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aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Ancient Egypt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greco-Roman_antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greco-Roman_antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Greco-Roman antiquity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greco-Roman_antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Platonic_virtue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Platonic_virtue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Platonic virtue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Platonic_virtue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aristotelian_virtue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aristotelian_virtue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Aristotelian virtue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aristotelian_virtue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Intellectual_virtues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intellectual_virtues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1.1</span> <span>Intellectual virtues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intellectual_virtues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_virtues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_virtues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Roman virtues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_virtues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Ancient India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chivalric_virtues_in_medieval_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chivalric_virtues_in_medieval_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Chivalric virtues in medieval Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chivalric_virtues_in_medieval_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Religious traditions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religious_traditions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religious traditions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religious_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Abrahamic_religions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abrahamic_religions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Abrahamic religions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abrahamic_religions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bahá'í_Faith" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bahá'í_Faith"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Bahá'í Faith</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bahá'í_Faith-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Islam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Judaism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_religions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_religions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Eastern religions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_religions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Buddhism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Daoism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Daoism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Daoism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Daoism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hinduism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hinduism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Hinduism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hinduism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jainism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jainism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>Jainism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jainism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sikhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sikhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.5</span> <span>Sikhism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sikhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_philosophers'_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_philosophers'_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Modern philosophers' views</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_philosophers'_views-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern philosophers' views subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_philosophers'_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-René_Descartes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#René_Descartes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>René Descartes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-René_Descartes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immanuel_Kant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immanuel_Kant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Immanuel Kant</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immanuel_Kant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Friedrich_Nietzsche" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Friedrich_Nietzsche"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Friedrich Nietzsche</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Friedrich_Nietzsche-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Benjamin_Franklin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benjamin_Franklin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Benjamin Franklin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benjamin_Franklin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Contemporary views</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contemporary_views-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Contemporary views subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Virtues_as_emotions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Virtues_as_emotions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Virtues as emotions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Virtues_as_emotions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_modern_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_modern_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>In modern psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_modern_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vice_as_opposite" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vice_as_opposite"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Vice as opposite</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vice_as_opposite-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Virtue</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 81 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-81" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">81 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deug" title="Deug – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Deug" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tugend" title="Tugend – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Tugend" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B6%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A9" title="فضيلة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فضيلة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virt%C3%BA" title="Virtú – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Virtú" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C9%99zil%C9%99t" title="Fəzilət – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fəzilət" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A3" title="সদ্গুণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সদ্গুণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bansay" title="Bansay – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Bansay" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Добродетел – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Добродетел" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%80%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%A4%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%9F%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8D" title="ཀུན་སྤྱོད་བཟང་པོ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཀུན་སྤྱོད་བཟང་པོ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrlina" title="Vrlina – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Vrlina" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtut" title="Virtut – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Virtut" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B9%C4%83%D1%85%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85" title="Лайăхлăх – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Лайăхлăх" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctnost" title="Ctnost – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ctnost" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinwedd" title="Rhinwedd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhinwedd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyd" title="Dyd – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Dyd" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tugend" title="Tugend – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Tugend" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voorus" title="Voorus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Voorus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%AE" title="Αρετή – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αρετή" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtud" title="Virtud – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Virtud" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virto" title="Virto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Virto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertute" title="Bertute – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bertute" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B6%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%AA" title="فضیلت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فضیلت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertu" title="Vertu – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vertu" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su%C3%A1ilce" title="Suáilce – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Suáilce" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtude" title="Virtude – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Virtude" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EB%8D%95" title="미덕 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미덕" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirki" title="Kirki – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Kirki" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3" title="गुण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गुण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobry_po%C4%8Dink" title="Dobry počink – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Dobry počink" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrlina" title="Vrlina – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Vrlina" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertuo" title="Vertuo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Vertuo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kebajikan" title="Kebajikan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kebajikan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtute" title="Virtute – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Virtute" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyg%C3%B0" title="Dygð – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Dygð" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virt%C3%B9" title="Virtù – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Virtù" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%93%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%98%D7%95%D7%91%D7%95%D7%AA" title="מידות טובות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מידות טובות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B6%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%86" title="ಸುಶೀಲತೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸುಶೀಲತೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adili" title="Adili – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Adili" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A8ti" title="Vèti – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Vèti" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%83" title="Кайрымдуу – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кайрымдуу" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtus" title="Virtus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Virtus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tikums" title="Tikums – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Tikums" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doryb%C4%97" title="Dorybė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Dorybė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virt%C3%B9" title="Virtù – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Virtù" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Er%C3%A9ny" title="Erény – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Erény" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilai_murni" title="Nilai murni – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Nilai murni" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deugd" title="Deugd – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Deugd" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%BE%B3" title="美徳 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="美徳" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyd" title="Dyd – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Dyd" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyd" title="Dyd – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Dyd" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertut" title="Vertut – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Vertut" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Virtue" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%A3" title="ਗੁਣ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਗੁਣ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnota" title="Cnota – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Cnota" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtude" title="Virtude – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Virtude" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtute" title="Virtute – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Virtute" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Добродетель – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Добродетель" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D1%82%D2%AF%D3%A9" title="Үтүө – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Үтүө" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtyti" title="Virtyti – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Virtyti" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virit%C3%A0" title="Virità – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Virità" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%B0%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B8" title="ගුණධර්ම – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ගුණධර්ම" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Virtue" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnos%C5%A5" title="Cnosť – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Cnosť" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrlina" title="Vrlina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vrlina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%95%D8%AA" title="فەزیلەت – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فەزیلەت" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Врлина – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Врлина" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrlina" title="Vrlina – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Vrlina" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyve" title="Hyve – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Hyve" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dygd" title="Dygd – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Dygd" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="நல்லொழுக்கம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நல்லொழுக்கம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1" title="คุณธรรม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="คุณธรรม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BA%D3%AF%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Некӯкор – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Некӯкор" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%BE%E1%8F%8D%E1%8E%A6%E1%8F%85%E1%8E%BE" title="ᎾᏍᎦᏅᎾ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎾᏍᎦᏅᎾ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erdem" title="Erdem – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Erdem" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Чеснота – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Чеснота" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="نیکی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نیکی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c_h%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Đức hạnh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đức hạnh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%BE%B7" title="美德 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="美德" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%AA" title="מעלות – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="מעלות" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%BE%B7" title="美德 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="美德" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%BE%B7" title="美德 – Chinese" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Positive trait or quality deemed to be morally good</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Virtuous" redirects here. For the 2014 US Christian drama film, see <a href="/wiki/Virtuous_(film)" title="Virtuous (film)"><i>Virtuous</i> (film)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Virtue_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Virtue (disambiguation)">Virtue (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Raphael_-_Cardinal_and_Theological_Virtues.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Raphael_-_Cardinal_and_Theological_Virtues.jpg/220px-Raphael_-_Cardinal_and_Theological_Virtues.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Raphael_-_Cardinal_and_Theological_Virtues.jpg/330px-Raphael_-_Cardinal_and_Theological_Virtues.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Raphael_-_Cardinal_and_Theological_Virtues.jpg/440px-Raphael_-_Cardinal_and_Theological_Virtues.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3982" data-file-height="2984" /></a><figcaption><i>Cardinal and Theological Virtues</i> a 1511 portrait by <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>virtue</b> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Virtus" title="Virtus">virtus</a></i>) is a trait of excellence, including traits that may be <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a>, social, or intellectual. The cultivation and refinement of virtue is held to be the "<a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">good</a> of humanity" and thus is <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">valued</a> as an <a href="/wiki/Telos" title="Telos">end purpose</a> of life or a foundational <a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">principle</a> of being. In human practical ethics, a virtue is a disposition to choose actions that succeed in showing high moral standards: doing what is said to be right and avoiding what is wrong in a given field of endeavour, even when doing so may be unnecessary from a <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarian</a> perspective. When someone takes pleasure in doing what is right, even when it is difficult or initially unpleasant, they can establish virtue as a habit. Such a person is said to be <b>virtuous</b> through having cultivated such a disposition. The opposite of virtue is <a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">vice</a>, and the vicious person takes pleasure in habitual wrong-doing to their detriment. </p><p>Other examples of this notion include the concept of <a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">merit</a> in Asian traditions as well as <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">De</a></i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">德</span></span>). Buddhism's four <span title="Pali-language romanization"><i lang="pi-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">brahmavihara</a></i></span> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">Divine States</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) can be regarded as virtues in the European sense.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ancient Romans used the Latin word <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Virtus" title="Virtus">virtus</a></i></span> (derived from <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">vir</i></span>, their word for <i>man</i>) to refer to all of the "excellent qualities of men, including physical strength, valorous conduct, and moral rectitude". The French words <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">vertu</i></span> and <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">virtu</i></span> came from this Latin <a href="/wiki/Root_(linguistics)" title="Root (linguistics)">root</a>. The word <i>virtue</i> "was <a href="/wiki/Borrowed_word" class="mw-redirect" title="Borrowed word">borrowed</a> into English in the 13th century".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Egypt">Ancient Egypt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient Egypt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maat.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Maat.svg/170px-Maat.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="352" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Maat.svg/255px-Maat.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Maat.svg/340px-Maat.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="725" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Maat" title="Maat">Maat</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptians</a>, personified the virtue of <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a> and justice. Her feather represents truth.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Maat" title="Maat">Maat</a> (or Ma'at) was the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptian</a> goddess of <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balance_(metaphysics)" title="Balance (metaphysics)">balance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_order_(philosophy)" title="Natural order (philosophy)">order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>. The word <span title="Ancient Egyptian-language text"><i lang="egy">maat</i></span> was also used to refer to these concepts. Maat was also portrayed as regulating the stars, seasons, and the actions of both mortals and the deities. The deities set the order of the universe from chaos at the moment of creation. Her (ideological) counterpart was <a href="/wiki/Isfet_(Egyptian_mythology)" title="Isfet (Egyptian mythology)">Isfet</a>, who symbolized <a href="/wiki/Chaos_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaos (mythology)">chaos</a>, lies, and injustice.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greco-Roman_antiquity">Greco-Roman antiquity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Greco-Roman antiquity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arete_-_Aret%C3%A9-_%C3%89feso.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Arete_-_Aret%C3%A9-_%C3%89feso.jpg/170px-Arete_-_Aret%C3%A9-_%C3%89feso.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="340" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Arete_-_Aret%C3%A9-_%C3%89feso.jpg/255px-Arete_-_Aret%C3%A9-_%C3%89feso.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Arete_-_Aret%C3%A9-_%C3%89feso.jpg/340px-Arete_-_Aret%C3%A9-_%C3%89feso.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1756" data-file-height="3513" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Personification" title="Personification">Personification</a> of virtue (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Ἀρετή</i></span>) in <a href="/wiki/Celsus_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Celsus Library">Celsus Library</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ephesos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ephesos">Ephesos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Arete" title="Arete">Arete</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aretology" class="mw-redirect" title="Aretology">Aretology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hospitium" title="Hospitium">Hospitium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paideia" title="Paideia">Paideia</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Platonic_virtue">Platonic virtue</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Platonic virtue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The four classic <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">cardinal virtues</a> are:<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prudence" title="Prudence">Prudence</a> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">φρόνησις</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">phrónēsis</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">prudentia</i>; also <a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Sophia_(wisdom)" title="Sophia (wisdom)">Sophia</a></i></span>, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sapientia</i></span>), the ability to discern the appropriate course of action to be taken in a given situation at the appropriate time.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">Fortitude</a> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἀνδρεία</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">andreía</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">fortitudo</i>): also termed courage, forbearance, strength, endurance, and the ability to confront fear, uncertainty, and intimidation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">Temperance</a> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">σωφροσύνη</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">sōphrosýnē</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">temperantia</i>): also known as restraint, the practice of self-control, abstention, discretion, and moderation tempering the <a href="/wiki/Appetition" class="mw-redirect" title="Appetition">appetition</a>. Plato considered <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">sōphrosynē</i></span>, which may also be translated as sound-mindedness, to be the most important virtue.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_(virtue)" title="Justice (virtue)">Justice</a> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">δικαιοσύνη</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">dikaiosýnē</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">iustitia</i>): also considered as fairness;<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Greek word also having the meaning of righteousness.</li></ul> <p>This enumeration is traced to Greek philosophy and was listed by <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> who also added <a href="/wiki/Piety" title="Piety">piety</a> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ὁσιότης</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">hosiotēs</i></span>) and replaced prudence with <a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">wisdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholars consider either of the above four virtue combinations as mutually reducible and therefore not cardinal.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is unclear whether Plato subscribed to a unified view of virtues.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Protagoras_(dialogue)" title="Protagoras (dialogue)">Protagoras</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Meno" title="Meno">Meno</a></i> he states that the separate virtues cannot exist independently and offers as evidence the contradictions of acting with wisdom, yet in an unjust way; or acting with bravery (fortitude), yet without wisdom. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aristotelian_virtue">Aristotelian virtue</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Aristotelian virtue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics#Lists_of_virtues" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics § Lists of virtues</a></div> <p>In his <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> defined a virtue as a point between a deficiency and an excess of a trait.<sup id="cite_ref-NE26_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE26-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The point of greatest virtue lies not in the exact middle, but at a <a href="/wiki/Golden_mean_(philosophy)" title="Golden mean (philosophy)">golden mean</a> sometimes closer to one extreme than the other. However, the virtuous action is not simply the "mean" (mathematically speaking) between two opposite extremes. As Aristotle says in the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>: "at the right times, and on the right occasions, and towards the right persons, and with the right object, and in the right fashion, is the mean course and the best course, and these are characteristics of virtue."<sup id="cite_ref-NE26_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NE26-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, generosity is a virtue between the two extremes of miserliness and being profligate. Further examples include courage between cowardice and foolhardiness and confidence between <a href="/wiki/Self-deprecation" title="Self-deprecation">self-deprecation</a> and conceit. In Aristotle's sense, a virtue is an excellence at being human. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Intellectual_virtues">Intellectual virtues</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Intellectual virtues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aristotle also identifies the <a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics#Book_VI:_Intellectual_virtues" title="Nicomachean Ethics">"intellectual virtues"</a> of knowledge, art, practical judgement, intuition, and wisdom. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roman_virtues">Roman virtues</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Roman virtues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>virtue</i> itself is derived from the Latin "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Virtus_(virtue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtus (virtue)">virtus</a></i></span>" (the personification of which was the deity <a href="/wiki/Virtus_(deity)" title="Virtus (deity)">Virtus</a>), and had connotations of "<a href="/wiki/Manliness" class="mw-redirect" title="Manliness">manliness</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">honour</a>", worthiness of deferential respect, and civic duty as both <a href="/wiki/Cincinnatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cincinnatus">citizen and soldier</a>. This virtue was but one of many virtues which Romans of good character were expected to exemplify and pass on through the generations, as part of the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">mos maiorum</a></i></span>; ancestral traditions which defined <a href="/wiki/Romanitas" title="Romanitas">"Roman-ness"</a>. Romans distinguished between the spheres of private and public life, and thus, virtues were also divided between those considered to be in the realm of private family life (as lived and taught by the <a href="/wiki/Paterfamilias" class="mw-redirect" title="Paterfamilias">paterfamilias</a>) and those expected of an upstanding Roman <a href="/wiki/Citizenship#Roman_ideas" title="Citizenship">citizen</a>. </p><p>Most Roman concepts of virtue were also personified as a <a href="/wiki/Numina" class="mw-redirect" title="Numina">numinous deity</a>. The primary Roman virtues,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (July 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> both public and private, were: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Latin </th> <th>English </th> <th>Description </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Abundantia</i></span> </td> <td>Abundance or Prosperity </td> <td>The ideal of there being enough food and prosperity for all segments of society, personified by Abundantia. A public virtue. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></i></span> </td> <td>Spiritual Authority </td> <td>The sense of one's social standing, built up through experience, Pietas, and Industria. This was considered to be essential for a magistrate's ability to enforce law and order. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Comitas</i></span> </td> <td>Humour </td> <td>Ease of manner, courtesy, openness, and friendliness. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">Constantia</a></i></span> </td> <td>Perseverance or Courage </td> <td>Military stamina, as well as general mental and physical endurance in the face of hardship. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Clementia</i></span> </td> <td>Mercy </td> <td>Mildness and gentleness, and the ability to set aside previous transgressions, personified by Clementia. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Dignitas</i></span> </td> <td>Dignity </td> <td>A sense of self-worth, personal self-respect, and self-esteem. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Disciplina</i></span> </td> <td>Discipline </td> <td>Considered essential to military excellence; also connotes adherence to the legal system, and upholding the duties of citizenship, personified by Disciplina. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Fides</i></span> </td> <td>Good Faith </td> <td>Mutual trust and reciprocal dealings in both government and commerce (public affairs), a breach meant legal and religious consequences, personified by Fides. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Firmitas</i></span> </td> <td>Tenacity </td> <td>Strength of mind, and the ability to stick to one's purpose at hand without wavering. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Frugality" title="Frugality">Frugalitas</a></i></span> </td> <td>Frugality </td> <td>Economy and simplicity in lifestyle. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Gravitas" title="Gravitas">Gravitas</a></i></span> </td> <td>Gravity </td> <td>A sense of the importance of the matter at hand; responsibility, and being earnest. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Honestas</i></span> </td> <td>Respectibility </td> <td>The image and honor that one presents as a respectable member of society. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Humanitas" title="Humanitas">Humanitas</a></i></span> </td> <td>Humanity </td> <td>Refinement, civilization, learning, and generally being cultured. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Diligence" title="Diligence">Industria</a></i></span> </td> <td>Industriousness or Diligence </td> <td>Hard work. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Innocencia</i></span> </td> <td>Selflessness </td> <td>Giving without anticipating recognition or personal gain. Central to this concept was an unwavering commitment to incorruptibility, avoiding the misuse of public office for personal benefit, as that was considered a grave affront to Roman values, detrimental to both individual and communal well-being. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Joy" title="Joy">Laetitia</a></i></span> </td> <td>Joy or Gladness </td> <td>The celebration of thanksgiving, often of the resolution of crisis, a public virtue. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Nobilitas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobilitas">Nobilitas</a></i></span> </td> <td>Nobility </td> <td>Man of fine appearance, deserving of honor, highly esteemed social rank, and, or, nobility of birth, a public virtue. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Justitia</i></span> </td> <td>Justice </td> <td>Sense of moral worth to an action; personified by the goddess Iustitia, the Roman counterpart to the Greek Themis. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Pietas</i></span> </td> <td>Dutifulness </td> <td>More than religious piety; a respect for the natural order: socially, politically, and religiously. Includes ideas of patriotism, fulfillment of pious obligation to the gods, and honoring other human beings, especially in terms of the <a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">patron and client relationship</a> considered essential to an orderly society. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Prudentia</i></span> </td> <td>Prudence </td> <td>Foresight, wisdom, and personal discretion. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Salus" title="Salus">Salubritas</a></i></span> </td> <td>Wholesomeness </td> <td>General health and cleanliness, personified in the deity Salus. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Severitas</i></span> </td> <td>Sternness </td> <td>Self-control, considered to be tied directly to the virtue of gravitas. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Veritas</i></span> </td> <td>Truthfulness </td> <td>Honesty in dealing with others, personified by the goddess Veritas. Veritas, being the mother of Virtus, was considered the root of all virtue; a person living an honest life was bound to be virtuous. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Virtus_(virtue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtus (virtue)">Virtus</a></i></span> </td> <td>Manliness </td> <td>Valor, excellence, courage, character, and worth. <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Vir</i></span> is Latin for "man". </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_India">Ancient India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ancient India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D.JPG/220px-%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D.JPG/330px-%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D.JPG/440px-%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Valluvar (Statue at SOAS, <a href="/wiki/University_of_London" title="University of London">University of London</a>).</figcaption></figure> <p>While religious scriptures generally consider <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a></i></span> or <span title="Tamil-language romanization"><i lang="ta-Latn">aṟam</i></span> (the <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> term for virtue) as a divine virtue, <a href="/wiki/Valluvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Valluvar">Valluvar</a> describes it as a way of life rather than any spiritual observance, a way of harmonious living that leads to universal happiness.<sup id="cite_ref-Sanjeevi_SeminarPapers_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanjeevi_SeminarPapers-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this reason, Valluvar keeps <span title="Tamil-language romanization"><i lang="ta-Latn">aṟam</i></span> as the cornerstone throughout the writing of the <a href="/wiki/Tirukkural" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkural">Kural literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-UMI_WhyNationalBook?_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UMI_WhyNationalBook?-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Valluvar considered <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a> as a facet or product of <span title="Tamil-language romanization"><i lang="ta-Latn">aṟam</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sanjeevi_SeminarPapers_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanjeevi_SeminarPapers-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While many before his time opined that justice cannot be defined and that it was a divine mystery, Valluvar suggested that a divine origin is not required to define the concept of justice.<sup id="cite_ref-Sanjeevi_SeminarPapers_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanjeevi_SeminarPapers-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the words of <a href="/wiki/V._R._Nedunchezhiyan" title="V. R. Nedunchezhiyan">V. R. Nedunchezhiyan</a>, justice according to Valluvar "dwells in the minds of those who have knowledge of the standard of right and wrong; so too deceit dwells in the minds which breed fraud."<sup id="cite_ref-Sanjeevi_SeminarPapers_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanjeevi_SeminarPapers-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chivalric_virtues_in_medieval_Europe">Chivalric virtues in medieval Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Chivalric virtues in medieval Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></div> <p>In the 8th century <span title="Common Era">CE</span>, upon the occasion of his coronation as <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> published a list of <a href="/wiki/Knightly_virtues" class="mw-redirect" title="Knightly virtues">knightly virtues</a>: </p> <ul><li>Love God</li> <li>Love your neighbor</li> <li>Give alms to the poor</li> <li>Entertain strangers</li> <li>Visit the sick</li> <li>Be merciful to prisoners</li> <li>Do ill to no man, nor consent unto such</li> <li>Forgive as ye hope to be forgiven</li> <li>Redeem the captive</li> <li>Help the oppressed</li> <li>Defend the cause of the widow and orphan</li> <li>Render righteous judgement</li> <li>Do not consent to any wrong</li> <li>Persevere not in wrath</li> <li>Shun excess in eating and drinking</li> <li>Be humble and kind</li> <li>Serve your liege lord faithfully</li> <li>Do not steal</li> <li>Do not perjure yourself, nor let others do so</li> <li>Envy, hatred, and violence separate men from the Kingdom of God</li> <li>Defend the Church and promote her cause.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="website, no references, no author (July 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_traditions">Religious traditions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Religious traditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Religion_(virtue)" title="Religion (virtue)">Religion (virtue)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abrahamic_religions">Abrahamic religions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Abrahamic religions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bahá'í_Faith"><span id="Bah.C3.A1.27.C3.AD_Faith"></span>Bahá'í Faith</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Bahá'í Faith"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a> teachings speak of a "Greater <a href="/wiki/Covenant_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BCu%27ll%C3%A1h" title="Covenant of Baháʼu'lláh">Covenant</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> being universal and endless, and a "Lesser Covenant" specific to each religion. Baháʼís view <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BCu%27ll%C3%A1h" title="Baháʼu'lláh">Baháʼu'lláh</a>'s revelation as a binding lesser covenant for his followers. In the <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_writings" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí writings">Baháʼí writings</a> being firm in the covenant is considered a virtue.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Christianity">Christianity</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stiftskirche_Niederhaslach_Glasfenster_(Kampf_der_Tugenden_mit_dem_Laster).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Stiftskirche_Niederhaslach_Glasfenster_%28Kampf_der_Tugenden_mit_dem_Laster%29.jpg/170px-Stiftskirche_Niederhaslach_Glasfenster_%28Kampf_der_Tugenden_mit_dem_Laster%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Stiftskirche_Niederhaslach_Glasfenster_%28Kampf_der_Tugenden_mit_dem_Laster%29.jpg/255px-Stiftskirche_Niederhaslach_Glasfenster_%28Kampf_der_Tugenden_mit_dem_Laster%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Stiftskirche_Niederhaslach_Glasfenster_%28Kampf_der_Tugenden_mit_dem_Laster%29.jpg/340px-Stiftskirche_Niederhaslach_Glasfenster_%28Kampf_der_Tugenden_mit_dem_Laster%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2073" data-file-height="3619" /></a><figcaption>Virtues fighting vices, stained glass window (14th century) in the <a href="/wiki/Niederhaslach_Church" title="Niederhaslach Church">Niederhaslach Church</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics#Virtues_and_principles" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics § Virtues and principles</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Seven_virtues" title="Seven virtues">Seven virtues</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evangelical_counsels" title="Evangelical counsels">Evangelical counsels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Vices_and_Virtues" title="Catalogue of Vices and Virtues">Catalogue of Vices and Virtues</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tree_of_virtues_and_tree_of_vices" title="Tree of virtues and tree of vices">Tree of virtues and tree of vices</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, the three <a href="/wiki/Theological_virtues" title="Theological virtues">theological virtues</a> are <a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Christianity" title="Faith in Christianity">faith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hope_(virtue)" title="Hope (virtue)">hope</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Agape" title="Agape">love</a>, a list which comes from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%2013:13&version=nrsv">1 Corinthians 13:13</a> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">νυνὶ δὲ μένει πίστις</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">pistis</i></span> (faith), <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἐλπίς</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">elpis</i></span> (hope), <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἀγάπη</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">agape</i></span> (love), <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">τὰ τρία ταῦτα· μείζων δὲ τούτων ἡ ἀγάπη</span></span>). The same chapter describes love as the greatest of the three, and further defines love as "patient... kind... not envious, or boastful, or arrogant, or rude." (The Christian virtue of love is sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Charity_(virtue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charity (virtue)">charity</a> and at other times a Greek word <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Agape" title="Agape">agape</a></i></span> is used to contrast the love of God and the love of humankind from other types of love such as friendship or physical affection.) </p><p>Christian scholars frequently add the four classic <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">cardinal virtues</a> (prudence, justice, temperance, and courage) to the theological virtues to give the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Heavenly_Virtues" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Heavenly Virtues">seven heavenly virtues</a>; for example, these seven are the ones described in the <i><a href="/wiki/Catechism_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Catechism of the Catholic Church">Catechism of the Catholic Church</a></i>, sections 1803–1829. In Christian tradition courage or fortitude is a gift of the Holy Spirit. </p><p>The Bible mentions additional virtues, such as in the "<a href="/wiki/Fruit_of_the_Holy_Spirit" title="Fruit of the Holy Spirit">Fruit of the Holy Spirit</a>", found in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Galatians%205:22–23&version=nrsv">Galatians 5:22–23</a>: "By contrast, the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, generosity, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control. There is no law against such things." </p><p>In 410 <span title="Common Era">CE</span>, <a href="/wiki/Prudentius" title="Prudentius">Aurelius Prudentius Clemens</a> listed seven "heavenly virtues" in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Psychomachia" title="Psychomachia">Psychomachia</a></i> (<i>Battle of Souls</i>) which is an allegorical story of conflict between vices and virtues. Among the virtues were <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">fides</i></span> (faith), <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">pudicitia</i></span> (chastity), <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">paciencia</i></span> (endurance), <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">mens humilis</i></span> (humility), <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">spes</i></span> (hope), <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sobrietas</i></span> (sobriety), <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">ratio</i></span> (reason), <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">operatio</i></span> (devotion), <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">pax</i></span> (peace), <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">concordia</i></span> (harmony), and <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sapientia</i></span> (wisdom).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The medieval and renaissance periods saw a number of models of sin, listing the <a href="/wiki/Seven_deadly_sins" title="Seven deadly sins">seven deadly sins</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Capital_Virtues" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Capital Virtues">seven capital virtues</a> opposed to each. </p> <table class="sortable wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Vice </th> <th>Latin </th> <th>Virtue </th> <th>Latin </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pride" title="Pride">Pride</a> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Superbia</i></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Humility" title="Humility">Humility</a> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Humilitas</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Envy" title="Envy">Envy</a> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Invidia</i></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kindness" title="Kindness">Kindness</a> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Benevolentia</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gluttony" title="Gluttony">Gluttony</a> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Gula</i></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">Temperance</a> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Temperantia</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lust" title="Lust">Lust</a> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Luxuria</i></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chastity" title="Chastity">Chastity</a> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Castitas</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Wrath" class="mw-redirect" title="Wrath">Wrath</a> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Ira</i></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Patience" title="Patience">Patience</a> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Patientia</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Greed" title="Greed">Greed</a> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Avaritia</i></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Charity_(virtue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charity (virtue)">Charity</a> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Caritas</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sloth_(deadly_sin)" title="Sloth (deadly sin)">Sloth</a> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Acedia</i></span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Diligence" title="Diligence">Diligence</a> </td> <td><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Industria</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Islam">Islam</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Islam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic ethics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thawab" title="Thawab">Thawab</a></div> <p>In Islam, the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> is believed to be the literal word of God, and the definitive description of virtue, and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> is considered an ideal example of virtue in human form. The foundation of Islamic understanding of virtue was the understanding and interpretation of the Quran and the practices of Muhammad. Virtue is seen in the context of active submission to God performed by the community in unison. </p><p>Believers are to "<a href="/wiki/Enjoining_good_and_forbidding_wrong" title="Enjoining good and forbidding wrong">enjoin that which is virtuous and forbid that which is vicious</a>" (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-amr bi-l-maʿrūf wa-n-nahy ʿani-l-munkar</i></span>) in all spheres of life (<a href="/wiki/Quran_3:110" class="mw-redirect" title="Quran 3:110">Quran 3:110</a>). Mankind has been <a href="/wiki/Fitra" title="Fitra">granted the faculty to discern</a> God's will and to abide by it. </p><p>Later <a href="/wiki/Muslim_scholars" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim scholars">Muslim scholars</a> expanded the religious ethics of the scriptures in detail.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a> (Islamic traditions), it is reported by An-Nawwas bin Sam'an: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"The Prophet Muhammad said, 'Virtue is good manner, and sin is that which creates doubt and you do not like people to know it.'"</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i><a href="/wiki/Sahih_Muslim" title="Sahih Muslim">Sahih Muslim</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19700101010101/http://cmje.usc.edu/religious-texts/hadith/muslim/032-smt.php#032.6195">32:6195</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Sahih_Muslim" title="Sahih Muslim">Sahih Muslim</a></i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19700101010101/http://cmje.usc.edu/religious-texts/hadith/muslim/032-smt.php#032.6196">32:6196</a></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Wabisah bin Ma'bad reported: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"I went to Messenger of God and he asked me: 'Have you come to inquire about virtue?' I replied in the affirmative. Then he said: 'Ask your heart regarding it. Virtue is that which contents the soul and comforts the heart, and sin is that which causes doubts and perturbs the heart, even if people pronounce it lawful and give you verdicts on such matters again and again.'"</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i><a href="/wiki/Sunan_al-Darimi" title="Sunan al-Darimi">Sunan al-Darimi</a></i>, 2533</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Virtue, as seen in opposition to sin, is termed <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Thawab" title="Thawab">thawāb</a></i></span> (spiritual merit or reward) but there are other Islamic terms to describe virtue such as <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">faḍl</i></span> ("bounty"), <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Taqwa" title="Taqwa">taqwa</a></i></span> ("piety"), and <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">ṣalāḥ</i></span> ("righteousness"). According to Muslim beliefs, God will forgive individual sins but the bad treatment of people and injustice toward others can only be pardoned by the victims and not by God. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Judaism">Judaism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Judaism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish ethics</a></div> <p>Loving God and obeying his laws, in particular the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a>, are central to Jewish conceptions of virtue. Wisdom is personified in the first eight chapters of the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Proverbs" title="Book of Proverbs">Book of Proverbs</a> and is not only the source of virtue but is depicted as the first and best creation of God (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Proverbs%208:12–31&version=nrsv">Proverbs 8:12–31</a>). </p><p>A classic articulation of the Golden Rule came from the first century <a href="/wiki/Hillel_the_Elder" title="Hillel the Elder">Rabbi Hillel the Elder</a>. Renowned in the Jewish tradition as a sage and a scholar, he is associated with the development of the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a> and, as such, is one of the most important figures in <a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Jewish history</a>. Asked for a summary of the Jewish religion in the most concise terms, Hillel replied (reputedly while standing on one leg): "That which is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the whole Torah. The rest is commentary; go and learn."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern_religions">Eastern religions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Eastern religions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Buddhism">Buddhism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Buddhism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist ethics</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">Five precepts</a></div> <p>Buddhist practice as outlined in the <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a> can be regarded as a progressive list of virtues.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Right View – realizing the <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a> (<span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">samyag-vyāyāma</i></span>, <span title="Pali-language romanization"><i lang="pi-Latn">sammā-vāyāma</i></span>).</li> <li>Right Mindfulness – mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness (<span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">samyak-smṛti</i></span>, <span title="Pali-language romanization"><i lang="pi-Latn">sammā-sati</i></span>).</li> <li>Right Concentration – wholesome one-pointedness of mind (<span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">samyak-samādhi</i></span>, <span title="Pali-language romanization"><i lang="pi-Latn">sammā-samādhi</i></span>).</li></ol> <p>Buddhism's four <span title="Pali-language romanization"><i lang="pi-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">brahmavihara</a></i></span> ("Divine States") can be more properly regarded as virtues in the European sense. They are: </p> <ol><li><span title="Pali-language romanization"><i lang="pi-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Mettā</a></i></span>/<span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Maitrī</i></span>: loving-kindness towards all; the hope that a person will be well; loving kindness is the wish that all sentient beings, without any exception, be happy.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a></i></span>: compassion; the hope that a person's sufferings will diminish; compassion is the wish for all sentient beings to be free from suffering.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span title="Pali-language romanization"><i lang="pi-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Mudit%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Muditā">Muditā</a></i></span>: altruistic joy in the accomplishments of a person, oneself or other; sympathetic joy is the wholesome attitude of rejoicing in the happiness and virtues of all sentient beings.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span title="Pali-language romanization"><i lang="pi-Latn">Upekkhā</i></span>/<span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">Upekṣā</a></i></span>: equanimity, or learning to accept both loss and gain, <a href="/wiki/Praise" title="Praise">praise</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blame" title="Blame">blame</a>, success and failure with detachment, equally, for oneself and for others. Equanimity means not to distinguish between friend, enemy or stranger, but to regard every sentient being as equal. It is a clear-minded tranquil state of mind – not being overpowered by delusions, mental dullness, or agitation.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (July 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ol> <p>There are also the <span title="Pali-language romanization"><i lang="pi-Latn"><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Pāramitās</a></i></span> ("perfections"), which are the culmination of having acquired certain virtues. In <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">canonical</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Buddhava%E1%B9%83sa" title="Buddhavaṃsa">Buddhavaṃsa</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there are Ten Perfections (<span title="Pali-language romanization"><i lang="pi-Latn">dasa pāramiyo</i></span>). In <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> Buddhism, the <a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Lotus Sutra</a> (<i>Saddharmapundarika</i>), there are Six Perfections; while in the <a href="/wiki/Dasabhumika_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Dasabhumika Sutra">Ten Stages</a> (<i>Dasabhumika</i>) Sutra, four more <span title="Pali-language romanization"><i lang="pi-Latn">Paramitas</i></span> are listed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Daoism">Daoism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Daoism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Three_Treasures_(Taoism)" title="Three Treasures (Taoism)">Three Treasures (Taoism)</a></div> <p>"Virtue", translated from Chinese <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">de</a></i></span> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BE%B7" class="extiw" title="wikt:德">德</a></span></span>), is also an important concept in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoism</a>. <i>De</i> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">德</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn"><i>dé</i></span></i>; <a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn-wadegile"><i>te</i></span></i>) originally meant normative "virtue" in the sense of "personal character; inner strength; integrity", but semantically changed to moral "virtue; kindness; morality". Note the semantic parallel for English <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/virtue" class="extiw" title="wikt:virtue">virtue</a></i>, with an archaic meaning of "inner potency; divine power" (as in "by virtue of") and a modern one of "moral excellence; goodness".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In early periods of <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, moral manifestations of "virtue" include <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">ren</i></span> ("<a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">humanity</a>"), <i>xiao</i> ("<a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">filial piety</a>"), and <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">li</i></span> ("<a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Li (Confucian)">proper behavior, performance of rituals</a>"). The notion of <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Confucianism#Humaneness" title="Confucianism">ren</a></i></span> – according to Simon Leys – means "humanity" and "goodness". <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">Ren</i></span> originally had the archaic meaning in the Confucian Book of Poems of "virility", but progressively took on shades of ethical meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholars consider the virtues identified in early Confucianism as non-theistic philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1971_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1971-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Daoist concept of <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">De</i></span>, compared to Confucianism, is more subtle, pertaining to the "virtue" or ability that an individual realizes by following the <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Dao</a></i></span> ("the Way"). One important normative value in much of Chinese thinking is that one's social status should result from the amount of virtue that one demonstrates, rather than from one's birth. In the <i><a href="/wiki/Analects" title="Analects">Analects</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> explains <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">de</i></span> as follows: "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In later periods, particularly from the Tang dynasty period, Confucianism absorbed and melded its own concepts of virtues with those from Daoism and Buddhism.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1971_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1971-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are symbols that represent virtue in Chinese Culture. Chinese classic paintings have many symbols representing virtue. Plum blossom represents resilience and perseverance. Orchid represents elegance, gentleness, and quietness. Bamboo represents loyalty, trust-worthiness, and humility. Chrysanthemum represents genuineness and simplicity.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hinduism">Hinduism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Hinduism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hindu_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu ethics">Hindu ethics</a></div><p>Virtue is a much debated<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and an evolving concept in ancient scriptures of Hinduism.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The essence, need and value of virtue is explained in Hindu philosophy as something that cannot be imposed, but something that is realized and voluntarily lived up to by each individual. For example, <a href="/wiki/Apastamba" class="mw-redirect" title="Apastamba">Apastamba</a> explained it thus: "virtue and vice do not go about saying—here we are!; neither the Gods, Gandharvas, nor ancestors can convince us—this is right, this is wrong; virtue is an elusive concept, it demands careful and sustained reflection by every man and woman before it can become part of one's life.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Virtues lead to <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Punya_(Hinduism)" title="Punya (Hinduism)">punya</a></i></span> (<span title="Sanskrit-language text"><span lang="sa">पुण्य</span></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> holy living) in Hindu literature; while vices lead to <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">pap</i></span> (<span title="Sanskrit-language text"><span lang="sa">पाप</span></span>, <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a>). Sometimes, the word <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">punya</i></span> is used interchangeably with virtue.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The virtues that constitute a <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharmic</a> life – that is a moral, ethical, virtuous life – evolved in <a href="/wiki/Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Veda">vedas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Upanishad" class="mw-redirect" title="Upanishad">upanishads</a>. Over time, new virtues were conceptualized and added by ancient Hindu scholars: some replaced, others merged. For example, <a href="/wiki/Samhita" title="Samhita">Manusamhita</a> initially listed ten virtues necessary for a human being to live a dharmic life: <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Dhrti" title="Dhrti">Dhriti</a></i></span> (courage), <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kshama" title="Kshama">kshama</a></i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Patience" title="Patience">patience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forgiveness" title="Forgiveness">forgiveness</a>), <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)#Hinduism" title="Temperance (virtue)">dama</a></i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">temperance</a>), <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Achourya" title="Achourya">asteya</a></i></span> (Non-covetousness/Non-stealing), <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Shaucha" title="Shaucha">saucha</a></i></span> (inner purity), <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">indriyani-graha</i></span> (control of senses), <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Dhi_(Hindu_thought)" title="Dhi (Hindu thought)">dhi</a></i></span> (reflective prudence), <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Vidya_(philosophy)" title="Vidya (philosophy)">vidya</a></i></span> (wisdom), <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">satyam</a></i></span> (truthfulness), and <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Akrodha" title="Akrodha">akrodha</a></i></span> (freedom from anger).<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In later verses, this list was reduced to five virtues by the same scholar, by merging and creating a broader concept. The shorter list of virtues became: <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Ahimsa</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Non-violence</a>), <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">dama</i></span> (self restraint), <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">asteya</i></span> (Non-covetousness/Non-stealing), <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">saucha</i></span> (inner purity), and <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">satyam</i></span> (truthfulness).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a> – considered one of the epitomes of historic Hindu discussion of virtues and an allegorical debate on what is right and what is wrong – argues some virtues are not necessarily always absolute, but sometimes relational. For example, it explains that a virtue such as <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></i></span> must be re-examined when one is faced with war or violence from the aggressiveness, immaturity, or ignorance of others.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-klos1996_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-klos1996-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jainism">Jainism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Jainism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:India,_madhya_pradesh,_jina_parshvanatha_dalla_temp%C3%A8esta,_600-700.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/India%2C_madhya_pradesh%2C_jina_parshvanatha_dalla_temp%C3%A8esta%2C_600-700.JPG/200px-India%2C_madhya_pradesh%2C_jina_parshvanatha_dalla_temp%C3%A8esta%2C_600-700.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="354" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/India%2C_madhya_pradesh%2C_jina_parshvanatha_dalla_temp%C3%A8esta%2C_600-700.JPG/300px-India%2C_madhya_pradesh%2C_jina_parshvanatha_dalla_temp%C3%A8esta%2C_600-700.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/India%2C_madhya_pradesh%2C_jina_parshvanatha_dalla_temp%C3%A8esta%2C_600-700.JPG/400px-India%2C_madhya_pradesh%2C_jina_parshvanatha_dalla_temp%C3%A8esta%2C_600-700.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1380" data-file-height="2444" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Parshwanatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Parshwanatha">Parshwanatha</a>, the torch bearer of <a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">ahimsa</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, attainment of <i><a href="/wiki/Kaivalya" title="Kaivalya">kaivalya</a></i> is possible only if the seeker possesses certain virtues. All <a href="/wiki/Jains" class="mw-redirect" title="Jains">Jains</a> are supposed to take up the five vows of <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">ahimsa</a></i></span> (non violence), <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">satya</a></i></span> (truthfulness), <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Asteya" class="mw-redirect" title="Asteya">asteya</a></i></span> (non stealing), <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Aparigraha" class="mw-redirect" title="Aparigraha">aparigraha</a></i></span> (non attachment), and <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">brahmacharya</a></i></span> (celibacy) before becoming a monk. These vows are laid down by the <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Tirthankaras" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirthankaras">Tīrthaṅkaras</a></i></span>. Other virtues which are supposed to be followed by both monks as well as laypersons include forgiveness, humility, self-restraint, and straightforwardness. These vows assist the seeker to escape from the karmic bondages thereby escaping the cycle of birth and death to attain liberation.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sikhism">Sikhism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Sikhism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Five_Virtues" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Virtues">Five Virtues</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikh</a> ethics emphasize the congruence between spiritual development and everyday moral conduct. Its founder <a href="/wiki/Guru_Nanak" title="Guru Nanak">Guru Nanak</a> summarized this perspective:</p><blockquote><p>Truth is the highest virtue, but higher still is truthful living.<sup id="cite_ref-Singh_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singh-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>The <a href="/wiki/Five_Virtues" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Virtues">Five Virtues</a> of Sikhism are <span title="Punjabi-language romanization"><i lang="pa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Sat_(Sikhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sat (Sikhism)">Sat</a></i></span> (truth), <span title="Punjabi-language romanization"><i lang="pa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Daya_(Sikhism)" title="Daya (Sikhism)">Daya</a></i></span> (compassion), <span title="Punjabi-language romanization"><i lang="pa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Santokh" title="Santokh">Santokh</a></i></span> (contentment), <span title="Punjabi-language romanization"><i lang="pa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Nimrata" title="Nimrata">Nimrata</a></i></span> (humility), and <span title="Punjabi-language romanization"><i lang="pa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Pyaar" title="Pyaar">Pyaar</a></i></span> (love). </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_philosophers'_views"><span id="Modern_philosophers.27_views"></span>Modern philosophers' views</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Modern philosophers' views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="René_Descartes"><span id="Ren.C3.A9_Descartes"></span>René Descartes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: René Descartes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For the <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalist</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, virtue consists in the correct reasoning that should guide our actions. Men should seek the <a href="/wiki/Summum_bonum" title="Summum bonum">sovereign good</a> that Descartes, following <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno</a>, identifies with virtue, as this produces a <span class="cleanup-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">solid</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> blessedness or pleasure. For <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> the sovereign good was pleasure, and Descartes says that in fact this is not in contradiction with Zeno's teaching, because virtue produces a spiritual pleasure, that is better than bodily pleasure. Regarding <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s opinion that happiness depends on the goods of fortune, Descartes does not deny that these goods contribute to happiness, but remarks that they are in great proportion outside one's own control, whereas one's mind is under one's complete control.<sup id="cite_ref-Blom_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blom-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immanuel_Kant">Immanuel Kant</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Immanuel Kant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Virtue" title="Special:EditPage/Virtue">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, in his <i><a href="/wiki/Observations_on_the_Feeling_of_the_Beautiful_and_Sublime" title="Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime">Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime</a></i>, says true virtue is different from what commonly is believed about it. In Kant's view, to be goodhearted, benevolent and sympathetic is not true virtue. What makes a person truly virtuous is to behave in accordance with moral principles. </p><p>Kant presents an example: suppose that you come across a needy person in the street; if your <a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">sympathy</a> leads you to help that person, your response does not illustrate your virtue. <span class="cleanup-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">In this example, since you do not afford helping all needy ones, you have behaved unjustly, and it is out of the domain of principles and true virtue.</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Kant applies the approach of <a href="/wiki/Four_temperaments" title="Four temperaments">four temperaments</a> to distinguish truly virtuous people. According to Kant, among all people with diverse temperaments, a person with a <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">melancholic</a> frame of mind is the most virtuous, whose thoughts, words, and deeds are principled. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Friedrich_Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Friedrich Nietzsche"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>'s view of virtue is based on the idea of an order of rank among people. For Nietzsche, the virtues of the strong are seen as vices by the weak and slavish, thus Nietzsche's virtue ethics is based on his distinction between <a href="/wiki/Master_and_slave_morality" class="mw-redirect" title="Master and slave morality">master morality and slave morality</a>. Nietzsche promotes the virtues of those he calls "higher men", people like Goethe and Beethoven. The virtues he praises in them are their creative powers ("the men of great creativity, the really great men according to my understanding"<sup id="cite_ref-WP_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WP-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 957">: 957 </span></sup>). According to Nietzsche these higher types are solitary, pursue a "unifying project", revere themselves and are healthy and life-affirming.<sup id="cite_ref-Leiter_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leiter-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because mixing with the herd makes one base, the higher type "strives instinctively for a citadel and a secrecy where he is saved from the crowd, the many, the great majority…".<sup id="cite_ref-BGE_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BGE-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "Higher type" also "instinctively seeks heavy responsibilities"<sup id="cite_ref-WP_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WP-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 944">: 944 </span></sup> in the form of an "organizing idea" for their life, which drives them to artistic and creative work and gives them psychological health and strength.<sup id="cite_ref-Leiter_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leiter-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fact that the higher types are "healthy" for Nietzsche does not refer to physical health as much as a psychological resilience and fortitude. Finally, someone of the "Higher type" affirms life because he is willing to accept the <a href="/wiki/Eternal_return" title="Eternal return">eternal return</a> of his life and affirm this forever and unconditionally. </p><p>In the last section of <i><a href="/wiki/Beyond_Good_and_Evil" title="Beyond Good and Evil">Beyond Good and Evil</a></i>, Nietzsche outlines his thoughts on the noble virtues and places <a href="/wiki/Solitude" title="Solitude">solitude</a> as one of the highest virtues: </p> <blockquote><p>And to keep control over your four virtues: courage, insight, sympathy, solitude. Because solitude is a virtue for us, since it is a sublime inclination and impulse to cleanliness which shows that contact between people ("society") inevitably makes things unclean. Somewhere, sometime, every community makes people – "base."<sup id="cite_ref-BGE_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BGE-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: §284">: §284 </span></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Nietzsche also sees truthfulness as a virtue: </p> <blockquote><p>Genuine honesty, assuming that this is our virtue and we cannot get rid of it, we free spirits – well then, we will want to work on it with all the love and malice at our disposal and not get tired of 'perfecting' ourselves in our virtue, the only one we have left: may its glory come to rest like a gilded, blue evening glow of mockery over this aging culture and its dull and dismal seriousness!<sup id="cite_ref-BGE_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BGE-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: §227">: §227 </span></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Benjamin_Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Benjamin Franklin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_Virginia.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Seal_of_Virginia.svg/170px-Seal_of_Virginia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Seal_of_Virginia.svg/255px-Seal_of_Virginia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Seal_of_Virginia.svg/340px-Seal_of_Virginia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>Virtue, spear in hand, with her foot on the prostrate form of <a href="/wiki/Tyranny" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyranny">Tyranny</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Sic_Semper_Tyrannis" class="mw-redirect" title="Sic Semper Tyrannis">Great Seal of Virginia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>These are the virtues that <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> used to develop what he called "moral perfection".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had a checklist in a notebook to measure each day how he lived up to his virtues. </p><p>They became known through <a href="/wiki/The_Autobiography_of_Benjamin_Franklin" title="The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin's autobiography</a>. </p> <blockquote> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">Temperance</a>: Eat not to Dullness. Drink not to Elevation.</li> <li>Silence: Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself. Avoid trifling Conversation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_(virtue)" title="Order (virtue)">Order</a>: Let all your Things have their Places. Let each Part of your Business have its Time.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determination" title="Determination">Resolution</a>: Resolve to perform what you ought. Perform without fail what you resolve.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frugality" title="Frugality">Frugality</a>: Make no Expense but to do good to others or yourself; i.e. Waste nothing.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diligence" title="Diligence">Industry</a>: Lose no Time. Be always employed in something useful. Cut off all unnecessary Actions.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sincerity" title="Sincerity">Sincerity</a>: Use no hurtful Deceit. Think innocently and justly; and, if you speak, speak accordingly.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_(virtue)" title="Justice (virtue)">Justice</a>: Wrong none, by doing Injuries or omitting the Benefits that are your Duty.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderation" title="Moderation">Moderation</a>: Avoid Extremes. Forbear resenting Injuries so much as you think they deserve.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleanliness" title="Cleanliness">Cleanliness</a>: Tolerate no Uncleanness in Body, Clothes or Habitation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tranquillity" title="Tranquillity">Tranquility</a>: Be not disturbed at Trifles, or at Accidents common or unavoidable.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chastity" title="Chastity">Chastity</a>: Rarely use <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/venery#Etymology_2" class="extiw" title="wikt:venery">Venery</a> but for Health or Offspring; Never to Dullness, Weakness, or the Injury of your own or another's Peace or Reputation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humility" title="Humility">Humility</a>: Imitate Jesus and Socrates.</li></ol> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_views">Contemporary views</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Contemporary views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Virtues_as_emotions">Virtues as emotions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Virtues as emotions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Moral_emotions" title="Moral emotions">Moral emotions</a></div> <p>Marc Jackson in his book <i>Emotion and Psyche</i> identifies the virtues as what he calls the good emotions: "The first group consisting of <a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">love</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kindness" title="Kindness">kindness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joy" title="Joy">joy</a>, faith, <a href="/wiki/Awe" title="Awe">awe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pity" title="Pity">pity</a> is good".<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These virtues differ from older accounts of the virtues because they are not character traits expressed by action, but emotions that are to be felt and developed by feeling not acting. </p><p>Immanuel Kant, in his <i>Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime</i>, predicts and replies to Marc Johnson's view of emotions as virtues. To be goodhearted, benevolent, and sympathetic is not true virtue, for one acts merely episodically, motivated by appeasing those naturally limited feelings, such as in the presence, for example, of a needy person in the street: in such a case, we do not act for a universal motive but simply as a response to end a particular, individual, personal distress arisen in us by our own sentiments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_modern_psychology">In modern psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: In modern psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Peterson_(psychologist)" title="Christopher Peterson (psychologist)">Christopher Peterson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Martin Seligman</a>, two leading researchers in <a href="/wiki/Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">positive psychology</a>, recognizing the deficiency inherent in <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>'s tendency to focus on dysfunction rather than on what makes a healthy and stable <a href="/wiki/Personality" title="Personality">personality</a>, set out to develop a list of "<a href="/wiki/Character_Strengths_and_Virtues_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Character Strengths and Virtues (book)">Character Strengths and Virtues</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-CSV_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CSV-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After three years of study, 24 traits (classified into six broad areas of virtue) were identified, having "a surprising amount of similarity across cultures and strongly indicat[ing] a historical and cross-cultural convergence."<sup id="cite_ref-CSV_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CSV-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 36">: 36 </span></sup> These six categories of virtue are courage, justice, humanity, temperance, transcendence, and wisdom.<sup id="cite_ref-CSV_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CSV-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 36–39">: 36–39 </span></sup> Some psychologists suggest that these virtues are adequately grouped into fewer categories; for example, the same 24 traits have been grouped into simply: Cognitive Strengths, Temperance Strengths, and Social Strengths.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vice_as_opposite">Vice as opposite</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Vice as opposite"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></div> <p>The opposite of a virtue is a <a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">vice</a>. Vice is a habitual, repeated practice of wrongdoing. One way of organizing the vices is as the corruption of the virtues. </p><p>As <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> noted, however, the virtues can have several opposites. Virtues can be considered the mean between two extremes, as the Latin maxim dictates <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">in medio stat virtus</i></span>—in the centre lies virtue. For instance, both cowardice and rashness are opposites of courage; contrary to prudence are both over-caution and insufficient caution; the opposites of pride (a virtue) are undue humility and excessive vanity. A more "modern" virtue, <a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">tolerance</a>, can be considered the mean between the two extremes of narrow-mindedness on the one hand and over-acceptance on the other. Vices can therefore be identified as the opposites of virtues – but with the caveat that each virtue could have many different opposites, all distinct from each other. </p><p>Within the Chinese <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)">wuxing</a></i></span> philosophy and <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">Traditional Chinese Medicine</a> vice and virtue are expressed as excess or deficiency.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushido" title="Bushido">Bushido</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_virtue" title="Civic virtue">Civic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_mechanism#Level_4:_mature" title="Defence mechanism">Defence mechanism#Level 4: mature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Evolution of morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foresight_(psychology)" title="Foresight (psychology)">Foresight (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanity_(virtue)" title="Humanity (virtue)">Humanity (virtue)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal (ethics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_virtues" class="mw-redirect" title="Intellectual virtues">Intellectual virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_virtues" class="mw-redirect" title="List of virtues">List of virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">Moral character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_virtues" title="Prussian virtues">Prussian virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Noble_Virtues" title="Nine Noble Virtues">Nine Noble Virtues</a> (Asatru and Odinism)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teachings_of_the_Seven_Grandfathers" title="Teachings of the Seven Grandfathers">Teachings of the Seven Grandfathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_theory" title="Value theory">Value theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_name" title="Virtue name">Virtue name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_signalling" title="Virtue signalling">Virtue signalling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omoluwabi" title="Omoluwabi">Omoluwabi</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWetlesen2000" class="citation journal cs1">Wetlesen, Jon (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070228201738/http://www.buddhistethics.org/9/wetle021.html">"Did Santideva Destroy the Bodhisattva Path?"</a>. <i>Journal of Buddhist Ethics</i>. <b>9</b>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.buddhistethics.org/9/wetle021.html">the original</a> on 2007-02-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Buddhist+Ethics&rft.atitle=Did+Santideva+Destroy+the+Bodhisattva+Path%3F&rft.volume=9&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Wetlesen&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.buddhistethics.org%2F9%2Fwetle021.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBikkhu_Bodhi2000" class="citation book cs1">Bikkhu Bodhi (2000). <i>Abhidhammattha Sangaha: A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma</i>. BPS Pariyatti Editions. p. 89.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abhidhammattha+Sangaha%3A+A+Comprehensive+Manual+of+Abhidhamma&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=BPS+Pariyatti+Editions&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Bikkhu+Bodhi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/merriamwebsterne00merr/page/496/mode/1up"><i>The Merriam-Webster new book of word histories</i></a>. Merriam-Webster Inc. 1991. p. 496. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780877796039" title="Special:BookSources/9780877796039"><bdi>9780877796039</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Merriam-Webster+new+book+of+word+histories&rft.pages=496&rft.pub=Merriam-Webster+Inc.&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780877796039&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmerriamwebsterne00merr%2Fpage%2F496%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarenga2004" class="citation book cs1">Karenga, Maulana (2004). <i>Maat, the Moral Ideal in Ancient Egypt: A study in classical African ethics</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415947534" title="Special:BookSources/9780415947534"><bdi>9780415947534</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maat%2C+the+Moral+Ideal+in+Ancient+Egypt%3A+A+study+in+classical+African+ethics&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780415947534&rft.aulast=Karenga&rft.aufirst=Maulana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohn1993" class="citation book cs1">Cohn, Norman Rufus Colin (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cosmoschaosworld00cohn"><i>Cosmos, Chaos and the World to Come: The Ancient Roots of Apocalyptic Faith</i></a></span>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-05598-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-05598-6"><bdi>978-0-300-05598-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmos%2C+Chaos+and+the+World+to+Come%3A+The+Ancient+Roots+of+Apocalyptic+Faith&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-300-05598-6&rft.aulast=Cohn&rft.aufirst=Norman+Rufus+Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcosmoschaosworld00cohn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssmann2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Assmann" title="Jan Assmann">Assmann, Jan</a> (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/religioncultural0000assm"><i>Religion and Cultural Memory</i></a></span>. Translated by Livingstone, Rodney. Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-4523-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-4523-4"><bdi>0-8047-4523-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+Cultural+Memory&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-8047-4523-4&rft.aulast=Assmann&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freligioncultural0000assm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunningham1982" class="citation journal cs1">Cunningham, Stanley B. (1982). "Review of <i>Virtues and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy</i>". <i>Dialogue</i>. <b>21</b> (1): 133–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS001221730001742X">10.1017/S001221730001742X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170202878">170202878</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialogue&rft.atitle=Review+of+Virtues+and+Vices+and+Other+Essays+in+Moral+Philosophy&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=133-37&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS001221730001742X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170202878%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cunningham&rft.aufirst=Stanley+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304074259/http://www.theplatonist.com/cardinal_virtues.htm">"Cardinal Virtues of Plato, Augustine and Confucius"</a>. <i>theplatonist.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theplatonist.com/cardinal_virtues.htm">the original</a> on 2016-03-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=theplatonist.com&rft.atitle=Cardinal+Virtues+of+Plato%2C+Augustine+and+Confucius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theplatonist.com%2Fcardinal_virtues.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDen_Uyl1991" class="citation book cs1">Den Uyl, D.J. (1991). <i>The Virtue of Prudence</i>. Studies in Moral Philosophy. Vol. 5. Peter Lang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780820415048" title="Special:BookSources/9780820415048"><bdi>9780820415048</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/90025008">90025008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Virtue+of+Prudence&rft.series=Studies+in+Moral+Philosophy&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F90025008&rft.isbn=9780820415048&rft.aulast=Den+Uyl&rft.aufirst=D.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarr1988" class="citation journal cs1">Carr, D. 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"The cardinal virtues and Plato's moral psychology". <i>The Philosophical Quarterly</i>. <b>38</b> (151): 186–200. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2219923">10.2307/2219923</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2219923">2219923</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Philosophical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+cardinal+virtues+and+Plato%27s+moral+psychology&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=151&rft.pages=186-200&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2219923&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2219923%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Carr&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVlastos1972" class="citation journal cs1">Vlastos, Gregory (March 1972). 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Sanjeevi (1973). <i>First All India Tirukkural Seminar Papers</i> (2nd ed.). Chennai: University of Madras. pp. xxiii–xxvii.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=First+All+India+Tirukkural+Seminar+Papers&rft.place=Chennai&rft.pages=xxiii-xxvii&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Madras&rft.date=1973&rft.au=N.+Sanjeevi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UMI_WhyNationalBook?-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UMI_WhyNationalBook?_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFN._Velusamy_and_Moses_Michael_Faraday_(Eds.)2017" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">N. Velusamy and Moses Michael Faraday (Eds.) 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Chennai: Unique Media Integrators. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-85471-70-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-85471-70-4"><bdi>978-93-85471-70-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+Should+Thirukkural+Be+Declared+the+National+Book+of+India%3F&rft.place=Chennai&rft.pages=55&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Unique+Media+Integrators&rft.date=2017-02&rft.isbn=978-93-85471-70-4&rft.au=N.+Velusamy+and+Moses+Michael+Faraday+%28Eds.%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220305035824/http://www.baronage.co.uk/chivalry/chival1a.html">"The origins of Chivalry"</a>. <i>Baronage</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.baronage.co.uk/chivalry/chival1a.html">the original</a> on 2022-03-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Baronage&rft.atitle=The+origins+of+Chivalry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.baronage.co.uk%2Fchivalry%2Fchival1a.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalyuzi2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hasan_M._Balyuzi" title="Hasan M. Balyuzi">Balyuzi, Hasan</a> (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/abdulbahacentreo0000baly"><i>ʻAbdu'l-Bahá: The Centre of the Covenant of Baháʼu'lláh</i></a></span> (Paperback ed.). 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Norton & Company. pp. 1–2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Allegories+of+the+Virtues+and+Vices+in+Mediaeval+Art&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1-2&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Katzenellenbogen&rft.aufirst=Adolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fallegoriesofvirt0000katz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBearmanBianquisBosworthvan_Donzel2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (2009). "Akhlaq". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam" title="Encyclopaedia of Islam">Encyclopaedia of Islam Online</a></i>. Brill Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912">1573-3912</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Akhlaq&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam+Online&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2009&rft.issn=1573-3912&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Babylonian Talmud</a>, tractate Shabbat 31a. See also the <a href="/wiki/Ethic_of_reciprocity" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethic of reciprocity">ethic of reciprocity</a> or "The <a href="/wiki/Ethic_of_reciprocity" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethic of reciprocity">Golden rule</a>."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSponberg2010" class="citation book cs1">Sponberg, Alan (2010). "Bodhisattva Path". In Keown, Damien; Prebish, Charles S. (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of Buddhism</i>. Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NFpcAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA89">89</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-98588-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-98588-1"><bdi>978-1-136-98588-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bodhisattva+Path&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Buddhism&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-136-98588-1&rft.aulast=Sponberg&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated2-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhism/bs-s15.htm">"Buddhist Studies for Secondary Students, Unit 6: The Four Immeasurables"</a>. Buddhanet.net<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-01-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Studies+for+Secondary+Students%2C+Unit+6%3A+The+Four+Immeasurables&rft.pub=Buddhanet.net&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.buddhanet.net%2Fe-learning%2Fbuddhism%2Fbs-s15.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060819075238/http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/immeasurables_love_compassion_equanimity_rejoicing.html">"A View on Buddhism, The four immeasurables: Love, Compassion, Joy and Equanimity"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/immeasurables_love_compassion_equanimity_rejoicing.html">the original</a> on 2006-08-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-08-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+View+on+Buddhism%2C+The+four+immeasurables%3A+Love%2C+Compassion%2C+Joy+and+Equanimity&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbuddhism.kalachakranet.org%2Fimmeasurables_love_compassion_equanimity_rejoicing.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buddhavamsa, chapter 2. For an on-line reference to the Buddhavamsa's seminality in the Theravada notion of <i>parami</i>, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAcariya_Dhammapala2005" class="citation web cs1">Acariya Dhammapala (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/wheel409.html">"A Treatise on the Paramis, from the Commentary to the Cariyapitaka"</a>. Translated by Bikkhu Bodhi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Treatise+on+the+Paramis%2C+from+the+Commentary+to+the+Cariyapitaka&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Acariya+Dhammapala&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accesstoinsight.org%2Flib%2Fauthors%2Fbodhi%2Fwheel409.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span><br />In terms of other examples in the <a href="/wiki/Pali_literature" title="Pali literature">Pali literature</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhys_DavidsStede1921" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_William_Rhys_Davids" title="Thomas William Rhys Davids">Rhys Davids, T.W.</a>; Stede, William, eds. (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.228441/page/n497/mode/1up">"Pāramī"</a>. <i>The Pali Text Society's Pali-English Dictionary</i>. Vol. 1. p. P77.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=P%C4%81ram%C4%AB&rft.btitle=The+Pali+Text+Society%27s+Pali-English+Dictionary&rft.pages=P77&rft.date=1921&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.228441%2Fpage%2Fn497%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span> cites <a href="/wiki/Jataka" class="mw-redirect" title="Jataka">Jataka</a> i.73 and <a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a> <a href="/wiki/Atthakatha" title="Atthakatha">Atthakatha</a> i.84. Bodhi (2005) also mentions Acariya <a href="/wiki/Dhammapala" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhammapala">Dhammapala</a>'s treatise in the <a href="/wiki/Cariyapitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Cariyapitaka">Cariyapitaka</a>-<a href="/wiki/Atthakatha" title="Atthakatha">Atthakatha</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Brahmajala_Sutta_(Theravada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmajala Sutta (Theravada)">Brahmajala Sutta</a> <a href="/wiki/Subcommentaries,_Theravada" class="mw-redirect" title="Subcommentaries, Theravada">subcommentary (<i>tika</i>)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLin_Yu-sheng1974–75" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-year-range-abbreviated"><a href="/wiki/Lin_Yu-sheng" title="Lin Yu-sheng">Lin Yu-sheng</a> (1974–75). "The evolution of the pre-Confucian meaning of jen and the Confucian concept of moral autonomy". <i>Monumenta Serica</i>. <b>31</b>: 172–204. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02549948.1974.11731098">10.1080/02549948.1974.11731098</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40726170">40726170</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170207315">170207315</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monumenta+Serica&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+the+pre-Confucian+meaning+of+jen+and+the+Confucian+concept+of+moral+autonomy&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=172-204&rft.date=1974%2F1975&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170207315%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40726170%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02549948.1974.11731098&rft.au=Lin+Yu-sheng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1971-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1971_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1971_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYang1961" class="citation book cs1">Yang, C. K. (1961). <i>Religion in Chinese Society: a study of contemporary social functions of religion and some of their historical factors</i>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88133-621-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88133-621-4"><bdi>978-0-88133-621-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+in+Chinese+Society%3A+a+study+of+contemporary+social+functions+of+religion+and+some+of+their+historical+factors&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=978-0-88133-621-4&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=C.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927005031/http://www.afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php?no=17&l=Lunyu">"The Analects of Confucius: Lunyu II.1 (17)"</a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/James_Legge" title="James Legge">Legge, James</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php?no=17&l=Lunyu">the original</a> on 2007-09-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Analects+of+Confucius%3A+Lunyu+II.1+%2817%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.afpc.asso.fr%2Fwengu%2Fwg%2Fwengu.php%3Fno%3D17%26l%3DLunyu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHindery1978" class="citation book cs1">Hindery, Roderick (1978). <i>Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions</i>. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 268–272. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0866-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0866-9"><bdi>978-81-208-0866-9</bdi></a>. <q>[T]he <i>srutis</i> did not pretend to deal with all situations or irregularities in the moral life, leaving these matters to human reasons (<a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a> XII.109); Accordingly, 'that again which is virtue may, according to time and place, be sin'.... Under certain conditions, 'acts that are apparently evil' can be permitted if they 'produce consequences that are good' (Mahabharata XII.37).... [Hindu scripture] notes the interrelationship of several virtues, consequentially. 'Anger springs from covetousness.' Envy 'disappears in consequence of compassion and knowledge of self' (Mahabharata XII.163).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Ethics+in+Hindu+and+Buddhist+Traditions&rft.pages=268-272&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ.&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0866-9&rft.aulast=Hindery&rft.aufirst=Roderick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrawford1982" class="citation book cs1">Crawford, S. Cromwell (1982). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionofhindu0000craw"><i>The Evolution of Hindu Ethical Ideals</i></a></span>. Asian Studies. Vol. 28. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-0782-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-0782-5"><bdi>978-0-8248-0782-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Hindu+Ethical+Ideals&rft.series=Asian+Studies&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-0782-5&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.aufirst=S.+Cromwell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionofhindu0000craw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckerBecker2001" class="citation book cs1">Becker, Lawrence C.; Becker, Charlotte B., eds. (2001). <i>Encyclopedia of Ethics</i>. Vol. II (2nd ed.). Routledge. pp. 845–848. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415936729" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415936729"><bdi>978-0415936729</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Ethics&rft.pages=845-848&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0415936729&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagoner2013" class="citation book cs1">Wagoner, Phillip (November 2013). "Foreword". <i>Dharma: Hindu Approach to a Purposeful Life</i>. Periplus Line LLC. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62209-672-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62209-672-5"><bdi>978-1-62209-672-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Foreword&rft.btitle=Dharma%3A+Hindu+Approach+to+a+Purposeful+Life&rft.pub=Periplus+Line+LLC&rft.date=2013-11&rft.isbn=978-1-62209-672-5&rft.aulast=Wagoner&rft.aufirst=Phillip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li>See also: <i><a href="/wiki/Apastamba_Dharmasutra" title="Apastamba Dharmasutra">Āpastamba Dharmasūtra</a></i> 1.20.6</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170126030805/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=puNya&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0">"puNya"</a>. <i>Spoken Sanskrit English Dictionary</i>. 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=puNya&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0">the original</a> on 2017-01-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Spoken+Sanskrit+English+Dictionary&rft.atitle=puNya&rft.date=2010&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspokensanskrit.de%2Findex.php%3Ftinput%3DpuNya%26direction%3DSE%26script%3DHK%26link%3Dyes%26beginning%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>What Is Hinduism?</i>. Himalayan Academy Publications. 2007. p. 377. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-934145-00-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-934145-00-5"><bdi>978-1-934145-00-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Is+Hinduism%3F&rft.pages=377&rft.pub=Himalayan+Academy+Publications&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-934145-00-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiwari1998" class="citation book cs1">Tiwari, Kedar Nath (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nhAt_classical-indian-ethical-thought-kedar-nath-tiwari_202012"><i>Classical Indian Ethical Thought: A Philosophical Study of Hindu, Jaina, and Buddhist Morals</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. pp. 52–55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1608-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1608-4"><bdi>978-81-208-1608-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Indian+Ethical+Thought%3A+A+Philosophical+Study+of+Hindu%2C+Jaina%2C+and+Buddhist+Morals&rft.pages=52-55&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1608-4&rft.aulast=Tiwari&rft.aufirst=Kedar+Nath&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FnhAt_classical-indian-ethical-thought-kedar-nath-tiwari_202012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGupta2006" class="citation journal cs1">Gupta, B (2006). 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New York University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8147-0999-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8147-0999-0"><bdi>0-8147-0999-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Descartes.+His+moral+philosophy+and+psychology&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-8147-0999-0&rft.aulast=Blom&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdescarteshismora0000desc_l9t8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WP-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WP_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WP_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNietzsche1968" class="citation book cs1">Nietzsche, Friedrich (1968) [1901]. <i>The Will to Power</i>. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-516701-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-516701-5"><bdi>0-19-516701-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Character+Strengths+and+Virtues&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-19-516701-5&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Seligman%2C+Martin+E.P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcharacterstrengt0000pete&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShryackStegerKruegerKallie2010" class="citation journal cs1">Shryack, Jessica; Steger, Michael F.; Krueger, Robert F.; Kallie, Christopher S. (2010). "The structure of virtue: An empirical investigation of the dimensionality of the virtues in action inventory of strengths". <i>Personality and Individual Differences</i>. <b>48</b> (6). Elsevier BV: 714–719. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.paid.2010.01.007">10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.007</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10818%2F33195">10818/33195</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0191-8869">0191-8869</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Personality+and+Individual+Differences&rft.atitle=The+structure+of+virtue%3A+An+empirical+investigation+of+the+dimensionality+of+the+virtues+in+action+inventory+of+strengths&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=714-719&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10818%2F33195&rft.issn=0191-8869&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.paid.2010.01.007&rft.aulast=Shryack&rft.aufirst=Jessica&rft.au=Steger%2C+Michael+F.&rft.au=Krueger%2C+Robert+F.&rft.au=Kallie%2C+Christopher+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellarmine1847" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bellarmine" title="Robert Bellarmine">Bellarmine, Robert</a> (1847). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The Art of Dying Well/Chapter 6"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Dying_Well/Chapter_6">"The Sixth Precept, in Which Three Moral Virtues Are Explained." </a></span>. <i>The Art of Dying Well</i>. Translated by John Dalton. Richardson and Son.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Sixth+Precept%2C+in+Which+Three+Moral+Virtues+Are+Explained.&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Dying+Well&rft.pub=Richardson+and+Son&rft.date=1847&rft.aulast=Bellarmine&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeharbe1912" class="citation book cs1">Deharbe, Joseph (1912). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:A Complete Catechism of the Catholic Religion/Chap. V. Virtue and Christian Perfection"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Complete_Catechism_of_the_Catholic_Religion/Chap._V._Virtue_and_Christian_Perfection">"Chap. V. Virtue and Christian Perfection" </a></span>. <i>A Complete Catechism of the Catholic Religion</i>. Translated by Rev. John Fander. Schwartz, Kirwin & Fauss.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chap.+V.+Virtue+and+Christian+Perfection&rft.btitle=A+Complete+Catechism+of+the+Catholic+Religion&rft.pub=Schwartz%2C+Kirwin+%26+Fauss&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Deharbe&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewton2000" class="citation book cs1">Newton, John (2000). <i>Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century</i>. Nicer Century World Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9673705-7-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-9673705-7-4"><bdi>0-9673705-7-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Complete+Conduct+Principles+for+the+21st+Century&rft.pub=Nicer+Century+World+Publishing&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-9673705-7-4&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHankins2019" class="citation book cs1">Hankins, James (2019). <i>Virtue Politics: Soulcraft and Statecraft in Renaissance Italy</i>. Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Virtue+Politics%3A+Soulcraft+and+Statecraft+in+Renaissance+Italy&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Hankins&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHein2013" class="citation web cs1">Hein, David (August 18, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://livingchurch.org/2013/08/08/christianity-and-honor/">"Christianity and Honor"</a>. <i>The Living Church</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Living+Church&rft.atitle=Christianity+and+Honor&rft.date=2013-08-18&rft.aulast=Hein&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flivingchurch.org%2F2013%2F08%2F08%2Fchristianity-and-honor%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDen_Uyl2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Den_Uyl" title="Douglas Den Uyl">Den Uyl, Douglas</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC">"Virtue"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a> (ed.). <i>The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism</i>. Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">SAGE</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. pp. 521–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n318">10.4135/9781412965811.n318</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1412965804" title="Special:BookSources/978-1412965804"><bdi>978-1412965804</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151">2008009151</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Virtue&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=521-22&rft.pub=SAGE%3B+Cato+Institute&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750831024&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008009151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412965811.n318&rft.isbn=978-1412965804&rft.aulast=Den+Uyl&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyxNgXs3TkJYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldron1912" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Waldron, Martin Augustine (1912). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Virtue"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Virtue">"Virtue" </a></span>. In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Virtue&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Waldron&rft.aufirst=Martin+Augustine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Virtue</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/virtue" class="extiw" title="wikt:virtue">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Virtue" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Virtue">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Virtue" class="extiw" title="q:Virtue">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Virtues" class="extiw" title="v:Virtues">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q157811" class="extiw" title="d:Q157811">Data</a> from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_VirtueScience_Philosophy._TSQ_(Truth_Seeking_Quotient)" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.virtuescience.com/virtuelist.html">"List of the Virtues"</a>. <i>The VirtueScience Philosophy. TSQ (Truth Seeking Quotient)</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+VirtueScience+Philosophy.+TSQ+%28Truth+Seeking+Quotient%29&rft.atitle=List+of+the+Virtues&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.virtuescience.com%2Fvirtuelist.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurriAlfanoGreco1999" class="citation web cs1">Turri, John; Alfano, Mark; Greco, John (9 July 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-virtue">"Virtue Epistemology"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Virtue+Epistemology&rft.date=1999-07-09&rft.aulast=Turri&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Alfano%2C+Mark&rft.au=Greco%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fepistemology-virtue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAccess_to_Insight2013" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/dhamma/sila/index.html">"Virtue: sila"</a>. <i>Access to Insight</i>. 30 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Access+to+Insight&rft.atitle=Virtue%3A+sila&rft.date=2013-11-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accesstoinsight.org%2Fptf%2Fdhamma%2Fsila%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams2009" class="citation web cs1">Adams, John P. (25 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/GkVirtue.html">"Greek Virtue"</a>. <i>California State University, Northridge</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=California+State+University%2C+Northridge&rft.atitle=Greek+Virtue&rft.date=2009-05-25&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=John+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csun.edu%2F~hcfll004%2FGkVirtue.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span> (quotations)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.meaningandhappiness.com/psychology-research/list-of-personal-strengths.html">"List of personal strengths (psychology research)"</a>. <i>Meaning and Happiness.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Meaning+and+Happiness.com&rft.atitle=List+of+personal+strengths+%28psychology+research%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.meaningandhappiness.com%2Fpsychology-research%2Flist-of-personal-strengths.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span> — Peterson & Seligman findings</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNovaRoma2020" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.novaroma.org/nr/Roman_virtues">"Roman virtues"</a>. <i>NovaRoma</i>. 18 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NovaRoma&rft.atitle=Roman+virtues&rft.date=2020-10-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.novaroma.org%2Fnr%2FRoman_virtues&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoman_Virtues_–_Roman_Republic" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://romanrepublic.org/roma/bibliotheca/roman-virtues/">"Roman Virtues"</a>. <i>Respublica Romana</i>. 15 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Respublica+Romana&rft.atitle=Roman+Virtues&rft.date=2019-09-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fromanrepublic.org%2Froma%2Fbibliotheca%2Froman-virtues%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBBC2002" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p005489r">"In Our Time: Virtue"</a>. <i>BBC</i>. 28 February 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC&rft.atitle=In+Our+Time%3A+Virtue&rft.date=2002-02-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fprogrammes%2Fp005489r&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span> — BBC Radio 4 discussion with Galen Strawson, Miranda Fricker, and Roger Crisp</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVirtues_For_Life2019" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.virtuesforlife.com/what-are-virtues/">"What are Virtues?"</a>. <i>Virtues For Life</i>. 8 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Virtues+For+Life&rft.atitle=What+are+Virtues%3F&rft.date=2019-02-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.virtuesforlife.com%2Fwhat-are-virtues%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLessWrong2023" class="citation web cs1">Gross, David M. (4 March 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lesswrong.com/s/xqgwpmwDYsn8osoje">"Notes on Virtues"</a>. <i>LessWrong</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LessWrong&rft.atitle=Notes+on+Virtues&rft.date=2021-03-04&rft.aulast=Gross&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lesswrong.com%2Fs%2FxqgwpmwDYsn8osoje&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVirtue" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" 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href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering-focused_ethics" title="Suffering-focused ethics">Suffering-focused</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_ethics" title="Computer ethics">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_ethic" title="Land ethic">Land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Meat eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ethics" title="Media ethics">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_ethics" title="Programming ethics">Programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming" title="Ethics of terraforming">Terraforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Uncertain sentience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Meta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">Subjectivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">Ideal observer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_constructivism" title="Moral constructivism">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">Quasi-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Universal prescriptivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_rationalism" title="Moral rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value monism – Value pluralism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rousseauism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseauism">Rousseauian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Tao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">Moral agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_hierarchy" title="Moral hierarchy">Moral hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">Moral imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Political freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precept" title="Precept">Precept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-discipline">Self-discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_values" title="Japanese values">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vow" title="Vow">Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists<br /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Bonhoeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">Frankena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 322 BC)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Sermons_Preached_at_the_Rolls_Chapel" title="Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel">Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1726)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1740)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1759)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Principles_of_Morals_and_Legislation" title="An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation">An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1780)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1785)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1788)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)" title="Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)">Either/Or</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1843)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1861)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1874)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morality" title="On the Genealogy of Morality">On the Genealogy of Morality</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1887)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1903)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1984)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">Secular ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ethics" title="Category:Ethics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Virtues" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Virtues" title="Template:Virtues"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Virtues" title="Template talk:Virtues"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Virtues" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Virtues"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Virtues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Virtues</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">About virtues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endowment_(philosophy)" title="Endowment (philosophy)">Endowment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">Moral character</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trait_theory" title="Trait theory">Trait theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virtue families</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakkhiyā dhammā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihārās</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bushido" title="Bushido">Bushidō</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Vices_and_Virtues" title="Catalogue of Vices and Virtues">Catalogue of Vices and Virtues</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Emi_Omo_Eso" title="Emi Omo Eso">Emi Omo Eso</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_virtues" title="Five virtues">Five virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Cardinal_Principles_and_Eight_Virtues" title="Four Cardinal Principles and Eight Virtues">Four Cardinal Principles and Eight Virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics#Intellectual_virtue" title="Aristotelian ethics">Intellectual virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics#Moral_virtue" title="Aristotelian ethics">Moral virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Noble_Virtues" title="Nine Noble Virtues">Nine Noble Virtues</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Omoluwabi" title="Omoluwabi">Omoluwabi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Pāramīs</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_virtues" title="Prussian virtues">Prussian virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scout_Law" title="Scout Law">Scout Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_virtues" title="Seven virtues">Seven virtues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">Cardinal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_virtues" title="Theological virtues">Theological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teachings_of_the_Seven_Grandfathers" title="Teachings of the Seven Grandfathers">Teachings of the Seven Grandfathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Treasures_(Taoism)" title="Three Treasures (Taoism)">Three Treasures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_in_Action_Inventory_of_Strengths" title="Values in Action Inventory of Strengths">Values in Action Inventory of Strengths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamas" title="Yamas">Yamas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual virtues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accountability" title="Accountability">Accountability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alertness" title="Alertness">Alertness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">Altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">Authenticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calmness" title="Calmness">Calmness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charisma" title="Charisma">Charisma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_(practice)" title="Charity (practice)">Charity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chastity" title="Chastity">Chastity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleanliness" title="Cleanliness">Cleanliness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientiousness" title="Conscientiousness">Conscientiousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">Courage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_courage" title="Civil courage">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courtesy" title="Courtesy">Courtesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diligence" title="Diligence">Diligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discernment_(Christianity)" title="Discernment (Christianity)">Discernment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discipline" title="Discipline">Discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endurance" title="Endurance">Endurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equanimity" title="Equanimity">Equanimity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faithfulness" title="Faithfulness">Faithfulness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foresight_(psychology)" title="Foresight (psychology)">Foresight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgiveness" title="Forgiveness">Forgiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frugality" title="Frugality">Frugality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generosity" title="Generosity">Generosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glory_(honor)" title="Glory (honor)">Glory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_faith" title="Good faith">Good faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gratitude" title="Gratitude">Gratitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heroic_virtue" title="Heroic virtue">Heroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honesty" title="Honesty">Honesty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hope_(virtue)" title="Hope (virtue)">Hope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospitality" title="Hospitality">Hospitality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanity_(virtue)" title="Humanity (virtue)">Humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humility" title="Humility">Humility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impartiality" title="Impartiality">Impartiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innocence" title="Innocence">Innocence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrity" title="Integrity">Integrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_intelligence" title="Social intelligence">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgement" title="Judgement">Judgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_(virtue)" title="Justice (virtue)">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kindness" title="Kindness">Kindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnanimity" title="Magnanimity">Magnanimity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnificence_(history_of_ideas)" title="Magnificence (history of ideas)">Magnificence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meekness" title="Meekness">Meekness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercy" title="Mercy">Mercy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderation" title="Moderation">Moderation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modesty" title="Modesty">Modesty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonattachment_(philosophy)" title="Nonattachment (philosophy)">Nonattachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patience" title="Patience">Patience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspicacity" title="Perspicacity">Perspicacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">Philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piety" title="Piety">Piety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">Filial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pity" title="Pity">Pity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politeness" title="Politeness">Politeness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prudence" title="Prudence">Prudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuality" title="Punctuality">Punctuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_(virtue)" title="Religion (virtue)">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renunciation" title="Renunciation">Renunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_resilience" title="Psychological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">Respect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverence_(emotion)" title="Reverence (emotion)">Reverence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteous_indignation" title="Righteous indignation">Righteous indignation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteousness" title="Righteousness">Righteousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-control" title="Self-control">Self-control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-cultivation" title="Self-cultivation">Self-cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-transcendence" title="Self-transcendence">Self-transcendence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sincerity" title="Sincerity">Sincerity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity" title="Solidarity">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sportsmanship" title="Sportsmanship">Sportsmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_taste" title="Aesthetic taste">Taste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">Temperance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tranquillity" title="Tranquillity">Tranquillity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wit" title="Wit">Wit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workmanship" title="Workmanship">Workmanship</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chinese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">De</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jing_(philosophy)" title="Jing (philosophy)">Jing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">Li</a></i></li> <li><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ren_(philosophy)" title="Ren (philosophy)">Ren</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yi_(philosophy)" title="Yi (philosophy)">Yi</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Greek</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Agape" title="Agape">Agape</a></i></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Arete" title="Arete">Arete</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ataraxia" title="Ataraxia">Ataraxia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eutrapelia" title="Eutrapelia">Eutrapelia</a></i></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Philotimo" title="Philotimo">Philotimo</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophia_(wisdom)" title="Sophia (wisdom)">Sophia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophrosyne" title="Sophrosyne">Sophrosyne</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Adhi%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Adhiṭṭhāna">Adhiṭṭhāna</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Akrodha" title="Akrodha">Akrodha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Non-possession" title="Non-possession">Aparigraha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arjava" title="Arjava">Ārjava</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Achourya" title="Achourya">Asteya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">Brahmacharya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhrti" title="Dhrti">Dhṛti</a></i></li> <li><span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Hr%C4%AB_(Buddhism)" title="Hrī (Buddhism)">Hrī</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kshama" title="Kshama">Kshama</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kshanti" title="Kshanti">Kshanti</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Mettā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Muditā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Prajñā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shaucha" title="Shaucha">Shaucha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sev%C4%81" title="Sevā">Sevā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Hinduism" title="Faith in Hinduism">Śraddhā</a></i>/<i><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">Saddhā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">Upekṣā</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">Vīrya</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Latin</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Charity_(Christian_virtue)" title="Charity (Christian virtue)">Caritas</a></i></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Decorum" title="Decorum">Decorum</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Dignitas_(Roman_concept)" title="Dignitas (Roman concept)">Dignitas</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Fides_(deity)" title="Fides (deity)">Fides</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gravitas" title="Gravitas">Gravitas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Humanitas" title="Humanitas">Humanitas</a></i></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Pietas" title="Pietas">Pietas</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Virtus" title="Virtus">Virtus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ganbaru" title="Ganbaru">Ganbaru</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Giri_(Japanese)" title="Giri (Japanese)">Giri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sadaqah" title="Sadaqah">Sadaqah</a></i></li> <li><span title="Catalan-language text"><i lang="ca"><a href="/wiki/Seny" title="Seny">Seny</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sisu" title="Sisu">Sisu</a></i></li> <li><span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it"><a href="/wiki/Virt%C3%B9" title="Virtù">Virtù</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q157811#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Vertu"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11950974x">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Vertu"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11950974x">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="ctnosti"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph119263&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="morální hodnoty"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph184254&CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Virtudes"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX525812">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007541294305171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virtue&oldid=1253359544">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virtue&oldid=1253359544</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" 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