magee-Gutierrez_Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Magee-Gutierrez_Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_Flag.svg/46px-Magee-Gutierrez_Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="270" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Republican_Army_of_the_North" class="mw-redirect" title="Republican Army of the North">Republican Army of the North</a><sup id="ref_Note_L_1" class="reference"><a href="#cnote_Note_L">[Note L]</a></sup></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Bandera_cruz_de_Borgo%C3%B1a_3.svg/23px-Bandera_cruz_de_Borgo%C3%B1a_3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Bandera_cruz_de_Borgo%C3%B1a_3.svg/35px-Bandera_cruz_de_Borgo%C3%B1a_3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Bandera_cruz_de_Borgo%C3%B1a_3.svg/45px-Bandera_cruz_de_Borgo%C3%B1a_3.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Army" title="Spanish Army">Spanish Army</a></li><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Navy" title="Spanish Navy">Spanish Navy</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>130,000 Patriots<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>6,500 <a href="/wiki/British_Legions" title="British Legions">British Legions</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> Unknown</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> Unknown</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>30,000 European soldiers lost</li><li>35,000 Indigenous royalists killed<sup id="cite_ref-Archived_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Archived-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>1,000,000 total dead</li><li>600,000 in <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>400,000 in <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;"> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Bandera_de_Espa%C3%B1a_1808-1813.svg/23px-Bandera_de_Espa%C3%B1a_1808-1813.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Bandera_de_Espa%C3%B1a_1808-1813.svg/35px-Bandera_de_Espa%C3%B1a_1808-1813.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Bandera_de_Espa%C3%B1a_1808-1813.svg/45px-Bandera_de_Espa%C3%B1a_1808-1813.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Spain_under_Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Spain under Joseph Bonaparte">Napoleonic Spain</a> (1808-1813) preserved the integrity of the Spanish Empire.</td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spanish_colonial_campaigns" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Spanish_colonial_campaigns" title="Template:Campaignbox Spanish colonial campaigns"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Spanish_colonial_campaigns" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Spanish colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Spanish_colonial_campaigns" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Spanish colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spanish_colonial_campaigns" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire"><span class="wrap">Spanish colonial campaigns</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>15th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">Canary Islands (1402–96)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Cruz_de_la_Mar_Peque%C3%B1a" title="Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña">Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña (1478)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guinea" title="Battle of Guinea">Guinea (1478)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mers-el-K%C3%A9bir_(1497)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Mers-el-Kébir (1497)">Algeria (1497)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Melilla" title="Conquest of Melilla"> Melilla (1497)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>16th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Mers-el-K%C3%A9bir_(1505)" title="Capture of Mers-el-Kébir (1505)">Algeria (1505)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mers-el-K%C3%A9bir_(1507)" title="Battle of Mers-el-Kébir (1507)">Algeria (1507)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera_(1508)" title="Conquest of the Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera (1508)">Morocco (1508)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Oran_(1509)" title="Spanish conquest of Oran (1509)">Algeria (1509)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_B%C3%A9ja%C3%AFa_(1510)" title="Capture of Béjaïa (1510)">Algeria (1510)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Tripoli" title="Spanish conquest of Tripoli">Tripoli (1510)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_assault_on_Djerba_(1510)" title="Spanish assault on Djerba (1510)">Tunisia (1510)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Ta%C3%ADno_War_of_San_Juan%E2%80%93Borik%C3%A9n" title="Spanish–Taíno War of San Juan–Borikén">Puerto Rico (1511–29)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_expedition_(1516)" title="Algiers expedition (1516)">Algeria (1516)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tlemcen_(1518)" title="Fall of Tlemcen (1518)">Algeria (1517–18)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Indian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexican Indian Wars">Mexico (1519–1821)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Mexico (1519–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_expedition_(1519)" title="Algiers expedition (1519)">Algeria (1519)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_assault_on_Djerba_(1520)" title="Spanish assault on Djerba (1520)">Tunisia (1520)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Chiapas" title="Spanish conquest of Chiapas">Chiapas (1523–1695)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Guatemala (1524–1697)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_El_Salvador" title="Spanish conquest of El Salvador">El Salvador (1524–39)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Honduras" title="Spanish conquest of Honduras">Honduras (1524–39)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera_expedition_(1525)" title="Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera expedition (1525)">Morocco (1525)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Yucatán (1527–1697)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_of_Algiers_(1529)" title="Capture of Peñón of Algiers (1529)">Algeria (1529)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_of_Cherchell_(1531)" title="Campaign of Cherchell (1531)">Algeria (1531)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Peru (1532–72)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1534)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1534)">Tunisia (1534)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iguape_War" title="Iguape War"> Brazil (1534-36)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_expedition_to_Tlemcen_(1535)" title="Spanish expedition to Tlemcen (1535)">Algeria (1535)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1535)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1535)">Tunisia (1535)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Colombia (1537–40)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_expedition_(1541)" title="Algiers expedition (1541)">Algeria (1541)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_to_Mostaganem_(1543)" title="Expedition to Mostaganem (1543)">Algeria (1543)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Jailolo" title="Attack on Jailolo">Halmahera (1545)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arauco_War" title="Arauco War">Chile (1546–1662)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_to_Mostaganem_(1547)" title="Expedition to Mostaganem (1547)">Algeria (1547)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Mahdia_(1550)" title="Capture of Mahdia (1550)">Tunisia (1550)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tripoli_(1551)" title="Siege of Tripoli (1551)">Libya (1551)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_B%C3%A9ja%C3%AFa_(1555)" title="Capture of Béjaïa (1555)">Algeria (1555)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Oran_(1556)" title="Siege of Oran (1556)">Algeria (1556)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_to_Mostaganem_(1558)" title="Expedition to Mostaganem (1558)">Algeria (1558)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba" title="Battle of Djerba">Tunisia (1560)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calchaqu%C3%AD_Wars" title="Calchaquí Wars">Argentine Northwest (1560–1667)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieges_of_Oran_and_Mers_El_K%C3%A9bir" title="Sieges of Oran and Mers El Kébir">Algeria (1563)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera_expedition_(1563)" title="Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera expedition (1563)">Morocco (1563)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera">Morocco (1564)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Moro_conflict" title="Spanish–Moro conflict">Philippines (1565–1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_assault_on_French_Florida" title="Spanish assault on French Florida">Florida (1565)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_revolts_against_Spain" title="Philippine revolts against Spain">Philippines (1567–72)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1573)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1573)">Tunisia (1573)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1574)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1574)">Tunisia (1574)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castilian_War" title="Castilian War">Brunei (1578)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ternate_expedition_(1582)" title="Ternate expedition (1582)">Insulindia (1582)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ternate_expedition_(1585)" title="Ternate expedition (1585)">Insulindia (1585)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Spanish_War" title="Cambodian–Spanish War">Cambodia (1593–97)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1595)" title="Battle of San Juan (1595)">Puerto Rico (1595)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindanao_expedition" title="Mindanao expedition">Philippines (1596)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pinos" title="Battle of Pinos">Cuba (1596)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1598)" title="Battle of San Juan (1598)">Puerto Rico (1598)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_of_Visayas_(1599-1600)" class="mw-redirect" title="Raid of Visayas (1599-1600)">Philippines (1599-1600)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>17th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jolo_expedition_(1602)" title="Jolo expedition (1602)">Philippines (1602)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ternate_expedition_(1603)" title="Ternate expedition (1603)">Insulindia (1603)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hammamet" title="Battle of Hammamet">Tunisia (1605)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Moluccas" title="Spanish conquest of the Moluccas">Moluccas (1606)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehdya,_Morocco#Spanish_occupation_(1614–81)" title="Mehdya, Morocco">Morocco (1614)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Pet%C3%A9n" title="Spanish conquest of Petén">Petén (1618–97)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapture_of_Bahia" title="Recapture of Bahia">Brazil (1625)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_expedition_to_Formosa" title="Spanish expedition to Formosa">Taiwan (1626)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St._Kitts_(1629)" title="Battle of St. Kitts (1629)">St. Kitts <b>·</b> Nevis (1629)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jolo_expedition_(1630)" title="Jolo expedition (1630)">Philippines (1630)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Abrolhos" title="Battle of Abrolhos">Brazil (1631)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Salvador_(1638)" title="Siege of Salvador (1638)">Brazil (1638)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_occupation_of_Jolo_(1638)" title="Spanish occupation of Jolo (1638)">Philippines (1638-46)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_12%E2%80%9317_January_1640" title="Action of 12–17 January 1640">Brazil (1640)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Salvador_(1641)" title="Battle of San Salvador (1641)">Taiwan (1641)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Salvador_(1642)" title="Battle of San Salvador (1642)">Taiwan (1642)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_expedition_to_Valdivia" title="Dutch expedition to Valdivia">Chiloé <b>·</b> Valdivia (1643)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_La_Naval_de_Manila" title="Battles of La Naval de Manila">Philippines (1646)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Fort_Rocher" title="Capture of Fort Rocher">Tortuga (1654)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Santo_Domingo_(1655)" title="Siege of Santo Domingo (1655)">Hispaniola (1655)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Jamaica" title="Invasion of Jamaica">Jamaica (1655)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ocho_Rios" title="Battle of Ocho Rios">Jamaica (1657)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rio_Nuevo" title="Battle of Rio Nuevo">Jamaica (1658)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgan%27s_raid_on_Porto_Bello" title="Henry Morgan's raid on Porto Bello">Porto Bello (1668)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgan%27s_raid_on_Lake_Maracaibo" title="Henry Morgan's raid on Lake Maracaibo">Lake Maracaibo (1669)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgan%27s_Panama_expedition" title="Henry Morgan's Panama expedition">Panama (1671)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_Revolt" title="Pueblo Revolt">New Mexico (1680–92)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Larache_(1689)" title="Siege of Larache (1689)">Morocco (1689)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>18th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">North America (1702–13)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huilliche_uprising_of_1712" title="Huilliche uprising of 1712">Chiloé (1712)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Nassau_(1720)" title="Raid on Nassau (1720)">Bahamas (1720)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_uprising_of_1723" title="Mapuche uprising of 1723">Chile (1723–1726)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Oran_(1732)" title="Spanish conquest of Oran (1732)">Oran (1732)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Portuguese_War_(1735%E2%80%931737)" title="Spanish–Portuguese War (1735–1737)">Banda Oriental (1735–37)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">Caribbean and North America (1739–48)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantastic_War" title="Fantastic War">Iberian Peninsula and South America (1762–63)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_invasion_of_Portugal_(1762)" title="Spanish invasion of Portugal (1762)">Portugal (1762)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Cevallos_expedition" title="First Cevallos expedition">Banda Oriental and Rio Grande do Sul (1762–63)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Havana" title="Siege of Havana">Cuba (1762)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_R%C3%ADo_San_Juan_de_Nicaragua" title="Battle for Río San Juan de Nicaragua">Nicaragua (1762)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1762)" title="Battle of Manila (1762)">Philippines (1762)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_uprising_of_1766" title="Mapuche uprising of 1766">Chile (1766–1767)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Algiers_(1775)" title="Invasion of Algiers (1775)">Algiers (1775)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Portuguese_War_(1776%E2%80%931777)" title="Spanish–Portuguese War (1776–1777)">Banda Oriental (1776–1777)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_and_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="Spain and the American Revolutionary War">North America (1779–83)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_T%C3%BApac_Amaru_II" title="Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II">Peru (1780–82)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(New_Granada)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (New Granada)">New Granada (1781)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1783)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1783)">Algiers (1783)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1784)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1784)">Algiers (1784)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huilliche_uprising_of_1792" title="Huilliche uprising of 1792">Chile (1792)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1796%E2%80%931808)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1796–1808)">Caribbean (1796–1802)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>19th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_invasions_of_the_River_Plate" title="British invasions of the River Plate">Río de la Plata (1806–07)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spanish America (1808–33)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bolivian_War_of_Independence" title="Bolivian War of Independence">Bolivia (1809–25)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_War_of_Independence" title="Argentine War of Independence">Argentina (1810–18)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Florida_Controversy" title="West Florida Controversy">Florida (1810)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraguay_campaign" title="Paraguay campaign">Paraguay (1810–11)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_War_of_Independence" title="Mexican War of Independence">Mexico (1810–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_War_of_Independence" title="Peruvian War of Independence">Peru (1811–24)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1811_Independence_Movement" title="1811 Independence Movement">El Salvador (1811)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Las_Piedras_(1811)" title="Battle of Las Piedras (1811)">Uruguay (1811)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_War_of_Independence" title="Venezuelan War of Independence">Venezuela (1811–23)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilean_War_of_Independence" title="Chilean War of Independence">Chile (1812–27)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_reconquest_of_New_Granada" title="Spanish reconquest of New Granada">Colombia (1815–16)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bol%C3%ADvar%27s_campaign_to_liberate_New_Granada" title="Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada">Colombia (1819–20)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecuadorian_War_of_Independence" title="Ecuadorian War of Independence">Ecuador (1820–22)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_attempts_to_reconquer_Mexico" title="Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico">Mexico (1821–29)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_expedition_to_Balanguingui" title="Spanish expedition to Balanguingui">Balanguingui (1848)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochinchina_campaign" title="Cochinchina campaign">Cochinchina (1858–62)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispano-Moroccan_War_(1859%E2%80%931860)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hispano-Moroccan War (1859–1860)">Morocco (1859–1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Restoration_War" title="Dominican Restoration War">Dominican Republic (1863–65)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chincha_Islands_War" title="Chincha Islands War">Peru and Chile (1864–66)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grito_de_Lares" title="Grito de Lares">Puerto Rico (1868)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Years%27_War" title="Ten Years' War">Cuba (1868–78)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_War_(Cuba)" title="Little War (Cuba)">Cuba (1879–80)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Melillan_campaign" title="First Melillan campaign">Morocco (1893–94)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_War_of_Independence" title="Cuban War of Independence">Cuba (1895–98)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Revolution" title="Philippine Revolution">Philippines (1896–98)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico_campaign" title="Puerto Rico campaign">Puerto Rico (1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Guam" title="Capture of Guam">Guam (1898)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>20th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Melillan_campaign" title="Second Melillan campaign">Morocco (1909)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kert_campaign" title="Kert campaign">Morocco (1911–12)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rif_War" title="Rif War">Morocco (1920–26)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Morocco (1957–58)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahrawi_insurgency" title="Sahrawi insurgency">Western Sahara (1973–76)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_March" title="Green March">Western Sahara (1975)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div> <p>The <b>Spanish American wars of independence</b> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i lang="es">Guerras de independencia hispanoamericanas</i>) took place across the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> in the early 19th century. The struggles in both hemispheres began shortly after the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Peninsular War</a>, forming part of the broader context of the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>. The conflict unfolded between the royalists, who were defeated and favored a unitary monarchy, and the patriots, who won and promoted either plural monarchies or republics, separated from <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> and from each other. These struggles ultimately led to the independence and secession of continental <a href="/wiki/Spanish_America" title="Spanish America">Spanish America</a> from metropolitan rule,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which, beyond this conflict, resulted in a process of <a href="/wiki/Balkanization" title="Balkanization">Balkanization</a> in <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the strict period of military campaigns ranges from the Battle of Chacaltaya (1809) in present-day <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a>, to the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tampico_(1829)" title="Battle of Tampico (1829)">Battle of Tampico (1829)</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1808, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a>, as part of his <a href="/wiki/Continental_Blockade" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental Blockade">Continental Blockade</a> strategy against the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, forced the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_royal_family" title="Spanish royal family">Spanish royal family</a> to <a href="/wiki/Abdications_of_Bayonne" title="Abdications of Bayonne">abdicate</a> the throne, imposed the <a href="/wiki/Bayonne_Statute" title="Bayonne Statute">Bayonne Statute</a>, and installed his brother, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Joseph Bonaparte">Joseph Bonaparte</a>, as King of Spain. In the <a href="/wiki/18th_century" title="18th century">18th century</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Habsburg dynasty</a> was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbons</a>, and the Spanish Empire declined in Europe to a second-rate power following the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but continued to be an important global power due to its possessions in the Americas. Similarly, the replacement of the Bourbons with the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bonaparte" title="House of Bonaparte">Bonaparte dynasty</a> aimed to preserve the empire's integrity. However, <a href="/wiki/Spain_under_Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Spain under Joseph Bonaparte">Napoleonic Spain</a> (1808-1813) was ultimately defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Peninsular War</a>. The rejection of this new dynasty created a power vacuum and led to the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a> and a desire for liberties throughout the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>. At first, some major cities or capitals formed local Juntas on the basis of laws from the Hispanic tradition. The armed conflicts started in 1809, with short-lived <a href="/wiki/Junta_(Peninsular_War)" title="Junta (Peninsular War)">juntas</a> established to govern in <a href="/wiki/Chuquisaca_Revolution" title="Chuquisaca Revolution">Chuquisaca</a>, <a href="/wiki/La_Paz_revolution" title="La Paz revolution">La Paz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quito#Colonial_period" title="Quito">Quito</a> opposing the government of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Central_and_Governing_Junta_of_the_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Central and Governing Junta of the Kingdom">Supreme Central Junta of Seville</a>. At the beginning of 1810, <a href="/wiki/Retroversion_of_the_sovereignty_to_the_people" title="Retroversion of the sovereignty to the people">new juntas</a> appeared across Spanish America when the Central Junta fell to the French invasion. Although various regions objected to many crown policies, "there was little interest in outright independence; indeed there was widespread support for the Spanish Central Junta formed to lead the resistance against the French".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While some Spanish Americans believed that independence was necessary, most who initially supported the creation of the new governments saw them as a means to preserve the region's autonomy from the French. Although there had been research on the idea of a separate Spanish American ("creole") identity separate from that of <a href="/wiki/Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberia">Iberia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> political independence was not initially the aim of most Spanish Americans, nor was it necessarily inevitable.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the end of 1810, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">Ferdinand VII of Spain</a>, captive, was recognized by the <a href="/wiki/Cortes_of_C%C3%A1diz" title="Cortes of Cádiz">Cortes of Cádiz</a> and by the governing juntas in the Americas as a king subordinate to <a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">popular sovereignty</a>. The governing juntas across America wanted to reinstate <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII" title="Ferdinand VII">Ferdinand VII</a> as king and refused to accept the authority of the Council of Regency that was established with the dissolution of the Supreme and Central Governmental Junta of Spain and the Indies. In agreement on this, a military conflict arose between Royalists and Patriots over the unity or independence of the empire. These juntas gained their own levels of independence and autonomy from Spain through declarations in 1808-1812.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII" title="Ferdinand VII">Ferdinand VII</a> reimposed <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a> in 1814 with a <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a>, following the defeat of Napoleon and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Valen%C3%A7ay" title="Treaty of Valençay">Treaty of Valençay</a>. He was able to defeat and repress the peninsular liberals, and abolished the liberal <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Cadiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of Cadiz">Constitution of Cadiz</a>, although he could not defeat the revolutionaries in Spanish America, who resisted and formed their own national congresses. The Spanish navy had collapsed in the war against Napoleon, so therefore, in practice, it did not support the expeditionary forces who arrived in small groups. In 1820 the Spanish army, led by <a href="/wiki/Rafael_Riego" class="mw-redirect" title="Rafael Riego">Rafael Riego</a>, revolted against absolutism, restored the so-called <a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a>, and ended the threat of invasion against the <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a>, resulting in royalist collapse in the Americas. Over the course of the next decade, the Patriots' armies won major victories and obtained independence in their respective countries. Spain did not change the position against separatism, but the political instability in Spain, without a navy, army or treasury, convinced many Spanish Americans of the need to formally establish independence from the <a href="/wiki/Metropole" title="Metropole">metropole</a>. In Spain, a <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Thousand_Sons_of_Saint_Louis" title="Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis">French army of the Holy Alliance</a> invaded and supported the absolutists, restored Ferdinand VII, and occupied Spain until 1828.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These conflicts were fought both as <a href="/wiki/Irregular_warfare" title="Irregular warfare">irregular warfare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conventional_warfare" title="Conventional warfare">conventional warfare</a>. Some historians claim that the wars began as localized civil wars,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> that later spread and expanded as secessionist wars<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to promote general independence from Spanish rule.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This independence led to the development of new national boundaries based on the <a href="/wiki/Provincial_deputation_in_Spanish_America" title="Provincial deputation in Spanish America">colonial provinces</a>, which would form the future independent countries that constituted contemporary Latin America during the early 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under <a href="/wiki/Spain_under_the_Restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="Spain under the Restoration">Spanish rule</a> until the 1898 <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a>. </p><p>The conflict resulted in the dissolution of the Spanish monarchy and the creation of new states. The independence of Spanish America did not constitute an anticolonial movement.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new republics immediately abandoned the formal system of the <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> and noble titles. In most of these new countries, <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> was not abolished, and racial classification and hierarchy were imposed. Total abolition did not come until the 1850s in most of the Latin American republics. A <a href="/wiki/Caste_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Caste system">caste system</a>, influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a> of the <a href="/wiki/European_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="European Enlightenment">European Enlightenment</a>, was maintained until the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Criollos" class="mw-redirect" title="Criollos">Criollos</a> of European descent born in the New World, and <a href="/wiki/Mestizo" title="Mestizo">mestizos</a>, of mixed Indigenous and European heritage, replaced <a href="/wiki/Peninsular" class="mw-redirect" title="Peninsular">Spanish-born</a> appointees in most political offices. Criollos remained at the top of a social structure that retained some of its traditional features culturally, if not legally. Slavery finally ended in all of the new nations. For almost a century thereafter, <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_conservatism_in_Latin_America" title="Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America">conservatives and liberals</a> fought to reverse or to deepen the social and political changes unleashed by those rebellions. The Spanish American independences had as a direct consequence the <a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">forced displacement</a> of the royalist Spanish population that suffered a forced emigration during the war and later, due to the laws of Expulsion of the Spaniards from the new states in the Americas with the purpose of consolidating their independence.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Events in Spanish America transpired in the wake of the successful <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a> and transition to <a href="/wiki/Independence_of_Brazil" title="Independence of Brazil">independence in Brazil</a>. Brazil's independence in particular shared a common starting point with that of Spanish America, since both conflicts were triggered by Napoleon's invasion of the Iberian Peninsula, which forced the Portuguese royal family to <a href="/wiki/Transfer_of_the_Portuguese_Court_to_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil">flee to Brazil</a> in 1807. The process of Latin American independence took place in the general political and intellectual climate of <a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">popular sovereignty</a> that emerged from the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> that influenced all of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Revolutions" title="Atlantic Revolutions">Atlantic Revolutions</a>, including the earlier revolutions <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">France</a>. A more direct cause of the Spanish American wars of independence were the unique developments occurring within the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1814%E2%80%9373)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Spain (1814–73)">Kingdom of Spain</a> triggered by the <a href="/wiki/Cortes_of_Cadiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortes of Cadiz">Cortes of Cadiz</a>, concluding with the emergence of the new Spanish American republics in the post-Napoleonic world. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_context">Historical context</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical context"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hisparevol.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Hisparevol.gif/250px-Hisparevol.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="323" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Hisparevol.gif/375px-Hisparevol.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Hisparevol.gif 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="608" /></a><figcaption><b>Development of Spanish American Independence</b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FF0000; color:black;"> </span> Government under traditional Spanish law</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black;"> </span> Loyal to Supreme Central Junta or Cortes</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FFFF00; color:black;"> </span> American junta or insurrection movement</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#008000; color:white;"> </span> Independent state declared or established</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#000080; color:white;"> </span> Height of French control of the Peninsula</div></figcaption></figure> <p>Political independence was not necessarily the foreordained outcome of the political turmoil in Spanish America. "There was little interest in outright independence."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As historians <a href="/wiki/Robin_Humphreys" title="Robin Humphreys">R.A. Humphreys</a> and John Lynch note, "it is all too easy to equate the forces of discontent or even the forces of change with the forces of revolution."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since "by definition, there was no history of independence until it happened,"<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when Spanish American independence did occur, explanations for why it came about have been sought. The Latin American Wars of Independence were essentially led by European diaspora against European empires. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrative_and_economic_reforms">Administrative and economic reforms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Administrative and economic reforms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are a number of factors that have been identified to have provoked the independent movements. First, increasing control by the Crown of its overseas empire via the <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Reforms" title="Bourbon Reforms">Bourbon Reforms</a> of the mid-eighteenth century introduced changes to the relationship of Spanish Americans to the Crown. The language used to describe the overseas empire shifted from "kingdoms" with independent standing with the crown to "colonies" subordinate to Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an effort to better control the administration and economy of the overseas possessions the Crown reintroduced the practice of appointing outsiders, almost all <i><a href="/wiki/Peninsulars" class="mw-redirect" title="Peninsulars">peninsulars</a></i>, to the royal offices throughout the empire. This meant that Spanish American elites were thwarted in their expectations and ambitions by the crown's upending of long-standing practices of creole access to office holding.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The regalist and secularizing policies of the Bourbon monarchy were aimed at decreasing the power of the Roman Catholic Church. The crown had already <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Jesuits" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsion of the Jesuits">expelled the Jesuits</a> in 1767, which saw many creole members of the Society of Jesus go into permanent exile. By limiting the power of the Church, the crown attempted to centralize itself within the institutions of colonial Latin America. Because of the physical and ideological proximity that the clergy had,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they could directly influence and dictate the interactions between populations of colonial Latin America, either as legal counsel or an advisor;<sup id="cite_ref-:2_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a directness which the crown would need to attempt to create the centralized, colonial state which it wanted to implement. </p><p>Later in the eighteenth century the crown sought to decrease the privileges (<i>fueros</i>) of the clergy, restricting clerical authority to spiritual matters and undermining the power of parish priests, who often acted as agents of the crown in rural parishes.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By desacralizing power and frontal attacks on the clergy, the crown, according to <a href="/wiki/William_B._Taylor_(historian)" title="William B. Taylor (historian)">William B. Taylor</a>, undermined its own legitimacy, since parish priests had been traditionally the "natural local representatives of their Catholic king."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the economic sphere, the crown sought to gain control over church revenues. The Church functioned as one of the largest economic institutions within colonial Latin America. It owned and retained jurisdiction over large amounts of land,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which the crown wanted for itself because of the economic value which could be derived from the land.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, by taking that land for itself, the Crown had the opportunity to cut down the physical presence of the Church to further weaken its ideological and social role within local colonial communities.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a financial crisis of 1804, the crown attempted to call in debts owed the church, mainly in the form of mortgages for <a href="/wiki/Hacienda" title="Hacienda">haciendas</a> owned by the elites. The Act of Consolidation simultaneously threatened the wealth of the church, whose capital was mainly lent for mortgages, as well as threatening the financial well-being of elites, who depended on mortgages for acquiring and keeping their estates. Shortening the repayment period meant many elites were faced with bankruptcy.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The crown also sought to gain access to benefices elite families set aside to support a priest, often their own family members, by eliminating these endowed funds (<i>capellanías</i>) that the lower clergy depended on disproportionately.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prominently in Mexico, lower clergy participated in the insurgency for independence with priests <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Hidalgo" class="mw-redirect" title="Miguel Hidalgo">Miguel Hidalgo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos" title="José María Morelos">José María Morelos</a>. </p><p>The reforms had mixed results. In some areas—such as <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">New Spain</a>—the reforms had positive effects, improving the local economy and the efficiency of the government.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other areas, the changes in the crown's economic and administrative policies led to tensions with locals, which at times erupted into open revolts, such as the <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(New_Granada)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (New Granada)">Revolt of the Comuneros</a> in <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_T%C3%BApac_Amaru_II" title="Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II">Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II</a> in <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Peru</a>. </p><p>The loss of high offices to peninsulars and the eighteenth-century revolts in Spanish South America were some of the direct causes of the wars of independence, which took place decades later, but they have been considered important elements of the political background in which the wars took place.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Creoles, particularly the wealthy Creoles, were negatively impacted by the Bourbon Reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This resulted in their taking action by using their wealth and positions within society, often as leaders within their communities, to spur resistance to convey their displeasure with Spanish reforms because of the negative economic impact which they had.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, because of how quickly their revolts would further radicalize the lower classes, the Creoles quickly stopped supporting general violent insurrection because they benefitted from social change that occurred through the systems of the Spanish crown.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Institutional change ensured stability by supporting the political institutions that allowed for the creation of a wealthy Creole class and further adapting those institutions to meet demands, rather than propose a radical shift in the complete make-up of socioeconomic life and traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, institutional change did not come as anticipated and further spurred on the radicalization of Spanish-American social classes towards independence.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_restructuring">Military restructuring</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Military restructuring"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spain's international wars in the second half of the 18th century evidenced the empire's difficulties in reinforcing its colonial possessions and provide them with economic aid. This led to an increased local participation in the financing of the defense and an increased participation in the militias by the Chilean-born. Such development was at odds with the ideals of the centralized <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a>. The Spanish did also formal concessions to strengthen the defense: In <a href="/wiki/Chilo%C3%A9_Archipelago" title="Chiloé Archipelago">Chiloé Archipelago</a> Spanish authorities promised freedom from the <a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">encomienda</a> those <a href="/wiki/Huilliche_people" title="Huilliche people">indigenous locals</a> who settled near the new stronghold of <a href="/wiki/Ancud" title="Ancud">Ancud</a> (founded in 1768) and contributed to its defense. The increased local organization of the defenses would ultimately undermine metropolitan authority and bolster the independence movement.<sup id="cite_ref-Ossa2010_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ossa2010-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spread_of_Enlightment_ideals">Spread of Enlightment ideals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Spread of Enlightment ideals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other factors may include <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> thinking and the examples of the Atlantic Revolutions. The Enlightenment spurred the desire for social and economic reform to spread throughout Spanish America and the Iberian Peninsula. Ideas about free trade and <a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">physiocratic economics</a> were raised by the <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Enlightenment in Spain</a> and spread to the overseas empire and a homegrown <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_Enlightenment" title="Spanish American Enlightenment">Spanish American Enlightenment</a>. The political reforms implemented and the many constitutions written both in Spain and throughout the Spanish world during the wars of independence were influenced by these factors.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Creation_of_new_ruling_institutions_in_Spain_and_Americas,_1808–1810"><span id="Creation_of_new_ruling_institutions_in_Spain_and_Americas.2C_1808.E2.80.931810"></span>Creation of new ruling institutions in Spain and Americas, 1808–1810</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Creation of new ruling institutions in Spain and Americas, 1808–1810"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collapse_of_the_Bourbon_dynasty">Collapse of the Bourbon dynasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Collapse of the Bourbon dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Abdications_of_Bayonne" title="Abdications of Bayonne">Abdications of Bayonne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Spain_(Napoleonic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Spain (Napoleonic)">Kingdom of Spain (Napoleonic)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Peninsular War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:January_Suchodolski,_Bitwa_pod_Somosierr%C4%85.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/January_Suchodolski%2C_Bitwa_pod_Somosierr%C4%85.jpg/220px-January_Suchodolski%2C_Bitwa_pod_Somosierr%C4%85.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/January_Suchodolski%2C_Bitwa_pod_Somosierr%C4%85.jpg/330px-January_Suchodolski%2C_Bitwa_pod_Somosierr%C4%85.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/January_Suchodolski%2C_Bitwa_pod_Somosierr%C4%85.jpg/440px-January_Suchodolski%2C_Bitwa_pod_Somosierr%C4%85.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5906" data-file-height="4355" /></a><figcaption>Spanish regular and irregular forces fighting in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Somosierra" title="Battle of Somosierra">Somosierra Pass</a> against a French invading army</figcaption></figure> <p>The Peninsular War was the trigger for conflicts in Spanish America in the absence of a legitimate monarch. The Peninsular War began an extended period of instability in the worldwide Spanish monarchy that lasted until 1823. Napoleon forced the Bourbon monarchs to abdicate, which precipitated a political crisis in Spain and Spanish America. Although the Spanish world almost uniformly rejected Napoleon's plan to place his brother, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Joseph Bonaparte">Joseph</a>, on the throne, there was no clear solution to the lack of a king. Following traditional Spanish political theories on the contractual nature of the monarchy (see <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez#Philosophy_of_law" title="Francisco Suárez">Philosophy of Law of Francisco Suárez</a>), the peninsular provinces responded to the crisis by establishing <a href="/wiki/Junta_(Peninsular_War)" title="Junta (Peninsular War)">juntas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The move, however, led to more confusion, since there was no central authority and most juntas did not recognize the claim of some juntas to represent the monarchy as a whole. The Junta of Seville, in particular, claimed authority over the overseas empire, because of the province's historic role as the exclusive <a href="/wiki/Entrep%C3%B4t" title="Entrepôt">entrepôt</a> of the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This impasse was resolved through negotiations between the several juntas in Spain counted with the participation of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Castile" title="Council of Castile">Council of Castile</a>, which led to the creation of a main government: the "<a href="/wiki/Supreme_Central_and_Governing_Junta_of_the_Kingdom_(Spain)" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Central and Governing Junta of the Kingdom (Spain)">Supreme Central and Governmental Junta of Spain and the Indies</a>" on 25 September 1808. It was agreed that the kingdoms of the peninsula would send two representatives to this Supreme Central Junta, and that the overseas kingdoms would send one representative each. These kingdoms were defined as "the <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty" title="Viceroyalty">viceroyalties</a> of <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">New Spain</a> (Mexico), <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Per%C3%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of Perú">Peru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Buenos Aires</a>, and the independent <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_general" class="mw-redirect" title="Captaincy general">captaincies general</a> of the island of <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Guatemala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a>, Province of <a href="/wiki/Venezuela_Province" title="Venezuela Province">Venezuela</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Philippines</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This plan was criticized for providing unequal representation to Spanish America; nevertheless, throughout the end of 1808 and early 1809, the regional capitals elected candidates, whose names were forwarded to the capitals of the viceroyalties or captaincies general. Several important and large cities were left without direct representation in the Supreme Junta. In particular <a href="/wiki/Quito" title="Quito">Quito</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sucre" title="Sucre">Chuquisaca</a>, which saw themselves as the capitals of kingdoms, resented being subsumed in the larger <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Viceroyalty of Peru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata</a> respectively. This unrest led to the establishment of juntas in these cities in 1809, which were eventually quashed by the authorities within the year. An unsuccessful attempt at establishing a junta in New Spain was also stopped. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spanish_institutional_revolution">Spanish institutional revolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Spanish institutional revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Central_and_Governing_Junta_of_the_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Central and Governing Junta of the Kingdom">Supreme Central and Governing Junta of the Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cortes_of_C%C3%A1diz" title="Cortes of Cádiz">Cortes of Cádiz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Provincial_deputation_in_Spanish_America" title="Provincial deputation in Spanish America">Provincial deputation in Spanish America</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cortes_de_Cadiz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Cortes_de_Cadiz.jpg/250px-Cortes_de_Cadiz.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Cortes_de_Cadiz.jpg/375px-Cortes_de_Cadiz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Cortes_de_Cadiz.jpg/500px-Cortes_de_Cadiz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="633" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Deputies of <a href="/wiki/Cortes_of_C%C3%A1diz" title="Cortes of Cádiz">Cortes of Cádiz</a> by territories</figcaption></figure> <p>The escape to <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Cádiz</a> and the dissolution of the Supreme Central Junta on 29 January 1810, because of the reverses suffered after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Oca%C3%B1a" title="Battle of Ocaña">Battle of Ocaña</a> by the Spanish forces paid with Spanish American money,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> set off another wave of juntas being established in the Americas. French forces had taken over southern Spain and forced the Supreme Junta to seek <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_C%C3%A1diz" title="Siege of Cádiz">refuge in the island-city of Cádiz</a>. </p><p>The Supreme Junta replaced itself with a smaller, five-man council, called the Regency, or the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Central_and_Governing_Junta_of_the_Kingdom#The_Council_of_Regency_of_Spain_and_the_Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Central and Governing Junta of the Kingdom">Council of Regency of Spain and the Indies</a>. Next, to establish a more legitimate government system, the Regency called for the convening of an "extraordinary and general <a href="/wiki/Cortes_Generales" title="Cortes Generales">Cortes</a> of the Spanish Nation": which was convened as the <a href="/wiki/Cortes_of_C%C3%A1diz" title="Cortes of Cádiz">Cortes of Cádiz</a>. The plan for the election of the Cortes, based on provinces, and not kingdoms, was more equitable and provided more time to determine what would be considered an overseas province.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Cortes of Cádiz was the first national assembly to claim <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a> in Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-Ezquerra2001_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezquerra2001-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It represented the abolition of the old kingdoms.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The opening session was held on 24 September 1810, in the building now known as the Real Teatro de las Cortes under the siege of French army. It met as one body and its members represented the entire Spanish empire.<sup id="cite_ref-O.1998_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O.1998-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Response_in_Spanish_America">Response in Spanish America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Response in Spanish America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Retroversion_of_the_sovereignty_to_the_people" title="Retroversion of the sovereignty to the people">Retroversion of the sovereignty to the people</a>, <a href="/wiki/Junta_(Spanish_American_Independence)" title="Junta (Spanish American Independence)">Junta (Spanish American Independence)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chuquisaca_Revolution" title="Chuquisaca Revolution">Chuquisaca Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/La_Paz_revolution" title="La Paz revolution">La Paz revolution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Luz_de_Am%C3%A9rica" class="mw-redirect" title="Luz de América">Luz de América</a></div> <p>Most Spanish Americans saw no reason to recognize a rump government that was under the threat of being captured by the French at any moment, and began to work for the creation of <a href="/wiki/Junta_(Peninsular_War)" title="Junta (Peninsular War)">local juntas</a> to preserve the region's independence from the French. Junta movements were successful in New Granada (Colombia), <a href="/wiki/First_Republic_of_Venezuela" title="First Republic of Venezuela">Venezuela</a>, <a href="/wiki/Government_Junta_of_Chile_(1810)" title="Government Junta of Chile (1810)">Chile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Primera_Junta" title="Primera Junta">Río de la Plata</a> (Argentina). Less successful, though serious movements, also occurred in <a href="/wiki/1811_Independence_Movement" title="1811 Independence Movement">Central America</a>. Ultimately, Central America, along with most of New Spain, Quito (Ecuador), Peru, <a href="/wiki/Upper_Peru" title="Upper Peru">Upper Peru</a> (Bolivia), the Caribbean and the Philippine Islands remained under control of royalists for the next decade and participated in the <a href="/wiki/Cortes_of_C%C3%A1diz" title="Cortes of Cádiz">Cortes of Cádiz</a> efforts to establish a liberal government for the Spanish monarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_campaigns">Military campaigns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Military campaigns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colonias_europea_en_Am%C3%A9rica_siglo_XVI-XVIII.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Colonias_europea_en_Am%C3%A9rica_siglo_XVI-XVIII.png/250px-Colonias_europea_en_Am%C3%A9rica_siglo_XVI-XVIII.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Colonias_europea_en_Am%C3%A9rica_siglo_XVI-XVIII.png/375px-Colonias_europea_en_Am%C3%A9rica_siglo_XVI-XVIII.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Colonias_europea_en_Am%C3%A9rica_siglo_XVI-XVIII.png/500px-Colonias_europea_en_Am%C3%A9rica_siglo_XVI-XVIII.png 2x" data-file-width="536" data-file-height="618" /></a><figcaption>European colonies in the Americas in the 16th-18th century</figcaption></figure> <p>The recruitment of soldiers seemed to end up a common pool employed by opposing sides as cannon fodder. Socially, both apparently opposing positions, loyalist and pro-independence, had an uncertain significance for the different social strata of the monarchy. In Europe, the Spaniards made a forced recruitment for the expeditionary forces, leading to constant rebellions. Independent states relied on privateers, mercenaries, volunteers, adventurers or filibusters, reliable fighters when pay or booty was at a glance. For the mobilization of the population in the Americas, the vast majority or almost all of the troops of both sides, the indiscriminate recruitment of native American communities was used, in general in traditional confronted regions; social improvements were promised, by both sides, to the indigenous and the different mestizo colonial castes, such as mulattoes ("pardos"), cholos, etc., and even African slaves were recruited by both sides. All those recruited in the Americas, and also the Spaniards, joined the enemy armies as combatants when they were captured. Likewise, the Creole potentates of European origin could give their support to the royalist or pro-independence cause, in relation to the commercial interests of each region. The Church was also divided, and except for the lower clergy, involved as combatants of insurgency, their position was in accordance with the political power. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Civil_wars_for_disputed_sovereignty,_1810–1814"><span id="Civil_wars_for_disputed_sovereignty.2C_1810.E2.80.931814"></span>Civil wars for disputed sovereignty, 1810–1814</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Civil wars for disputed sovereignty, 1810–1814"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Junta" title="Supreme Junta">Supreme Junta</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_Republic_of_Venezuela" title="First Republic of Venezuela">First Republic of Venezuela</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patria_Vieja" class="mw-redirect" title="Patria Vieja">Patria Vieja</a>, <a href="/wiki/May_Revolution" title="May Revolution">May Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patria_Boba" class="mw-redirect" title="Patria Boba">Patria Boba</a>, <a href="/wiki/1811_Independence_Movement" title="1811 Independence Movement">1811 Independence Movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Espa%C3%B1a_Boba" title="España Boba">España Boba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Hidalgo_y_Costilla" title="Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla">Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos" title="José María Morelos">José María Morelos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Gervasio_Artigas" title="José Gervasio Artigas">José Gervasio Artigas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Second_Republic_of_Venezuela" title="Second Republic of Venezuela">Second Republic of Venezuela</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Legions_in_Cerro_de_la_Gloria_en_Mendoza,_Argentina.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/British_Legions_in_Cerro_de_la_Gloria_en_Mendoza%2C_Argentina.jpg/220px-British_Legions_in_Cerro_de_la_Gloria_en_Mendoza%2C_Argentina.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/British_Legions_in_Cerro_de_la_Gloria_en_Mendoza%2C_Argentina.jpg/330px-British_Legions_in_Cerro_de_la_Gloria_en_Mendoza%2C_Argentina.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/British_Legions_in_Cerro_de_la_Gloria_en_Mendoza%2C_Argentina.jpg/440px-British_Legions_in_Cerro_de_la_Gloria_en_Mendoza%2C_Argentina.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="639" /></a><figcaption>Plaque remembering the help of British hunters in the battle of <a href="/wiki/Maip%C3%BA,_Mendoza" title="Maipú, Mendoza">Maipú</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Mendoza,_Argentina" title="Mendoza, Argentina">Mendoza</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Winning Spanish American independence also involved civil war.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The creation of juntas in Spanish America, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Junta" title="Supreme Junta">Junta Suprema de Caracas</a></i> on 19 April 1810, set the stage for the fighting that would afflict the region for the next decade and a half. Political fault lines appeared, and were often the causes of military conflict. On the one hand the juntas challenged the authority of all royal officials, whether they recognized the Regency or not. On the other hand, royal officials and Spanish Americans who desired to keep the empire together were split between liberals, who supported the efforts of the Cortes, and conservatives (often called "<a href="/wiki/Absolutism_(European_history)" title="Absolutism (European history)">absolutists</a>" in the historiography), who did not want to see any innovations in government. Finally, although the juntas claimed to carry out their actions in the name of the deposed king, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">Ferdinand VII</a>, their creation provided an opportunity for people who favored outright independence to promote their agenda publicly and safely. The proponents of independence called themselves patriots, a term which eventually was generally applied to them.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The idea that independence was not the initial concern is evidenced by the fact that few areas declared independence in the years after 1810. The congresses of Venezuela and New Granada did so in 1811 and also Paraguay in same year (14 and 15 May 1811). Some historians explain the reluctance to declare independence as a "mask of Ferdinand VII": that is, that patriot leaders felt that they needed to claim loyalty to the deposed monarch to prepare the masses for the radical change that full independence eventually would entail.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, even areas such as Río de la Plata and Chile, which more or less maintained de facto independence from the peninsular authorities, did not declare independence until quite a few years later, in 1816 and 1818, respectively. Overall, despite achieving formal or de facto independence, many regions of Spanish America were marked by nearly continuous wars, which lasted well into the 1820s. In Mexico, where the junta movement had been stopped in its early stages by a coalition of peninsular merchants and government officials, efforts to establish a government independent of the Regency or the French took the form of rebellion, under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Hidalgo_y_Costilla" title="Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla">Miguel Hidalgo</a>. Hidalgo was captured and executed in 1811, but a resistance movement continued, which <a href="/wiki/Solemn_Act_of_the_Declaration_of_Independence_of_Northern_America" title="Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America">declared independence from Spain in 1813</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Guti%C3%A9rrez%E2%80%93Magee_Expedition" title="Gutiérrez–Magee Expedition">Gutiérrez–Magee Expedition</a> was a joint Tejanos-US volunteers expedition formed in <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a> for Texas independence but was defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Medina" title="Battle of Medina">Battle of Medina</a>. In Central America, <a href="/wiki/1811_Independence_Movement" title="1811 Independence Movement">attempts at establishing juntas</a> were also put down, but resulted in significantly less violence. The Caribbean islands, like the Philippines on the other side of the world, were relatively peaceful. Any plots to set up juntas were denounced to the authorities early enough to stop them before they gained widespread support.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Major_cities_and_regional_rivalries">Major cities and regional rivalries</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Major cities and regional rivalries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Royalist_(Spanish_American_independence)" title="Royalist (Spanish American independence)">Royalist (Spanish American independence)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LA_BANDERA_DE_BOUCHARD.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/LA_BANDERA_DE_BOUCHARD.JPG/220px-LA_BANDERA_DE_BOUCHARD.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/LA_BANDERA_DE_BOUCHARD.JPG/330px-LA_BANDERA_DE_BOUCHARD.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/LA_BANDERA_DE_BOUCHARD.JPG/440px-LA_BANDERA_DE_BOUCHARD.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1729" data-file-height="1131" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Lorenzo" title="Battle of San Lorenzo">Battle of San Lorenzo</a> in 1813</figcaption></figure> <p>Major cities and regional rivalry played an important role in the wars. The disappearance of a central, imperial authority—and in some cases of even a local, viceregal authority (as in the cases of New Granada and Río de la Plata)—initiated a prolonged period of <a href="/wiki/Balkanization" title="Balkanization">balkanization</a> in many regions of Spanish America. It was not clear which political units should replace the empire, and there were no new national identities to replace the traditional sense of being Spaniards. The original juntas of 1810 appealed first to a sense of being Spanish, which was counterposed to the French threat; second, to a general American identity, which was counterposed to the Peninsula lost to the French; and third, to a sense of belonging to the major cities or local province, the <i><a href="/wiki/Fatherland" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatherland">patria</a></i> in Spanish.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More often than not, juntas sought to maintain a province's independence from the capital of the former viceroyalty or captaincy general as much as from the Peninsula itself. Armed conflicts broke out between the provinces over the question of whether some cities or provinces were to be subordinate to others as they had been under the crown. This phenomenon was particularly evident in South America. This rivalry also led some regions to adopt the opposite political cause to that chosen by their rivals. Peru seems to have remained strongly royalist in large part because of its rivalry with Río de la Plata, to which it had lost control of Upper Peru when the latter was elevated to a viceroyalty in 1776. The creation of juntas in Río de la Plata allowed Peru to regain formal control of Upper Peru for the duration of the wars.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Social_and_racial_tensions">Social and racial tensions</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Social and racial tensions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%C3%89xododeCaracasen1814.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/%C3%89xododeCaracasen1814.jpg/220px-%C3%89xododeCaracasen1814.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/%C3%89xododeCaracasen1814.jpg/330px-%C3%89xododeCaracasen1814.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/%C3%89xododeCaracasen1814.jpg/440px-%C3%89xododeCaracasen1814.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption>Exodus from the town of Caracas 1814</figcaption></figure> <p>Underlying social and racial tensions also had a great impact on the nature of the fighting. Rural areas were pitted against urban centers, as grievances against the authorities found an outlet in the political conflict. This was the case with Hidalgo's peasant revolt, which was fueled as much by discontent over several years of bad harvests as with events in the Peninsular War. Hidalgo was originally part of a circle of liberal urbanites in <a href="/wiki/Quer%C3%A9taro,_Quer%C3%A9taro" class="mw-redirect" title="Querétaro, Querétaro">Querétaro</a>, who sought to establish a junta. After this conspiracy was discovered, Hidalgo turned to the rural people of the Mexican <a href="/wiki/Baj%C3%ADo" title="Bajío">Bajío</a> to build his army, and their interests soon overshadowed those of the urban intellectuals. A similar tension existed in Venezuela, where the Spanish immigrant <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Tom%C3%A1s_Boves" title="José Tomás Boves">José Tomás Boves</a> formed a powerful, though irregular, royalist army out of the <i><a href="/wiki/Llanero" title="Llanero">Llaneros</a></i>, mixed-race slave and plains people, by attacking the white landowning class. Boves and his followers often disregarded the command of Spanish officials and were not concerned with actually re-establishing the toppled royal government, choosing instead to keep real power among themselves. Finally, in the back country of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Peru" title="Upper Peru">Upper Peru</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Republiqueta" class="mw-redirect" title="Republiqueta">republiquetas</a></i> kept the idea of independence alive by allying with disenfranchised members of rural society and native groups, but were never able to take the major population centers. </p><p>Increasingly violent confrontations developed between Spaniards and Spanish Americans, but this tension was often related to class issues or fomented by patriot leaders to create a new sense of nationalism. After being incited to rid the country of the <i>gachupines</i> (a disparaging term for <i>Peninsulares</i>), Hidalgo's forces indiscriminately massacred hundreds of Criollos and <i>Peninsulares</i> who had taken refuge at the <a href="/wiki/Alh%C3%B3ndiga_de_Granaditas" title="Alhóndiga de Granaditas">Alhóndiga de Granaditas</a> in Guanajuato. In Venezuela during his <a href="/wiki/Admirable_Campaign" title="Admirable Campaign">Admirable Campaign</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Simón Bolívar</a> instituted a policy of a <a href="/wiki/Decree_of_War_to_the_Death" title="Decree of War to the Death">war to the death</a>, in which royalist Spanish Americans would be purposely spared but even neutral <i>Peninsulares</i> would be killed, to drive a wedge between the two groups. This policy laid the ground for the violent royalist reaction under Boves. Often though, royalism or patriotism simply provided a banner to organize the aggrieved, and the political causes could be discarded just as quickly as they were picked up. The Venezuelan <i>Llaneros</i> switched to the patriot banner once the elites and the urban centers became securely royalist after 1815, and it was the royal army in Mexico that ultimately brought about that nation's independence.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="King's_war_against_independence,_1814–1820"><span id="King.27s_war_against_independence.2C_1814.E2.80.931820"></span>King's war against independence, 1814–1820</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: King's war against independence, 1814–1820"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reconquista_(Spanish_America)" title="Reconquista (Spanish America)">Reconquista (Spanish America)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Heraldic_Royal_Crown_(Common).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Heraldic royal crown"><img alt="Heraldic royal crown" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Heraldic_Royal_Crown_%28Common%29.svg/100px-Heraldic_Royal_Crown_%28Common%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Heraldic_Royal_Crown_%28Common%29.svg/150px-Heraldic_Royal_Crown_%28Common%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Heraldic_Royal_Crown_%28Common%29.svg/200px-Heraldic_Royal_Crown_%28Common%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="389" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Central concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarch" title="Monarch">Monarch</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_prerogative" title="Royal prerogative">Royal prerogative</a></li></ul></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdication_system" title="Abdication system">Abdication system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Chinese Legalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composite_monarchy" title="Composite monarchy">Composite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowned_republic" title="Crowned republic">Crowned republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diarchy" title="Diarchy">Diarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_monarchy" title="Dual monarchy">Dual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy" title="Duchy">Duchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_duchy" title="Grand duchy">Grand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynastic_union" title="Dynastic union">Dynastic union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elective_monarchy" title="Elective monarchy">Elective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate" title="Emirate">Emirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnarch" title="Ethnarch">Ethnarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_monarchy" title="Federal monarchy">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy" title="Hereditary monarchy">Hereditary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanate" title="Khanate">Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-sovereign_monarchy" title="Non-sovereign monarchy">Non-sovereign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentarchy" title="Pentarchy">Pentarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">Personal union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_monarchy" title="Popular monarchy">Popular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality" title="Principality">Principality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_union" title="Real union">Real union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">Regency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coregency" title="Coregency">Coregency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-proclaimed_monarchy" title="Self-proclaimed monarchy">Self-proclaimed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signoria" title="Signoria">Signoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate" title="Triumvirate">Triarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_monarchy" title="Universal monarchy">Universal</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Philosophy</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <p><b>Philosophers</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante" class="mw-redirect" title="Dante">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bellarmine" title="Robert Bellarmine">Bellarmine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_de_Balzac" title="Honoré de Balzac">Balzac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cr%C3%A9tineau-Joly" title="Jacques Crétineau-Joly">Crétineau-Joly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol" title="Nikolai Gogol">Gogol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaime_Balmes" title="Jaime Balmes">Balmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Dostoevsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kang_Youwei" title="Kang Youwei">Youwei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Bainville" title="Jacques Bainville">Bainville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Mu%C3%B1oz_Seca" title="Pedro Muñoz Seca">Seca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_von_Kuehnelt-Leddihn" title="Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn">Kuehnelt-Leddihn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Bogdanor" title="Vernon Bogdanor">Bogdanor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Yarvin" title="Curtis Yarvin">Yarvin</a></li></ul> <p><b>Works</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_regno,_ad_regem_Cypri" title="De regno, ad regem Cypri">De Regno</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1265-1266)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Les_Six_livres_de_la_R%C3%A9publique" class="mw-redirect" title="Les Six livres de la République">Les Six livres de la République</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1576)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Patriarcha" title="Patriarcha">Patriarcha</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1680)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Considerations_on_France" title="Considerations on France">Considerations on France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1796)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy:_The_God_That_Failed" title="Democracy: The God That Failed">Democracy: The God That Failed</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2001)</span></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Mazarin" title="Cardinal Mazarin">Mazarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VI" title="Pope Pius VI">Pius VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabrizio_Ruffo" title="Fabrizio Ruffo">Ruffo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ercole_Consalvi" title="Ercole Consalvi">Consalvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armand-Emmanuel_de_Vignerot_du_Plessis,_duc_de_Richelieu" class="mw-redirect" title="Armand-Emmanuel de Vignerot du Plessis, duc de Richelieu">Plessis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Klemens von Metternich">Metternich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Vill%C3%A8le" title="Joseph de Villèle">Villèle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_de_Polignac" title="Jules de Polignac">Polignac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89lie,_duc_Decazes" title="Élie, duc Decazes">Decazes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Disraeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_C%C3%A1novas_del_Castillo" title="Antonio Cánovas del Castillo">Castillo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Bismarck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_V%C3%A1zquez_de_Mella" title="Juan Vázquez de Mella">Mella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ioannis_Metaxas" title="Ioannis Metaxas">Metaxas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Churchill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertand_Renouvin" class="mw-redirect" title="Bertand Renouvin">Renouvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Zhirinovsky" title="Vladimir Zhirinovsky">Zhirinovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C4%83lin_Popescu-T%C4%83riceanu" title="Călin Popescu-Tăriceanu">Popescu-Tăriceanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salome_Zourabichvili" title="Salome Zourabichvili">Zourabichvili</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustus#Octavian_becomes_Augustus" title="Augustus">Birth of the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Foundation of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy" title="Tsarist autocracy">Tsarist autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Birth of the Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_of_1813" title="Triumvirate of 1813">Establishment of the Dutch monarchy</a></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Wars" title="Liberal Wars">Liberal Wars</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second French Empire</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification of Italy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Compromise_of_1867" title="Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867">Austro-Hungarian Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">German unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5_October_1910_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="5 October 1910 Revolution">5 October 1910 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Republic_(Brazil)" title="Proclamation of the Republic (Brazil)">Proclamation of the Republic in Brazil</a></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Chinese Revolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siamese_revolution_of_1932" title="Siamese revolution of 1932">Siamese revolution of 1932</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">Birth of the Italian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Spanish transition to democracy</a></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Cambodia" title="Modern Cambodia">Modern Cambodia</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_Civil_War" title="Nepalese Civil War">Nepalese Civil War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Polity</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Administration</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_court" title="Royal court">Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Court_appointment" title="Court appointment">Appointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Officers_of_State" title="Great Officers of State">Great Officers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_household" title="Royal household">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinue" title="Retinue">Retinue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camarilla" title="Camarilla">Camarilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courtier" title="Courtier">Courtier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Favourite" title="Favourite">Favourite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_guard" title="Royal guard">Royal guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privy_council" title="Privy council">Privy council</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Council_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Crown Council (disambiguation)">Crown Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makhzen" title="Makhzen">Makhzen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riksr%C3%A5d" title="Riksråd">Riksråd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_assent" title="Royal assent">Royal assent</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Related ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfonsism" title="Alfonsism">Alfonsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonapartism" title="Bonapartism">Bonapartism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlism" title="Carlism">Carlism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_conservatism" title="Authoritarian conservatism">Authoritarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_conservatism" title="Traditionalist conservatism">Traditionalist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotism" title="Despotism">Despotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobitism" title="Jacobitism">Jacobitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimists" title="Legitimists">Legitimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguelist" title="Miguelist">Miguelism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orangism_(Dutch_Republic)" title="Orangism (Dutch Republic)">Orangism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orangism_(Belgium)" title="Orangism (Belgium)">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orangism_(Luxembourg)" title="Orangism (Luxembourg)">Luxembourg</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9anist" title="Orléanist">Orléanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royalist" title="Royalist">Royalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-royalist" title="Ultra-royalist">Ultra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tory" title="Tory">Toryism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Tory" title="High Tory">High</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coronation" title="Coronation">Coronation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_monarchy" title="Criticism of monarchy">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">Dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_dynasties" title="Lists of dynasties">Lists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_family" title="Royal family">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_descent" title="Royal descent">Descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_family_trees" title="List of family trees">Family trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_bastard" title="Royal bastard">Illegitimate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_system" title="Emperor system">Emperor system of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figurehead" title="Figurehead">Figurehead</a></li> <li>Heir <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heir_apparent" title="Heir apparent">apparent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heir_presumptive" title="Heir presumptive">presumptive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingmaker" title="Kingmaker">Kingmaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchies" title="List of monarchies">List of monarchies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_monarchies" title="List of current monarchies">Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_former_monarchies" title="List of former monarchies">Former</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_non-sovereign_monarchs" title="List of current non-sovereign monarchs">Non-sovereign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">Nobility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peerage" title="Peerage">Peerage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_of_the_realm" title="Peer of the realm">Realm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosopher_king" title="Philosopher king">Philosopher king</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretender" title="Pretender">Pretender</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_former_ruling_families" title="List of heads of former ruling families">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial,_royal_and_noble_ranks" title="Imperial, royal and noble ranks">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realm" title="Realm">Realm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reich" title="Reich">Reich</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regicide" title="Regicide">Regicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regnal_list" title="Regnal list">Regnal list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regnal_number" title="Regnal number">Regnal number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereign" title="Sovereign">Sovereign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_and_noble_styles" title="Royal and noble styles">Style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_succession" title="Order of succession">Succession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-king" title="Anti-king">Anti-king</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_crisis" title="Succession crisis">Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interregnum" title="Interregnum">Interregnum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_rebellion" title="Princely rebellion">Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_succession" title="War of succession">War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usurper" title="Usurper">Usurper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_usurpers" title="List of usurpers">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist 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background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_monarchy" title="Abolition of monarchy">Anti-monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corruption" title="Anti-corruption">Anti-corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_virtue" title="Civic virtue">Civic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty#Republican_liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty as non-domination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">Mixed government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_representation" title="Political representation">Political representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_participation_(decision_making)" title="Public participation (decision making)">Public participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Res_publica" title="Res publica">Res publica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-governance" title="Self-governance">Self-governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_republicanism" title="Classical republicanism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_republicanism" title="Modern republicanism">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_republicanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal republicanism">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemalism" title="Kemalism">Kemalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khomeinism" title="Khomeinism">Khomeinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism#Neo-republicanism" title="Republicanism">Neo-republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venizelism" title="Venizelism">Venizelism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_republic" title="Autonomous republic">Autonomous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_republic" title="Capitalist republic">Capitalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_republic" title="Christian republic">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_republic" title="Democratic republic">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_republic" title="Federal republic">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_parliamentary_republic" title="Federal parliamentary republic">Federal parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_empire" title="Republican empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_republic" title="Islamic republic">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_republic" title="Parliamentary republic">Parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_republic" title="People's republic">People's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_republic" title="Revolutionary republic">Revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular republic">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sister_republic" title="Sister republic">Sister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_republic" title="Soviet republic">Soviet</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Philosophers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Baggini" title="Julian Baggini">Baggini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Bello" title="Andrés Bello">Bello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Cattaneo" title="Carlo Cattaneo">Cattaneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophie_Grace_Chappell" title="Sophie Grace Chappell">Chappell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Crick" title="Bernard Crick">Crick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Honderich" title="Ted Honderich">Honderich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Pettit" title="Philip Pettit">Pettit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" title="Michael Sandel">Sandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Sunstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Warburton" title="Nigel Warburton">Warburton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerry_Adams" title="Gerry Adams">Adams (Gerry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">Adams (John)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Atatürk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Aza%C3%B1a" title="Manuel Azaña">Azaña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bartley" title="Jonathan Bartley">Bartley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Benn" title="Tony Benn">Benn (Tony)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalie_Bennett" title="Natalie Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mhairi_Black" title="Mhairi Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Burgon" title="Richard Burgon">Burgon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronnie_Campbell" title="Ronnie Campbell">Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maggie_Chapman" title="Maggie Chapman">Chapman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katy_Clark" title="Katy Clark">Clark (Katy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Clarke_(Irish_republican)" title="Tom Clarke (Irish republican)">Clarke (Tom)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Connolly" title="James Connolly">Connolly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Cromwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Davidson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Ian Davidson (Scottish politician)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Drakeford" title="Mark Drakeford">Drakeford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Etherington" title="Bill Etherington">Etherington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linda_Fabiani" title="Linda Fabiani">Fabiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Ferguson_(politician)" title="Mark Ferguson (politician)">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Flynn_(politician)" title="Paul Flynn (politician)">Flynn (Paul)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Flynn" title="Stephen Flynn">Flynn (Stephen)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Galloway" title="George Galloway">Galloway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Gambetta" title="Léon Gambetta">Gambetta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Garibaldi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">de Gaulle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_Greer" title="Ross Greer">Greer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Gr%C3%A9vy" title="Jules Grévy">Grévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nia_Griffith" title="Nia Griffith">Griffith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Griffiths_(Welsh_politician)" title="John Griffiths (Welsh politician)">Griffiths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Harvie" title="Patrick Harvie">Harvie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Hatton" title="Derek Hatton">Hatton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert" title="Jacques Hébert">Hébert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_Hopkins" title="Kelvin Hopkins">Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Huppert" title="Julian Huppert">Huppert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhun_ap_Iorwerth" title="Rhun ap Iorwerth">Iorwerth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenda_Jackson" title="Glenda Jackson">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">Jay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elin_Jones" title="Elin Jones">Jones (Elin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynne_Jones" title="Lynne Jones">Jones (Lynne)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosie_Kane" title="Rosie Kane">Kane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_La_Malfa" title="Ugo La Malfa">La Malfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Lewis_(politician)" title="Clive Lewis (politician)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Lucas" title="Caroline Lucas">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gillian_Mackay" title="Gillian Mackay">Mackay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie" title="William Lyon Mackenzie">Mackenzie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magid_Magid" title="Magid Magid">Magid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_McKechin" title="Ann McKechin">McKechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Mullin_(politician)" title="Chris Mullin (politician)">Mullin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_Naysmith" title="Doug Naysmith">Naysmith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethel_Mannin" title="Ethel Mannin">Mannin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDonnell" title="John McDonnell">McDonnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisa_Nandy" title="Lisa Nandy">Nandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Nehru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pound" title="Stephen Pound">Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Prescott" title="John Prescott">Prescott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Ritchie" title="Ken Ritchie">Ritchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Robespierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethan_Sayed" title="Bethan Sayed">Sayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Skates" title="Ken Skates">Skates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Skinner" title="Dennis Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorna_Slater" title="Lorna Slater">Slater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Slaughter" title="Andy Slaughter">Slaughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_Smith" title="Cat Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Spadolini" title="Giovanni Spadolini">Spadolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Taverne" title="Dick Taverne">Taverne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Wilson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Bill Wilson (Scottish politician)">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leanne_Wood" title="Leanne Wood">Wood</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(54–51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourses_on_Livy" title="Discourses on Livy">Discourses on Livy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1531)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Tenure_of_Kings_and_Magistrates" title="The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates">The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1649)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Commonwealth_of_Oceana" title="The Commonwealth of Oceana">The Commonwealth of Oceana</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1656)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourses_Concerning_Government" title="Discourses Concerning Government">Discourses Concerning Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1698)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1755)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1787–1788)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1794)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Revolution" title="On Revolution">On Revolution</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1963)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ga%E1%B9%87asa%E1%B9%85gha" title="Gaṇasaṅgha"><span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Gaṇasaṅgha</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Classical Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spanish American wars of independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">French Revolution of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5_October_1910_revolution" title="5 October 1910 revolution">5 October 1910 revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Chinese Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution of 1918–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1921" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1921">Mongolian Revolution of 1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/11_September_1922_Revolution" title="11 September 1922 Revolution">11 September 1922 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1935_Greek_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1935 Greek coup d'état attempt">1935 Greek coup d'état attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">1946 Italian institutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_civil_war" title="North Yemen civil war">North Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_Revolution" title="Zanzibar Revolution">Zanzibar Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="1969 Libyan coup d'état">1969 Libyan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Cambodian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1970 Cambodian coup d'état">1970 Cambodian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Fijian_coups_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1987 Fijian coups d'état">1987 Fijian coups d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_Civil_War" title="Nepalese Civil War">Nepalese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbadian Republic Proclamation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">National variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Republicanism in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Australia" title="Republicanism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Bahamas" title="Republicanism in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Canada" title="Republicanism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_republicanism" title="Irish republicanism">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Jamaica" title="Republicanism in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-monarchism_in_Japan" title="Anti-monarchism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Morocco" title="Republicanism in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Republicanism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_New_Zealand" title="Republicanism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Norway" title="Republicanism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Spain" title="Republicanism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Sweden" title="Republicanism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Republicanism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_republicanism" title="Scottish republicanism">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_republicanism" title="Welsh republicanism">Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Classical radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_monarchy" title="Criticism of monarchy">Criticism of monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emperor%27s_New_Clothes" title="The Emperor's New Clothes">The Emperor's New Clothes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(politics)" title="Jacobin (politics)">Jacobinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_republics" title="List of republics">List of republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_republic" title="Peasant republic">Peasant republic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Primus_inter_pares" title="Primus inter pares">Primus inter pares</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_without_republicans" title="Republic without republicans">Republic without republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_empire" title="Republican empire">Republican empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Republican Party (disambiguation)">Republican Party</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Template:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>At the first years of war, during Spanish constitutional period, the main military effort of Spain was aimed at preserving the island of Cuba and the <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">viceroyalty of Mexico</a> in North America. But in 1814, with the restoration of Ferdinand VII, the strategic line of the war changed drastically, directing the major Spanish military effort towards South America. By 1815 the general outlines of which areas were controlled by royalists and pro-independence forces were established and a general stalemate set in the war. In areas where royalists controlled the main population centers, most of the fighting by those seeking independence was done by isolated <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla bands</a>. In New Spain, the two main guerrilla groups were led by <a href="/wiki/Guadalupe_Victoria" title="Guadalupe Victoria">Guadalupe Victoria</a> in Puebla and <a href="/wiki/Vicente_Guerrero" title="Vicente Guerrero">Vicente Guerrero</a> in Oaxaca. In northern South America, New Granadan and Venezuelan patriots, under leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Military_career_of_Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Military career of Simón Bolívar">Simón Bolívar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Paula_Santander" title="Francisco de Paula Santander">Francisco de Paula Santander</a>, <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Mari%C3%B1o" title="Santiago Mariño">Santiago Mariño</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Piar" title="Manuel Piar">Manuel Piar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Antonio_P%C3%A1ez" title="José Antonio Páez">José Antonio Páez</a>, carried out campaigns in the vast <a href="/wiki/Orinoco" title="Orinoco">Orinoco</a> River basin and along the Caribbean coast, often with material aid coming from <a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao" title="Curaçao">Curaçao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>. Also, as mentioned above, in Upper Peru, guerrilla bands controlled the isolated, rural parts of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Restoration_of_Ferdinand_VII">Restoration of Ferdinand VII</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Restoration of Ferdinand VII"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In March 1814, following the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a>, Ferdinand VII was restored to the Spanish throne. This signified an important change, since most of the political and legal changes made on both sides of the Atlantic—the myriad of juntas, the Cortes in Spain and several of the congresses in the Americas, and many of the constitutions and new legal codes—had been made in his name. Before entering Spanish territory, Ferdinand made loose promises to the Cortes that he would uphold the Spanish Constitution. But once in Spain he realized that he had significant support from <a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservatives</a> in the general population and the hierarchy of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_Catholicism_in_Spain#19th_century" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Roman Catholicism in Spain">Spanish Catholic Church</a>; so, on 4 May, he repudiated the Constitution and ordered the arrest of liberal leaders on 10 May. Ferdinand justified his actions by stating that the Constitution and other changes had been made by a Cortes assembled in his absence and without his consent. He restored the former legal codes and political institutions and promised to convene a new Cortes under its traditional form (with separate chambers for the clergy and the nobility), a promise never fulfilled. News of the events arrived through Spanish America during the next three weeks to nine months, depending on time it took <a href="/wiki/History_of_transport" title="History of transport">goods and people to travel</a> from Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ferdinand's actions constituted a definitive de facto break both with the autonomous governments, which had not yet declared formal independence, and with the effort of Spanish liberals to create a representative government that would fully include the overseas possessions. Such a government was seen as an alternative to independence by many in New Spain, Central America, the Caribbean, Quito, Peru, Upper Peru and Chile. Yet the news of the restoration of the "<a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a>" did not initiate a new wave of juntas, as had happened in 1809 and 1810, with the notable exception of the establishment of a junta in <a href="/wiki/Cusco" title="Cusco">Cuzco</a> demanding the implementation of the Spanish Constitution. Instead most Spanish Americans were moderates who decided to wait and see what would come out of the restoration of normalcy. In fact, in areas of New Spain, Central America and Quito, governors found it expedient to leave the elected constitutional <i><a href="/wiki/Cabildo_(council)" title="Cabildo (council)">ayuntamientos</a></i> in place for several years to prevent conflict with the local society.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Liberals on both sides of the Atlantic, nevertheless, continued to conspire to bring back a constitutional monarchy, ultimately succeeding in 1820. The most dramatic example of transatlantic collaboration is perhaps <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Javier_Mina" class="mw-redirect" title="Francisco Javier Mina">Francisco Javier Mina</a>'s expedition to Texas and northern Mexico in 1816 and 1817.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spanish Americans in royalist areas who were committed to independence had already joined the guerrilla movements. However, Ferdinand's actions did set areas outside of the control of the crown on the path to full independence. The governments of these regions, which had their origins in the juntas of 1810, and even moderates there, who had entertained a reconciliation with the crown, now saw the need to separate from Spain if they were to protect the reforms they had enacted. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Royalist_military">Royalist military</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Royalist military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_expeditionary_army_(Spanish_American_independence)_order_of_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish expeditionary army (Spanish American independence) order of battle">Spanish expeditionary army (Spanish American independence) order of battle</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Batalla-Rancagua.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Batalla-Rancagua.jpg/220px-Batalla-Rancagua.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Batalla-Rancagua.jpg/330px-Batalla-Rancagua.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Batalla-Rancagua.jpg/440px-Batalla-Rancagua.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2306" data-file-height="1729" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rancagua" title="Battle of Rancagua">Battle of Rancagua</a> in 1814</figcaption></figure> <p>During this period, royalist forces made advances into New Granada, which they controlled from 1815 to 1819, and into Chile, which they controlled from 1814 to 1817. Except for royalist areas in the northeast and south, the provinces of New Granada had maintained independence from Spain since 1810, unlike neighboring Venezuela, where royalists and pro-independence forces had exchanged control of the region several times. To pacify Venezuela and to retake New Granada, Spain organized in 1815 the largest armed force it ever sent to the New World, consisting of 10,500 troops and nearly sixty ships.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although this force was crucial in retaking a solidly pro-independence region like New Granada (see <a href="/wiki/Spanish_reconquest_of_New_Granada" title="Spanish reconquest of New Granada">Spanish reconquest of New Granada</a>), its soldiers were eventually spread out throughout Venezuela, New Granada, Quito, and Peru and were lost to tropical diseases, diluting their impact on the war.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More importantly, the majority of the royalist forces were composed, not of soldiers sent from the peninsula, but of Spanish Americans. </p><p>Overall, Europeans formed only about a tenth of the royalist armies in Spanish America, and only about half of the expeditionary units, once they were deployed in the Americas. Since each European soldier casualty was replaced by a Spanish American soldier, over time, there were more and more Spanish American soldiers in the expeditionary units. For example, <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Morillo" title="Pablo Morillo">Pablo Morillo</a>, commander in chief of the expeditionary force sent to South America, reported that he had only 2,000 European soldiers under his command in 1820; in other words, only half the soldiers of his expeditionary force were European. It is estimated that in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maip%C3%BA" title="Battle of Maipú">Battle of Maipú</a> only a quarter of the royalist forces were European soldiers, in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carabobo" title="Battle of Carabobo">Battle of Carabobo</a> about a fifth, and in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ayacucho" title="Battle of Ayacucho">Battle of Ayacucho</a> less than 1% was European. </p><p>The American militias reflected the racial make-up of the local population. For example, in 1820 the royalist army in Venezuela had 843 white (<i>español</i>), 5,378 <a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">Casta</a>, and 980 <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous</a> soldiers. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Royalist_Hispanic_American.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Royalist_Hispanic_American.png/600px-Royalist_Hispanic_American.png" decoding="async" width="600" height="414" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Royalist_Hispanic_American.png 1.5x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="448" /></a><figcaption>Royalist army</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pro-independence_advances">Pro-independence advances</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Pro-independence advances"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Crossing_of_the_Andes" title="Crossing of the Andes">Crossing of the Andes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bol%C3%ADvar%27s_campaign_to_liberate_New_Granada" title="Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada">Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada</a></div> <p>Towards the end of this period the pro-independence forces made two important advances. In the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Cone" title="Southern Cone">Southern Cone</a>, a veteran of the Spanish army with experience in the Peninsular War, <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn" title="José de San Martín">José de San Martín</a>, became the governor of the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Cuyo" class="mw-redirect" title="Province of Cuyo">Province of Cuyo</a>. He used this position to begin organizing an army as early as 1814 in preparation for an invasion of Chile. This was an important change in strategy after <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_North" title="Army of the North">three United Provinces campaigns</a> had been defeated in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Peru" title="Upper Peru">Upper Peru</a>. San Martín's army became the nucleus of the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Andes" title="Army of the Andes">Army of the Andes</a>, which received crucial political and material support in 1816 when <a href="/wiki/Juan_Mart%C3%ADn_de_Pueyrred%C3%B3n" title="Juan Martín de Pueyrredón">Juan Martín de Pueyrredón</a> became <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Director_of_the_United_Provinces_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Supreme Director of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata">Supreme Director</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_South_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United Provinces of South America">United Provinces</a>. In January 1817, San Martín was finally ready to advance against the royalists in Chile. Ignoring an injunction from the congress of the Río de la Plata not to move against Chile, San Martín together with General <a href="/wiki/Bernardo_O%27Higgins_Riquelme" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme">Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme</a>, later Supreme Director of Chile, led the Army over the Andes in a move that turned the tables on the royalists. By 10 February, San Martín had control of northern and central Chile, and a year later, after a <a href="/wiki/Guerra_a_muerte" title="Guerra a muerte">war with no quarter</a>, the south. With the aid of a fleet under the command of former British naval officer <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cochrane,_10th_Earl_of_Dundonald" title="Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald">Thomas Cochrane</a>, Chile was secured from royalist control and independence was declared that year. San Martín and his allies spent the next two years planning an invasion of Peru, which began in 1820.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In northern South America, after several failed campaigns to take Caracas and other urban centers of Venezuela, <a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Simón Bolívar</a> devised a similar plan in 1819 to cross the Andes and liberate New Granada from the royalists. Like San Martín, Bolívar personally undertook the efforts to create an army to invade a neighboring country, collaborated with pro-independence exiles from that region, and lacked the approval of the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Angostura" title="Congress of Angostura">Venezuelan congress</a>. Unlike San Martín, however, Bolívar did not have a professionally trained army, but rather a quickly assembled mix of <i>Llanero</i> guerrillas, New Granadan exiles led by Santander and <a href="/wiki/British_Legions" title="British Legions">British recruits</a>. From June to July 1819, using the <a href="/wiki/Wet_season" title="Wet season">rainy season</a> as cover, Bolívar led his army across the flooded plains and over the cold, forbidding passes of the Andes, with heavy losses—a quarter of the British Legion perished, as well as many of his <i>Llanero</i> soldiers, who were not prepared for the nearly 4,000-meter altitudes—but the gamble paid off. By August Bolívar was in control of <a href="/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1" title="Bogotá">Bogotá</a> and its treasury, and gained the support of many in New Granada, which still resented the harsh reconquest carried out under Morillo. Nevertheless, Santander found it necessary to continue the policy of the "war to the death" and carried out the execution of thirty-eight royalist officers who had surrendered. With the resources of New Granada, Bolívar became the undisputed leader of the patriots in Venezuela and orchestrated the union of the two regions in a new state called <a href="/wiki/Gran_Colombia" title="Gran Colombia">Colombia (Gran Colombia)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Independence_consolidated,_1820–1825"><span id="Independence_consolidated.2C_1820.E2.80.931825"></span>Independence consolidated, 1820–1825</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Independence consolidated, 1820–1825"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Revoluci%C3%B3n_de_1820.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Revoluci%C3%B3n_de_1820.svg/250px-Revoluci%C3%B3n_de_1820.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Revoluci%C3%B3n_de_1820.svg/375px-Revoluci%C3%B3n_de_1820.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Revoluci%C3%B3n_de_1820.svg/500px-Revoluci%C3%B3n_de_1820.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="685" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>1 January 1820, <a href="/wiki/Rafael_Riego" class="mw-redirect" title="Rafael Riego">Rafael Riego</a> headed a rebellion of Spanish expeditionary force to be sent to the Americas</figcaption></figure> <p>To counter the advances the pro-independence forces had made in South America, Spain prepared a second, large, expeditionary force in 1819. This force, however, never left Spain. Instead, it became the means by which liberals were finally able to reinstate a constitutional regime. On 1 January 1820, <a href="/wiki/Rafael_del_Riego" title="Rafael del Riego">Rafael Riego</a>, commander of the Asturias Battalion, headed a rebellion among the troops, demanding the return of the 1812 Constitution. His troops marched through the cities of <a href="/wiki/Andalusia" title="Andalusia">Andalusia</a> with the hope of extending the uprising to the civilian population, but locals were mostly indifferent. An uprising, however, did occur in <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)" title="Galicia (Spain)">Galicia</a> in northern Spain, and from there it quickly spread throughout the country. On 7 March, the royal palace in Madrid was surrounded by soldiers under the command of General <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Ballesteros" title="Francisco Ballesteros">Francisco Ballesteros</a>, and three days later, on 10 March, the besieged Ferdinand VII, now a virtual prisoner, agreed to restore the Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Riego's Revolt had two significant effects on the war in the Americas. Militarily, the large numbers of reinforcements, which were especially needed to retake New Granada and defend the Viceroyalty of Peru, would never arrive. Furthermore, as the royalists' situation became more desperate in region after region, the army experienced wholesale defections of units to the patriot side. Politically, the reinstitution of a liberal regime changed the terms under which the Spanish government sought to engage the insurgents. The new government naively assumed that the insurgents were fighting for Spanish liberalism and that the Spanish Constitution could still be the basis of reconciliation between the two sides. The government implemented the Constitution and held elections in the overseas provinces, just as in Spain. It also ordered military commanders to begin armistice negotiations with the insurgents with the promise that they could participate in the restored representative government.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="New_Spain_and_Central_America">New Spain and Central America</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: New Spain and Central America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First Mexican Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Federal_Republic_of_Central_America" title="Federal Republic of Central America">Federal Republic of Central America</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_New_Spain" title="Category:History of New Spain">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Spain" title="History of New Spain">History of <span class="fn org label">New Spain</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Cross of Burgundy.svg"><img alt="Flag of Cross of Burgundy.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/200px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/300px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/400px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Spanish conquest of Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Spanish conquest of Yucatán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Pet%C3%A9n" title="Spanish conquest of Petén">Spanish conquest of Petén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Spanish conquest of the Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(1565%E2%80%931898)" title="History of the Philippines (1565–1898)">History of the Philippines (1565–1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Caribbean" title="Piracy in the Caribbean">Piracy in the Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_the_Americas" title="Spanish missions in the Americas">Spanish missions in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Reforms" title="Bourbon Reforms">Bourbon Reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Moro_conflict" title="Spanish–Moro conflict">Spanish–Moro conflict</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spanish American wars of independence</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">Casta</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_War_of_Independence" title="Mexican War of Independence">Mexican War of Independence</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_New_Spain" title="Template:History of the New Spain"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_New_Spain" title="Template talk:History of the New Spain"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_New_Spain" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the New Spain"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In effect, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812" title="Spanish Constitution of 1812">Spanish Constitution of 1812</a> adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Cortes_of_C%C3%A1diz" title="Cortes of Cádiz">Cortes of Cádiz</a> served as the basis for independence in New Spain and Central America, since in both regions it was a coalition of conservative and liberal royalist leaders who led the establishment of new states. The Spanish Constitution of 1812 attempted to return to the policies that the Spanish government had implemented under Habsburg rule.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These policies gave recognized Spanish colonial territory as fellow kingdoms with equal standing to Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The policies under the Habsburgs, moreover, allowed for constant revisionism, through corruption and the sale of office, that provided the opportunity to grant more rights and change policy to respond to the demands of the populations.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The restoration of the Spanish Constitution and representative government was enthusiastically welcomed in New Spain and Central America. Elections were held, local governments formed and <a href="/wiki/Deputy_(legislator)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deputy (legislator)">deputies</a> sent to the Cortes. The Spanish Constitution of 1812 could have been an opportunity to enact social change slowly and without the threat of a radicalized uprising from the lower social classes by offering an opportunity to enact change that those in power would believe would best benefit their respective territories.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among liberals, however, there was fear that the new regime would not last; and conservatives and the Church worried that the new liberal government would expand its reforms and anti-clerical legislation. Yet, because the Cortes of Cádiz was located in Spain, political and economic power and decisions were localized in Spain, effectively giving them control over all of colonial Latin America.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These tensions further frustrated many Spanish-Americans because of their inability to control the politics that directly affected their economic and sociopolitical wellbeing, further leading them towards independence.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This climate of instability created the conditions for the two sides to forge an alliance. This alliance coalesced towards the end of 1820 behind <a href="/wiki/Agust%C3%ADn_de_Iturbide" title="Agustín de Iturbide">Agustín de Iturbide</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Colonel" title="Colonel">colonel</a> in the royal army, who at the time was assigned to destroy the guerrilla forces led by <a href="/wiki/Vicente_Guerrero" title="Vicente Guerrero">Vicente Guerrero</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abrazo_de_Acatempan.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Abrazo_de_Acatempan.JPG/220px-Abrazo_de_Acatempan.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Abrazo_de_Acatempan.JPG/330px-Abrazo_de_Acatempan.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Abrazo_de_Acatempan.JPG/440px-Abrazo_de_Acatempan.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3056" data-file-height="2292" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vicente_Guerrero" title="Vicente Guerrero">Vicente Guerrero</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agust%C3%ADn_de_Iturbide" title="Agustín de Iturbide">Agustín de Iturbide</a> in the "Abrazo of Acatempan", when they agreed to combine forces to fight the royalist army. Oil painting by Román Sagredo, collection of the Museo Nacional de Historia, INAH, México).</figcaption></figure> <p>In January 1821, in expectation of the abolition in Spain of the Constitution of 1812, Iturbide was chosen and was sent by the officials of New Spain with Guerrero, the leader of the rebellions. He began so-called "peace" negotiations, suggesting the parties unite to establish an independent New Spain. Later, Iturbide was dethroned and quietly captured to be executed. The simple terms that Iturbide proposed became the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Plan_of_Iguala" title="Plan of Iguala">Plan of Iguala</a>: the independence of New Spain (now to be called the Mexican Empire) with Ferdinand VII or another Bourbon as emperor; the retention of the Catholic Church as the official state religion and the protection of its <a href="/wiki/Fuero" title="Fuero">existing privileges</a>; and the equality of all New Spaniards, whether immigrants or native-born. Many of that laws was abolished decades later or are in present-day Mexico. The following month the other important guerrilla leader, <a href="/wiki/Guadalupe_Victoria" title="Guadalupe Victoria">Guadalupe Victoria</a>, joined the alliance, and on 1 March Iturbide was proclaimed head of a new <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Three_Guarantees" title="Army of the Three Guarantees">Army of the Three Guarantees</a>. The representative of the new Spanish government, Superior Political Chief <a href="/wiki/Juan_O%27Donoj%C3%BA" title="Juan O'Donojú">Juan O'Donojú</a>, who replaced the previous viceroys, arrived in <a href="/wiki/Veracruz,_Veracruz" class="mw-redirect" title="Veracruz, Veracruz">Veracruz</a> on 1 July 1821, but he found that royalists held the entire country except for Veracruz, Mexico City and <a href="/wiki/Acapulco" title="Acapulco">Acapulco</a>. Since at the time that O'Donojú had left Spain, the Cortes was considering greatly expanding the autonomy of the overseas Spanish possessions, O'Donojú proposed to negotiate a treaty with Iturbide on the terms of the Plan of Iguala. The resulting <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Treaty of Córdoba">Treaty of Córdoba</a>, which was signed on 24 August, kept all existing laws, including the 1812 Constitution, in force until a new constitution for Mexico could be written. O'Donojú became part of the provisional governing junta until his death on 8 October. Both the Spanish Cortes and Ferdinand VII rejected the Treaty of Córdoba, and the final break with the mother country came on 19 May 1822, when the Mexican Congress conferred the throne on Iturbide.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spain recognized Mexico's independence in 1836.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Central America gained its independence along with New Spain. On 15 September 1821, an <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Independence_of_Central_America" title="Act of Independence of Central America">Act of Independence</a> was signed in Guatemala City which declared Central America (Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica) independent from Spain. The regional elites supported the terms of the Plan of Iguala and <a href="/wiki/Central_America_under_Mexican_rule" title="Central America under Mexican rule">orchestrated the union of Central America with the Mexican Empire</a> in January 1822.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One years later, following Iturbide's downfall, the region, with the exception of Chiapas, peacefully seceded from Mexico on 1 July 1823, establishing the Federal Republic of Central America. The new state existed for seventeen years, centrifugal forces pulling the individual provinces apart by 1840.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="South_America">South America</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: South America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Libertadores" title="Libertadores">Libertadores</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_career_of_Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Military career of Simón Bolívar">Military career of Simón Bolívar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn" title="José de San Martín">José de San Martín</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Jos%C3%A9_de_Sucre" title="Antonio José de Sucre">Antonio José de Sucre</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Armada_Chile_1era_Escuadra_nacional.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Armada_Chile_1era_Escuadra_nacional.jpg/250px-Armada_Chile_1era_Escuadra_nacional.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Armada_Chile_1era_Escuadra_nacional.jpg/375px-Armada_Chile_1era_Escuadra_nacional.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Armada_Chile_1era_Escuadra_nacional.jpg/500px-Armada_Chile_1era_Escuadra_nacional.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2160" data-file-height="1512" /></a><figcaption>The First Chilean Navy Squadron <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Expedition_of_Per%C3%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom Expedition of Perú">engaged in the liberation of Peru</a> and sailed as far as to <a href="/wiki/Baja_California" title="Baja California">Baja California</a> raiding Spanish ships.</figcaption></figure> <p>Unlike in New Spain and Central America, in South America independence was spurred by the pro-independence fighters who had held out for the past half-decade. <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn" title="José de San Martín">José de San Martín</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Simón Bolívar</a> inadvertently led a continent-wide <a href="/wiki/Pincer_movement" title="Pincer movement">pincer movement</a> from southern and northern South America that liberated most of the <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_America" title="Hispanic America">Spanish American nations</a> on that continent. After securing the <a href="/wiki/Chilean_War_of_Independence" title="Chilean War of Independence">independence of Chile</a> in 1818, San Martín concentrated on building a naval fleet in the Pacific to counter <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a> control of those waters and reach the <a href="/wiki/Royalist_(Spanish_American_Revolution)" class="mw-redirect" title="Royalist (Spanish American Revolution)">royalist stronghold</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lima" title="Lima">Lima</a>. By mid-1820 San Martín had assembled a fleet of eight warships and sixteen transport ships under the command of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cochrane,_10th_Earl_of_Dundonald" title="Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald">Admiral Cochrane</a>. The fleet set sail from <a href="/wiki/Valpara%C3%ADso" title="Valparaíso">Valparaíso</a> to <a href="/wiki/Paracas_Bay" title="Paracas Bay">Paracas</a> in southern <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>. On 7 September, the army landed at Paracas and successfully took <a href="/wiki/Pisco,_Peru" title="Pisco, Peru">Pisco</a>. After this, San Martín, waiting for a generalized Peruvian revolt, chose to avoid direct military confrontation. San Martín hoped that his presence would initiate an authentic <a href="/wiki/Peruvian_War_of_Independence" title="Peruvian War of Independence">Peruvian revolt</a> against Spanish rule, believing that otherwise any liberation would be ephemeral. In the meantime, San Martín engaged in diplomacy with Viceroy <a href="/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_de_la_Pezuela" class="mw-redirect" title="Joaquín de la Pezuela">Joaquín de la Pezuela</a>, who was under orders from the constitutional government to negotiate on the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812" title="Spanish Constitution of 1812">1812 Constitution</a> and to maintain the unity of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Crown" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Crown">Spanish monarchy</a>. However, these efforts proved fruitless, since independence and unity of the monarchy could not be reconciled, so the army sailed in late October to a better strategic position in <a href="/wiki/Huacho" title="Huacho">Huacho</a>, in northern Peru. During the next few months, successful land and naval campaigns against the royalists secured the new foothold, and it was at Huacho that San Martín learned that <a href="/wiki/Guayaquil" title="Guayaquil">Guayaquil</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>) had declared independence on 9 October.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bolívar, learning about the <a href="/wiki/Rafael_del_Riego#The_1820_revolt_and_the_restoration_of_the_Constitution" title="Rafael del Riego">collapse of the Cádiz expedition</a>, spent the year 1820 preparing a liberating campaign in <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>. Bolívar was aided by Spain's new policy of seeking engagement with the insurgents, which Morillo implemented, renouncing to the command in chief, and returning to Spain. Although Bolívar rejected the Spanish proposal that the patriots rejoin Spain under the Spanish Constitution, the two sides established a six-month <a href="/wiki/Ceasefire" title="Ceasefire">truce</a> and the regularization of the <a href="/wiki/Rules_of_engagement" title="Rules of engagement">rules of engagement</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Jus_gentium" title="Jus gentium">law of nations</a> on 25 and 26 November. The truce did not last six months. It was apparent to all that the royalist cause had been greatly weakened by the lack of reinforcements. Royalist soldiers and whole units began to desert or defect to the patriots in large numbers. On 28 January 1821, the <i><a href="/wiki/Cabildo_(council)" title="Cabildo (council)">ayuntamiento</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Maracaibo" title="Maracaibo">Maracaibo</a> declared the province an independent republic that chose to join the new <a href="/wiki/Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">nation-state</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gran_Colombia" title="Gran Colombia">Gran Colombia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_la_Torre" title="Miguel de la Torre">Miguel de la Torre</a>, who had replaced Morillo as head of the army, took this to be a violation of the truce, and although the republicans argued that Maracaibo had switched sides of its own volition, both sides began to prepare for renewed war. The fate of Venezuela was sealed when Bolívar returned there in April leading an army of 7,000 from New Granada. At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carabobo" title="Battle of Carabobo">Battle of Carabobo</a> on 24 June, the Gran Colombian forces decisively defeated the royalist forces, assuring control of Venezuela save for <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Cabello" title="Puerto Cabello">Puerto Cabello</a> and guaranteeing Venezuelan independence. Bolívar could now concentrate on Gran Colombia's claims to southern New Granada and Quito.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Batalla_de_Carabobo.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Batalla_de_Carabobo.JPG/220px-Batalla_de_Carabobo.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Batalla_de_Carabobo.JPG/330px-Batalla_de_Carabobo.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Batalla_de_Carabobo.JPG/440px-Batalla_de_Carabobo.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="498" /></a><figcaption>Battle of Carabobo, painting by <a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_Tovar_y_Tovar" title="Martín Tovar y Tovar">Martín Tovar y Tovar</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In Peru, on 29 January 1821, Viceroy Pezuela was deposed in a coup d'état by <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_la_Serna" class="mw-redirect" title="José de la Serna">José de la Serna</a>, but it would be two months before San Martín moved his army closer to Lima by sailing it to <a href="/wiki/Anc%C3%B3n_District" title="Ancón District">Ancón</a>. During the next few months <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn" title="José de San Martín">San Martín</a> once again engaged in negotiations, offering the creation of an independent monarchy; but La Serna insisted on the unity of the Spanish monarchy, so the negotiations came to nothing. By July La Serna judged his hold on Lima to be weak, and on 8 July the royal army abandoned the coastal city to reinforce positions in the highlands, with <a href="/wiki/Cusco" title="Cusco">Cuzco</a> as new capital of the viceroyalty. On the 12th <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn" title="José de San Martín">San Martín</a> entered Lima, where he was declared "Protector of the Country" on 28 July, an office which allowed him to rule the newly independent state.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Batalla_del_Lago_de_Maracaibo_1823.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Batalla_del_Lago_de_Maracaibo_1823.jpg/220px-Batalla_del_Lago_de_Maracaibo_1823.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Batalla_del_Lago_de_Maracaibo_1823.jpg/330px-Batalla_del_Lago_de_Maracaibo_1823.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Batalla_del_Lago_de_Maracaibo_1823.jpg/440px-Batalla_del_Lago_de_Maracaibo_1823.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1812" data-file-height="1048" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Maracaibo" title="Battle of Lake Maracaibo">Battle of Lake Maracaibo</a> in 1823 resulted in the final expulsion of the Spanish from <a href="/wiki/Gran_Colombia" title="Gran Colombia">Gran Colombia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>To ensure that the Presidency of Quito became a part of Gran Colombia and did not remain a collection of small, divided republics, Bolívar sent aid in the form of supplies and an army under <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Jos%C3%A9_de_Sucre" title="Antonio José de Sucre">Antonio José de Sucre</a> to Guayaquil in February 1821. For a year Sucre was unable to take Quito, and by November both sides, exhausted, signed a ninety-day armistice. The following year, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pichincha" title="Battle of Pichincha">Battle of Pichincha</a> on 24 May 1822, Sucre's Venezuelan forces finally conquered Quito; Gran Colombia's hold on the territory was secure. The following year, after a Peruvian patriot army was destroyed in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ica" title="Battle of Ica">Battle of Ica</a>, San Martín met with Simón Bolívar in <a href="/wiki/Guayaquil" title="Guayaquil">Guayaquil</a> on 26 and 27 July. Thereafter San Martín decided to retire from the scene. For the next two years, two armies of <i>Rioplatense</i> (Argentinian), Chilean, Colombian and Peruvian patriots were destroyed trying to penetrate the royalist bastion in the <a href="/wiki/Andean" class="mw-redirect" title="Andean">Andean</a> regions of Peru and <a href="/wiki/Upper_Peru" title="Upper Peru">Upper Peru</a>. A year later a Peruvian congress resolved to make Bolívar head of the patriot forces in the country. An internecine conflict between La Serna and General Pedro Antonio Olañeta, which was an extension of the <a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Liberal Triennium</a>, proved to be the royalists' undoing. La Serna lost control of half of his best army by the beginning of 1824, giving the patriots an opportunity.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Batalla_de_Ayacucho_by_Mart%C3%ADn_Tovar_y_Tovar_(1827_-_1902).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Batalla_de_Ayacucho_by_Mart%C3%ADn_Tovar_y_Tovar_%281827_-_1902%29.jpg/300px-Batalla_de_Ayacucho_by_Mart%C3%ADn_Tovar_y_Tovar_%281827_-_1902%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Batalla_de_Ayacucho_by_Mart%C3%ADn_Tovar_y_Tovar_%281827_-_1902%29.jpg/450px-Batalla_de_Ayacucho_by_Mart%C3%ADn_Tovar_y_Tovar_%281827_-_1902%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Batalla_de_Ayacucho_by_Mart%C3%ADn_Tovar_y_Tovar_%281827_-_1902%29.jpg/600px-Batalla_de_Ayacucho_by_Mart%C3%ADn_Tovar_y_Tovar_%281827_-_1902%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1444" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ayacucho" title="Battle of Ayacucho">Battle of Ayacucho</a>, in Peru, ensured the independence of South America in 1824</figcaption></figure> <p>Under the command of Bolívar and Sucre, the experienced veterans of the combined army, mainly Colombians, destroyed a royalist army under La Serna's command in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ayacucho" title="Battle of Ayacucho">Battle of Ayacucho</a> on 9 December 1824. La Serna's army was numerically superior but consisted of mostly new recruits. The only significant royalist area remaining on the continent was the highland country of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Peru" title="Upper Peru">Upper Peru</a>. Following the Battle of Ayacucho, the royalist troops of Upper Peru under the command of Olañeta surrendered after he died in <a href="/wiki/Nor_Chichas_Province" title="Nor Chichas Province">Tumusla</a> on 2 April 1825. Bolívar tended to favor maintaining the unity of Upper Peru with Peru, but the Upper Peruvian leaders—many former royalists, like Casimiro Olañeta, nephew of General Olañeta—gathered in a congress under Sucre's auspices supported the country's independence. Bolívar left the decision to Sucre, who went along with the congress. Sucre proclaimed Upper Peru's independence in the <a href="/wiki/Sucre" title="Sucre">city</a> which now bears his name on 6 August, bringing the main wars of independence to an end.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As it became clear that there was to be no reversal of Spanish American independence, several of the new states began to receive international recognition. Early, in 1822, the United States recognized Chile, the <a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_South_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United Provinces of South America">United Provinces of the Río de la Plata</a>, Peru, <a href="/wiki/Gran_Colombia" title="Gran Colombia">Gran Colombia</a>, and Mexico. Britain waited until 1825, after the Battle of Ayacucho, to recognize Mexico, Gran Colombia, and Río de la Plata. Both nations recognized more Spanish American states in the next few years.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Last_royalist_bastions,_1825–1833"><span id="Last_royalist_bastions.2C_1825.E2.80.931833"></span>Last royalist bastions, 1825–1833</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Last royalist bastions, 1825–1833"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Acci%C3%B3n_militar_en_Pueblo_Viejo_(Batalla_de_Tampico,_11-9-1829),_Carlos_Par%C3%ADs_(1820_-_1835).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Acci%C3%B3n_militar_en_Pueblo_Viejo_%28Batalla_de_Tampico%2C_11-9-1829%29%2C_Carlos_Par%C3%ADs_%281820_-_1835%29.png/300px-Acci%C3%B3n_militar_en_Pueblo_Viejo_%28Batalla_de_Tampico%2C_11-9-1829%29%2C_Carlos_Par%C3%ADs_%281820_-_1835%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Acci%C3%B3n_militar_en_Pueblo_Viejo_%28Batalla_de_Tampico%2C_11-9-1829%29%2C_Carlos_Par%C3%ADs_%281820_-_1835%29.png/450px-Acci%C3%B3n_militar_en_Pueblo_Viejo_%28Batalla_de_Tampico%2C_11-9-1829%29%2C_Carlos_Par%C3%ADs_%281820_-_1835%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Acci%C3%B3n_militar_en_Pueblo_Viejo_%28Batalla_de_Tampico%2C_11-9-1829%29%2C_Carlos_Par%C3%ADs_%281820_-_1835%29.png/600px-Acci%C3%B3n_militar_en_Pueblo_Viejo_%28Batalla_de_Tampico%2C_11-9-1829%29%2C_Carlos_Par%C3%ADs_%281820_-_1835%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2589" data-file-height="1749" /></a><figcaption>Spain fails to reconquer Mexico at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tampico_(1829)" title="Battle of Tampico (1829)">Battle of Tampico</a> in 1829</figcaption></figure> <p>The Spanish coastal fortifications in <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Callao" title="Callao">Callao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chilo%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Chiloé">Chiloé</a> were the footholds that resisted until 1825–1826. In the following decade, royalist guerrillas continued to operate in several countries and Spain launched a few attempts to retake parts of the Spanish American mainland. In 1827 Colonel <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Arizabalo" title="José Arizabalo">José Arizabalo</a> started an irregular war with Venezuelan guerrillas, and Brigadier <a href="/wiki/Isidro_Barradas" class="mw-redirect" title="Isidro Barradas">Isidro Barradas</a> led the last attempt with regular troops to <a href="/wiki/Spanish_attempts_to_reconquer_Mexico" title="Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico">reconquer Mexico</a> in 1829. The <a href="/wiki/Pincheira_brothers" title="Pincheira brothers">Pincheira brothers</a> moved to Patagonia and remained there as <a href="/wiki/Banditry_in_Chile" title="Banditry in Chile">multiethnic royalist outlaws gang</a> until defeated in 1832.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But efforts like these did not reverse the new political situation. </p><p>The increasing irrelevance of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Alliance" title="Holy Alliance">Holy Alliance</a> after 1825 and the fall of the Bourbon dynasty in France in 1830 during the <a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a> eliminated the principal support of Ferdinand VII in Europe, but it was not until the king's death in 1833 that Spain finally abandoned all plans of military reconquest, and in 1836 its government went so far as to renounce sovereignty over all of continental America. During the course of the 19th century, Spain would recognize each of the new states.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only Cuba, Puerto Rico, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Virgin_Islands" title="Spanish Virgin Islands">Spanish Virgin Islands</a> and, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_occupation_of_the_Dominican_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish occupation of the Dominican Republic">briefly, Santo Domingo</a> remained under Spanish rule, until the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> in 1898. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_of_independence">Effects of independence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Effects of independence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economics">Economics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The nearly decade and a half of wars greatly weakened the Spanish American economies and political institutions, which hindered the region's potential <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a> for most of the nineteenth century and resulted in the enduring instability the region experienced. Independence destroyed the de facto <a href="/wiki/Trade_bloc" title="Trade bloc">trade bloc</a> that was the Spanish Empire – <a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">Manila galleons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet" title="Spanish treasure fleet">Spanish treasure fleets</a> in particular. After independence, trade <i>among</i> the new Spanish American nations was less than it had been in the colonial period. Once the ties were broken, the small populations of most of the new nations provided little incentive to entice Spanish American producers to recreate the old trade patterns. In addition, the protection against European competition, which the Spanish monopoly had provided to the manufacturing sectors of the economy, ended. Due to expediency, protective tariffs for these sectors, in particular textile production, were permanently dropped and foreign imports beat out local production. This greatly affected Native communities, which in many parts of Spanish America, specialized in supplying finished products to the urban markets, albeit using pre-industrial-quarters in Mexico.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cities dependent on seaborne trade like <a href="/wiki/Valdivia" title="Valdivia">Valdivia</a> plunged into depression as the intracolonial trade system collapsed.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernedo_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernedo-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Foreign trade policies varied among the new countries, some like the <a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="United Provinces of the Río de la Plata">United Provinces of the Río de la Plata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> applied initially <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protectionist</a> policies while Chile was more open to foreign trade while still applying a kind of <a href="/wiki/Neomercantilism" title="Neomercantilism">neomercantilism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-salazarpinto19-21_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-salazarpinto19-21-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The new states that began to take root in Latin America, particularly Mexico, often courted foreign financial support from European nations.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This foreign investment often came via loans, which only continued to cripple economies that had been destroyed or left alone during conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This investment was not enough to support economic recovery and can be considered to have only further negatively impacted economic growth in these newly developing states by pushing them further into debt in an attempt to recover and grow their economies.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_95-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the newly independent nations finally entered the world economy after the end of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">French Revolutionary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, when the economies of Europe and the United States were recovering and aggressively seeking new markets to sell their products after more than two decades of disruption. Ultimately Spanish America could only connect to the world markets as an exporter of raw materials and a consumer of finished products.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Society">Society</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_conservatism_in_Latin_America" title="Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America">Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America</a></div> <p>Independence from the Spanish crown required solidarity across all social classes. However, each social faction had their ideas of what local society should and would look like after independence.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This impacted the ability for societies to easily integrate because of the disunity of their ideas of future political systems and ideologies, which resulted in more conflict when it came to state consolidation.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_46-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The power which the elite Creole class commanded allowed them to control state and national development to ensure that they remained in power.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, the newly forming Latin American states would fulfill some of the demands of other social factions to ensure the stability and integration of all into the social fabric of a new state while guaranteeing the continual reproduction of the Creole elite into position of power and control over the rest of society.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The political debate seeking answers to these questions was marked by a clash between liberalism and conservatism. Conservatives sought to maintain the traditional social structures to ensure stability; liberals sought to create a more dynamic society and economy by ending ethnically based social distinctions and freeing property from economic restrictions. In its quest to transform society, liberals often adopted policies that were not welcomed by Native communities, who had benefited from unique protections afforded to them by traditional Spanish law.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Independence, however, did initiate the <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">abolition of slavery</a> in Spanish America, as it was seen as part of the independence struggle, since many slaves had gained their manumission by joining the patriot armies. In areas where slavery was not a major source of labor (Mexico, Central America, Chile), emancipation occurred almost immediately after independence was achieved. In areas where slavery was a main labor source (Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Argentina), emancipation was carried out in steps over the next three decades, usually first with the creation of free-womb laws and programs for <a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">compensated emancipation</a>. By the early 1850s, slavery had been abolished in the independent nations of Spanish America.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_of_women">Role of women</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Role of women"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Juana_Azurduy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Juana_Azurduy.jpg/220px-Juana_Azurduy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Juana_Azurduy.jpg/330px-Juana_Azurduy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Juana_Azurduy.jpg/440px-Juana_Azurduy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2824" data-file-height="3672" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Juana_Azurduy_de_Padilla" title="Juana Azurduy de Padilla">Juana Azurduy de Padilla</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Mestizo" title="Mestizo">Mestiza</a> leader of independence in Rio de la Plata.</figcaption></figure> <p>Women were not simply spectators throughout the Independence Wars of Latin America. Many women took sides on political issues and joined independence movements to participate on many different levels. Women could not help but act as caring relatives either as mother, sister, wives or daughters of the men who were fighting. Women created political organizations and organized meetings and groups to donate food and supplies to the soldiers. </p><p>Some women supported the wars as spies, informants and combatants. <a href="/wiki/Manuela_S%C3%A1enz" title="Manuela Sáenz">Manuela Sáenz</a> was a long term lover of <a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Simón Bolívar</a> and acted as his spy and confidante and was secretary of his archive. She saved his life on two occasions, nursed wounded soldiers and has even been believed some historians to have fought in a few battles. Sáenz followed Bolívar and his army through the independence wars and became known in Latin America as the "mother of feminism and women's emancipation and equal rights." Bolívar himself was a supporter of women's rights and suffrage in Latin America. It was Bolívar who allowed for Sáenz to become the great pioneer of women's freedom. He wanted to set the women of Latin America free from the oppression and inferiority of what the Spanish regime had established. Bolívar even made Sáenz a Colonel of the Colombian Army due to her heroics which caused controversy because there were no women in the army at the time. Another woman who gained prominence in the fight for independence was <a href="/wiki/Juana_Azurduy_de_Padilla" title="Juana Azurduy de Padilla">Juana Azurduy de Padilla</a>, a mixed-race woman who fought for independence in the Río de la Plata region. Argentine President <a href="/wiki/Cristina_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Kirchner" title="Cristina Fernández de Kirchner">Cristina Fernández de Kirchner</a> posthumously promoted her to the rank of general.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>82) Javiera Carrera was also a significant figure in the Chilean War of Independence, who used her family influence and status to form social groups of women to advocate for independence. Carrera sewed the first Chilean flag as a sign of their independence and endured imprisonment multiple times in her life as a result of her great contributions. She is seen as one of the main female figures in Chilean Independence.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Another significant figure in documenting the experiences of women during the Independence Wars was Marquita Sanchez, also known as Madame Mendeville. Sanchez recorded many of her experiences during the Argentine Independence War while also recording account of her daily life as a female activist during this period in history. She also helped record several events and battles central to the Argentine military and their continued fighting against the Spanish.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to gender stereotypes, women were not meant to be soldiers; only men were supposed to engage in fighting and conflict. There were still plenty of women present on the battlefields to help rescue and nurse soldiers. Some women fought alongside their husbands and sons on the battlefield. The majority of women assumed supportive and non-competitive roles such as fundraising and caring for the sick. Revolution for women meant something different from for men. Women saw revolution as a way to earn equal rights, such as voting, and to overcome the suppression of subordination of women to men. Women were usually identified as victims during the independence wars since the women of Latin America were forced to sacrifice for the cause. The ideals of womanhood meant that women must sacrifice what the situation required such as a mother sacrificing her son or a virgin knowing she might be sacrificing motherhood or marriage due to the loss of many young men. This view meant that women were meant to contribute to independence in a supportive role while leaving the combat and politics in the hands of the men.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government_and_politics">Government and politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Government and politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Treaties_to_recognise_the_Spanish_American_independence" title="Treaties to recognise the Spanish American independence">Treaties to recognise the Spanish American independence</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spanish_Empire_-_1824.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Spanish_Empire_-_1824.jpg/350px-Spanish_Empire_-_1824.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Spanish_Empire_-_1824.jpg/525px-Spanish_Empire_-_1824.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Spanish_Empire_-_1824.jpg/700px-Spanish_Empire_-_1824.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption>Map of territories that became independent during those wars (blue)</figcaption></figure> <p>Independence also did not result in stable political regimes, save in a few countries. First, the new nations did not have well-defined identities; rather, the process of creating identities was only beginning. This process would be carried out through newspapers and the creation of national symbols, including new names for the countries ("Mexico", "Colombia", "Ecuador", "Bolivia", "Argentina"), that broke with the past. In addition, the borders were not firmly established, and the struggle between <a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">federalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Centralized_government" title="Centralized government">centralism</a>, which began in independence, continued throughout the rest of the century. Two large states that emerged from the wars—<a href="/wiki/Gran_Colombia" title="Gran Colombia">Gran Colombia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Republic_of_Central_America" title="Federal Republic of Central America">Federal Republic of Central America</a>—collapsed after a decade or two, and Argentina would not <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Argentina" title="Constitution of Argentina">consolidate politically</a> until the 1860s.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The wars destroyed the old civilian bureaucracy that had governed the region for centuries, as institutions such as the <a href="/wiki/Audiencia_Real" class="mw-redirect" title="Audiencia Real">audiencias</a> were eliminated and many <i>Peninsular</i> officials fled to Spain. The Catholic Church, which had been an important social and political institution during the colonial period, initially came out weakened by the end of the conflicts. As with government officials, many <i>Peninsular</i> bishops abandoned their dioceses and their posts were not filled for decades until new prelates could be created and relations between the new nations and the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">Vatican</a> were regularized. Then as the Church recovered, its economic and political power was attacked by liberals.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the fact that the period of the wars of independence itself was marked by a rapid expansion of <a href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">representative government</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for several of the new nations the nineteenth century was marked by militarism because of the lack of well-defined political and national institutions. The armies and officers that came into existence during the process of independence wanted to ensure that they got their rewards once the struggle was over. Many of these armies did not fully disband once the wars were over and they proved to be one of the stabler institutions in the first decades of national existence. These armies and their leaders effectively influenced the course of political development. Out of this new tradition came the <a href="/wiki/Caudillo" title="Caudillo">caudillos</a>, strongmen who amassed formal and informal economic, military and political power in themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foreign_support">Foreign support</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Foreign support"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/British_intervention_in_Spanish_American_independence" title="British intervention in Spanish American independence">British intervention in Spanish American independence</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Captura_de_La_Esmeralda.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Captura_de_La_Esmeralda.JPG/200px-Captura_de_La_Esmeralda.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Captura_de_La_Esmeralda.JPG/300px-Captura_de_La_Esmeralda.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Captura_de_La_Esmeralda.JPG/400px-Captura_de_La_Esmeralda.JPG 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="1051" /></a><figcaption>The Chilean navy led by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cochrane,_10th_Earl_of_Dundonald" title="Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald">Thomas Cochrane</a> capturing the Spanish frigate <i><a href="/wiki/Spanish_frigate_Esmeralda" title="Spanish frigate Esmeralda">Esmeralda</a></i> on the night of 5 November 1820</figcaption></figure> <p>Britain wanted to see an end to Spanish rule in South America and ultimately tap the monopoly of the important potential markets there. At the same time they wanted Spain as an ally to keep the balance of power in post-Napoleonic Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-JOTAS_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JOTAS-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To fulfil this, Britain went covert in support of the Revolutionaries in South America. In a kind of private free enterprise going by the law, she sent men, financial and material support to help the insurgents fight against Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Baeza71and72_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baeza71and72-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the most significant contributions were the <a href="/wiki/British_Legions" title="British Legions">British Legions</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Foreign_volunteers" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign volunteers">volunteer</a> unit that fought under <a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Simón Bolívar</a>. This force numbered upwards of 6,000 men – the majority of whom were composed of veterans of the Napoleonic Wars.<sup id="cite_ref-Arana_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arana-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 217–220">: 217–220 </span></sup> In combat their greatest achievements were at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Boyac%C3%A1" title="Battle of Boyacá">Boyacá</a> (1819), <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carabobo" title="Battle of Carabobo">Carabobo</a> (1821), <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pichincha" title="Battle of Pichincha">Pichincha</a> (1822) and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ayacucho" title="Battle of Ayacucho">Ayacucho</a> (1824) which secured independence for Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Peru from Spanish rule respectively. Bolívar described the Legions and all who served in them as "the saviours of my country".<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many members of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> also volunteered for the revolutionary forces. The most famous being <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cochrane,_10th_Earl_of_Dundonald" title="Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald">Thomas Cochrane</a> who reorganised the <a href="/wiki/Chilean_navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chilean navy">Chilean navy</a>, most of whom were composed of Royal Navy veterans. Amongst many feats <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Valdivia" title="Capture of Valdivia">he captured</a> the Spanish fortress of <a href="/wiki/Valdivia" title="Valdivia">Valdivia</a> in 1820; and in the same year he <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_frigate_Esmeralda" title="Capture of the frigate Esmeralda">captured the flagship</a> of the Spanish South American fleet, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_frigate_Esmeralda" title="Spanish frigate Esmeralda"><i>Esmeralda</i></a>, in the port of <a href="/wiki/Callao" title="Callao">Callao</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As well as helping Chile gain independence from Spain Cochrane did the same for Peru too by mounting an effective blockade and transporting troops. He then moved on to Brazil in their fight for independence from Portugal. </p><p>At their peak by 1819 around 10,000 men from the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a> served in South America to fight against the Spanish.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>British diplomacy also played a key role; in particular the role of foreign secretaries <a href="/wiki/Robert_Stewart,_Viscount_Castlereagh" title="Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh">Viscount Castlereagh</a> and later <a href="/wiki/George_Canning" title="George Canning">George Canning</a> both of whom wanted to see the demise of Spain's South American colonies. Castlereagh's greatest achievement was to settle a deal with the European powers at the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Aix-la-Chapelle_(1818)" title="Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)">Congress of Aix-La-Chapelle</a> in 1818 and the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Verona" title="Congress of Verona">Congress of Verona</a> four years later. This blocked aid to Spain which inhibited her reconquest of South America.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the Royal Navy in command of the oceans this set the precedence - they were also a decisive factor in the struggle for independence of certain Latin American countries.<sup id="cite_ref-JOTAS_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JOTAS-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a> aimed to dominate both the Iberian Peninsula and Spanish America. His brother, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Joseph Bonaparte">Joseph Bonaparte</a>, who was appointed king of Spain and its colonies from 1808 to 1813, never signed any documents recognizing Latin American independence. Napoleon, for his part, never renounced these territories. After losing the war in Spain, he restored the Spanish crown to its rightful monarch, Ferdinand VII, in 1813 through the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Valen%C3%A7ay" title="Treaty of Valençay">Treaty of Valençay</a>. Following the restoration of Bourbon rule, France became an ally of Ferdinand VII in the Iberian Peninsula, supporting absolutism in Spain during the <a href="/wiki/Ominous_Decade" title="Ominous Decade">Ominous Decade</a>. This included military intervention via the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Thousand_Sons_of_Saint_Louis" title="Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis">Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis</a>. However, France did not provide material aid or troops to either the Royalist or Patriot sides in the Latin American wars of independence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Adams%E2%80%93On%C3%ADs_Treaty" title="Adams–Onís Treaty">Adams–Onís Treaty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_West_Florida" title="Republic of West Florida">Republic of West Florida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_East_Florida" title="Republic of East Florida">Republic of East Florida</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Insurgent_privateers" title="Insurgent privateers">Insurgent privateers</a></div> <p>The intervention of the United States was due to two distinct causes; a territorial annexation and a revolts within the Spanish territories itself.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Republic of West Florida was a short-lived republic in 1810 in the westernmost region of Spanish West Florida, which after less than three months was annexed and occupied by the United States a little later in 1810, and then became part of the territory of Louisiana. The Republic of East Florida was another republic declared against Spanish rule of East Florida by insurgents who wanted its annexation by the United States without success. In 1819, the <a href="/wiki/Adams%E2%80%93On%C3%ADs_Treaty" title="Adams–Onís Treaty">Treaty of Florida</a> was signed between Spain and the United States, and Spain ceded all of Florida to the United States. </p><p>In 1811, the Spanish crushed the San Antonio (Texas) revolt during the revolution against the royalists in the Mexican War of Independence. The remaining rebels then turned to the United States for help. Bernardo Gutiérrez de Lara traveled to Washington, D.C. Gutierrez gained the support of <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Magee" title="Augustus Magee">Augustus Magee</a> and formed a U.S. filibuster force in Louisiana. A green flag from the expedition represented the rebels. The Northern Republican Army was defeated in the bloodiest battle in Texas, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Medina" title="Battle of Medina">Battle of Medina</a>. Thus, Texas was incorporated into the Mexican Independence, and later Texas Independence and its annexation to the United States took place. </p><p>The United States remained neutral. Thus, for the rest of Madison's term, until 1817, the theoretical neutrality pending the development of events in the Old World. Madison's policy of neutrality favored insurgents and this, along with the border-line problems in North America, led to a situation of pre-war tension with Spain. This situation forced the United States to act very cautiously in the Spanish-American issue, since it was trying to avoid at all costs to give an excuse for European intervention. At the end, the recognition in 1822 also was very delicate, at the international level the North American position against European powers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Holy_Alliance" title="Holy Alliance">Holy Alliance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Aix-la-Chapelle_(1818)" title="Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)">Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)</a></div> <p>The Spanish navy had been totally dismantled by a disastrous naval policy and relegated to the background by the urgency of the war against Napoleon itself. To 1817, Tsar Alexander supported reactionary governments. Ferdinand VII applied to the Tsar to purchase vessels. The Tsar agreed to this request with the offer of the sale of some of his own vessels. The agreement was finally negotiated at Madrid, between <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Tatishchev" title="Dmitry Tatishchev">Dmitry Tatishchev</a>, Russian ambassador, and Eguia, Minister of war. It was apparently known only to these two, and to the king himself. The text of the treaty of sale has not been found in the Spanish naval archives. This diplomatic transaction was veiled in the deepest secrecy against Spanish Navy and Minister of Navy.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The requested fleet would consist of 5 warships and 3 frigates. The squadron would be delivered to Cadiz, duly armed, and supplied. The arrival of the Russian fleet in Cadiz in February 1818 was not to the liking of the Spanish navy, which was dissatisfied with the state of deterioration in which some supposedly new ships were found: between 1820 and 1823 all the Warships were scrapped as being useless. This fiasco put an end to the whole plan to reconquer the Rio de la Plata, which would end with the uprising of the Spanish Army in Cadiz (<a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a>). In 1818 one of the frigates (Maria Isabel aka Patrikki) was captured in the Pacific, after the uprising of one of the Spanish troop transports that went over to the side of the American rebels delivering all the keys, routes and signals for the capture of the frigate. Only two of the Russian frigates provided important services in the Caribbean in defense of the island of Cuba, although they only made the one-way trip, they got lost, sunk when they arrived in Havana.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portuguese_Empire">Portuguese Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Portuguese Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Oranges" title="War of the Oranges">War of the Oranges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_invasion_of_the_Banda_Oriental_(1811%E2%80%9312)" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese invasion of the Banda Oriental (1811–12)">Portuguese invasion of the Banda Oriental (1811–12)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_conquest_of_the_Banda_Oriental" title="Portuguese conquest of the Banda Oriental">Portuguese conquest of the Banda Oriental</a></div> <p>After a long colonial dispute between Spain, and to avoid insurgency in this disputed territory, the Portuguese government organized an Army to defend the city of Montevideo against the revolutionaries (1811) and to annex the disputed territory of <a href="/wiki/Banda_Oriental" title="Banda Oriental">Banda Oriental</a> against Spain (1816). </p><p>In 1811, the first Portuguese invasion took place in support of the besieged city of Montevideo. The Portuguese invasion forces were commanded by the governor and captain general of the Captaincy of Río Grande de San Pedro, Diego de Souza (Diogo de Souza), and their declared objective was to help Montevideo and the viceroy of the Río de la Plata, Francisco Javier de Elío, who was besieged by revolutionary forces from the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata. The invasion included clashes with eastern forces led by José Gervasio Artigas. After an ephemeral agreement, the Portuguese did not completely abandon the occupied territory. </p><p>In 1816, the second Portuguese Invasion or War against Artigas, giving rise to the armed conflict that took place between 1816 and 1820 in the entire territory of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, in the Argentine Mesopotamia and southern Brazil, and which resulted in the annexation of the Banda Oriental to the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a>, with the name of <a href="/wiki/Cisplatina" title="Cisplatina">Cisplatina</a> Province. This annexation broke relations with Spain,<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> which prepared an army in Spain to recover Montevideo and invade the Río de la Plata, but this project ended up in rebellion of entire Army in 1820 in Cádiz.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Portugal tries to ensure its annexation by being the first country to grant international recognition of the independence of Latin American Republics in 1821. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wars,_battles,_and_revolts"><span id="Wars.2C_battles.2C_and_revolts"></span>Wars, battles, and revolts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Wars, battles, and revolts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="toccolours" style="width: 100%; border-top: none;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center"> <td style="background:#B0C4DE; width:100%,"><b>New Spain and Guatemala</b> </td> <td style="background:#B0C4DE; width:100%,"><b>New Granada, Venezuela, and Quito</b> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td> <table width="100%"> </table> <p><b>Mexico</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_War_of_Independence" title="Mexican War of Independence">Mexican War of Independence</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Calder%C3%B3n_Bridge" title="Battle of Calderón Bridge">Battle of Calderón Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Javier_Mina" class="mw-redirect" title="Francisco Javier Mina">Expedition of Mina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Three_Guarantees" title="Army of the Three Guarantees">Army of the Three Guarantees</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <p><b>Central America</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1811_Independence_Movement" title="1811 Independence Movement">1811 Independence Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Republic_of_Central_America" title="Federal Republic of Central America">Federal Republic of Central America</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_War_of_Independence" title="Venezuelan War of Independence">Venezuelan War of Independence</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Republic_of_Venezuela" title="First Republic of Venezuela">First Republic of Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Republic_of_Venezuela" title="Second Republic of Venezuela">Second Republic of Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Angostura" title="Congress of Angostura">Congress of Angostura</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patria_Boba" class="mw-redirect" title="Patria Boba">Patria Boba</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_New_Granada" title="United Provinces of New Granada">United Provinces of New Granada</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gran_Colombia" title="Gran Colombia">Gran Colombia</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bol%C3%ADvar%27s_campaign_to_liberate_New_Granada" title="Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada">Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Boyac%C3%A1" title="Battle of Boyacá">Battle of Boyacá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carabobo" title="Battle of Carabobo">Battle of Carabobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_C%C3%BAcuta" title="Congress of Cúcuta">Congress of Cúcuta</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecuadorian_War_of_Independence" title="Ecuadorian War of Independence">Ecuadorian War of Independence</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luz_de_Am%C3%A9rica" class="mw-redirect" title="Luz de América">Luz de América</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pichincha" title="Battle of Pichincha">Battle of Pichincha</a></li></ul></dd></dl> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="toccolours" style="width: 100%; border-top: none;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center"> <td style="background:#B0C4DE; width:100%,"><b>Río de la Plata, Paraguay and Upper Peru</b> </td> <td style="background:#B0C4DE; width:100%,"><b>Chile and Peru</b> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td> <table width="100%"> </table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_Revolution" title="May Revolution">May Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_War_of_Independence" title="Argentine War of Independence">Argentine War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_South_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United Provinces of South America">United Provinces of South America</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paraguay_campaign" title="Paraguay campaign">Paraguay campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_North" title="Army of the North">Army of the North</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jujuy_Exodus" title="Jujuy Exodus">Jujuy Exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tucum%C3%A1n" title="Battle of Tucumán">Battle of Tucumán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salta" title="Battle of Salta">Battle of Salta</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Lorenzo" title="Battle of San Lorenzo">Battle of San Lorenzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Andes" title="Army of the Andes">Army of the Andes</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Argentine Declaration of Independence">Argentine Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Uruguay#Struggle_for_independence,_1811–1828" title="History of Uruguay">Independence of Uruguay</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Las_Piedras" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Las Piedras">Battle of Las Piedras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Banda_Oriental_campaign" title="Second Banda Oriental campaign">Second Banda Oriental campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liga_Federal" class="mw-redirect" title="Liga Federal">Liga Federal</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Paraguay#Independence_of_1811" title="History of Paraguay">Independence of Paraguay</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Paraguay_campaign" title="Paraguay campaign">Paraguay campaign</a></dd></dl></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivian_War_of_Independence" title="Bolivian War of Independence">Bolivian War of Independence</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Republiquetas" class="mw-redirect" title="War of the Republiquetas">War of the Republiquetas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_North" title="Army of the North">Army of the North</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Upper_Peru_campaign" title="First Upper Peru campaign">First Upper Peru campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Upper_Peru_campaign" title="Second Upper Peru campaign">Second Upper Peru campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Upper_Peru_campaign" title="Third Upper Peru campaign">Third Upper Peru campaign</a></li></ul></dd></dl></dd></dl> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patria_Vieja" class="mw-redirect" title="Patria Vieja">Patria Vieja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patria_Nueva" class="mw-redirect" title="Patria Nueva">Patria Nueva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilean_War_of_Independence" title="Chilean War of Independence">Chilean War of Independence</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rancagua" title="Battle of Rancagua">Battle of Rancagua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chacabuco" title="Battle of Chacabuco">Battle of Chacabuco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maip%C3%BA" title="Battle of Maipú">Battle of Maipú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Valdivia" title="Capture of Valdivia">Capture of Valdivia</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_War_of_Independence" title="Peruvian War of Independence">Peruvian War of Independence</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Expedition_of_Per%C3%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom Expedition of Perú">Freedom Expedition of Perú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jun%C3%ADn" title="Battle of Junín">Battle of Junín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ayacucho" title="Battle of Ayacucho">Battle of Ayacucho</a></li></ul></dd></dl> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pro-independence">Pro-independence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Pro-independence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="toccolours" style="width: 100%; border-top: none;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center"> <td style="background:#B0C4DE; width: 15%;"><b><a href="/wiki/Mexican_War_of_Independence" title="Mexican War of Independence">New Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Guatemala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a> & <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></b><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mexico.JoseMariaMorelos.01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Mexico.JoseMariaMorelos.01.jpg/52px-Mexico.JoseMariaMorelos.01.jpg" decoding="async" width="52" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Mexico.JoseMariaMorelos.01.jpg/78px-Mexico.JoseMariaMorelos.01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Mexico.JoseMariaMorelos.01.jpg/104px-Mexico.JoseMariaMorelos.01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="958" data-file-height="1290" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos" title="José María Morelos">José María Morelos</a> </td> <td style="background:#B0C4DE; width: 15%;"><b><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_War_of_Independence" title="Venezuelan War of Independence">Venezuela</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patria_Boba" class="mw-redirect" title="Patria Boba">New Granada</a> & <a href="/wiki/Ecuadorian_War_of_Independence" title="Ecuadorian War of Independence">Quito</a></b><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Simon_Bolivar_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Simon_Bolivar_1.jpg/51px-Simon_Bolivar_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="51" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Simon_Bolivar_1.jpg/77px-Simon_Bolivar_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Simon_Bolivar_1.jpg/103px-Simon_Bolivar_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="441" data-file-height="598" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Simón Bolívar</a> </td> <td style="background:#B0C4DE; width: 15%;"><b><a href="/wiki/Argentine_War_of_Independence" title="Argentine War of Independence">Río de la Plata & Paraguay</a></b><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Artigas_(montevideo).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Artigas_%28montevideo%29.jpg/52px-Artigas_%28montevideo%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="52" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Artigas_%28montevideo%29.jpg/78px-Artigas_%28montevideo%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Artigas_%28montevideo%29.jpg/105px-Artigas_%28montevideo%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="598" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Gervasio_Artigas" title="José Gervasio Artigas">José Gervasio Artigas</a> </td> <td style="background:#B0C4DE; width: 15%;"><b><a href="/wiki/Chilean_War_of_Independence" title="Chilean War of Independence">Chile</a> & <a href="/wiki/Peruvian_War_of_Independence" title="Peruvian War of Independence">Peru</a></b> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn_(retrato,_c.1828).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn_%28retrato%2C_c.1828%29.jpg/53px-Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn_%28retrato%2C_c.1828%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="53" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn_%28retrato%2C_c.1828%29.jpg/80px-Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn_%28retrato%2C_c.1828%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn_%28retrato%2C_c.1828%29.jpg/107px-Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn_%28retrato%2C_c.1828%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1199" data-file-height="1573" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn" title="José de San Martín">José de San Martín</a> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td> <table width="100%"> </table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_Hidalgo_y_Costilla" title="Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla">Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacio_Allende" title="Ignacio Allende">Ignacio Allende</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Aldama" title="Juan Aldama">Juan Aldama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos_y_Pav%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="José María Morelos y Pavón">José María Morelos y Pavón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacio_L%C3%B3pez_Ray%C3%B3n" title="Ignacio López Rayón">Ignacio López Rayón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariano_Matamoros" title="Mariano Matamoros">Mariano Matamoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadalupe_Victoria" title="Guadalupe Victoria">Guadalupe Victoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicente_Guerrero" title="Vicente Guerrero">Vicente Guerrero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agust%C3%ADn_de_Iturbide" title="Agustín de Iturbide">Agustín de Iturbide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Valero_de_Bernab%C3%A9" title="Antonio Valero de Bernabé">Antonio Valero de Bernabé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mat%C3%ADas_Delgado" title="José Matías Delgado">José Matías Delgado</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Miranda" title="Francisco de Miranda">Francisco de Miranda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Simón Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santiago_Mari%C3%B1o" title="Santiago Mariño">Santiago Mariño</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafael_Urdaneta" title="Rafael Urdaneta">Rafael Urdaneta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_F%C3%A9lix_Ribas" title="José Félix Ribas">José Félix Ribas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Antonio_P%C3%A1ez" title="José Antonio Páez">José Antonio Páez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlos_Soublette" title="Carlos Soublette">Carlos Soublette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Piar" title="Manuel Piar">Manuel Piar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Bri%C3%B3n" title="Luis Brión">Luis Brión</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregor_MacGregor" title="Gregor MacGregor">Gregor MacGregor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Jos%C3%A9_de_Sucre" title="Antonio José de Sucre">Antonio José de Sucre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Tadeo_Monagas" title="José Tadeo Monagas">José Tadeo Monagas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camilo_Torres_Tenorio" title="Camilo Torres Tenorio">Camilo Torres Tenorio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Nari%C3%B1o" title="Antonio Nariño">Antonio Nariño</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Paula_Santander" title="Francisco de Paula Santander">Francisco de Paula Santander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Prudencio_Padilla" title="José Prudencio Padilla">José Prudencio Padilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenio_Espejo" title="Eugenio Espejo">Eugenio Espejo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Joaqu%C3%ADn_de_Olmedo" title="José Joaquín de Olmedo">José Joaquín de Olmedo</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn" title="José de San Martín">José de San Martín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariano_Moreno" title="Mariano Moreno">Mariano Moreno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_Castelli" title="Juan José Castelli">Juan José Castelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Belgrano" title="Manuel Belgrano">Manuel Belgrano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Gervasio_Artigas" title="José Gervasio Artigas">José Gervasio Artigas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Gaspar_Rodr%C3%ADguez_de_Francia" title="José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia">José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulgencio_Yegros" title="Fulgencio Yegros">Fulgencio Yegros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Juan_Caballero_(politician)" title="Pedro Juan Caballero (politician)">Pedro Juan Caballero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlos_Mar%C3%ADa_de_Alvear" title="Carlos María de Alvear">Carlos María de Alvear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Rondeau" title="José Rondeau">José Rondeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gonz%C3%A1lez_de_Balcarce" title="Antonio González de Balcarce">Antonio González de Balcarce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Mart%C3%ADn_de_Pueyrred%C3%B3n" title="Juan Martín de Pueyrredón">Juan Martín de Pueyrredón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_Miguel_de_G%C3%BCemes" title="Martín Miguel de Güemes">Martín Miguel de Güemes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juana_Azurduy_de_Padilla" title="Juana Azurduy de Padilla">Juana Azurduy de Padilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Brown_(admiral)" title="William Brown (admiral)">William Brown</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn" title="José de San Martín">José de San Martín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_O%27Higgins" title="Bernardo O'Higgins">Bernardo O'Higgins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Miguel_Carrera" title="José Miguel Carrera">José Miguel Carrera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_Freire" title="Ramón Freire">Ramón Freire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_la_Riva_Ag%C3%BCero" title="José de la Riva Agüero">José de la Riva Agüero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Bernardo_de_Tagle" class="mw-redirect" title="José Bernardo de Tagle">José Bernardo de Tagle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_Castilla" title="Ramón Castilla">Ramón Castilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Santa_Cruz" title="Andrés de Santa Cruz">Andrés de Santa Cruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Gregorio_de_las_Heras" title="Juan Gregorio de las Heras">Juan Gregorio de las Heras</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Royalists">Royalists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Royalists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="toccolours" style="width: 100%; border-top: none;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center"> <td style="background:#B0C4DE; width: 15%;"><b><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">New Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Guatemala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a> & <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></b><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Virrey_F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Virrey_F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja.jpg/60px-Virrey_F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Virrey_F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja.jpg/90px-Virrey_F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Virrey_F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja.jpg/120px-Virrey_F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1233" data-file-height="1440" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja_del_Rey,_1st_Count_of_Calder%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="Félix María Calleja del Rey, 1st Count of Calderón">Félix María Calleja del Rey, 1st Count of Calderón</a> </td> <td style="background:#B0C4DE; width: 15%;"><b><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Venezuela</a> & <a href="/wiki/Royal_Audience_of_Quito" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Audience of Quito">Quito</a></b> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pablo-morillo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Pablo-morillo.jpg/58px-Pablo-morillo.jpg" decoding="async" width="58" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Pablo-morillo.jpg/87px-Pablo-morillo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Pablo-morillo.jpg/116px-Pablo-morillo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="619" data-file-height="745" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Morillo" title="Pablo Morillo">Pablo Morillo</a> </td> <td style="background:#B0C4DE; width: 15%;"><b><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata, Montevideo & Paraguay</a></b> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Santiago_de_Liniers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Santiago_de_Liniers.jpg/56px-Santiago_de_Liniers.jpg" decoding="async" width="56" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Santiago_de_Liniers.jpg/84px-Santiago_de_Liniers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Santiago_de_Liniers.jpg/112px-Santiago_de_Liniers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2787" data-file-height="3493" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Santiago_de_Liniers,_1st_Count_of_Buenos_Aires" title="Santiago de Liniers, 1st Count of Buenos Aires">Santiago de Liniers, 1st Count of Buenos Aires</a> </td> <td style="background:#B0C4DE; width: 15%;"><b><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Peru</a> & <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Upper Peru</a></b> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pedro_D%C3%ADaz_-_Jos%C3%A9_Fernando_de_Abascal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Pedro_D%C3%ADaz_-_Jos%C3%A9_Fernando_de_Abascal.jpg/49px-Pedro_D%C3%ADaz_-_Jos%C3%A9_Fernando_de_Abascal.jpg" decoding="async" width="49" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Pedro_D%C3%ADaz_-_Jos%C3%A9_Fernando_de_Abascal.jpg/74px-Pedro_D%C3%ADaz_-_Jos%C3%A9_Fernando_de_Abascal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Pedro_D%C3%ADaz_-_Jos%C3%A9_Fernando_de_Abascal.jpg/99px-Pedro_D%C3%ADaz_-_Jos%C3%A9_Fernando_de_Abascal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2483" data-file-height="3508" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Fernando_de_Abascal_y_Sousa" title="José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa">José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa</a> </td></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td> <table width="100%"> </table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Iturrigaray" title="José de Iturrigaray">José de Iturrigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_J._de_Yermo" title="Gabriel J. de Yermo">Gabriel J. de Yermo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Javier_Venegas" title="Francisco Javier Venegas">Francisco Javier Venegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja_del_Rey,_1st_Count_of_Calder%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="Félix María Calleja del Rey, 1st Count of Calderón">Félix María Calleja del Rey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Ruiz_de_Apodaca,_1st_Count_of_Venadito" title="Juan Ruiz de Apodaca, 1st Count of Venadito">Juan Ruiz de Apodaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_O%27Donoj%C3%BA" title="Juan O'Donojú">Juan O'Donojú</a></li> <li>Torcuato Trujillo</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidro_Barradas" class="mw-redirect" title="Isidro Barradas">Isidro Barradas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Bustamante_y_Guerra" class="mw-redirect" title="José de Bustamante y Guerra">José de Bustamante y Guerra</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%81ngel_Laborde&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ángel Laborde (page does not exist)">Ángel Laborde</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81ngel_Laborde" class="extiw" title="es:Ángel Laborde">es</a>]</span></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Miyares_y_Gonz%C3%A1les" class="mw-redirect" title="Fernando Miyares y Gonzáles">Fernando Miyares y Gonzáles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Domingo_de_Monteverde" title="Juan Domingo de Monteverde">Domingo de Monteverde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Tom%C3%A1s_Boves" title="José Tomás Boves">José Tomás Boves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Manuel_Cajigal" title="Juan Manuel Cajigal">Juan Manuel Cajigal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pablo_Morillo" title="Pablo Morillo">Pablo Morillo</a></li> <li>Juan de los Reyes Vargas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Montalvo_y_Ambulodi" title="Francisco Montalvo y Ambulodi">Francisco Montalvo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Jos%C3%A9_de_S%C3%A1mano_y_Uribarri" class="mw-redirect" title="Juan José de Sámano y Uribarri">Juan de Sámano</a>, Viceroy of New Granada</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_la_Torre" title="Miguel de la Torre">Miguel de la Torre</a> y Pando</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Tom%C3%A1s_Morales" title="Francisco Tomás Morales">Francisco Tomás Morales</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sebasti%C3%A1n_de_la_Calzada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sebastián de la Calzada (page does not exist)">Sebastián de la Calzada</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_de_la_Calzada" class="extiw" title="es:Sebastián de la Calzada">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Barreiro_Manj%C3%B3n" title="José María Barreiro Manjón">José María Barreiro Manjón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melchior_Aymerich" title="Melchior Aymerich">Melchor Aymerich</a>, President of the Quito Audiencia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Canterac" title="José de Canterac">José de Canterac</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Basilio_Modesto_Garc%C3%ADa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Basilio Modesto García (page does not exist)">Basilio Modesto García</a>, Colonel</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agust%C3%ADn_Agualongo" title="Agustín Agualongo">Agustín Agualongo</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Javier_de_El%C3%ADo" title="Francisco Javier de Elío">Francisco Javier de Elío</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_de_Vigodet" title="Gaspar de Vigodet">Gaspar de Vigodet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_de_Velasco" title="Bernardo de Velasco">Bernardo de Velasco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santiago_de_Liniers" class="mw-redirect" title="Santiago de Liniers">Santiago de Liniers</a> y Bremond</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicente_Nieto" title="Vicente Nieto">Vicente Nieto</a>, President of the <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Charcas Audiencia</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Fernando_de_Abascal_y_Sousa" title="José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa">José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Manuel_de_Goyeneche,_1st_Count_of_Guaqui" title="José Manuel de Goyeneche, 1st Count of Guaqui">José Manuel de Goyeneche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%ADo_de_Trist%C3%A1n" title="Pío de Tristán">Pío Tristán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_de_la_Pezuela" class="mw-redirect" title="Joaquín de la Pezuela">Joaquín de la Pezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Antonio_Ola%C3%B1eta" title="Pedro Antonio Olañeta">Pedro Antonio Olañeta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_la_Serna_e_Hinojosa" class="mw-redirect" title="José de la Serna e Hinojosa">José de la Serna e Hinojosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Canterac" title="José de Canterac">José de Canterac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jer%C3%B3nimo_Vald%C3%A9s" title="Jerónimo Valdés">Jerónimo Valdés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ram%C3%B3n_Rodil_y_Campillo" class="mw-redirect" title="José Ramón Rodil y Campillo">José Ramón Rodil y Campillo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicente_Benavides" title="Vicente Benavides">Vicente Benavides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Pareja" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonio Pareja">Antonio Pareja</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Juan_Francisco_S%C3%A1nchez_y_Seixas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Juan Francisco Sánchez y Seixas (page does not exist)">Juan Francisco Sánchez</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Francisco_S%C3%A1nchez_y_Seixas" class="extiw" title="es:Juan Francisco Sánchez y Seixas">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabino_Ga%C3%ADnza" title="Gabino Gaínza">Gabino Gaínza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariano_Osorio" title="Mariano Osorio">Mariano Osorio</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jos%C3%A9_Ord%C3%B3%C3%B1ez&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="José Ordóñez (page does not exist)">José Ordóñez</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ord%C3%B3%C3%B1ez" class="extiw" title="es:José Ordóñez">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafael_Maroto" title="Rafael Maroto">Rafael Maroto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casimiro_Marc%C3%B3_del_Pont" class="mw-redirect" title="Casimiro Marcó del Pont">Casimiro Marcó del Pont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Quintanilla" title="Antonio de Quintanilla">Antonio de Quintanilla</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Legions" title="British Legions">British Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foreign_volunteers" title="List of foreign volunteers">List of foreign volunteers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgent_privateer" class="mw-redirect" title="Insurgent privateer">Insurgent privateer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Revolution" title="Philippine Revolution">Philippine Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_reconquest_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish reconquest of Mexico">Spanish reconquest of Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royalist_(Spanish_American_Revolution)" class="mw-redirect" title="Royalist (Spanish American Revolution)">Royalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_national_liberation" title="Wars of national liberation">Wars of national liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_America" title="History of South America">History of South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">History of Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Spanish East Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_the_Americas" title="Decolonization of the Americas">Decolonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Timeline of the Spanish American wars of independence">Timeline of the Spanish American wars of independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Mexican_War_of_Independence" title="Timeline of Mexican War of Independence">Timeline of Mexican War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panhispanism" title="Panhispanism">Panhispanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_War_of_Independence" title="Argentine War of Independence">Argentine War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_War_of_Independence" title="Brazilian War of Independence">Brazilian War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_the_South" title="Campaigns of the South">Campaigns of the South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1808%E2%80%931874)" title="History of Spain (1808–1874)">History of Spain (1808–1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_War_of_Independence" title="Mexican War of Independence">Mexican War of Independence</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div style=""><ol class="references" style="list-style-type:upper-alpha;"> <li id="cnote_Note_A"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#ref_Note_A_1">^</a></b></span> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_invasion_of_the_Banda_Oriental_(1811%E2%80%9312)" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese invasion of the Banda Oriental (1811–12)">First invasion</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Banda_Oriental" title="Banda Oriental">Banda Oriental</a> by the Portuguese army led by Diogo de Sousa in 1811 to annex the territory, which during the colonial period was disputed between Spain and Portugal. Not to destroy the independent government of Buenos Aires. In 1816 he invaded the Banda Oriental again and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_conquest_of_the_Banda_Oriental" title="Portuguese conquest of the Banda Oriental">conquered</a> it after a military campaign that lasted until 1820.</div></li> <li id="cnote_Note_B"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#ref_Note_B_1">^</a></b></span> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">Consolidation stage is a broad, diffuse, confusing and different period for each independent country. Various states were formed at the beginning of the war, went through different processes that changed them politically. This was due to reasons such as the overthrow of the government by the royalists and their subsequent restoration (for example, Chile and Venezuela), and also by the union of independent states that came to form a new political entity (Gran Colombia and the Mexican Empire).</div></li> <li id="cnote_Note_C"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#ref_Note_C_1">^</a></b></span> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">Seven resulted non-recognized states emerged at the moment of the war of independence: Chile, Gran Colombia (Venezuela and New Granada), México, Paraguay, and Bolivia, with <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a> from the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and Peru.</div></li> <li id="cnote_Note_D"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#ref_Note_D_1">^</a></b></span> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">Mexico in its consolidation stage was organized as an <a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">empire</a> from 1821 to 1823. When the empire was dissolved, Mexico was reorganized as a <a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Republic" title="First Mexican Republic">republic</a> and the Central American territories that were part of the empire were reorganized into a new political entity called the United Provinces of Central America.</div></li> <li id="cnote_Note_E"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#ref_Note_E_1">^</a></b></span> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">Spain's Royal Army also was in the Mexican side, because the royalist criollo Colonel <a href="/wiki/Agust%C3%ADn_de_Iturbide" title="Agustín de Iturbide">Agustín de Iturbide</a> that joined the pro-independence side.</div></li> <li id="cnote_Note_F"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#ref_Note_F_1">^</a></b></span> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">During the course of the war, the United Provinces organized three land forces that fought on different fronts and periods: the army that confronted the royalists of Montevideo, the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_North" title="Army of the North">Army of the North</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Andes" title="Army of the Andes">Army of the Andes</a>. In the maritime area, the government organized a naval force in 1811, which was <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Nicol%C3%A1s" title="Battle of San Nicolás">destroyed in battle</a> in that same year, so in 1813 it organized a second naval force that was operative until the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Buceo" title="Battle of Buceo">decisive victory</a> obtained in 1814. It then used corsairs in the sea until the end of the war.</div></li> <li id="cnote_Note_G"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#ref_Note_G_1">^</a></b></span> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">In 1817, after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chacabuco" title="Battle of Chacabuco">triumph of the independents in Chacabuco</a> and the subsequent restoration of the Chilean government, the <a href="/wiki/Chilean_Army" title="Chilean Army">Chilean Army</a> was again organized, which fought along with the Army of the Andes in the center-south zone of Chile. Later, both armies would form the <a href="/wiki/Liberating_Expedition_of_Peru" title="Liberating Expedition of Peru">Liberating Expedition of Peru</a>, although a part of the Chilean force remained fighting in the country until its territorial consolidation. As for the maritime area, between 1817 and 1818 the <a href="/wiki/Chilean_Navy" title="Chilean Navy">Chilean Navy</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Chilean_Navy_Squadron" title="First Chilean Navy Squadron">First Chilean Navy Squadron</a>) was founded and would operate until the end of the war. Between 1817 and 1820, Chile also used corsairs in the sea.</div></li> <li id="cnote_Note_H"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#ref_Note_H_1">^</a></b></span> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">In its consolidation phase, the Mexican government had as a land force the so-called <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Three_Guarantees" title="Army of the Three Guarantees">Army of the Three Guarantees</a>, while to fight in the sea it founded the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Navy" title="Mexican Navy">Mexican Navy</a>.</div></li> <li id="cnote_Note_I"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#ref_Note_I_1">^</a></b></span> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">Sailors and combatants recruited in United Kingdom. Sales of warships, weapons and ammunition.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></li> <li id="cnote_Note_J"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#ref_Note_J_1">^</a></b></span> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">guerrillas or violent rebellions in many countries</div></li> <li id="cnote_Note_K"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#ref_Note_K_1">^</a></b></span> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">under flags of many belligerents</div></li> <li id="cnote_Note_L"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#ref_Note_L_1">^</a></b></span> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">The First Texas Independence, 1813. The green flag is the first flag of Texas independence.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></div></li> <li id="cnote_Note_M"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#ref_Note_M_1">^</a></b></span> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_West_Florida" title="Republic of West Florida">Republic of West Florida</a> annexation (1810) and Rebellion of <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_East_Florida" title="Republic of East Florida">Republic of East Florida</a> (1812).<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></div></li> <li id="cnote_Note_N"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#ref_Note_N_1">^</a></b></span> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Insurgent_privateers" title="Insurgent privateers">Insurgent privateers</a> using many flags.</div></li> <li id="cnote_Note_O"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#ref_Note_O_1">^</a></b></span> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">diplomatic declaration exclusively.</div></li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFOwsleySmith1997" class="citation book cs1">Owsley, Frank L.; Smith, Gene A. (1997). <i>Filibusters and Expansionists: Jeffersonian Manifest Destiny, 1800–1821</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Filibusters+and+Expansionists%3A+Jeffersonian+Manifest+Destiny%2C+1800%E2%80%931821&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Owsley&rft.aufirst=Frank+L.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Gene+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeade2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Teresa_Meade" title="Teresa Meade">Meade, Teresa</a> (2016). <i>A History of Modern Latin America 1800 To The Present</i>. Wiley. p. 78.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+Latin+America+1800+To+The+Present&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Meade&rft.aufirst=Teresa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertson1941" class="citation book cs1">Robertson, William Spence (1941). <i>Russia and the Emancipation of Spanish America, 1816–1826</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+and+the+Emancipation+of+Spanish+America%2C+1816%E2%80%931826&rft.date=1941&rft.aulast=Robertson&rft.aufirst=William+Spence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlooster2018" class="citation book cs1">Klooster, Wim (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YcSSDgAAQBAJ"><i>Revolutions in the Atlantic World</i></a>. NYU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781479882403" title="Special:BookSources/9781479882403"><bdi>9781479882403</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutions+in+the+Atlantic+World&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781479882403&rft.aulast=Klooster&rft.aufirst=Wim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYcSSDgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC&pg=PA106"><i>Struggle for Freedom</i></a>. Rex Bookstore. 2008. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-971-23-5045-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-971-23-5045-0"><bdi>978-971-23-5045-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Struggle+for+Freedom&rft.pub=Rex+Bookstore&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-971-23-5045-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4wk8yqCEmJUC%26pg%3DPA106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IVnZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT129"><i>El Trienio Liberal Revolución e independencia (1820-1823)</i></a>. Los Libros De La Catarata. 2020. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-9097-968-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-9097-968-6"><bdi>978-84-9097-968-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=El+Trienio+Liberal+Revoluci%C3%B3n+e+independencia+%281820-1823%29&rft.pub=Los+Libros+De+La+Catarata&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-84-9097-968-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIVnZDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Historia de la Humanidad. Editorial Larousse. Chapter: "Los inicios del siglo XIX". Page 31, Year 2005, Santiago de Chile.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArcher2000" class="citation book cs1">Archer, Christon I. (2000). <i>The Wars of Independence in Spanish America</i>. Wilmington, DE: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 301. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8420-2469-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8420-2469-3"><bdi>978-0-8420-2469-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wars+of+Independence+in+Spanish+America&rft.place=Wilmington%2C+DE&rft.pages=301&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8420-2469-3&rft.aulast=Archer&rft.aufirst=Christon+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Archived-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Archived_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gral. Div. (R) Evergisto de Vergara. "The Eastern Front: Rivadavia and the War against Brazil in 1827." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130515151057/http://www.ieeba.com.ar/docu/El%20frente%20Este.%20Rivadavia%20y%20la%20guerra%20contra%20Brasil%20de%201827.pdf">Archived</a> May 15, 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Institute for Strategic Studies of Buenos Aires (IEEBA). August 2006. Quote: <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">"Y fue una gran guerra civil, porque en Ibero América -para la época de las Guerras por la Independencia- había menos de 50.000 soldados españoles, de los cuales 20.000 nunca salieron de Cuba. Luego, en el proceso de las guerras por la independencia, nunca participaron más de 30.000 españoles. Por ejemplo, en Ayacucho, la última de las batallas por la independencia, menos del 20% de las tropas eran españoles, el resto eran nativos. Los nativos de Ibero América que murieron durante estas guerras fueron aproximadamente 35.000. Fueron verdaderas guerras civiles, y por lo tanto, dejaron mucho más destrucción y rencores."</i></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://necrometrics.com/wars19c.htm#Mex1818">"Statistics of Wars, Oppressions and Atrocities of the Nineteenth Century"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Statistics+of+Wars%2C+Oppressions+and+Atrocities+of+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnecrometrics.com%2Fwars19c.htm%23Mex1818&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Silvio Arturo Zavala (1971). Revista de historia de América. Numbers 69-70. Mexico City: Pan American Institute of Geography and History, p. 303. <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">"Para el primero, de 1400000 habs. que la futura Colombia tendría en 1809 (entre ellos 78000 negros esclavos), (...) mortaldad que él mismo señala a tal guerra (unos 400 000 muertos para la Gran Colombia, entre ellos, 250 000 venezolanos)."</i></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCanal2006" class="citation journal cs1">Canal, Jordi (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.openedition.org/lerhistoria/2588">"Civil War and Counter-Revolution in Spain and the Southern Europe on XIX Century"</a>. <i>Ler História</i>. <b>51</b>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240201181337/https://journals.openedition.org/lerhistoria/2588">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ler+Hist%C3%B3ria&rft.atitle=Civil+War+and+Counter-Revolution+in+Spain+and+the+Southern+Europe+on+XIX+Century&rft.volume=51&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Canal&rft.aufirst=Jordi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Flerhistoria%2F2588&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeire2014" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Peire, Jaime (2014). "El Río de la Plata y las Cortes de Cádiz: ¿un juego de máscaras?". <i>Revista Venezolana de Análisis de Coyuntura. Universidad Central de Venezuela Venezuela</i> (in Spanish). <b>XX</b>: 35.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+Venezolana+de+An%C3%A1lisis+de+Coyuntura.+Universidad+Central+de+Venezuela+Venezuela&rft.atitle=El+R%C3%ADo+de+la+Plata+y+las+Cortes+de+C%C3%A1diz%3A+%C2%BFun+juego+de+m%C3%A1scaras%3F&rft.volume=XX&rft.pages=35&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Peire&rft.aufirst=Jaime&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMazzuca2021" class="citation book cs1">Mazzuca, Sebastian (2021). <i>Latecomer State Formation Political Geography and Capacity Failure in Latin America</i>. Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latecomer+State+Formation+Political+Geography+and+Capacity+Failure+in+Latin+America&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Mazzuca&rft.aufirst=Sebastian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRufino_Blanco-Fombona1920" class="citation book cs1">Rufino Blanco-Fombona (1920). <i>Fundación de la República - Biblioteca Ayacucho nº 61</i>. p. 67.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundaci%C3%B3n+de+la+Rep%C3%BAblica+-+Biblioteca+Ayacucho+n%C2%BA+61&rft.pages=67&rft.date=1920&rft.au=Rufino+Blanco-Fombona&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLara2018" class="citation book cs1">Lara, Maria (2018). <i>Breviario de historia de España</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Breviario+de+historia+de+Espa%C3%B1a&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Lara&rft.aufirst=Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._Patrick_Rhamey_JRBakich2024" class="citation book cs1">J. Patrick Rhamey JR; Bakich, Spencer D. (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wYkhEQAAQBAJ&pg=PT109"><i>The Sources of Great Power Competition Rising Powers, Grand Strategy, and System Dynamics</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-040-14792-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-040-14792-4"><bdi>978-1-040-14792-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sources+of+Great+Power+Competition+Rising+Powers%2C+Grand+Strategy%2C+and+System+Dynamics&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=978-1-040-14792-4&rft.au=J.+Patrick+Rhamey+JR&rft.au=Bakich%2C+Spencer+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwYkhEQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Bushnell, " Wars of Independence: South America" in <i>The Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture</i>, vol. 5, p. 446. 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Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 12–14, 17–32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_46-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_46-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, John (2001), "Spanish America's Poor Whites: Canarian Immigrants in Venezuela, 1700–1830", <i>Latin America between Colony and Nation</i>, Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 58–73, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-41856-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-41856-5">978-1-349-41856-5</a>, retrieved 13 January 2020</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ossa2010-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ossa2010_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOssa_Santa_Cruz2010" class="citation journal cs1">Ossa Santa Cruz, Juan Luis (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160201133624/http://revistahistoria.uc.cl/estudios/2247/">"La criollización de un ejército periférico, Chile, 1768–1810"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_(history_of_the_Americas_journal)" title="Historia (history of the Americas journal)">Historia</a></i>. <b>42</b> (II): 413–448. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://revistahistoria.uc.cl/estudios/2247/">the original</a> on 1 February 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia&rft.atitle=La+criollizaci%C3%B3n+de+un+ej%C3%A9rcito+perif%C3%A9rico%2C+Chile%2C+1768%E2%80%931810&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=II&rft.pages=413-448&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Ossa+Santa+Cruz&rft.aufirst=Juan+Luis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frevistahistoria.uc.cl%2Festudios%2F2247%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 27–34. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 14–18. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 14–17, 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertson1916" class="citation journal cs1">Robertson, William Spence (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/2416490">"The Juntas of 1808 and the Spanish Colonies"</a>. <i>The English Historical Review</i>. <b>31</b> (124): 573–585. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2FXXXI.CXXIV.573">10.1093/ehr/XXXI.CXXIV.573</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/551442">551442</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210301110628/https://zenodo.org/record/2416490">Archived</a> from the original on 1 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+English+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Juntas+of+1808+and+the+Spanish+Colonies&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=124&rft.pages=573-585&rft.date=1916&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fehr%2FXXXI.CXXIV.573&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F551442%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Robertson&rft.aufirst=William+Spence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F2416490&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 36–37. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 51–56, 58–59. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 12, 35–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Royal Order of the Central Junta of 22 January 1809, cited in Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pares.mcu.es/Bicentenarios/portal/batallaOcana.html">"Batalla de Ocaña"</a>. <i>Bicentenario de las independencias iberoaméricanas</i>. Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte (Spain). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191225011349/http://pares.mcu.es/Bicentenarios/portal/batallaOcana.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bicentenario+de+las+independencias+iberoam%C3%A9ricanas&rft.atitle=Batalla+de+Oca%C3%B1a&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpares.mcu.es%2FBicentenarios%2Fportal%2FbatallaOcana.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 50–52, 236–239. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 53–55, 61–70, 80–81. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 43–45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ezquerra2001-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ezquerra2001_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEzquerra2001" class="citation book cs1">Ezquerra, Jaime Alvar (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l4JQIkW1yrsC&pg=PA209"><i>Diccionario de historia de España</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Ediciones_Akal" title="Ediciones Akal">Ediciones Akal</a>. pp. 209–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-7090-366-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-7090-366-3"><bdi>978-84-7090-366-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diccionario+de+historia+de+Espa%C3%B1a&rft.pages=209-&rft.pub=Ediciones+Akal&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-84-7090-366-3&rft.aulast=Ezquerra&rft.aufirst=Jaime+Alvar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl4JQIkW1yrsC%26pg%3DPA209&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilhelmsen1979" class="citation journal cs1">Wilhelmsen, Alexandra (4 April 1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=1273157">"El "Manifiesto de los persas"una alternativa ante el liberalismo español.Alexandra Wilhelmsen.1979"</a>. <i>Revista de Estudios Políticos</i> (12): 141–162. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417234107/https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=1273157">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+de+Estudios+Pol%C3%ADticos&rft.atitle=El+%22Manifiesto+de+los+persas%22una+alternativa+ante+el+liberalismo+espa%C3%B1ol.Alexandra+Wilhelmsen.1979&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=141-162&rft.date=1979-04-04&rft.aulast=Wilhelmsen&rft.aufirst=Alexandra&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdialnet.unirioja.es%2Fservlet%2Farticulo%3Fcodigo%3D1273157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O.1998-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-O.1998_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodríguez_O.1998" class="citation book cs1">Rodríguez O., Jaime E. (13 May 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QQWJ4nzGNKMC&pg=PA82"><i>The Independence of Spanish America</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 82–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62673-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62673-6"><bdi>978-0-521-62673-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240201181355/https://books.google.com/books?id=QQWJ4nzGNKMC&pg=PA82#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Independence+of+Spanish+America&rft.pages=82-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998-05-13&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62673-6&rft.aulast=Rodr%C3%ADguez+O.&rft.aufirst=Jaime+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQQWJ4nzGNKMC%26pg%3DPA82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span> citation: "It met as one body, and its members represented the entire Spanish world"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 43–45, 52–56, 132–133, 195–196, 239–240. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 75–82, 110–112, 123–125, 136–139, 150–153. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 36–37, 46, 52–53, 58–59, 61–62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJay_Kinsbruner_·2000" class="citation book cs1">Jay Kinsbruner · (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d3-YevdqgfYC&pg=PP1"><i>Independence in Spanish America Civil Wars, Revolutions, and Underdevelopment</i></a>. UNM Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8263-2177-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8263-2177-0"><bdi>978-0-8263-2177-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Independence+in+Spanish+America+Civil+Wars%2C+Revolutions%2C+and+Underdevelopment&rft.pub=UNM+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8263-2177-0&rft.au=Jay+Kinsbruner+%C2%B7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd3-YevdqgfYC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="Https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article/112/3/742/27590?login=false">"The Western Question: The Geopolitics of Latin American Independence"</a>. <i>The American Historical Review</i>. 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Western+Question%3A+The+Geopolitics+of+Latin+American+Independence&rft.date=2007&rft_id=Https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fahr%2Farticle%2F112%2F3%2F742%2F27590%3Flogin%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 36–37, 134–135. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 52–53. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 45–46, 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The phrase is used by Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 56–58, 133. For a similar analysis without the phrase, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrow1946" class="citation book cs1">Crow, John A (1946). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/epicoflatinameri0000crow"><i>The Epic of Latin America</i></a></span>. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/epicoflatinameri0000crow/page/425">425–426</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Epic+of+Latin+America&rft.place=Garden+City%2C+N.Y.&rft.pages=425-426&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1946&rft.aulast=Crow&rft.aufirst=John+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fepicoflatinameri0000crow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 107–111, 134–137, 162–172, 195–200, 238–240, 313–319, 335. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 93–111, 115, 123–126, 136–144, 147–156, 164–165, 168, 176–177. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 46, 50, 52–53, 66–67, 100–101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 121, 131–132. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 13–19, 22,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 57–71, 162–163, 240–242. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 111–113, 126–136, 153–159, 176–179. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 53, 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 118–121, 197–198, 200, 204–207, 306–313. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 113–122, 132, 159–167. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 54, 66–70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 168, 184, Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 70, 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 169–172. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 56–57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 336. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 162. 171–172, 207. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 173–175, 192–194</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 209. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 122. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Small contingents from Spain had been arriving in the Americas since 1810. On 25 August 1810, a group of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Marine_Infantry" title="Spanish Marine Infantry">Spanish Marines</a> arrived in <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a> from <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Cádiz</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Frigate" title="Frigate">frigate</a>, <i>Nuestra señora de Atocha</i> under the command of <a href="/wiki/Rosendo_Porlier_y_Asteguieta" title="Rosendo Porlier y Asteguieta">Rosendo Porlier</a> and accompanying Viceroy <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Javier_Venegas" title="Francisco Javier Venegas">Francisco Javier Venegas</a>. These were the first Spaniards to have come from Europe in support of <a href="/wiki/Royalist" title="Royalist">royalists</a>. Frieyro de Lara. <i>Guerra ejército y sociedad en el nacimiento de la España contemporánea</i>. (2009, Universidad de Granada) p. 660.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Rebecca_Earle" title="Rebecca Earle">Rebecca Earle</a>, "'A Grave for Europeans'? Disease, Death, and the Spanish-American Revolutions" in Christon I. Archer, ed. <i>The Wars of Independence in Spanish America</i>, 283–297.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 138–141. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 179–182. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 72–75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 209–218. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacKenzie1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_MacKenzie" title="Simon MacKenzie">MacKenzie, S. P.</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wPANAAAAQAAJ"><i>Revolutionary Armies in the Modern Era: A Revisionist Approach</i></a>. London: Routledge. pp. 54, 61–64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-09690-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-09690-1"><bdi>0-415-09690-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240201181447/https://books.google.com/books?id=wPANAAAAQAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutionary+Armies+in+the+Modern+Era%3A+A+Revisionist+Approach&rft.place=London&rft.pages=54%2C+61-64&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-415-09690-1&rft.aulast=MacKenzie&rft.aufirst=S.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwPANAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span> Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 184–192. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 78–87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 194. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 88, 114, 120–121, 127–128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 335–340. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 194–195. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoutoukias1988" class="citation journal cs1">Moutoukias, Zacarias (1988). "Power, Corruption, and Commerce: The Making of the Local Administrative Structure in Seventeenth-Century Buenos Aires". <i>The Hispanic American Historical Review</i>. <b>68</b> (4): 771–801. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2515681">10.2307/2515681</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2515681">2515681</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hispanic+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Power%2C+Corruption%2C+and+Commerce%3A+The+Making+of+the+Local+Administrative+Structure+in+Seventeenth-Century+Buenos+Aires&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=771-801&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2515681&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2515681%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Moutoukias&rft.aufirst=Zacarias&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch analyzes the events through the older theory of a "conservative revolution": <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 319–320. Compare to Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 196–197, 199–205, 241–242. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 97–98. Peter F. Guardino, "The War of Independence in Guerrero, New Spain, 1808–1821" in Archer, <i>The Wars of Independence in Spanish America</i>, 122–124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 320–323. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 206–210. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 98–99. Guardino, "The War of Independence in Guerrero," 121, 124–125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrozco_Linares1996" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Orozco Linares, Fernando (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qHKohGnmyeAC&pg=PA128"><i>Fechas históricas de México: las efemérides más destacadas desde la época prehispánica hasta nuestros días</i></a> (in Spanish). Panorama Editorial. p. 128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789683802958" title="Special:BookSources/9789683802958"><bdi>9789683802958</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240201181404/https://books.google.com/books?id=qHKohGnmyeAC&pg=PA128#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fechas+hist%C3%B3ricas+de+M%C3%A9xico%3A+las+efem%C3%A9rides+m%C3%A1s+destacadas+desde+la+%C3%A9poca+prehisp%C3%A1nica+hasta+nuestros+d%C3%ADas&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=Panorama+Editorial&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9789683802958&rft.aulast=Orozco+Linares&rft.aufirst=Fernando&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqHKohGnmyeAC%26pg%3DPA128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001128/http://www.biblioteca.tv/artman2/uploads/tratado28diciembre1836.pdf">"Tratado Definitivo de Paz entre Mexico y España"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in Spanish). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblioteca.tv/artman2/uploads/tratado28diciembre1836.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Tratado+Definitivo+de+Paz+entre+Mexico+y+Espa%C3%B1a&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblioteca.tv%2Fartman2%2Fuploads%2Ftratado28diciembre1836.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenyon1961" class="citation journal cs1">Kenyon, Gordon (1 May 1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://read.dukeupress.edu/hahr/article/41/2/175/160110/Mexican-Influence-in-Central-America-1821-1823">"Mexican Influence in Central America, 1821–1823"</a>. <i>Hispanic American Historical Review</i>. <b>41</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>: 183–184. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00182168-41.2.175">10.1215/00182168-41.2.175</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2510200">2510200</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240201181339/https://read.dukeupress.edu/hahr/article/41/2/175/160110/Mexican-Influence-in-Central-America-1821-1823">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 July</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hispanic+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Mexican+Influence+in+Central+America%2C+1821%E2%80%931823&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=183-184&rft.date=1961-05-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F00182168-41.2.175&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2510200%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kenyon&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fread.dukeupress.edu%2Fhahr%2Farticle%2F41%2F2%2F175%2F160110%2FMexican-Influence-in-Central-America-1821-1823&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 333–340. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 210–213. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 100, 146–149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 172–178. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 213–214. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 218–219. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 219. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 88–90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 178–179. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 214–219. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 76–77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 185–189, 247–249, 267–272. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 219–220, 222–231. Timothy E. Anna, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SsmmXmpiOtgC">Chaos and the Military Solution: The Fall of Royalist Government in Peru</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240201181450/https://books.google.com/books?id=SsmmXmpiOtgC">Archived</a> 1 February 2024 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" in Archer, <i>The Wars of Independence in Spanish America</i>, 272–273. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 77–78, 90–95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBushnell1970" class="citation book cs1">Bushnell, David (1970). <i>The Santander Regime in Gran Colombia</i>. Westport: Greenwood Press. pp. 325–335. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8371-2981-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8371-2981-8"><bdi>0-8371-2981-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Santander+Regime+in+Gran+Colombia&rft.place=Westport&rft.pages=325-335&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=0-8371-2981-8&rft.aulast=Bushnell&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span> Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 272–273, 279–284. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 232–234. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 95–96. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChasteen2008" class="citation book cs1">Chasteen, John Charles (2008). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanoslatina00chas/page/164"><i>Americanos: Latin America's Struggle for Independence</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanoslatina00chas/page/164">164–165</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517881-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517881-4"><bdi>978-0-19-517881-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Americanos%3A+Latin+America%27s+Struggle+for+Independence&rft.pages=164-165&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517881-4&rft.aulast=Chasteen&rft.aufirst=John+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericanoslatina00chas%2Fpage%2F164&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 105–106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManara2010" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Manara, Carla G. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unrc.edu.ar/publicar/soc_paisajes/PdfTomoII/CarlaGManara.pdf">"Movilización en las fronteras. Los Pincheira y el última intento de reconquista hispana en el sur Americano (1818–1832)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Revista Sociedad de Paisajes Áridos y Semiáridos</i> (in Spanish). <b>II</b> (II). <a href="/wiki/Universidad_Nacional_de_R%C3%ADo_Cuarto" class="mw-redirect" title="Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto">Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto</a>: 39–60. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200927164440/https://www.unrc.edu.ar/publicar/soc_paisajes/PdfTomoII/CarlaGManara.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 27 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+Sociedad+de+Paisajes+%C3%81ridos+y+Semi%C3%A1ridos&rft.atitle=Movilizaci%C3%B3n+en+las+fronteras.+Los+Pincheira+y+el+%C3%BAltima+intento+de+reconquista+hispana+en+el+sur+Americano+%281818%E2%80%931832%29&rft.volume=II&rft.issue=II&rft.pages=39-60&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Manara&rft.aufirst=Carla+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unrc.edu.ar%2Fpublicar%2Fsoc_paisajes%2FPdfTomoII%2FCarlaGManara.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCosteloe2009" class="citation book cs1">Costeloe, Michael P. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OxcpEbVzMpQC"><i>Response to Revolution: Imperial Spain and the Spanish American Revolutions, 1810-1840</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521122795" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521122795"><bdi>978-0521122795</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Response+to+Revolution%3A+Imperial+Spain+and+the+Spanish+American+Revolutions%2C+1810-1840&rft.pages=100&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0521122795&rft.aulast=Costeloe&rft.aufirst=Michael+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOxcpEbVzMpQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 344–347. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 245. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 131–136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bernedo-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bernedo_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernedo_Pinto1999" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bernedo Pinto, Patricio (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.memoriachilena.cl/archivos2/pdfs/MC0001325.pdf">"Los industriales alemanes de Valdivia, 1850–1914"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_(history_of_the_Americas_journal)" title="Historia (history of the Americas journal)">Historia</a></i> (in Spanish). <b>32</b>: 5–42. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220602085134/http://www.memoriachilena.cl/archivos2/pdfs/MC0001325.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia&rft.atitle=Los+industriales+alemanes+de+Valdivia%2C+1850%E2%80%931914&rft.volume=32&rft.pages=5-42&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Bernedo+Pinto&rft.aufirst=Patricio&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.memoriachilena.cl%2Farchivos2%2Fpdfs%2FMC0001325.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-salazarpinto19-21-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-salazarpinto19-21_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Salazar" title="Gabriel Salazar">Salazar, Gabriel</a>; <a href="/wiki/Julio_Pinto" title="Julio Pinto">Pinto, Julio</a> (2002). <i>Historia contemporánea de Chile III. La economía: mercados empresarios y trabajadores.</i> <a href="/wiki/LOM_Ediciones" title="LOM Ediciones">LOM Ediciones</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/956-282-172-2" title="Special:BookSources/956-282-172-2">956-282-172-2</a> pp. 19–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_95-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ávila, Alfredo; Tutino, John, "Becoming Mexico<subtitle>The Conflictive Search for a North American Nation</subtitle>", <i>New Countries<subtitle>Capitalism, Revolutions, and Nations in the Americas, 1750–1870</subtitle></i>, Duke University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-6114-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-6114-5">978-0-8223-6114-5</a>, retrieved 2020-01-13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 343–344. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 244–245. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 133–136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 347–351. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 245. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 142–143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 347–349.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Argentine President promotes Juana Azurduy to General in the Argentine Army. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.szmm.gov.hu/download.php?ctag=download&docID=14380">http://www.szmm.gov.hu/download.php?ctag=download&docID=14380</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2021">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChambers2015" class="citation book cs1">Chambers, Sarah (2015). <i>Families in War and Peace: Chile from Colony to Nation</i>. Duke University Press Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Families+in+War+and+Peace%3A+Chile+from+Colony+to+Nation&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press+Publishers&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Chambers&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChambers_and_Chasteen2010" class="citation book cs1">Chambers and Chasteen (14 September 2010). <i>Latin American Independence</i>. Hackett Publishing Company. pp. 25–35.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latin+American+Independence&rft.pages=25-35&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2010-09-14&rft.au=Chambers+and+Chasteen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">" O'Connor, Mothers Making Latin America", 26–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 342–343. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 146–152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 351–352. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 145–146, 152–153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 3–5, 213, 239. Kinsbruner states, "[I]n Mexico between 1820 and 1835 a larger percentage of adult males were permitted to vote than was the case in the United States, Great Britain, or France." <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynch, <i>Spanish American Revolutions</i>, 341–342, 352–355. Rodríguez, <i>Independence of Spanish America</i>, 219–222, 240–244. Kinsbruner, <i>Independence in Spanish America</i>, 143–144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JOTAS-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JOTAS_107-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JOTAS_107-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaquette2004" class="citation journal cs1">Paquette, Gabriel (2004). "The intellectual context of British diplomatic recognition of the South American republics, C. 1800–1830". <i>Journal of Transatlantic Studies</i>. <b>2</b> (1). Routledge for the Transatlantic Studies Association: 75–95. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14794010408656808">10.1080/14794010408656808</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1479-4012">1479-4012</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144061407">144061407</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Transatlantic+Studies&rft.atitle=The+intellectual+context+of+British+diplomatic+recognition+of+the+South+American+republics%2C+C.+1800%E2%80%931830&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=75-95&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144061407%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1479-4012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14794010408656808&rft.aulast=Paquette&rft.aufirst=Gabriel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaufmanMacpherson2005" class="citation book cs1">Kaufman, Will; Macpherson, Heidi Slettedahl, eds. (2005). <i>Britain and the Americas: E – P, Volume 2 Transatlantic Relations</i>. ABC-CLIO. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781851094318" title="Special:BookSources/9781851094318"><bdi>9781851094318</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+and+the+Americas%3A+E+%E2%80%93+P%2C+Volume+2+Transatlantic+Relations&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781851094318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baeza71and72-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Baeza71and72_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baeza Ruz, Andrés (2017). "Imperio, Estado y Nación en las relaciones entre chilenos y británicos durante el proceso de independencia hispanoamericano, 1806-1831", pp 71-72</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arana-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Arana_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arana, M., 2013, Bolivar, New York: Simon & Schuster, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781439110195" title="Special:BookSources/9781439110195">9781439110195</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Lynch2007" class="citation book cs1">John Lynch (2007). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/simonbolivarsimo00lync_209"><i>Simón Bolívar: A Life</i></a></span>. Yale University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/simonbolivarsimo00lync_209/page/n142">124</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12604-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12604-4"><bdi>978-0-300-12604-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sim%C3%B3n+Bol%C3%ADvar%3A+A+Life&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-300-12604-4&rft.au=John+Lynch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsimonbolivarsimo00lync_209&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenty,_G._A1897" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G._A._Henty" title="G. A. Henty">Henty, G. A</a> (1897). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/withcochranedaun00hent"><i>With Cochrane the Dauntless: A Tale of the Exploits of Lord Cochrane in South American Waters</i></a>. Blackie. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/withcochranedaun00hent/page/253">253</a>–55.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=With+Cochrane+the+Dauntless%3A+A+Tale+of+the+Exploits+of+Lord+Cochrane+in+South+American+Waters&rft.pages=253-55&rft.pub=Blackie&rft.date=1897&rft.au=Henty%2C+G.+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwithcochranedaun00hent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalévy1949" class="citation book cs1">Halévy, Elie (1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eoC1AQAACAAJ"><i>The Liberal Awakening, 1815–1830 Volume 2 of Histoire du peuple anglais au XIXe siècle</i></a>. Benn. pp. 126–27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Liberal+Awakening%2C+1815%E2%80%931830+Volume+2+of+Histoire+du+peuple+anglais+au+XIXe+si%C3%A8cle&rft.pages=126-27&rft.pub=Benn&rft.date=1949&rft.aulast=Hal%C3%A9vy&rft.aufirst=Elie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeoC1AQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2014" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Rory (2014). <i>Britain and Latin America in the 19th and 20th Centuries Studies In Modern History</i>. 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(2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fahr.112.3.742">"The Western Question: The Geopolitics of Latin American Independence"</a>. <i>The American Historical Review</i>. <b>112</b> (3): 742–763. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fahr.112.3.742">10.1086/ahr.112.3.742</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Western+Question%3A+The+Geopolitics+of+Latin+American+Independence&rft.volume=112&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=742-763&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2Fahr.112.3.742&rft.aulast=Blaufarb&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1086%252Fahr.112.3.742&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell H. Bartley, <i>Imperial Russia and the Struggle for Latin American Independence, 1808–1828</i> (1978), ch. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertson1941" class="citation journal cs1">Robertson, William Spence (1941). "Russia and the Emancipation of Spanish America, 1816-1826". <i>The Hispanic American Historical Review</i>. <b>21</b> (2): 196–221. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2507393">10.2307/2507393</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507393">2507393</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hispanic+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Russia+and+the+Emancipation+of+Spanish+America%2C+1816-1826&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=196-221&rft.date=1941&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2507393&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2507393%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Robertson&rft.aufirst=William+Spence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnoch_F._Resnick1947" class="citation book cs1">Enoch F. Resnick (1947). <i>A Family Imbroglio: Brazil's Invasion of the Banda Oriental in 1816 and Repercussions on the Iberian Peninsula, 1816–1820</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Family+Imbroglio%3A+Brazil%27s+Invasion+of+the+Banda+Oriental+in+1816+and+Repercussions+on+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+1816%E2%80%931820&rft.date=1947&rft.au=Enoch+F.+Resnick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimothy_E._Anna1978" class="citation book cs1">Timothy E. Anna (1978). <i>The Buenos Aires Expedition and Spain's Secret Plan to Conquer Portugal, 1814–1820</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Buenos+Aires+Expedition+and+Spain%27s+Secret+Plan+to+Conquer+Portugal%2C+1814%E2%80%931820&rft.date=1978&rft.au=Timothy+E.+Anna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlaufarb2016" class="citation news cs1">Blaufarb, Rafe (2016). "Arms for Revolutions: Military Demobilization after the Napoleonic Wars and Latin American Independence".</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Arms+for+Revolutions%3A+Military+Demobilization+after+the+Napoleonic+Wars+and+Latin+American+Independence&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Blaufarb&rft.aufirst=Rafe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaddell1987" class="citation news cs1">Waddell, D. A. G. (1987). "British Neutrality and Spanish—American Independence: The Problem of Foreign Enlistment".</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=British+Neutrality+and+Spanish%E2%80%94American+Independence%3A+The+Problem+of+Foreign+Enlistment&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Waddell&rft.aufirst=D.+A.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLópez2013" class="citation book cs1">López, José Antonio (22 April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CY1YxzdwrSgC&dq=Texas+first+independence+1813&pg=PR3"><i>The First Texas Independence, 1813. Lopez 2013. Xlibris</i></a>. Xlibris Corporation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4836-2406-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4836-2406-8"><bdi>978-1-4836-2406-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240201181843/https://books.google.com/books?id=CY1YxzdwrSgC&dq=Texas+first+independence+1813&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=Texas%20first%20independence%201813&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Texas+Independence%2C+1813.+Lopez+2013.+Xlibris&rft.pub=Xlibris+Corporation&rft.date=2013-04-22&rft.isbn=978-1-4836-2406-8&rft.aulast=L%C3%B3pez&rft.aufirst=Jos%C3%A9+Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCY1YxzdwrSgC%26dq%3DTexas%2Bfirst%2Bindependence%2B1813%26pg%3DPR3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank_L._Owsley,_Gene_A._Smith1997" class="citation book cs1">Frank L. Owsley, Gene A. Smith (1997). <i>Filibusters and Expansionists: Jeffersonian Manifest Destiny, 1800–1821</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Filibusters+and+Expansionists%3A+Jeffersonian+Manifest+Destiny%2C+1800%E2%80%931821&rft.date=1997&rft.au=Frank+L.+Owsley%2C+Gene+A.+Smith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+American+wars+of+independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spanish_America_and_Spain">Spanish America and Spain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Spanish America and Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li>Adelman, Jeremy. <i>Sovereignty and Revolution in the Iberian Atlantic</i>. Princeton University Press 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691142777" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691142777">978-0691142777</a></li> <li>Andrews, George Reid. "Spanish American independence: A structural analysis." <i>Latin American Perspectives</i> (1985): 105–132. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pics3441.upmf-grenoble.fr/articles/inde/Spanish%20American%20Independence%20A%20Structural%20Analysis.pdf">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged July 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li>Andrien, Kenneth J. and Lyman L. Johnson. <i>The Political Economy of Spanish America in the Age of Revolution, 1750–1850</i>. Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press, 1994. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8263-1489-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8263-1489-5">978-0-8263-1489-5</a></li> <li>Anna, Timothy.. <i>Spain & the Loss of Empire</i>. Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, 1983. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1014-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1014-1">978-0-8032-1014-1</a></li> <li>Archer, Christon I., ed.. <i>The Wars of Independence in Spanish America</i>. Willmington, SR Books, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8420-2469-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8420-2469-7">0-8420-2469-7</a></li> <li>Benson, Nettie Lee. <i>Mexico and the Spanish Cortes, 1810–1822</i>. Austin: University of Texas Press 1966. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1477304037" title="Special:BookSources/1477304037">1477304037</a></li> <li>Brading, D.A. <i>The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots and the Liberal State, 1492–1867</i>. Cambridge University Press, 1991. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-44796-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-44796-8">0-521-44796-8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Charles_Chasteen" title="John Charles Chasteen">Chasteen, John Charles</a>. <i>Americanos: Latin America's Struggle for Independence</i>. Oxford University Press, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517881-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517881-4">978-0-19-517881-4</a></li> <li>Costeloe, Michael P. <i>Response to Revolution: Imperial Spain and the Spanish American Revolutions, 1810–1840</i>. Cambridge University Press, 1986. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32083-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32083-2">978-0-521-32083-2</a></li> <li>Domínguez, Jorge I. <i>Insurrection or Loyalty: The Breakdown of the Spanish American Empire</i>. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1980. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-45635-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-45635-8">978-0-674-45635-8</a></li> <li>Graham, Richard. <i>Independence in Latin America: A Comparative Approach</i> (2nd edition). McGraw-Hill, 1994. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-024008-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-024008-6">0-07-024008-6</a></li> <li>Hamnett, Brian. <i>The End of Iberian Rule on the American Continent, 1770–1830</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2017. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1316626634" title="Special:BookSources/978-1316626634">978-1316626634</a></li> <li>Harvey, Robert. <i>Liberators: Latin America's Struggle For Independence, 1810–1830</i>. John Murray, London (2000). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7195-5566-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7195-5566-3">0-7195-5566-3</a></li> <li>Higgins, James (editor). <i>The Emancipation of Peru: British Eyewitness Accounts</i>, 2014. Online at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://sites.google.com/site/jhemanperu">https://sites.google.com/site/jhemanperu</a></li> <li>Humphreys, R. A., and John Lynch (editors). <i>The Origins of the Latin American Revolutions, 1808–1826</i>. New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1965.</li> <li>Kinsbruner, Jay. <i>The Spanish-American Independence Movement</i>. (Krieger Publishing Company, 1976). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88275-428-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88275-428-4">978-0-88275-428-4</a></li> <li>Kinsbruner, Jay. <i>Independence in Spanish America: Civil Wars, Revolutions, and Underdevelopment</i> (2nd ed. University of New Mexico Press, 2000). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8263-2177-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8263-2177-1">0-8263-2177-1</a></li> <li>Ladd, Doris M. <i>The Mexican Nobility at Independence, 1780–1826</i>. Austin: University of Texas Press 1976.</li> <li>Lynch, John. <i>Caudillos in Spanish America, 1800–1850</i>. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1992. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-821135-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-821135-X">0-19-821135-X</a></li> <li>Lynch, John. <i>The Spanish American Revolutions, 1808–1826</i> (2nd edition). New York, W. W. Norton & Company, 1986. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-95537-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-95537-0">0-393-95537-0</a></li> <li>Lynch, John, ed. <i>Latin American Revolutions, 1808–1826: Old and New World Origins </i> (1995) 424pp; essays by scholars</li> <li>McFarlane, Anthony. <i>War and Independence in Spanish America</i>. Routledge, 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85728-782-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85728-782-0">978-1-85728-782-0</a></li> <li>Méndez, Cecilia. "Incas si, Indios no: Notes on Peruvian Creole Nationalism and Its Contemporary Crisis." <i>Journal of Latin American Studies</i>, 28 (1) (Feb. 1996) pp. 197–225.</li> <li>Ossa Santa Cruz, Juan Luis. <i>Armies, Politics, and Revolution: Chile 1808–1826</i>. Liverpool 2014.</li> <li>Rodríguez O., Jaime E. <i>The Independence of Spanish America</i>. (Cambridge UP, 1998). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-62673-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-62673-0">0-521-62673-0</a></li> <li>Scheina, Robert L.. <i>Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791–1899</i>. (Potomac Books, 2003). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781574884500" title="Special:BookSources/9781574884500">9781574884500</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_involvement">Foreign involvement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Foreign involvement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li>Bartley, Russell H. <i>Imperial Russia and the Struggle for Latin American Independence, 1808–1828</i>. Austin: University of Texas Press 1978. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0292738126" title="Special:BookSources/978-0292738126">978-0292738126</a></li> <li>Brown, Matthew. <i>Adventuring through Spanish Colonies: Simón Bolívar, Foreign Mercenaries and the Birth of New Nations</i>. Liverpool University Press, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84631-044-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-84631-044-X">1-84631-044-X</a></li> <li>Hasbrouck, Alfred. <i>Foreign Legionaries in the Liberation of Spanish South America</i>. New York: Octagon Books, 1969.</li> <li>Hughes, Ben. <i>Conquer or Die!: Wellington's Veterans and the Liberation of the New World</i>, Osprey 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1849081832" title="Special:BookSources/978-1849081832">978-1849081832</a></li> <li>Kaufman, William W. <i>British Policy and the Independence of Latin America, 1804–1828</i>. New Haven, Yale UP, 1951.</li> <li>Robertson, William Spence. <i>France and Latin American Independence</i>. (1939) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/francelatinameri0000robe">online free to borrow</a></li> <li>Rodríguez, Moises Enrique. <i>Freedom's Mercenaries: British Volunteers in the Wars of Independence of Latin America</i>, 2 vols. Lanham, Hamilton Books, University Press of America, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-3438-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-3438-0">978-0-7618-3438-0</a></li> <li>Whitaker, Arthur P. <i>The United States and the Independence of Latin America, 1800–1830</i>. Johns Hopkins UP, 1941. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.176523">online</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_American_wars_of_independence&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Adelman" title="Jeremy Adelman">Adelman, Jeremy</a>. "Independence in Latin America" in <i>The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History</i>, José C. Moya, ed. New York: Oxford University Press 2011, pp. 153–180.</li> <li>Hensel, Silke. "Was There an Age of Revolution in Latin America?: New Literature on Latin American Independence." <i>Latin American Research Review</i> (2003) 38#3 pp: 237–249. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/lar/summary/v038/38.3hensel.html">online</a></li> <li>Racine, Karen. "Simón Bolívar and friends: Recent biographies of independence figures in Colombia and Venezuela" <i>History Compass</i> 18#3 (Feb 2020) <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1111/hic3.12608">https://doi.org/10.1111/hic3.12608</a></li> <li>Uribe, Victor M. "The Enigma of Latin American Independence: Analyses of the Last Ten Years," <i>Latin American Research Review</i> (1997) 32#1 pp. 236–255 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2504056">in JSTOR</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spanish_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spanish_Empire" title="Template:Spanish Empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spanish_Empire" title="Template talk:Spanish Empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spanish_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spanish Empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spanish_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Timeline–immersed" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Timeline–immersed</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Conquest of the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Asia and the Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Habsburgs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_League_of_Cognac" title="War of the League of Cognac">War of the League of Cognac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomiendas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Laws" title="New Laws">New Laws in favour of the indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Moriscos" title="Expulsion of the Moriscos">Expulsion of the Moriscos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars" title="Ottoman–Habsburg wars">Ottoman–Habsburg wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castilian_War" title="Castilian War">Bruneian–Spanish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)">Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Caribbean" title="Piracy in the Caribbean">Piracy in the Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Moro_conflict" title="Spanish–Moro conflict">Spanish–Moro conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War" title="Portuguese Restoration War">Portuguese Restoration War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Bourbons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Reforms" title="Bourbon Reforms">Bourbon Reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Madrid_(13_January_1750)" title="Treaty of Madrid (13 January 1750)">Treaty of Madrid (1750)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nootka_Convention" title="Nootka Convention">Nootka Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Napoleonic invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_San_Ildefonso" title="Third Treaty of San Ildefonso">Third Treaty of San Ildefonso</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Independence of Spanish continental Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams%E2%80%93On%C3%ADs_Treaty" title="Adams–Onís Treaty">Adams–Onís Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812" title="Spanish Constitution of 1812">Liberal constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlist_Wars" title="Carlist Wars">Carlist Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Spanish_Treaty_(1899)" title="German–Spanish Treaty (1899)">German–Spanish Treaty (1899)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco#Independent_Morocco_(since_1956)" title="History of Morocco">Independence of Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Independence of Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Territories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Europe</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castille" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown of Castille">Crown of Castille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Union with Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li></ul></li> <li>Southern Italy (Kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples#Aragonese_dynasty" title="Kingdom of Naples">Naples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily#The_insular_kingdom_of_Sicily_under_the_Crown_of_Aragon_and_Spain" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sardinia#Aragonese_period" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Union with Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franche-Comt%C3%A9" title="Franche-Comté">Franche-Comté</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Catalonia" title="Northern Catalonia">Pyrénées-Orientales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">North America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_expeditions_to_the_Pacific_Northwest" title="Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest">Coastal Alaska</a>, Central United States (<a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Spanish Louisiana</a>), Western United States (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Texas" title="Spanish Texas">Spanish Texas</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Mexico&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kingdom of Mexico (page does not exist)">Mexico</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_M%C3%A9xico" class="extiw" title="es:Reino de México">es</a>]</span>, Central America (<a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Yucatan" class="mw-redirect" title="Captaincy General of Yucatan">Captaincy General of Yucatan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish Caribbean</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Central_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Central America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Captaincy General of Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish West Indies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Dominican Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago#Spanish_period" title="History of Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Santiago" title="Colony of Santiago">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti#Spanish_history_(1492–1625)" title="History of Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruba#History" title="Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao#History" title="Curaçao">Curazao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaire#History" title="Bonaire">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belize_(1506%E2%80%931862)" title="History of Belize (1506–1862)">Belize</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">South America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">Colombia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Quito" title="Real Audiencia of Quito">Ecuador</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Panama" title="Real Audiencia of Panama">Panama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Venezuela, part of Guyana</a>, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Peru</a> (Peru, <a href="/wiki/Acre_(state)" title="Acre (state)">Acre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a> (<a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Governorate of the Río de la Plata">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Paraguay" title="Governorate of Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Charcas</a> (Bolivia), <a href="/wiki/Banda_Oriental" title="Banda Oriental">Banda Oriental</a> (Uruguay), <a href="/wiki/Misiones_Orientales" title="Misiones Orientales">Misiones Orientales</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Falkland_Islands" title="History of the Falkland Islands">Malvinas</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Asia_and_Oceania_(Spanish_East_Indies)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Asia and Oceania (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Spanish East Indies</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Captaincy General of the Philippines</a> (<a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Northern Mariana Islands">Mariana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands" title="Caroline Islands">Caroline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Formosa" title="Spanish Formosa">Northern Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidore" title="Tidore">Tidore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Africa</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li>Northern Africa (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Sahara" title="Spanish Sahara">Western Sahara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_protectorate_in_Morocco" title="Spanish protectorate in Morocco">Spanish Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Tripoli" title="Spanish Tripoli">Tripoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunis#Spanish_occupation_and_Ottoman_control" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_of_Algiers" title="Peñón of Algiers">Peñón of Algiers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oran#Spanish_period_(1509–1708,_1732–1792)" title="Oran">Oran</a>, <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9ja%C3%AFa#Muslim_and_feudal_rulers" title="Béjaïa">Béjaïa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ifni" title="Ifni">Ifni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Juby" title="Cape Juby">Cape Juby</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Antarctica" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Antarctica</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis,_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Terra Australis, Spain">Terra Australis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Administration" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Administration</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayuntamiento" title="Ayuntamiento">Ayuntamiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabildo_(council)" title="Cabildo (council)">Cabildo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania_(guild)" title="Germania (guild)">Germania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Hermandad" title="Santa Hermandad">Santa Hermandad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exequatur" title="Exequatur">Exequatur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_of_the_Indies" title="Laws of the Indies">Laws of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">Papal bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Decree_of_Graces_of_1815" title="Royal Decree of Graces of 1815">Royal Decree of Graces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">School of Salamanca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_residence" title="Trial of residence">Trial of residence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Titles and positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcalde" title="Alcalde">Alcalde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corregidor_(position)" title="Corregidor (position)">Corregidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_president" title="Municipal president">Municipal president</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regidor" title="Regidor">Regidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndic" title="Syndic">Syndic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vecino" title="Vecino">Vecino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Administrative_subdivisions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Administrative subdivisions</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Viceroy#In_the_Americas" title="Viceroy">Viceroyalties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_Viceroyalty" title="Columbian Viceroyalty">Columbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Perú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Captaincies_of_the_Spanish_Empire" title="Captaincies of the Spanish Empire">Captaincies General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincias_Internas" title="Provincias Internas">Provincias Internas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Captaincy General of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_the_Spanish_Empire" title="Governorates of the Spanish Empire">Governorates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castilla_de_Oro" title="Castilla de Oro">Castilla de Oro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Cuba" title="Governorate of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">La Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">La Luisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Andalusia_(1501%E2%80%931513)" title="Governorate of New Andalusia (1501–1513)">New Andalusia (1501–1513)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Andalusia" title="Governorate of New Andalusia">New Andalusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Castile" title="Governorate of New Castile">New Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Navarre" title="New Navarre">New Navarre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Toledo" title="Governorate of New Toledo">New Toledo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Paraguay" title="Governorate of Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Governorate of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Terra_Australis" title="Governorate of Terra Australis">Terra Australis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia" title="Real Audiencia">Audiencias</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">Bogotá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Buenos_Aires" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Caracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Charcas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Concepci%C3%B3n" title="Real Audiencia of Concepción">Concepción</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Cusco" class="mw-redirect" title="Real Audiencia of Cusco">Cusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Guadalajara" title="Royal Audiencia of Guadalajara">Guadalajara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Guatemala" title="Real Audiencia of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Lima" title="Real Audiencia of Lima">Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Manila" title="Real Audiencia of Manila">Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Audiencia of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Panama" title="Real Audiencia of Panama">Panamá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Quito" title="Real Audiencia of Quito">Quito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Santiago" title="Real Audiencia of Santiago">Santiago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Real Audiencia of Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Currency_of_Spanish_America" title="Currency of Spanish America">Currencies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_dollar" title="Spanish dollar">Dollar (Peso)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonial_real" title="Spanish colonial real">Real</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraved%C3%AD" title="Maravedí">Maravedí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_escudo" title="Spanish escudo">Escudo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columnarios" class="mw-redirect" title="Columnarios">Columnario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubloon" title="Doubloon">Doubloon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trade</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">Manila galleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet" title="Spanish treasure fleet">Spanish treasure fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n" title="Casa de Contratación">Casa de Contratación</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guipuzcoan_Company_of_Caracas" title="Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas">Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barcelona_Trading_Company" title="Barcelona Trading Company">Barcelona Trading Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_of_the_Sea" title="Consulate of the Sea">Consulate of the Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camino_Real_de_Tierra_Adentro" title="Camino Real de Tierra Adentro">Camino Real de Tierra Adentro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Consulate_of_Buenos_Aires" title="Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires">Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Military" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">Tercio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Flanders" title="Army of Flanders">Army of Flanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Company_of_Volunteers_of_Catalonia" title="Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia">Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_auxiliaries" title="Indian auxiliaries">Indian auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_of_the_line_of_Spain" title="List of ships of the line of Spain">Ships of the line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royalist_(Spanish_American_independence)" title="Royalist (Spanish American independence)">Royalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Legion" title="Spanish Legion">Legión</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Africa_(Spain)" title="Army of Africa (Spain)">Army of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Strategists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba">Duke of Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Leyva,_Duke_of_Terranova" title="Antonio de Leyva, Duke of Terranova">Antonio de Leyva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Goiti" title="Martín de Goiti">Martín de Goiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfonso_d%27Avalos" title="Alfonso d'Avalos">Alfonso d'Avalos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_de_Toledo_Osorio,_4th_Marquis_of_Villafranca" class="mw-redirect" title="García de Toledo Osorio, 4th Marquis of Villafranca">García de Toledo Osorio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Philibert,_Duke_of_Savoy" title="Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy">Duke of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n_the_Elder" title="Álvaro de Bazán the Elder">Álvaro de Bazán the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Austria" title="John of Austria">John of Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonaventure_de_Longueval,_Count_of_Bucquoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy">Charles Bonaventure de Longueval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Zubiaur" title="Pedro de Zubiaur">Pedro de Zubiaur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrogio_Spinola,_1st_Marquis_of_the_Balbases" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases">Ambrosio Spinola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blas_de_Lezo" title="Blas de Lezo">Blas de Lezo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_de_G%C3%A1lvez" title="Bernardo de Gálvez">Bernardo de Gálvez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Mariners</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinz%C3%B3n_brothers" title="Pinzón brothers">Pinzón brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Elcano" title="Juan Sebastián Elcano">Juan Sebastián Elcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_la_Cosa" title="Juan de la Cosa">Juan de la Cosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Ponce_de_Le%C3%B3n" title="Juan Ponce de León">Juan Ponce de León</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_L%C3%B3pez_de_Legazpi" title="Miguel López de Legazpi">Miguel López de Legazpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s" title="Pedro Menéndez de Avilés">Pedro Menéndez de Avilés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_de_Ocampo" title="Sebastián de Ocampo">Sebastián de Ocampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvar_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_Cabeza_de_Vaca" title="Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca">Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ojeda" title="Alonso de Ojeda">Alonso de Ojeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasco_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_de_Balboa" title="Vasco Núñez de Balboa">Vasco Núñez de Balboa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Salazar" title="Alonso de Salazar">Alonso de Salazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Urdaneta" title="Andrés de Urdaneta">Andrés de Urdaneta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Ulloa" title="Antonio de Ulloa">Antonio de Ulloa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruy_L%C3%B3pez_de_Villalobos" title="Ruy López de Villalobos">Ruy López de Villalobos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Columbus" title="Diego Columbus">Diego Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ercilla" title="Alonso de Ercilla">Alonso de Ercilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_de_Ovando" title="Nicolás de Ovando">Nicolás de Ovando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Ayala" title="Juan de Ayala">Juan de Ayala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_Vizca%C3%ADno" title="Sebastián Vizcaíno">Sebastián Vizcaíno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Fern%C3%A1ndez_(explorer)" title="Juan Fernández (explorer)">Juan Fernández</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Fajardo_y_Ru%C3%ADz_de_Avenda%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Fajardo y Ruíz de Avendaño">Luis Fajardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felipe_Gonz%C3%A1lez_de_Ahedo" title="Felipe González de Ahedo">Felipe González de Ahedo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Conquistador" title="Conquistador">Conquistadors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Jim%C3%A9nez_de_Quesada" title="Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada">Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_P%C3%A9rez_de_Quesada" title="Hernán Pérez de Quesada">Hernán Pérez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_V%C3%A1zquez_de_Coronado" title="Francisco Vázquez de Coronado">Francisco Vázquez de Coronado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar">Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Valdivia" title="Pedro de Valdivia">Pedro de Valdivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_de_Portol%C3%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaspar de Portolà">Gaspar de Portolà</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pere_Fages_i_Beleta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pere Fages i Beleta">Pere Fages i Beleta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Orp%C3%AD" title="Joan Orpí">Joan Orpí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Urs%C3%BAa" title="Martín de Ursúa">Martín de Ursúa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Almagro" title="Diego de Almagro">Diego de Almagro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1nfilo_de_Narv%C3%A1ez" title="Pánfilo de Narváez">Pánfilo de Narváez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Mazariegos" title="Diego de Mazariegos">Diego de Mazariegos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jer%C3%B3nimo_Luis_de_Cabrera" title="Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera">Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pere_d%27Albern%C3%AD_i_Teixidor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor">Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_L%C3%B3pez_de_C%C3%A1rdenas" title="García López de Cárdenas">García López de Cárdenas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Notable battles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Old World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Won</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros" title="Revolt of the Comuneros">Comuneros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bicocca" title="Battle of Bicocca">Bicocca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(1527)" title="Sack of Rome (1527)">Rome (1527)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Landriano" title="Battle of Landriano">Landriano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia" title="Battle of Pavia">Pavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1535)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1535)">Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_M%C3%BChlberg" title="Battle of Mühlberg">Mühlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_(1557)" title="Battle of St. Quentin (1557)">St. Quentin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelines_(1558)" title="Battle of Gravelines (1558)">Gravelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Malta" title="Great Siege of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto" title="Battle of Lepanto">Lepanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Antwerp" title="Fall of Antwerp">Antwerp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ponta_Delgada" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ponta Delgada">Azores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mons_(1572)" title="Siege of Mons (1572)">Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gembloux_(1578)" title="Battle of Gembloux (1578)">Gembloux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ostend" title="Siege of Ostend">Ostend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Armada" title="English Armada">English Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Celidonia" title="Battle of Cape Celidonia">Cape Celidonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain">White Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Breda_(1624)" title="Siege of Breda (1624)">Breda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%B6rdlingen_(1634)" title="Battle of Nördlingen (1634)">Nördlingen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valenciennes_(1656)" title="Battle of Valenciennes (1656)">Valenciennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieges_of_Ceuta_(1694%E2%80%931727)" title="Sieges of Ceuta (1694–1727)">Ceuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bitonto" title="Battle of Bitonto">Bitonto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bail%C3%A9n" title="Battle of Bailén">Bailén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vitoria" title="Battle of Vitoria">Vitoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_T%C3%A9touan" title="Battle of Tétouan">Tetouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alhucemas_landing" title="Alhucemas landing">Alhucemas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Capo_d%27Orso" title="Battle of Capo d'Orso">Capo d'Orso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vienna_(1529)" title="Siege of Vienna (1529)">Vienna (1529)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Preveza" title="Battle of Preveza">Preveza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Castelnuovo" title="Siege of Castelnuovo">Siege of Castelnuovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_expedition_(1541)" title="Algiers expedition (1541)">Algiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ceresole" title="Battle of Ceresole">Ceresole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_invasion_of_the_Balearic_Islands_(1558)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman invasion of the Balearic Islands (1558)">Balearic Islands (1558)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba" title="Battle of Djerba">Djerba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1574)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1574)">Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leiden" title="Siege of Leiden">Leiden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Rocroi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Downs" title="Battle of the Downs">Downs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Montes_Claros" title="Battle of Montes Claros">Montes Claros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Passaro" title="Battle of Cape Passaro">Passaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_Bay" title="Battle of Manila Bay">Manila Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar" title="Battle of Trafalgar">Trafalgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Somosierra" title="Battle of Somosierra">Somosierra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Annual" title="Battle of Annual">Annual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mactan" title="Battle of Mactan">Mactan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Won</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cajamarca" title="Battle of Cajamarca">Cajamarca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cusco" title="Siege of Cusco">Cusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Bogotá savanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penco" title="Battle of Penco">Penco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mataquito" title="Battle of Mataquito">Mataquito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guadalupe_Island_(1595)" title="Battle of Guadalupe Island (1595)">Guadalupe Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Recife_(1595)" title="Capture of Recife (1595)">Recife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1595)" title="Battle of San Juan (1595)">San Juan (1595)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapture_of_Bahia" title="Recapture of Bahia">Bahia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Colonia_del_Sacramento" title="Siege of Colonia del Sacramento">Colonia del Sacramento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(Paraguay)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (Paraguay)">Comuneros (Paraguay)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cartagena_de_Indias" title="Battle of Cartagena de Indias">Cartagena de Indias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuerno_Verde" title="Cuerno Verde">Cuerno Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_T%C3%BApac_Amaru_II" title="Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II">Túpac Amaru II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BApac_Katari" title="Túpac Katari">Túpac Katari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pensacola" title="Siege of Pensacola">Pensacola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_expedition" title="Newfoundland expedition">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1797)" title="Battle of San Juan (1797)">San Juan (1797)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/La_Noche_Triste" title="La Noche Triste">La Noche Triste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iguape_War" title="Iguape War">Iguape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tucapel" title="Battle of Tucapel">Tucapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raleigh%27s_El_Dorado_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Raleigh's El Dorado Expedition">Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Curalaba" title="Battle of Curalaba">Curalaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(New_Granada)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (New Granada)">Comuneros (New Granada)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Trinidad_(1797)" title="Invasion of Trinidad (1797)">Trinidad (1797)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chacabuco" title="Battle of Chacabuco">Chacabuco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Boyac%C3%A1" title="Battle of Boyacá">Boyacá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carabobo" title="Battle of Carabobo">Carabobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pichincha" title="Battle of Pichincha">Pichincha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ayacucho" title="Battle of Ayacucho">Ayacucho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Guam" title="Capture of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Santiago_de_Cuba" title="Battle of Santiago de Cuba">Santiago de Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Campaign#Battle_of_Asomante" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto Rican Campaign">Asomante</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Spanish_conquests" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Spanish conquests</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">The Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Maya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Chiapas" title="Spanish conquest of Chiapas">Chiapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Pet%C3%A9n" title="Spanish conquest of Petén">Petén</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_El_Salvador" title="Spanish conquest of El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Honduras" title="Spanish conquest of Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Nicaragua" title="Spanish conquest of Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Chibchan_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations">Chibchan Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Chile" title="Conquest of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(1521%E2%80%931898)#Spanish_expeditions_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Philippines (1521–1898)">Philippines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Other_civil_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other civil topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_the_Americas" title="Spanish missions in the Americas">Spanish missions in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_architecture" title="Spanish Colonial architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Codices" title="Mesoamerican Codices">Mesoamerican Codices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cusco_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Cusco School">Cusco painting tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indochristian_art" title="Indochristian art">Indochristian painting in New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quito_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Quito School">Quito painting tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapada_lime%C3%B1a" title="Tapada limeña">Tapada limeña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academia_Ant%C3%A1rtica" title="Academia Antártica">Academia Antártica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_universities_in_Hispanic_America" title="List of colonial universities in Hispanic America">Colonial universities in Hispanic America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_oldest_schools_in_the_Philippines" title="List of the oldest schools in the Philippines">Colonial universities in the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Archive_of_the_Indies" title="General Archive of the Indies">General Archive of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Spanish_Horse" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial Spanish Horse">Colonial Spanish Horse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mustang" title="Mustang">Mustang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">Castas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criollo_people#Spanish_colonial_caste_system" title="Criollo people">Criollos in the colonial society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Old inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Spanish_New_World_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies">Slavery in Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiento" class="mw-redirect" title="Asiento">Asiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans#Colonial_era" title="African Americans">Law of coartación (which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Potos%C3%AD_Mint_Fraud_of_1649" title="Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649">Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pan-Americanism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pan-Americanism" title="Template:Pan-Americanism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pan-Americanism" title="Template talk:Pan-Americanism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pan-Americanism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pan-Americanism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pan-Americanism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pan-Americanism" title="Pan-Americanism">Pan-Americanism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spanish American wars of independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_the_Americas" title="Decolonization of the Americas">Decolonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_integration" title="Latin American integration">Latin American integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_integration" title="North American integration">North American integration</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Patria_Grande" title="Patria Grande">Patria Grande</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Simón Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn" title="José de San Martín">José de San Martín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucas_Alam%C3%A1n" title="Lucas Alamán">Lucas Alamán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Commission_of_Women" title="Inter-American Commission of Women">Inter-American Commission of Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change_in_Latin_America" title="United States involvement in regime change in Latin America">United States involvement in regime change in Latin America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_Cooperation_Treaty_Organization" title="Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization">Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization (ACTO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andean_Community" title="Andean Community">Andean Community (CAN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Caribbean_States" title="Association of Caribbean States">Association of Caribbean States (ACS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ALBA" title="ALBA">Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Community" title="Caribbean Community">Caribbean Community (CARICOM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_American_Integration_System" title="Central American Integration System">Central American Integration System (SICA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_of_Latin_American_and_Caribbean_States" title="Community of Latin American and Caribbean States">Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contadora_group" title="Contadora group">Contadora group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contadora_support_group" title="Contadora support group">Contadora support group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America (PROSUR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_Economic_System" title="Latin American Economic System">Latin American Economic System (SELA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_Integration_Association" title="Latin American Integration Association">Latin American Integration Association (ALADI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lima_Group" title="Lima Group">Lima Group (LG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercosur" title="Mercosur">Mercosur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">Organization of American States (OAS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_Eastern_Caribbean_States" title="Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States">Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_Ibero-American_States" title="Organization of Ibero-American States">Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Alliance" title="Pacific Alliance">Pacific Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrocaribe" title="Petrocaribe">Petrocaribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rio_Group" title="Rio Group">Rio Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_American_Nations" title="Union of South American Nations">Union of South American Nations (UNASUR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Economic_Commission_for_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean">United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC, CEPAL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Pirate_Party" title="United States Pirate Party">United States Pirate Party (USPP)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Projects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andean_passport" title="Andean passport">Andean passport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CARICOM_passport" title="CARICOM passport">CARICOM passport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CARICOM_Single_Market_and_Economy" title="CARICOM Single Market and Economy">CARICOM Single Market and Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CARIPASS" title="CARIPASS">CARIPASS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_America-4_Border_Control_Agreement" title="Central America-4 Border Control Agreement">Central America-4 Border Control Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_America-4_passport" title="Central America-4 passport">Central America-4 passport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Caribbean_Currency_Union" title="Eastern Caribbean Currency Union">Eastern Caribbean Currency Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initiative_for_the_Integration_of_the_Regional_Infrastructure_of_South_America" title="Initiative for the Integration of the Regional Infrastructure of South America">Initiative for the Integration of the Regional Infrastructure of South America (IIRSA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interoceanic_Highway" title="Interoceanic Highway">Interoceanic Highway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SUCRE" title="SUCRE">SUCRE</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andean_Parliament" title="Andean Parliament">Andean Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_the_South" title="Bank of the South">Bank of the South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Court_of_Justice" title="Caribbean Court of Justice">Caribbean Court of Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Development_Bank" title="Caribbean Development Bank">Caribbean Development Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_American_Parliament" title="Central American Parliament">Central American Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAF_%E2%80%93_Development_Bank_of_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="CAF – Development Bank of Latin America and the Caribbean">Development Bank of Latin America and the Caribbean (CAF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Development_Bank" title="Inter-American Development Bank">Inter-American Development Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_Parliament" title="Latin American Parliament">Latin American Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercosur_Parliament" title="Mercosur Parliament">Mercosur Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_American_Parliament" title="South American Parliament">South American Parliament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a 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