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Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northern_Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scotland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scotland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Scotland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scotland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Netherlands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>New Zealand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_Korea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_Korea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>North Korea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_Korea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10</span> <span>Soviet Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taiwan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taiwan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11</span> <span>Taiwan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taiwan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.12</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-punitive_prison_labour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-punitive_prison_labour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Non-punitive prison labour</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-punitive_prison_labour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Penal labour</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B4%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%B9%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="أشغال عقابية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أشغال عقابية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treballs_for%C3%A7ats" title="Treballs forçats – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Treballs forçats" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strafarbejde" title="Strafarbejde – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Strafarbejde" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunnit%C3%B6%C3%B6" title="Sunnitöö – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sunnitöö" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trabajos_forzados_(pena)" title="Trabajos forzados (pena) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Trabajos forzados (pena)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punlaboro" title="Punlaboro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Punlaboro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="کار اجباری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کار اجباری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travaux_forc%C3%A9s" title="Travaux forcés – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Travaux forcés" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%90%EB%8F%84%EC%9E%91%EC%97%85" title="교도작업 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="교도작업" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buruh_hukuman" title="Buruh hukuman – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Buruh hukuman" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavoro_forzato" title="Lavoro forzato – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lavoro forzato" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%95%D7%93%D7%AA_%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%9F" title="עבודת עונשין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עבודת עונשין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asa_an-tery_vozona" title="Asa an-tery vozona – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Asa an-tery vozona" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buruh_tahanan" title="Buruh tahanan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Buruh tahanan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%91%E5%8B%99%E4%BD%9C%E6%A5%AD" title="刑務作業 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="刑務作業" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trabalho_for%C3%A7ado" title="Trabalho forçado – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Trabalho forçado" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Принудительные работы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Принудительные работы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Penal labour" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straffarbete" title="Straffarbete – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Straffarbete" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%B8%D2%B7%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D3%A3" title="Кори иҷборӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Кори иҷборӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%A6%E5%B7%A5%E7%9B%A3" title="苦工監 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="苦工監" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hard_labour&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard labour">Hard labour</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Type of forced labour performed by prisoners</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Penal servitude" redirects here. For the 1928 film, see <a href="/wiki/Penal_Servitude_(film)" title="Penal Servitude (film)"><i>Penal Servitude</i> (film)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Hard labor" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Hard_labor_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Hard labor (disambiguation)">Hard labor (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Penal_labour" title="Special:EditPage/Penal labour">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Penal+labour%22">"Penal labour"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Penal+labour%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Penal+labour%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Penal+labour%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Penal+labour%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Penal+labour%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Iosif_Berman_-_%C3%8Enchisoarea_V%C4%83c%C4%83re%C8%99ti_-_Croitora%C8%99ii_cei_viteji.jpg/420px-Iosif_Berman_-_%C3%8Enchisoarea_V%C4%83c%C4%83re%C8%99ti_-_Croitora%C8%99ii_cei_viteji.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Iosif_Berman_-_%C3%8Enchisoarea_V%C4%83c%C4%83re%C8%99ti_-_Croitora%C8%99ii_cei_viteji.jpg/560px-Iosif_Berman_-_%C3%8Enchisoarea_V%C4%83c%C4%83re%C8%99ti_-_Croitora%C8%99ii_cei_viteji.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1395" /></a><figcaption>Male convicts sewing at the Văcărești prison in <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Romania</a>, 1930s.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Daressalaamconvicts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Daressalaamconvicts.jpg/280px-Daressalaamconvicts.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Daressalaamconvicts.jpg/420px-Daressalaamconvicts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Daressalaamconvicts.jpg/560px-Daressalaamconvicts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1166" data-file-height="821" /></a><figcaption>Female convicts chained together by their necks for work on a road. <a href="/wiki/Dar_es_Salaam" title="Dar es Salaam">Dar es Salaam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tanganyika_(territory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanganyika (territory)">Tanganyika</a> c.1890–1927.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery" title="Category:Slavery">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Shackles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/125px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/188px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/250px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="272" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Contemporary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">Bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">Forced prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">Involuntary servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Penal labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st-century jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Historical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Antiquity</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_law#Three_classes" title="Babylonian law">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Medieval Europe</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancillae" title="Ancillae">Ancillae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_serfdom" title="History of serfdom">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">In Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese_slave_trade" title="Genoese slave trade">Genoese slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Muslim world</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_al-Andalus" title="Slavery in al-Andalus">Slavery in al-Andalus</a> ‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukataba" title="Mukataba">Contract of manumission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_trade" title="Khivan slave trade">Khivan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_on_the_Barbary_Coast" title="Slavery on the Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">Sack of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raid_of_Su%C3%B0uroy" title="Slave raid of Suðuroy">Slave raid of Suðuroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Concubinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_imperial_harem" title="Safavid imperial harem">Safavid imperial harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_harem" title="Qajar harem">Qajar harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarya" title="Jarya">Jarya</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">Cariye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odalisque" title="Odalisque">Odalisque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">Qiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-walad" title="Umm al-walad">Umm al-walad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st century</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_slave_trade" title="Bristol slave trade">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade_to_Brazil" title="Atlantic slave trade to Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyages:_The_Trans-Atlantic_Slave_Trade_Database" title="Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantes_slave_trade" title="Nantes slave trade">Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyarring" title="Panyarring">Panyarring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America" title="Slavery in colonial Spanish America">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Thirteen colonies</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Topics and practice</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">Corvée labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_slave" title="House slave">House slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">Slave market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">Slave raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_children_in_the_military" title="History of children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_slavery" title="White slavery">White slavery</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Naval</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">Galley slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">Impressment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghaiing" title="Shanghaiing">Shanghaiing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">Slave ship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By country or region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Angola" title="Slavery in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Chad" title="Human trafficking in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Comoros" title="Slavery in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Seychelles" title="Slavery in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Somalia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali slave trade">Somali slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Zanzibar" title="Slavery in Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Americas">North and South America</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Pre-Columbian_America" title="Slavery in Pre-Columbian America">Pre-Columbian America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec slavery">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Americas indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">U.S. Natives</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary slavery in the United States">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">prison labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">Slave codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">interregional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Bahamas" title="Slavery in the Bahamas">The Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbados_Slave_Code" title="Barbados Slave Code">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Slavery in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Trinidad" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Latin_America" title="Slavery in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Lei Áurea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Colombia" title="Slavery in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Haiti" title="Slavery in Haiti">Haiti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restavek" title="Restavek">Restavek</a></li></ul></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Asia" title="Slavery in Asia">East, Southeast, and South Asia</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Human trafficking in Southeast Asia">Human trafficking in Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bhutan" title="Slavery in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brunei" title="Slavery in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">Laogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_India" title="Slavery in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage_in_India" title="Debt bondage in India">Debt bondage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukri_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Chukri System">Chukri System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Indonesia" title="Slavery in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Japan" title="Slavery in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwalliso" title="Kwalliso">Kwalliso</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malaysia" title="Slavery in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mongol_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mongol Empire">Slavery in the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Thailand" title="Slavery in Thailand">Thailand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_and_prostitution_in_South_Korea" title="United States military and prostitution in South Korea">Yankee princess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Vietnam" title="Slavery in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Oceania">Australia and Oceania</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Australia" title="Slavery in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Australia" title="Human trafficking in Australia">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding_in_Easter_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raiding in Easter Island">Slave raiding in Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea">Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding_in_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbirding in Polynesia">Blackbirding in Polynesia</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Europe and North Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Europe" title="Sex trafficking in Europe">Sex trafficking in Europe</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Penal labour in the United Kingdom">Penal Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_slave_trade" title="Danish slave trade">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Germany in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malta" title="Slavery in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Poland" title="Slavery in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_slave_trade" title="Swedish slave trade">Sweden</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>North Africa and West Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Afghanistan" title="Slavery in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human trafficking in the Middle East">Human trafficking in the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iraq" title="Slavery in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Jordan" title="Slavery in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Kuwait" title="Slavery in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Lebanon" title="Slavery in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Palestine" title="Slavery in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Syria" title="Slavery in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_slavery" title="Christian views on slavery">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_slavery" title="Mormonism and slavery">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí Faith and slavery">Baháʼí Faith</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Opposition and resistance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">Abolitionists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">Colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">Manumission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_suit" title="Freedom suit">Freedom suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">Slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abolition_of_slave_trade_in_Persian_gulf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf (page does not exist)">Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AC_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" class="extiw" title="fa:ممنوعیت تجارت برده در خلیج فارس">fa</a>]</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_common_law" title="Slavery at common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">Indentured servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Convention" title="Fugitive Slave Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">List of slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slave_owners" title="List of slave owners">owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_survivors_of_American_slavery" title="List of last survivors of American slavery">last survivors of American slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slavery-related_memorials_and_museums" title="List of slavery-related memorials and museums">List of slavery-related memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">Slave name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">Slave patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Route_Project" title="The Slave Route Project">Slave Route Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_in_the_United_States_involving_slavery" title="List of court cases in the United States involving slavery">court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">J.Q. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Lincoln</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_acres_and_a_mule" title="Forty acres and a mule">40 acres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_iron_bit" title="Slave iron bit">Iron bit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Day" title="Emancipation Day">Emancipation Day</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Forced_labour" title="Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Forced_labour" title="Template talk:Forced labour"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Forced_labour" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Penal labour</b> is a term for various kinds of <a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">forced labour</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that <a href="/wiki/Prisoner" title="Prisoner">prisoners</a> are required to perform, typically <a href="/wiki/Manual_labour" title="Manual labour">manual labour</a>. The work may be light or hard, depending on the context.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forms of <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(law)" title="Sentence (law)">sentence</a> involving penal labour have included <b>involuntary servitude</b>, <b>penal servitude</b>, and <b>imprisonment with hard labour</b>. The term may refer to several related scenarios: labour as a form of punishment, the <a href="/wiki/Prison_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison system">prison system</a> used as a means to secure labour, and labour as providing occupation for convicts. These scenarios can be applied to those imprisoned for political, religious, war, or other reasons as well as to criminal convicts. </p><p>Large-scale implementations of penal labour include <a href="/wiki/Labour_camps" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour camps">labour camps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prison_farm" title="Prison farm">prison farms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Penal_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Penal colonies">penal colonies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Penal_military_unit" title="Penal military unit">penal military units</a>, <a href="/wiki/Penal_transportation" title="Penal transportation">penal transportation</a>, or aboard <a href="/wiki/Prison_ship" title="Prison ship">prison ships</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Punitive_versus_productive_labour">Punitive versus productive labour</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Punitive versus productive labour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Punitive labour</b>, also known as <b>convict</b> labour, <b>prison</b> labour, or <b>hard labour</b>, is a form of forced labour used in both the past and the present as an additional form of punishment beyond imprisonment alone. Punitive labour encompasses two types: productive labour, such as industrial work; and intrinsically pointless tasks used as primitive <a href="/wiki/Occupational_therapy" title="Occupational therapy">occupational therapy</a>, punishment, or physical torment. </p><p>Sometimes authorities turn prison labour into an industry, as on a <a href="/wiki/Prison_farm" title="Prison farm">prison farm</a> or in a prison workshop. In such cases, the pursuit of income from their productive labour may even overtake the preoccupation with punishment or reeducation as such of the prisoners, who are then at risk of being exploited as slave-like cheap labour (profit may be minor after expenses, e.g. on security). This is sometimes not the case, and the income goes to defray the costs of the prison. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian</a> inmates commonly worked the <a href="/wiki/Penal_treadmill" title="Penal treadmill">treadmill</a>. In some cases, it was productive labour to grind grain (an example of using convict labour to meet costs); in others, it served no purpose. Similar punishments included turning the <a href="/wiki/Crank_machine" title="Crank machine">crank machine</a> or carrying cannonballs.<sup id="cite_ref-inveraray_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inveraray-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Semi-punitive labour also included <a href="/wiki/Oakum" title="Oakum">oakum</a>-picking: teasing apart old tarry rope to make <a href="/wiki/Caulking" class="mw-redirect" title="Caulking">caulking</a> material for sailing vessels. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_Empire">British Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: British Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Penal_Servitude_Act" title="Penal Servitude Act">Penal Servitude Act</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pentonville_Prison_Treadmill_1895.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pentonville_Prison_Treadmill_1895.jpg/220px-Pentonville_Prison_Treadmill_1895.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pentonville_Prison_Treadmill_1895.jpg/330px-Pentonville_Prison_Treadmill_1895.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pentonville_Prison_Treadmill_1895.jpg/440px-Pentonville_Prison_Treadmill_1895.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="486" /></a><figcaption>Prisoners at the treadmill in <a href="/wiki/HM_Prison_Pentonville" title="HM Prison Pentonville">Pentonville Prison</a>, London, 1895</figcaption></figure> <p>Imprisonment with hard labour was first introduced into English law with the <b>Criminal Law Act 1776 </b>(<a href="/wiki/16_Geo._3" class="mw-redirect" title="16 Geo. 3">16 Geo. 3</a>. c. 43),<sup id="cite_ref-NatArch_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NatArch-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also known as the "<a href="/wiki/List_of_British_prison_hulks" title="List of British prison hulks">Hulks Act</a>", which authorised prisoners being put to work on improving the navigation of the <a href="/wiki/River_Thames" title="River Thames">River Thames</a> in lieu of <a href="/wiki/Penal_transportation" title="Penal transportation">transportation</a> to the <a href="/wiki/British_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="British colonization of the Americas">North American colonies</a>, which had become impossible due to the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American War of Independence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-OldBailey_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OldBailey-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Penal_Servitude_Act_1853" class="mw-redirect" title="Penal Servitude Act 1853">Penal Servitude Act 1853</a> (16 & 17 Vict. c. 99), <sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> substituted penal servitude for transportation to a distant British colony, except in cases where a person could be sentenced to transportation for life or for a term not less than fourteen years. Section 2 of the Penal Servitude Act 1857 (20 & 21 Vict. c. 3)<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> abolished the sentence of transportation in all cases and provided that in all cases a person who would otherwise have been liable to transportation would be liable to penal servitude instead. Section 1 of the Penal Servitude Act 1891<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> makes provision for enactments which authorise a sentence of penal servitude but do not specify a maximum duration. It must now be read subject to section 1(1) of the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_Justice_Act_1948" title="Criminal Justice Act 1948">Criminal Justice Act 1948</a>. </p><p>Sentences of penal servitude were served in convict prisons and were controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Home_Office" title="Home Office">Home Office</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Prison_Commission_(England_and_Wales)" title="Prison Commission (England and Wales)">Prison Commissioners</a>. After sentencing, convicts would be classified according to the seriousness of the offence of which they were convicted and their criminal record. First time offenders would be classified in the Star class; persons not suitable for the Star class, but without serious convictions would be classified in the intermediate class. Habitual offenders would be classified in the <a href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">Recidivist</a> class. Care was taken to ensure that convicts in one class did not mix with convicts in another. </p><p>Penal servitude included hard labour as a standard feature. Although it was prescribed for severe crimes (e.g. rape, attempted murder, wounding with intent, by the <a href="/wiki/Offences_against_the_Person_Act_1861" class="mw-redirect" title="Offences against the Person Act 1861">Offences against the Person Act 1861</a>) it was also widely applied in cases of minor crime, such as <a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">petty theft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vagrancy_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vagrancy (people)">vagrancy</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Victimless_crime" title="Victimless crime">victimless behaviour</a> deemed harmful to the fabric of society. Notable recipients of hard labour under British law include the prolific writer <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Oscar Wilde</a> (after his conviction for <a href="/wiki/Gross_indecency" title="Gross indecency">gross indecency</a>), imprisoned in <a href="/wiki/HM_Prison_Reading" title="HM Prison Reading">Reading Gaol</a>. </p><p>Labour was sometimes useful. In <a href="/wiki/Inveraray_Jail" title="Inveraray Jail">Inveraray Jail</a> from 1839 prisoners worked up to ten hours a day. Most male prisoners made herring nets or picked <a href="/wiki/Oakum" title="Oakum">oakum</a> (Inveraray was a busy herring port); those with skills were often employed where their skills could be used, such as shoemaking, tailoring or joinery. Female prisoners picked oakum, knitted stockings or sewed.<sup id="cite_ref-inveraray_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inveraray-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Forms of labour for punishment included the <a href="/wiki/Penal_treadmill" title="Penal treadmill">treadmill</a>, shot drill, and the <a href="/wiki/Crank_machine" title="Crank machine">crank machine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-inveraray_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inveraray-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Treadmills</b> for punishment were used for decades in British prisons beginning in 1818; they often took the form of large paddle wheels some 20 feet in diameter with 24 steps around a six-foot cylinder. Prisoners had to work six or more hours a day, climbing the equivalent of 5,000 to 14,000 vertical feet. While the purpose was mainly punitive, the mills could have been used to grind grain, pump water, or operate a ventilation system.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Shot drill</b> involved stooping without bending the knees, lifting a heavy cannonball slowly to chest height, taking three steps to the right, replacing it on the ground, stepping back three paces, and repeating, moving cannonballs from one pile to another.<sup id="cite_ref-inveraray_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inveraray-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <b>crank machine</b> was a device which turned a <a href="/wiki/Crank_(mechanism)" title="Crank (mechanism)">crank</a> by hand which in turn forced four large cups or ladles through sand inside a drum, doing nothing useful. Male prisoners had to turn the handle 6,000–14,400 times over the period of six hours a day (1.5–3.6 seconds per turn), as registered on a dial. The warder could make the task harder by tightening an adjusting screw.<sup id="cite_ref-inveraray_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inveraray-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Convict_labourers_in_Australia_in_the_early_20th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Convict_labourers_in_Australia_in_the_early_20th_century.jpg/220px-Convict_labourers_in_Australia_in_the_early_20th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Convict_labourers_in_Australia_in_the_early_20th_century.jpg/330px-Convict_labourers_in_Australia_in_the_early_20th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Convict_labourers_in_Australia_in_the_early_20th_century.jpg/440px-Convict_labourers_in_Australia_in_the_early_20th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="672" data-file-height="416" /></a><figcaption>Convict labourers in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> in the early 20th century</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_penal_colonies" title="List of Australian penal colonies">British penal colonies in Australia</a> between 1788 and 1868 provide a major historical example of convict labour, as described above: during that period, Australia received thousands of transported convict labourers, many of whom had received harsh sentences for minor <a href="/wiki/Misdemeanor" title="Misdemeanor">misdemeanours</a> in Britain or <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>. </p><p>As late as 1885, 75% of all prison inmates were involved in some sort of productive endeavour, mostly in private contract and leasing systems. By 1935, the portion of prisoners working had fallen to 44%, and almost 90% of those worked in state-run programmes rather than for private contractors.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to section 45(1) of the <a href="/wiki/National_Minimum_Wage_Act_1998" title="National Minimum Wage Act 1998">National Minimum Wage Act 1998</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> prisoners are excluded from the national minimum wage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="England_and_Wales">England and Wales</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: England and Wales"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coldbath-fields-oakum-room-mayhew-p301.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Coldbath-fields-oakum-room-mayhew-p301.jpg/220px-Coldbath-fields-oakum-room-mayhew-p301.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Coldbath-fields-oakum-room-mayhew-p301.jpg/330px-Coldbath-fields-oakum-room-mayhew-p301.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Coldbath-fields-oakum-room-mayhew-p301.jpg/440px-Coldbath-fields-oakum-room-mayhew-p301.jpg 2x" data-file-width="927" data-file-height="619" /></a><figcaption>Prisoners picking oakum at <a href="/wiki/Coldbath_Fields_Prison" title="Coldbath Fields Prison">Coldbath Fields Prison</a> in London, circa 1864</figcaption></figure> <p>Penal servitude was abolished for <a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a> by section 1(1) of the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_Justice_Act_1948" title="Criminal Justice Act 1948">Criminal Justice Act 1948</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Every enactment conferring power on a court to pass a sentence of penal servitude in any case must be construed as conferring power to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term not exceeding the maximum term of penal servitude for which a sentence could have been passed in that case immediately before the commencement of that Act. </p><p>Imprisonment with hard labour was abolished by section 1(2) of that Act. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Northern_Ireland">Northern Ireland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Northern Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Penal servitude was abolished for <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> by section 1(1) of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_Justice_Act_(Northern_Ireland)_1953&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Criminal Justice Act (Northern Ireland) 1953 (page does not exist)">Criminal Justice Act (Northern Ireland) 1953</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Every enactment which operated to empower a court to pass a sentence of penal servitude in any case now operates so as to empower that court to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term not exceeding the maximum term of penal servitude for which a sentence could have been passed in that case immediately before the commencement of that Act. </p><p>Imprisonment with hard labour was abolished by section 1(2) of that Act. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scotland">Scotland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Scotland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Penal servitude was abolished in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo6/12-13-14/94/section/16/enacted">section 16(1)</a> of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_Justice_(Scotland)_Act_1949&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 1949 (page does not exist)">Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 1949</a> on 12 June 1950, and imprisonment with hard labour was abolished by section 16(2) of the act. </p><p>Every enactment conferring power on a court to pass a sentence of penal servitude in any case must be construed as conferring power to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term not exceeding the maximum term of penal servitude for which a sentence could have been passed in that case immediately before 12 June 1950. But this does not empower any court, other than the High Court, to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term exceeding three years. </p><p>See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1975/21/section/221">section 221</a> of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_Procedure_(Scotland)_Act_1975&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1975 (page does not exist)">Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1975</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1995/46/section/307">section 307(4)</a> of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_Procedure_(Scotland)_Act_1995&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1995 (page does not exist)">Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1995</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">Laogai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Re-education_through_labor" title="Re-education through labor">Re-education through labor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_internment_camps" title="Xinjiang internment camps">Xinjiang internment camps</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%9349)" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China (1912–49)">pre-Maoist China</a>, a system of labour camps for <a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">political prisoners</a> operated by the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> forces of <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> existed during the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> from 1938 to 1949. Young activists and students accused of supporting <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> (CCP) were arrested and re-educated in the spirit of <a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">anti-communism</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Youth_Labor_Camp" title="Northwestern Youth Labor Camp">Northwestern Youth Labor Camp</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mühlhahn_2009,_132-133_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mühlhahn_2009,_132-133-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the CCP took power in 1949 and established the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>, <i>laojiao</i> (<a href="/wiki/Re-education_through_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Re-education through labour">Re-education through labour</a>) and <i>laogai</i> (<a href="/wiki/Reform_through_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Reform through labour">Reform through labour</a>) was (and still is in some cases) used as a way to punish <a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">political prisoners</a>. They were intended not only for criminals, but also for those deemed to be counter-revolutionary (political and/or religious prisoners).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often these prisoners are used to produce products for export to <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">the West</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_internment_camps" title="Xinjiang internment camps">Xinjiang internment camps</a> represent a source of penal labour in China according to <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Zenz" title="Adrian Zenz">Adrien Zenz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 2002, some prisoners have been eligible to receive payment for their labour.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (September 2024)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prison inmates can work<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> either for the prison (directly, by performing tasks linked to prison operation, or for the Régie Industrielle des Établissements Pénitentiaires, which produces and sells merchandise) or for a private company, in the framework of a prison/company agreement for leasing inmate labour.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Work ceased being compulsory for sentenced inmates in France in 1987. From the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution of 1789</a>, the prison system has been governed by a new penal code.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some prisons became quasi-factories, in the nineteenth century, many discussions focused on the issue of competition between free labour and prison labour. Prison work was temporarily prohibited during the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">French Revolution of 1848</a>. Prison labour then specialised in the production of goods sold to government departments (and directly to prisons, for example guards' uniforms), or in small low-skilled manual labour (mainly subcontracting to small local industries).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Forced labour was widely used in the African colonies. One of the most emblematic projects, the construction of the Congo-Ocean railway (140 km or 87 miles) cost the lives of 17,000 indigenous workers in 1929. In Cameroon, the 6,000 workers on the Douala-Yaoundé railway line had a mortality rate of 61.7% according to a report by the authorities. Forced labour was officially abolished in the colonies in 1946 under pressure from the <a href="/wiki/Rassemblement_d%C3%A9mocratique_africain" class="mw-redirect" title="Rassemblement démocratique africain">Rassemblement démocratique africain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/French_Communist_Party" title="French Communist Party">French Communist Party</a>. In fact, it lasted well into the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_India" title="Prisons in India">Prisons in India</a></div> <p>Only convicts sentenced to "rigorous imprisonment" have to undertake work during their prison term. A 2011 <i><a href="/wiki/Hindustan_Times" title="Hindustan Times">Hindustan Times</a></i> article reported that 99% of convicts that receive such sentences rarely undertake work because most <a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_India" title="Prisons in India">prisons in India</a> do not have sufficient demand for prison labour.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Indian Penal Code prior to 1949, Many sections prescribed penal servitude for life as a viable punishment. This was removed by Act No. XVII of 1949, known as the Criminal Law (Removal of Racial Discriminations) Act, 1949 <sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ireland">Ireland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Penal servitude was abolished in <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a> by section 11(1) of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_Law_Act,_1997&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Criminal Law Act, 1997 (page does not exist)">Criminal Law Act, 1997</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Every enactment conferring a power on a court to pass a sentence of penal servitude in any case must be treated as an enactment empowering that court to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term not exceeding the maximum term of penal servitude for which a sentence could have been passed in that case immediately before the commencement of the Criminal Law Act 1997. </p><p>In the case of any enactment in force on 5 August 1891 (the date on which section 1 of the Penal Servitude Act 1891 came into force) whereby a court had, immediately before the commencement of the Criminal Law Act 1997, power to pass a sentence of penal servitude, the maximum term of imprisonment may not exceed five years or any greater term authorised by the enactment. </p><p>Imprisonment with hard labour was abolished by section 11(3) of that Act. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Penal_system_of_Japan" title="Penal system of Japan">Penal system of Japan</a></div> <p>Most Japanese prisoners are required to engage in prison labour, often in <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a> parts which are then sold cheaply to private Japanese companies. This practice has raised charges of <a href="/wiki/Unfair_competition" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfair competition">unfair competition</a> since the prisoners' wages are far below market rate. </p><p>During the early <a href="/wiki/Meiji_era" title="Meiji era">Meiji era</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Hokkaido" title="Hokkaido">Hokkaido</a> many prisoners were forced to engage in <a href="/wiki/Road_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Road construction">road construction</a> (<span title="Hepburn transliteration"><i lang="ja-Latn">Shūjin dōro</i></span><span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%9A%E4%BA%BA%E9%81%93%E8%B7%AF_(%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E5%8F%B2)" class="extiw" title="ja:囚人道路 (日本史)">囚人道路</a></span></span>)</span>), <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Railroad_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Railroad construction">railroad construction</a>, which were severe. It was thought to be a form of <a href="/wiki/Unfree_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfree labour">unfree labour</a>. It was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">indentured servitude</a> (<span title="Hepburn transliteration"><i lang="ja-Latn">Takobeya-rōdō</i></span><span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%BF%E3%82%B3%E9%83%A8%E5%B1%8B%E5%8A%B4%E5%83%8D" class="extiw" title="ja:タコ部屋労働">タコ部屋労働</a></span></span>)</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Netherlands">Netherlands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Netherlands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>(Hard) penal labour does not exist in the Netherlands, but a light variant consisting of <a href="/wiki/Community_service" title="Community service">community service</a> (Dutch: <i>taakstraf</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is one of the primary punishments<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2021)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> which can be imposed on a convicted offender.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The maximum punishment is 240 hours, according to article 22c, part 2 of <a href="/wiki/Wetboek_van_Strafrecht" class="mw-redirect" title="Wetboek van Strafrecht">Wetboek van Strafrecht</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The labour must be done in their free time. Reclassering Nederland keeps track of those who were sentenced to community services.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: New Zealand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nzlii.org/nz/legis/hist_act/cja19541954n50199/">Criminal Justice Act 1954</a> abolished the distinction between imprisonment with and without hard labour and replaced 'reformative detention' with 'corrective training',<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was later abolished on 30 June 2002.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_Korea">North Korea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: North Korea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prisons_in_North_Korea" title="Prisons in North Korea">Prisons in North Korea</a></div> <p>North Korean prison camps can be differentiated into <a href="/wiki/Internment_camps_in_North_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Internment camps in North Korea">internment camps for political prisoners</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kwalliso" title="Kwalliso">Kwan-li-so</a> in Korean) and <a href="/wiki/Re-education_camp_(North_Korea)" class="mw-redirect" title="Re-education camp (North Korea)">reeducation camps</a> (Kyo-hwa-so in Korean).<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to human rights organisations, the prisoners face forced hard labour in all North Korean prison camps.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conditions are harsh and life-threatening<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and prisoners are subject to torture and inhumane treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_Union">Soviet Union</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Soviet Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a>, <a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer in the Soviet Union</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Katorga_labor_(Soviet_Union)" title="Katorga labor (Soviet Union)">Katorga labor (Soviet Union)</a></div> <p>Another historically significant example of forced labour was that of <a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">political prisoners</a> and other persecuted people in <a href="/wiki/Labor_camp" title="Labor camp">labour camps</a>, especially in totalitarian regimes since the 20th century where millions of convicts were exploited and often killed by hard labour and bad living conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For much of the history of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">Communist states</a>, political opponents of these governments were often sentenced to forced labour camps. These forced labour camps are called Gulags, an acronym for the government organisation that was in charge of them.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet Gulag camps were a continuation of the punitive labour system of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Russia">Imperial Russia</a> known as <i><a href="/wiki/Katorga" title="Katorga">katorga</a></i>, but on a larger scale. The kulaks were some of the first victims of the Soviet Union's forced labour system. Starting in 1930, nearly two million kulaks were taken to camps in unpopulated regions of the Soviet Union and forced to work in very harsh conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most inmates in the Gulag were ordinary criminals: between 1934 and 1953 there were only two years, 1946 and 1947, when the number of counter-revolutionary prisoners exceeded that of ordinary criminals, partly because the Soviet state had <a href="/wiki/Amnesty" title="Amnesty">amnestied</a> 1 million ordinary criminals as part of the victory celebrations in 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-Geoffrey_Roberts_2008_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geoffrey_Roberts_2008-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 343">: 343 </span></sup> At the height of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">purges</a> in the 1930s political prisoners made up 12% of the camp population; at the time of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>'s death just over one-quarter. In the 1930s, many ordinary criminals were guilty of crimes that would have been punished with a fine or community service in the 1920s. They were victims of harsher laws from the early 1930s, driven, in part, by the need for more prison camp labour.<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_Overy_2004_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Overy_2004-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 930">: 930 </span></sup> </p><p>The Gulags constituted a large portion of the Soviet Union's overall economy. Over half of the tin produced in the Soviet Union was produced by the Gulags. In 1951, the Gulags extracted over four times as much gold as the rest of the economy. Gulag camps also produced all of the diamonds and platinum in the Soviet Union, and forced labourers in the Gulags constituted approximately one fifth of all construction labourers in the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 1930 and 1960, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> regime created many <a href="/wiki/Labor_camps" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor camps">labour camps</a> in <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were at least 476 separate camp complexes, each one comprising hundreds, even thousands of individual camps.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is estimated that there may have been 5–7 million people in these camps at any one time. In later years the camps also held victims of Joseph Stalin's purges as well as <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> <a href="/wiki/POW" class="mw-redirect" title="POW">prisoners</a>. It is possible that approximately 10% of prisoners died each year.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Out of the 91,000 German soldiers captured after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a>, only 6,000 survived the Gulag and returned home.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these prisoners, however, had died of illness contracted during the siege of Stalingrad and in the forced march into captivity.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than half of all deaths occurred in 1941–1944, mostly as a result of the deteriorating food and medicine supplies caused by wartime shortages.<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_Overy_2004_927_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Overy_2004_927-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 927">: 927 </span></sup> </p><p>Probably the worst of the camp complexes were the three built north of the Arctic Circle at <a href="/wiki/Kolyma" title="Kolyma">Kolyma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norilsk" title="Norilsk">Norilsk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vorkuta" title="Vorkuta">Vorkuta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Applebaum_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Applebaum-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prisoners in Soviet labour camps were sometimes worked to death with a mix of extreme <a href="/wiki/Production_quota" title="Production quota">production quotas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">brutality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hunger" title="Hunger">hunger</a> and the harsh elements.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In all, more than 18 million people passed through the <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with further millions being <a href="/wiki/Forced_settlements_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced settlements in the Soviet Union">deported and exiled</a> to remote areas of the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fatality rate was as high as 80% during the first months in many camps. Immediately after the start of the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">German invasion</a> of the Soviet Union during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the <a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacres" title="NKVD prisoner massacres">NKVD massacred</a> about 100,000 prisoners who awaited deportation either to NKVD prisons in <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> or to the Gulag. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taiwan">Taiwan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Taiwan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Inmates in Taiwan are required to work during their stay in prison but receive a wage for their labour.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">Penal labor in the United States</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Federal_Prison_Industries" title="Federal Prison Industries">Federal Prison Industries</a> (FPI; <a href="/wiki/Trade_name" title="Trade name">doing business as</a> UNICOR since 1977) is a wholly owned <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> <a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprise" title="State-owned enterprise">government corporation</a> created in 1934 that uses penal labour from the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Prisons" title="Federal Bureau of Prisons">Federal Bureau of Prisons</a> (BOP) to produce goods and services. FPI is restricted to selling its products and services, which include clothing, furniture, electrical components and vehicle parts, to federal government agencies and has no access to the commercial market so as not to compete against private employment.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_United_States_state_prisons" title="Lists of United States state prisons">State prison systems</a> also use penal labour and have their own penal labour divisions. This has changed over time since the beginning of for-profit prisons in the United States. One of the first for-profit prisons was <a href="/wiki/Auburn_Prison" class="mw-redirect" title="Auburn Prison">Auburn Prison</a>, located in Auburn, New York, along the <a href="/wiki/Owasco_River" title="Owasco River">Owasco River</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prison was constructed in 1816 and prison labor was used to produce common goods like combs, shoes, animal harnesses, carpets, buckets, and barrels. Goods were originally produced and made for use inside the prison only, but expanded to produce products for outside sale in the 1820s to increase the prison's profits and support the prison financially. As historian Robin Bernstein demonstrates, this system of for-profit prison labor expanded to other state prisons throughout the United States within the next fifteen years, well before the convict-leasing system of the post-Civil War era.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment of the US Constitution</a>, enacted in 1865, explicitly allows penal labour as it states that "neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for a crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction".<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unconvicted detainees awaiting trial cannot be forced to participate in forced rehabilitative labour programs in prison as it violates the Thirteenth Amendment. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Convicts_Leased_to_Harvest_Timber.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Convicts_Leased_to_Harvest_Timber.png/220px-Convicts_Leased_to_Harvest_Timber.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Convicts_Leased_to_Harvest_Timber.png/330px-Convicts_Leased_to_Harvest_Timber.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Convicts_Leased_to_Harvest_Timber.png/440px-Convicts_Leased_to_Harvest_Timber.png 2x" data-file-width="1084" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Convicts leased to harvest timber in Florida, circa 1915</figcaption></figure> <p>The "<a href="/wiki/Convict_lease" class="mw-redirect" title="Convict lease">convict lease</a>" system became popular throughout the South following the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> and continued into the 20th century. Yet, as historian Robin Bernstein demonstrates, the convict leasing system and the use of prison labor for profit began well before the Civil War in <a href="/wiki/Auburn,_New_York" title="Auburn, New York">Auburn, New York</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this early period of convict leasing, prisoners at Auburn Prison were not paid for their labor. Bernstein explains the reasoning behind this refusal to pay wages to prison laborers in her analysis of one of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Auburn_Prison_System&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Auburn Prison System (page does not exist)">Auburn Prison System</a>'s main architects Elam Lynds, stating: </p> <blockquote><p> ...Lynds aimed for profit. To him, a prisoner was like a slave, a machine, or a river: a resource to be exploited. Therefore the extraction of prisoners' labor, like that of slaves, should be limited by only the capacity of their human bodies. He believed that incarcerated men had no inherent right to benefit from their labor -vocationally, morally, or otherwise. Lynds's ideal prisoner was "reduced to a silent insulated human working machine."<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>New York State's Auburn Prison was not the only prison to adopt such practices. From 1817-1844, seventeen states across the United States North, South, and West, as well as Washington, D.C. and parts of Canada adopted this system.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow</a> former slaves were often arrested and worked in much the same way as before the war. Since the impoverished state governments could not afford penitentiaries, they leased out prisoners to work at private firms. Reformers abolished convict leasing in the 20th-century <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a>. At the same time, labour has been required at many prisons. </p><p>In 1934, federal prison officials concerned about growing unrest in prisons lobbied to create a work program. Private companies got involved again in 1979, when Congress passed a law establishing the Prison Industry Enhancement Certification Program which allows employment opportunities for prisoners in some circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Penal labour is sometimes used as a punishment in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">US military</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over the years, the courts have held that inmates may be required to work and are not protected by the constitutional prohibition against involuntary servitude.<sup id="cite_ref-General_Accounting_Office_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-General_Accounting_Office-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Correctional standards promulgated by the <a href="/wiki/American_Correctional_Association" title="American Correctional Association">American Correctional Association</a> provide that sentenced inmates, who are generally housed in maximum, medium, or minimum <a href="/wiki/Types_of_US_federal_prisons" class="mw-redirect" title="Types of US federal prisons">security prisons</a>, be required to work and be paid for that work.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some states require, as with Arizona, all able-bodied inmates to work.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 2010 to 2015<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and again in <a href="/wiki/2016_U.S._prison_strike" title="2016 U.S. prison strike">2016</a><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/2018_U.S._Prison_Strike" class="mw-redirect" title="2018 U.S. Prison Strike">2018</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some prisoners in the US <a href="/wiki/Prison_strike" title="Prison strike">refused to work</a>, protesting for better pay, better conditions and for the end of forced labour. Strike leaders have been punished with indefinite <a href="/wiki/Solitary_confinement" title="Solitary confinement">solitary confinement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forced prison labour occurs in both public and <a href="/wiki/Private_prison" title="Private prison">private prisons</a>. The prison labour industry makes over $1 billion per year selling products that inmates make, while inmates are paid very little or nothing in return.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In California, 2,500 incarcerated workers fight <a href="/wiki/List_of_California_wildfires" title="List of California wildfires">wildfires</a> for $1 an hour through the CDCR's <a href="/wiki/California_fire_camps" class="mw-redirect" title="California fire camps">Conservation Camp Program</a>; the voluntary participation of prisoners in this work saves the state as much as $100 million a year.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The prison strikes of 2018, sponsored by Jailhouse Lawyers Speak and the <a href="/wiki/Incarcerated_Workers_Organizing_Committee" title="Incarcerated Workers Organizing Committee">Incarcerated Workers Organizing Committee</a>, are considered the largest in the country's history. In particular, inmates objected to being excluded from the 13th Amendment which forces them to work for pennies a day, a condition they assert is tantamount to "modern-day slavery".<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prison industries today are often operating at a loss, with much of the labour undertaken by prisoners actually constituting "prison housework" rather than productive activity.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-punitive_prison_labour">Non-punitive prison labour</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Non-punitive prison labour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inmateswork.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Inmateswork.JPG/220px-Inmateswork.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Inmateswork.JPG/330px-Inmateswork.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Inmateswork.JPG/440px-Inmateswork.JPG 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="472" /></a><figcaption>Inmates sewing in a <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazilian</a> prison</figcaption></figure> <p>In a number of penal systems, inmates have the possibility of getting jobs. This may serve several purposes. One goal is to give an inmate a meaningful way to occupy their prison time and a possibility of earning some money. It may also play an important role in resocialisation as inmates may acquire skills that would help them to find a job after release. It may also have an important <a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">penological</a> function: reducing the monotony of prison life for the inmate, keeping inmates busy on productive activities, rather than, for example, potentially violent or antisocial activities, and helping to increase inmate fitness, and thus decrease health problems, rather than letting inmates succumb to a sedentary lifestyle.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The classic occupation in 20th-century British prisons was sewing mailbags. This has diversified into areas such as engineering, furniture making, desktop publishing, repairing wheelchairs and producing traffic signs, but such opportunities are not widely available, and many prisoners who work perform routine prison maintenance tasks (such as in the prison kitchen) or obsolete unskilled assembly work (such as in the prison laundry) that is argued to be no preparation for work after release.<sup id="cite_ref-Independent-Mailbags_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Independent-Mailbags-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Classic 20th-century American prisoner work involved making <a href="/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plate" title="Vehicle registration plate">license plates</a>; the task is still being performed by inmates in certain areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Gazette-LicensePlates_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gazette-LicensePlates-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:30%; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7; min-width: 25em"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>Many businesses, large and small, already make use of prison workshops to produce high quality goods and services and do so profitably. They are not only investing in prisons but in the future of their companies and the country as a whole. I urge others to follow their lead and seize the opportunity that working prisons offer. </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">—<a href="/wiki/David_Cameron" title="David Cameron">David Cameron</a>, UK Prime Minister<sup id="cite_ref-cameron1_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cameron1-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <p>A significant amount of controversy has arisen with regard to the use of prison labour if the prison in question is <a href="/wiki/Privatised" class="mw-redirect" title="Privatised">privatised</a>. Many of these privatised prisons exist in the Southern <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, where roughly 7% of the prison population are within privately owned institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Goods produced through this penal labour are regulated through the <a href="/wiki/Ashurst-Sumners_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashurst-Sumners Act">Ashurst-Sumners Act</a> which criminalises the interstate transport of such goods. </p><p>The advent of automated production in the 20th and 21st century has reduced the availability of unskilled physical work for inmates. </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=ONE3ONE_Solutions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ONE3ONE Solutions (page does not exist)">ONE3ONE Solutions</a>, formerly the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Prison_Industries_Unit&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prison Industries Unit (page does not exist)">Prison Industries Unit</a> in Britain, has proposed the development of in-house prison call centres.<sup id="cite_ref-Malik1_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malik1-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Slavery in the 21st century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashurst-Sumners_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashurst-Sumners Act">Ashurst-Sumners Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chain_gang" title="Chain gang">Chain gang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_service" title="Community service">Community service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convict_lease" class="mw-redirect" title="Convict lease">Convict lease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coproduction_of_public_services_by_service_users_and_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Coproduction of public services by service users and communities">Coproduction of public services by service users and communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">Galley slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trusty_system_(prison)" title="Trusty system (prison)">Trusty system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNICOR" class="mw-redirect" title="UNICOR">UNICOR</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSecretariat1962" class="citation journal cs1">Secretariat, United Nations. 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BeWrite Books. p. 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-906609-43-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-906609-43-6"><bdi>978-1-906609-43-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+A-Z+of+Punishment+and+Torture&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=BeWrite+Books&rft.isbn=978-1-906609-43-6&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Irene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy-1MSMxWekQC%26pg%3DPT134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+labour" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReynolds1994" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Morgan_Reynolds" title="Morgan Reynolds">Reynolds, Morgan O.</a> (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/openview/636fd003fb31089403a2c13c7fab7799/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1819661">"Using the Private Sector to Deter Crime"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Social,_Political_and_Economic_Studies" title="Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies">Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies</a></i>. <b>19</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Policy_Analysis" title="National Center for Policy Analysis">National Center for Policy Analysis</a>: 33.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Social%2C+Political+and+Economic+Studies&rft.atitle=Using+the+Private+Sector+to+Deter+Crime&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=33&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=Morgan+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fopenview%2F636fd003fb31089403a2c13c7fab7799%2F1%3Fpq-origsite%3Dgscholar%26cbl%3D1819661&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+labour" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1998/39/section/45">Section 45</a> of the National Minimum Wage Act 1998</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo6/11-12/58/section/1">section 1(1)</a> of the Criminal Justice Act 1948</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/apni/1953/14/section/1">section 1(1)</a> of the Criminal Justice Act (Northern Ireland) 1953</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mühlhahn_2009,_132-133-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mühlhahn_2009,_132-133_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mühlhahn, Klaus (2009). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YXC2mmpfHgEC">Criminal Justice in China: A History</a></i>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gazette.com/articles/plates_9731___article.html/job_prison.html">the original</a> on 23 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Gazette+%28Colorado+Springs%2C+CO%29&rft.atitle=Colorado+inmates%3A+Making+license+plates+since+1926&rft.date=2006-03-05&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gazette.com%2Farticles%2Fplates_9731___article.html%2Fjob_prison.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+labour" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cameron1-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cameron1_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCameron2005" class="citation web cs1">Cameron, David (24 May 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.one3one.justice.gov.uk/a-fair-approach/a-message-from-the-pm/">"A message from the PM"</a>. ONE3ONE Solutions<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+message+from+the+PM&rft.pub=ONE3ONE+Solutions&rft.date=2005-05-24&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.one3one.justice.gov.uk%2Fa-fair-approach%2Fa-message-from-the-pm%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+labour" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2007" class="citation journal cs1">Wood, Phillip J. (1 September 2007). "Globalization and Prison Privatization: Why Are Most of the World's For-Profit Adult Prisons to Be Found in the American South?". <i>International Political Sociology</i>. <b>1</b> (3): 222–239. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-5687.2007.00015.x">10.1111/j.1749-5687.2007.00015.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1749-5687">1749-5687</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Political+Sociology&rft.atitle=Globalization+and+Prison+Privatization%3A+Why+Are+Most+of+the+World%27s+For-Profit+Adult+Prisons+to+Be+Found+in+the+American+South%3F&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=222-239&rft.date=2007-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-5687.2007.00015.x&rft.issn=1749-5687&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Phillip+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+labour" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Malik1-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Malik1_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalik2012" class="citation news cs1">Malik, Shiv (9 August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2012/aug/09/prison-call-centre-plans-revealed">"Prison call centre plans revealed"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Prison+call+centre+plans+revealed&rft.date=2012-08-09&rft.aulast=Malik&rft.aufirst=Shiv&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fsociety%2F2012%2Faug%2F09%2Fprison-call-centre-plans-revealed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+labour" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Douglas A. Blackmon. <i>Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black People in America from the Civil War to World War II</i> (2008)</li> <li>Matthew J. Mancini. <i>One Dies, Get Another: Convict Leasing in the American South, 1866–1928</i> (1996)</li> <li>Alex Lichtenstein. <i>Twice the Work of Free Labor: The Political Economy of Convict Labor in the New South</i> (1996)</li> <li>David M. Oshinsky. <i>"Worse than Slavery": Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice</i> (1996).</li> <li>Bloom, D. (2006). <i>Employment Focused Programs for Ex-Prisoners: What Have We Learned, What Are We Learning, and Where Should We Go From Here?</i> New York: National Poverty Center.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_labour&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Penal_labor" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Penal labor">Penal labor</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ca2.uscourts.gov/decisions/isysquery/e653bb16-a422-4e29-ae38-78b00df49844/1/doc/10-669_opn.pdf#xml=http://www.ca2.uscourts.gov/decisions/isysquery/e653bb16-a422-4e29-ae38-78b00df49844/1/hilite/">McGarry v. 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