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vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Current status by continent, region, country subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Current_status_by_continent,_region,_country-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rates_of_deforestation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rates_of_deforestation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Rates of deforestation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rates_of_deforestation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rates_of_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rates_of_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Rates of change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rates_of_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reforestation_and_afforestation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reforestation_and_afforestation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Reforestation and afforestation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reforestation_and_afforestation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Status_by_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Status_by_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Status by region </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Status_by_region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_country" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_country"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 By country </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_country-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Causes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Causes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Agriculture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Livestock_ranching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Livestock_ranching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Livestock ranching </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Livestock_ranching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wood_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wood_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Wood industry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wood_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Economic development </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Mining </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Climate change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Military causes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Impacts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impacts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Impacts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-On_atmosphere_and_climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_atmosphere_and_climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 On atmosphere and climate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_atmosphere_and_climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Carbon_sink_or_source" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon_sink_or_source"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Carbon sink or source </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon_sink_or_source-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_the_environment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_the_environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 On the environment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_the_environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Changes_to_the_water_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes_to_the_water_cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Changes to the water cycle </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changes_to_the_water_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soil_erosion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soil_erosion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Soil erosion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soil_erosion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_changes_to_the_soil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_changes_to_the_soil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.3 Other changes to the soil </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_changes_to_the_soil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biodiversity_loss" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biodiversity_loss"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.4 Biodiversity loss </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biodiversity_loss-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oxygen-supply_misconception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxygen-supply_misconception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.5 Oxygen-supply misconception </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxygen-supply_misconception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_human_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_human_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 On human health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_human_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Infectious_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infectious_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Infectious diseases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infectious_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-COVID-19_pandemic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#COVID-19_pandemic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1.1 COVID-19 pandemic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-COVID-19_pandemic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_the_economy_and_agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_the_economy_and_agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 On the economy and agriculture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_the_economy_and_agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monitoring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monitoring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Monitoring </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monitoring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Control </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Control-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Control subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-International,_national_and_subnational_policies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International,_national_and_subnational_policies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 International, national and subnational policies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International,_national_and_subnational_policies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_pledges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_pledges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 International pledges </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_pledges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Land_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Land rights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forest_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forest_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Forest management </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forest_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Financial_compensations_for_reducing_emissions_from_deforestation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Financial_compensations_for_reducing_emissions_from_deforestation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Financial compensations for reducing emissions from deforestation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Financial_compensations_for_reducing_emissions_from_deforestation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prehistory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Prehistory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prehistory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pre-industrial_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-industrial_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Pre-industrial history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-industrial_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_and_20th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_and_20th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 19th and 20th centuries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_and_20th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Steamboats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Steamboats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.1 Steamboats </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Steamboats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Society and culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Deforestation</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 75 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-75" aria-hidden="true" > 75 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontbossing" title="Ontbossing – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ontbossing" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="إزالة الغابات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إزالة الغابات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestaci%C3%B3n" title="Deforestación – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Deforestación" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me%C5%9F%C9%99sizl%C9%99%C5%9Fdirm%C9%99" title="Meşəsizləşdirmə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Meşəsizləşdirmə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BC" title="বন উজাড় – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বন উজাড়" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Абязлесенне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Абязлесенне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Обезлесяване – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Обезлесяване" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C4%8Denje_%C5%A1uma" title="Krčenje šuma – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Krčenje šuma" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desforestaci%C3%B3" title="Desforestació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Desforestació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odles%C5%88ov%C3%A1n%C3%AD" title="Odlesňování – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Odlesňování" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skovrydning" title="Skovrydning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Skovrydning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entwaldung" title="Entwaldung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Entwaldung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metsatustumine" title="Metsatustumine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Metsatustumine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Αποδάσωση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αποδάσωση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestaci%C3%B3n" title="Deforestación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Deforestación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senarbarigo" title="Senarbarigo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Senarbarigo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basogabetze" title="Basogabetze – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Basogabetze" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%E2%80%8C%D8%B2%D8%AF%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="جنگل‌زدایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگل‌زدایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9forestation" title="Déforestation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Déforestation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%ADfhoraoisi%C3%BA" title="Dífhoraoisiú – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Dífhoraoisiú" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestaci%C3%B3n" title="Deforestación – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Deforestación" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%A8%E0%AA%A8%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%AC%E0%AB%82%E0%AA%A6%E0%AB%80" title="વનનાબૂદી – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="વનનાબૂદી" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%83%88%EC%82%B0%EB%A6%BC%ED%99%94" title="탈산림화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="탈산림화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandun_daji" title="Gandun daji – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Gandun daji" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A8" title="वनोन्मूलन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वनोन्मूलन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C4%8Denje_%C5%A1ume" title="Krčenje šume – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Krčenje šume" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igbukp%E1%BB%8D_osisi" title="Igbukpọ osisi – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Igbukpọ osisi" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestasi" title="Deforestasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Deforestasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diboscamento" title="Diboscamento – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Diboscamento" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%90_%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA" title="בירוא יערות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בירוא יערות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9forestasi" title="Déforestasi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Déforestasi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%A3%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B6" title="ಅರಣ್ಯನಾಶ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅರಣ್ಯನಾಶ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A7%E1%83%94%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="გაუტყეურება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გაუტყეურება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Ормансыздану – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ормансыздану" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukataji_miti" title="Ukataji miti – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ukataji miti" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debwazman" title="Debwazman – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Debwazman" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desilvatio" title="Desilvatio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Desilvatio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atme%C5%BEo%C5%A1ana" title="Atmežošana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Atmežošana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C5%A1k%C5%B3_nykimas" title="Miškų nykimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Miškų nykimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erd%C5%91irt%C3%A1s" title="Erdőirtás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Erdőirtás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fandripahana_ala" title="Fandripahana ala – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fandripahana ala" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="വനനശീകരണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വനനശീകരണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penebangan_hutan" title="Penebangan hutan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Penebangan hutan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B9%D0%B3%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%B6%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Ойгүйжэлт – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ойгүйжэлт" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontbossing" title="Ontbossing – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ontbossing" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A3%AE%E6%9E%97%E7%A0%B4%E5%A3%8A" title="森林破壊 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="森林破壊" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avskoging" title="Avskoging – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Avskoging" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avskoging" title="Avskoging – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Avskoging" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desboscament" title="Desboscament – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Desboscament" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%B2-%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A2%E0%A9%80" title="ਜੰਗਲ-ਵਾਢੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜੰਗਲ-ਵਾਢੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%81%D9%86%DA%AB%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88_%D9%84%D9%87_%D9%85%D9%86%DA%81%D9%87_%D9%88%DA%93%D9%84_(%D8%A8%DB%90_%DA%81%D9%86%DA%AB%D9%84%D9%87_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84)" title="ځنګلونو له منځه وړل (بې ځنګله کول) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ځنګلونو له منځه وړل (بې ځنګله کول)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wylesianie" title="Wylesianie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wylesianie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desfloresta%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Desflorestação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Desflorestação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defri%C8%99are" title="Defrișare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Defrișare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sach%27a-sach%27a_qulluy" title="Sach'a-sach'a qulluy – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Sach'a-sach'a qulluy" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Обезлесение – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Обезлесение" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shpyll%C3%ABzimi" title="Shpyllëzimi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Shpyllëzimi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%BA" title="වන විනාශය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="වන විනාශය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Deforestation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odles%C5%88ovanie" title="Odlesňovanie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Odlesňovanie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C4%8Denje_gozdov" title="Krčenje gozdov – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Krčenje gozdov" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestacija" title="Deforestacija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Deforestacija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestacija" title="Deforestacija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Deforestacija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mets%C3%A4kato" title="Metsäkato – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Metsäkato" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avskogning" title="Avskogning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Avskogning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagkalbo_ng_kagubatan" title="Pagkalbo ng kagubatan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pagkalbo ng kagubatan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="காடழிப்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="காடழிப்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%80_%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%A8" title="అటవీ నిర్మూలన – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అటవీ నిర్మూలన" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2" title="การทำลายป่า – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การทำลายป่า" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ormans%C4%B1zla%C5%9Fma" title="Ormansızlaşma – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ormansızlaşma" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Знеліснення – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Знеліснення" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%A1_r%E1%BB%ABng" title="Phá rừng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phá rừng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Conversion of forest to non-forest for human use</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Forest clearing" redirects here. For a gap in a forest, see <a href="/wiki/Glade_(geography)" title="Glade (geography)">Glade (geography)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Deforest" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/DeForest_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="DeForest (disambiguation)">DeForest (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For "deforestation" in computer science, see <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_(computer_science)" title="Deforestation (computer science)">Deforestation (computer science)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea,_Julho-2016_(29399454651).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea%2C_Julho-2016_%2829399454651%29.jpg/220px-Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea%2C_Julho-2016_%2829399454651%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea%2C_Julho-2016_%2829399454651%29.jpg/330px-Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea%2C_Julho-2016_%2829399454651%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea%2C_Julho-2016_%2829399454651%29.jpg/440px-Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea%2C_Julho-2016_%2829399454651%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_of_the_Amazon_rainforest" title="Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest">Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest</a> in Brazil's <a href="/wiki/Maranh%C3%A3o" title="Maranhão">Maranhão</a> state, 2016</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Riau_palm_oil_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Riau_palm_oil_2007.jpg/220px-Riau_palm_oil_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Riau_palm_oil_2007.jpg/330px-Riau_palm_oil_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Riau_palm_oil_2007.jpg/440px-Riau_palm_oil_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1365" /></a><figcaption>Deforestation in Riau province, Sumatra, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> to make way for an <a href="/wiki/Oil_palm" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil palm">oil palm</a> plantation in 2007.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hillside_deforestation_in_Rio_de_Janeiro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Hillside_deforestation_in_Rio_de_Janeiro.jpg/220px-Hillside_deforestation_in_Rio_de_Janeiro.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Hillside_deforestation_in_Rio_de_Janeiro.jpg/330px-Hillside_deforestation_in_Rio_de_Janeiro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Hillside_deforestation_in_Rio_de_Janeiro.jpg/440px-Hillside_deforestation_in_Rio_de_Janeiro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2544" data-file-height="1696" /></a><figcaption>Deforestation in the city of Rio de Janeiro in Brazil's <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a> state, 2009</figcaption></figure> Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal and destruction of a <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forest</a> or stand of trees from land that is then <a href="/wiki/Land_conversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Land conversion">converted</a> to non-forest use.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to <a href="/wiki/Farm" title="Farm">farms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ranch" title="Ranch">ranches</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">urban</a> use. About 31% of Earth's land surface is covered by <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forests</a> at present.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> This is one-third less than the <a href="/wiki/Forest_cover" title="Forest cover">forest cover</a> before the expansion of agriculture, with half of that loss occurring in the last century.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Between 15 million to 18 million <a href="/wiki/Hectares" class="mw-redirect" title="Hectares">hectares</a> of forest, an area the size of <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, are destroyed every year. On average 2,400 trees are cut down each minute.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Estimates vary widely as to the extent of deforestation in the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-6">[6]</a> In 2019, nearly a third of the overall tree cover loss, or 3.8 million hectares, occurred within humid tropical <a href="/wiki/Primary_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary forests">primary forests</a>. These are areas of mature <a href="/wiki/Rainforest" title="Rainforest">rainforest</a> that are especially important for <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon storage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Guy-2020-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-8">[8]</a> The direct cause of most deforestation is agriculture by far.<a href="#cite_note-UNFCC-2007-9">[9]</a> More than 80% of deforestation was attributed to agriculture in 2018.<a href="#cite_note-ScienceDaily-2018-10">[10]</a> Forests are being converted to plantations for <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber">rubber</a> and various other popular products.<a href="#cite_note-WWF-2020-11">[11]</a> Livestock <a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">grazing</a> also drives deforestation. Further drivers are the <a href="/wiki/Wood_industry" title="Wood industry">wood industry</a> (<a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">logging</a>), <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">effects of climate change</a> are another cause via the increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfires</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">deforestation and climate change</a>). Deforestation results in <a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">habitat destruction</a> which in turn leads to <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a>. Deforestation also leads to <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a> of animals and plants, changes to the local climate, and displacement of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous people</a> who live in forests. Deforested regions often also suffer from other environmental problems such as <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a>. Another problem is that deforestation reduces the uptake of carbon dioxide (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a>) from the atmosphere. This reduces the potential of forests to assist with <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a>. The role of forests in capturing and storing carbon and mitigating climate change is also important for the agricultural sector.<a href="#cite_note-FAO_&_UNEP-2020-12">[12]</a> The reason for this linkage is because the <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">effects of climate change on agriculture</a> pose new risks to global <a href="/wiki/Food_system" title="Food system">food systems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FAO_&_UNEP-2020-12">[12]</a> Since 1990, it is estimated that some <a href="/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(area)#108_to_1014_square_metres" title="Orders of magnitude (area)">420 million hectares</a> of forest have been lost through <a href="/wiki/Land_conversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Land conversion">conversion</a> to other <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">land uses</a>, although the rate of deforestation has decreased over the past three decades. Between 2015 and 2020, the rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million hectares per year, down from 16 million hectares per year in the 1990s. The area of primary forest worldwide has decreased by over 80 million hectares since 1990. More than 100 million hectares of forests are adversely affected by forest fires, pests, diseases, <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a> and adverse weather events.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Screenshot_of_Our_World_in_Data_Map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="This screen shot shows a map that highlights countries based on their net change rate of forest area. Areas that appear more blue have a higher net change rate than areas that appear tan. Brown areas indicate a net loss of forest area." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Screenshot_of_Our_World_in_Data_Map.png/220px-Screenshot_of_Our_World_in_Data_Map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Screenshot_of_Our_World_in_Data_Map.png/330px-Screenshot_of_Our_World_in_Data_Map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Screenshot_of_Our_World_in_Data_Map.png/440px-Screenshot_of_Our_World_in_Data_Map.png 2x" data-file-width="1456" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Forest area net change rate per country in 2020</figcaption></figure> Deforestation is defined as the conversion of forest to other land uses (regardless of whether it is human-induced).<a href="#cite_note-GFRA2020-14">[14]</a> Deforestation and forest area net change are not the same: the latter is the sum of all forest losses (deforestation) and all forest gains (forest expansion) in a given period. Net change, therefore, can be positive or negative, depending on whether gains exceed losses, or vice versa.<a href="#cite_note-GFRA2020-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_status_by_continent,_region,_country">Current status by continent, region, country</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Annual-deforestation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Annual-deforestation.svg/220px-Annual-deforestation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Annual-deforestation.svg/330px-Annual-deforestation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Annual-deforestation.svg/440px-Annual-deforestation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Annual deforestation</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Annual-change-forest-area.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Annual-change-forest-area.svg/220px-Annual-change-forest-area.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Annual-change-forest-area.svg/330px-Annual-change-forest-area.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Annual-change-forest-area.svg/440px-Annual-change-forest-area.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Annual change in forest area</figcaption></figure> The FAO estimates that the global forest carbon stock has decreased 0.9%, and tree cover 4.2% between 1990 and 2020.<a href="#cite_note-FAO-2020-15">[15]</a>: 16, 52  <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Changes in forest carbon stock by region Figures in gigatons<a href="#cite_note-FAO-2020-15">[15]</a>: 52, table 43  </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Region</th> <th>1990</th> <th>2020 </th></tr> <tr> <td>Europe (including Russia)</td> <td style="text-align:right;">158.7</td> <td style="text-align:right;">172.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>North America</td> <td style="text-align:right;">136.6</td> <td style="text-align:right;">140.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Africa</td> <td style="text-align:right;">94.3</td> <td style="text-align:right;">80.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>South and Southeast Asia combined</td> <td style="text-align:right;">45.8</td> <td style="text-align:right;">41.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Oceania</td> <td style="text-align:right;">33.4</td> <td style="text-align:right;">33.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Central America</td> <td style="text-align:right;">5.0</td> <td style="text-align:right;">4.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>South America</td> <td style="text-align:right;">161.8</td> <td style="text-align:right;">144.8 </td></tr></tbody></table> As of 2019 there is still disagreement about whether the global forest is shrinking or not: "While above-ground biomass carbon stocks are estimated to be declining in the tropics, they are increasing globally due to increasing stocks in temperate and boreal forest.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a>: 385  <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_by_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation by region">Deforestation in many countries</a>—both naturally occurring<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">human-induced</a>—is an ongoing issue.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Between 2000 and 2012, 2.3 million square kilometres (890,000 square miles) of forests around the world were cut down.<a href="#cite_note-nature1-19">[19]</a> Deforestation and forest degradation continue to take place at alarming rates, which contributes significantly to the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Loss_of_biodiversity" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss of biodiversity">loss of biodiversity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FAO_&_UNEP-2020-12">[12]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Land-use-of-different-diets-Poore-Nemecek.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Land-use-of-different-diets-Poore-Nemecek.png/220px-Land-use-of-different-diets-Poore-Nemecek.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Land-use-of-different-diets-Poore-Nemecek.png/330px-Land-use-of-different-diets-Poore-Nemecek.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Land-use-of-different-diets-Poore-Nemecek.png/440px-Land-use-of-different-diets-Poore-Nemecek.png 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1259" /></a><figcaption>The amount of globally needed agricultural land would be reduced by three quarters if the entire population adopted a <a href="/wiki/Veganism" title="Veganism">vegan</a> diet.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></figcaption></figure> Deforestation is more extreme in tropical and subtropical forests in emerging economies. More than half of all plant and land animal species in the world live in <a href="/wiki/Tropical_forest" title="Tropical forest">tropical forests</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rainforest_Facts-21">[21]</a> As a result of deforestation, only 6.2 million square kilometres (2.4 million square miles) remain of the original 16 million square kilometres (6 million square miles) of tropical rainforest that formerly covered the Earth.<a href="#cite_note-nature1-19">[19]</a> More than 3.6 million hectares of virgin tropical forest was lost in 2018.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> The global annual net loss of trees is estimated to be approximately 10 billion.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Global_Forest_Resources_Assessment_(FRA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA)">Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020</a> the global average annual deforested land in the 2015–2020 demi-decade was 10 million hectares and the average annual forest area net loss in the 2000–2010 decade was 4.7 million hectares.<a href="#cite_note-GFRA2020-14">[14]</a> The world has lost 178 million ha of forest since 1990, which is an area about the size of Libya.<a href="#cite_note-GFRA2020-14">[14]</a> An analysis of global deforestation patterns in 2021 showed that patterns of trade, production, and consumption drive deforestation rates in complex ways. While the location of deforestation can be mapped, it does not always match where the commodity is consumed. For example, consumption patterns in <a href="/wiki/G7_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="G7 countries">G7 countries</a> are estimated to cause an average loss of 3.9 trees per person per year. In other words, deforestation can be directly related to imports—for example, coffee.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> In 2023, the <a href="/wiki/Global_Forest_Watch" title="Global Forest Watch">Global Forest Watch</a> reported a 9% decline in tropical primary forest loss compared to the previous year, with significant regional reductions in <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> overshadowed by increases elsewhere, leading to a 3.2% rise in global deforestation. Massive wildfires in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, exacerbated by <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, contributed to a 24% increase in global tree cover loss, highlighting the ongoing threats to forests essential for <a href="/wiki/Carbon_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon storage">carbon storage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>. Despite some progress, the overall trends in forest destruction and climate impacts remain off track.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> stated in 2022: “Over 420 million ha of forest were lost to deforestation from 1990 to 2020; more than 90% of that loss took place in tropical areas (high confidence), threatening biodiversity, environmental services, livelihoods of forest communities and resilience to climate shocks (high confidence).”<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> See also: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_by_continent" title="Deforestation by continent">Deforestation by continent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special:Search/intitle:%22deforestation_in%22" title="Special:Search/intitle:"deforestation in"">All pages with titles containing deforestation in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special:Search/intitle:%22deforestation_of%22" title="Special:Search/intitle:"deforestation of"">All pages with titles containing deforestation of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special:Search/intitle:%22land_clearing_in%22" title="Special:Search/intitle:"land clearing in"">All pages with titles containing land clearing in</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rates_of_deforestation">Rates of deforestation</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:442px;max-width:442px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:188px;max-width:188px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:139px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:1700-_Tropical_rainforest_and_woodland_loss_-_Int%27l_Geosphere-Biosphere_Programme_(IGBP).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/1700-_Tropical_rainforest_and_woodland_loss_-_Int%27l_Geosphere-Biosphere_Programme_%28IGBP%29.svg/186px-1700-_Tropical_rainforest_and_woodland_loss_-_Int%27l_Geosphere-Biosphere_Programme_%28IGBP%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="186" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/1700-_Tropical_rainforest_and_woodland_loss_-_Int%27l_Geosphere-Biosphere_Programme_%28IGBP%29.svg/279px-1700-_Tropical_rainforest_and_woodland_loss_-_Int%27l_Geosphere-Biosphere_Programme_%28IGBP%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/1700-_Tropical_rainforest_and_woodland_loss_-_Int%27l_Geosphere-Biosphere_Programme_%28IGBP%29.svg/372px-1700-_Tropical_rainforest_and_woodland_loss_-_Int%27l_Geosphere-Biosphere_Programme_%28IGBP%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The period since 1950 has brought "the most rapid transformation of the human relationship with the natural world in the history of humankind".<a href="#cite_note-IGBP_Steffen_2004-29">[29]</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:250px;max-width:250px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:139px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:8000_BCE%2B_Loss_of_forest_and_grassland_to_grazing_and_crops.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/8000_BCE%2B_Loss_of_forest_and_grassland_to_grazing_and_crops.svg/248px-8000_BCE%2B_Loss_of_forest_and_grassland_to_grazing_and_crops.svg.png" decoding="async" width="248" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/8000_BCE%2B_Loss_of_forest_and_grassland_to_grazing_and_crops.svg/372px-8000_BCE%2B_Loss_of_forest_and_grassland_to_grazing_and_crops.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/8000_BCE%2B_Loss_of_forest_and_grassland_to_grazing_and_crops.svg/496px-8000_BCE%2B_Loss_of_forest_and_grassland_to_grazing_and_crops.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="675" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Through 2018, humans have reduced forest area by ~30% and grasslands/shrubs by ~68%, to make way for livestock grazing and crops for humans.<a href="#cite_note-LandUseChange_8000BCE-30">[30]</a></div></div></div></div></div> Global deforestation<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> sharply accelerated around 1852.<a href="#cite_note-Wilson-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> As of 1947, the planet had 15 to 16 million km2 (5.8 to 6.2 million sq mi) of mature <a href="/wiki/Tropical_forest" title="Tropical forest">tropical forests</a>,<a href="#cite_note-worldbook-34">[34]</a> but by 2015, it was estimated that about half of these had been destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rainforest_Facts-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nielsen-36">[36]</a> Total land coverage by tropical rainforests decreased from 14% to 6%. Much of this loss happened between 1960 and 1990, when 20% of all tropical rainforests were destroyed. At this rate, extinction of such forests is projected to occur by the mid-21st century.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the early 2000s, some scientists predicted that unless significant measures (such as seeking out and protecting old growth forests that have not been disturbed)<a href="#cite_note-worldbook-34">[34]</a> are taken on a worldwide basis, by 2030 there will only be 10% remaining,<a href="#cite_note-Wilson-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nielsen-36">[36]</a> with another 10% <a href="/wiki/Degraded_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Degraded forest">in a degraded condition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wilson-32">[32]</a> 80% will have been lost, and with them hundreds of thousands of irreplaceable species.<a href="#cite_note-Wilson-32">[32]</a> Estimates vary widely as to the extent of deforestation in the tropics.<a href="#cite_note-:0-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-6">[6]</a> In 2019, the world lost nearly 12 million hectares of tree cover. Nearly a third of that loss, 3.8 million hectares, occurred within humid tropical primary forests, areas of mature rainforest that are especially important for biodiversity and carbon storage. This is equivalent to losing an area of primary forest the size of a football pitch every six seconds.<a href="#cite_note-Guy-2020-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rates_of_change">Rates of change</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1990-_Average_annual_forest_area_net_change,_globally,_and_by_region_and_decade.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/1990-_Average_annual_forest_area_net_change%2C_globally%2C_and_by_region_and_decade.svg/220px-1990-_Average_annual_forest_area_net_change%2C_globally%2C_and_by_region_and_decade.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/1990-_Average_annual_forest_area_net_change%2C_globally%2C_and_by_region_and_decade.svg/330px-1990-_Average_annual_forest_area_net_change%2C_globally%2C_and_by_region_and_decade.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/1990-_Average_annual_forest_area_net_change%2C_globally%2C_and_by_region_and_decade.svg/440px-1990-_Average_annual_forest_area_net_change%2C_globally%2C_and_by_region_and_decade.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>In decades since 1990, South America and Africa have shown the greatest loss of forest area, with global net loss in the 2010s still about 60% of the 1990s value.<a href="#cite_note-FAO_2020-37">[37]</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:442px;max-width:442px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:219px;max-width:219px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:133px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:20210331_Global_tree_cover_loss_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/20210331_Global_tree_cover_loss_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg/217px-20210331_Global_tree_cover_loss_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg.png" decoding="async" width="217" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/20210331_Global_tree_cover_loss_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg/326px-20210331_Global_tree_cover_loss_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/20210331_Global_tree_cover_loss_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg/434px-20210331_Global_tree_cover_loss_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1218" data-file-height="750" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The rate of global tree cover loss has approximately doubled since 2001, to an annual loss approaching an area the size of Italy.<a href="#cite_note-Mongabay_WRI-38">[38]</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:219px;max-width:219px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:133px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:2002-_Tropical_primary_forest_loss_-_annual_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/2002-_Tropical_primary_forest_loss_-_annual_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg/217px-2002-_Tropical_primary_forest_loss_-_annual_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg.png" decoding="async" width="217" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/2002-_Tropical_primary_forest_loss_-_annual_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg/326px-2002-_Tropical_primary_forest_loss_-_annual_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/2002-_Tropical_primary_forest_loss_-_annual_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg/434px-2002-_Tropical_primary_forest_loss_-_annual_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="675" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Loss of <a href="/wiki/Old-growth_forest" title="Old-growth forest">primary (old-growth)</a> forest in the tropics has continued its upward trend, with fire-related losses contributing an increasing portion.<a href="#cite_note-WRI_20220428-39">[39]</a></div></div></div></div></div> A 2002 analysis of satellite imagery suggested that the rate of deforestation in the humid tropics (approximately 5.8 million hectares per year) was roughly 23% lower than the most commonly quoted rates.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> A 2005 report by the United Nations <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> (FAO) estimated that although the Earth's total forest area continued to decrease at about 13 million hectares per year, the global rate of deforestation had been slowing.<a href="#cite_note-pantropical-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> On the other hand, a 2005 analysis of satellite images reveals that <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_of_the_Amazon_rainforest" title="Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest">deforestation of the Amazon rainforest</a> is twice as fast as scientists previously estimated.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> From 2010 to 2015, worldwide forest area decreased by 3.3 million ha per year, according to <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">FAO</a>. During this five-year period, the biggest forest area loss occurred in the tropics, particularly in South America and Africa. Per capita forest area decline was also greatest in the tropics and subtropics but is occurring in every climatic domain (except in the temperate) as populations increase.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> An estimated 420 million ha of forest has been lost worldwide through deforestation since 1990, but the rate of forest loss has declined substantially. In the most recent five-year period (2015–2020), the annual rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million ha, down from 12 million ha in 2010–2015.<a href="#cite_note-GFRA2020-14">[14]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:442px;max-width:442px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:199px;max-width:199px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:133px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:2021_Top_ten_countries_for_tropical_primary_forest_loss_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/2021_Top_ten_countries_for_tropical_primary_forest_loss_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg/197px-2021_Top_ten_countries_for_tropical_primary_forest_loss_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg.png" decoding="async" width="197" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/2021_Top_ten_countries_for_tropical_primary_forest_loss_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg/296px-2021_Top_ten_countries_for_tropical_primary_forest_loss_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/2021_Top_ten_countries_for_tropical_primary_forest_loss_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg/394px-2021_Top_ten_countries_for_tropical_primary_forest_loss_-_World_Resources_Institute.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="675" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Home to much of the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_rainforest" title="Amazon rainforest">Amazon rainforest</a>, Brazil's tropical <a href="/wiki/Old-growth_forest" title="Old-growth forest">primary (old-growth)</a> forest loss greatly exceeds that of other countries.<a href="#cite_note-WRI_20240404-46">[46]</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:239px;max-width:239px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:133px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:20220910_Amazon_deforestation_and_degradation,_by_country_-_Amazon_Watch.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/20220910_Amazon_deforestation_and_degradation%2C_by_country_-_Amazon_Watch.svg/237px-20220910_Amazon_deforestation_and_degradation%2C_by_country_-_Amazon_Watch.svg.png" decoding="async" width="237" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/20220910_Amazon_deforestation_and_degradation%2C_by_country_-_Amazon_Watch.svg/356px-20220910_Amazon_deforestation_and_degradation%2C_by_country_-_Amazon_Watch.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/20220910_Amazon_deforestation_and_degradation%2C_by_country_-_Amazon_Watch.svg/474px-20220910_Amazon_deforestation_and_degradation%2C_by_country_-_Amazon_Watch.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="675" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Overall, 20% of the Amazon rainforest has been "transformed" (deforested) and another 6% has been "highly degraded", causing Amazon Watch to warn that the Amazonia is in the midst of a tipping point crisis.<a href="#cite_note-AmazonWatch_202209-47">[47]</a></div></div></div></div></div> Africa had the largest annual rate of net forest loss in 2010–2020, at 3.9 million ha, followed by South America, at 2.6 million ha. The rate of net forest loss has increased in Africa in each of the three decades since 1990. It has declined substantially in South America, however, to about half the rate in 2010–2020 compared with 2000–2010. Asia had the highest net gain of forest area in 2010–2020, followed by Oceania and Europe. Nevertheless, both Europe and Asia recorded substantially lower rates of net gain in 2010–2020 than in 2000–2010. Oceania experienced net losses of forest area in the decades 1990–2000 and 2000–2010.<a href="#cite_note-GFRA2020-14">[14]</a> Some claim that rainforests are being destroyed at an ever-quickening pace.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> The London-based Rainforest Foundation notes that "the UN figure is based on a definition of forest as being an area with as little as 10% actual tree cover, which would therefore include areas that are actually savanna-like ecosystems and badly damaged forests".<a href="#cite_note-Butler-49">[49]</a> Other critics of the FAO data point out that they do not distinguish between forest types,<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> and that they are based largely on reporting from <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a> departments of individual countries,<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> which do not take into account unofficial activities like illegal logging.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Despite these uncertainties, there is agreement that destruction of rainforests remains a significant environmental problem. The rate of net forest loss declined from 7.8 million ha per year in the decade 1990–2000 to 5.2 million ha per year in 2000–2010 and 4.7 million ha per year in 2010–2020. The rate of decline of net forest loss slowed in the most recent decade due to a reduction in the rate of forest expansion.<a href="#cite_note-GFRA2020-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reforestation_and_afforestation">Reforestation and afforestation</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">Afforestation</a></div> In many parts of the world, especially in East Asian countries, <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a> are increasing the area of forested lands.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The amount of forest has increased in 22 of the world's 50 most forested nations. Asia as a whole gained 1 million <a href="/wiki/Hectare" title="Hectare">hectares</a> of forest between 2000 and 2005. Tropical forest in El Salvador expanded more than 20% between 1992 and 2001. Based on these trends, one study projects that global forestation will increase by 10%—an area the size of India—by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-Owen-54">[54]</a> 36% of globally planted forest area is in <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> – around 950,000 square kilometers. From those 87% are in China.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Status_by_region">Status by region</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_by_continent" title="Deforestation by continent">Deforestation by continent</a></div> Rates of deforestation vary around the world. Up to 90% of <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>'s coastal rainforests have disappeared since 1900.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> has lost 90% of its eastern rainforests.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> In <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, about 88% of the rainforests have been lost.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Indonesia" title="Deforestation in Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Malaysia" title="Deforestation in Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, China, <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Deforestation in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a>, have lost large areas of their rainforest.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amazon_fire_satellite_image.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Amazon_fire_satellite_image.png/220px-Amazon_fire_satellite_image.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Amazon_fire_satellite_image.png/330px-Amazon_fire_satellite_image.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Amazon_fire_satellite_image.png/440px-Amazon_fire_satellite_image.png 2x" data-file-width="6969" data-file-height="5846" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Earth_observation_satellite#Environmental_monitoring" title="Earth observation satellite">Satellite imagery</a> of locations of the <a href="/wiki/2019_Amazon_rainforest_wildfires" title="2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires">2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires</a> as detected by <a href="/wiki/MODIS" class="mw-redirect" title="MODIS">MODIS</a> from August 15 to August 22, 2019</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pichincha1a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Pichincha1a.jpg/220px-Pichincha1a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Pichincha1a.jpg/330px-Pichincha1a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Pichincha1a.jpg/440px-Pichincha1a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1312" /></a><figcaption>Deforestation in <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>.</figcaption></figure> Much of what remains of the world's rainforests is in the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_basin" title="Amazon basin">Amazon basin</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Rainforest" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon Rainforest">Amazon Rainforest</a> covers approximately 4 million square kilometres.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Some 80% of the deforestation of the Amazon can be attributed to cattle ranching,<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> as Brazil is the largest exporter of beef in the world.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> The Amazon region has become one of the largest cattle ranching territories in the world.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> The regions with the highest tropical deforestation rate between 2000 and 2005 were <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a>—which lost 1.3% of its forests each year—and tropical Asia.<a href="#cite_note-Butler-49">[49]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a>, two-thirds of lowland tropical forests have been turned into pasture since 1950 and 40% of all the rainforests have been lost in the last 40 years.<a href="#cite_note-ru.org-66">[66]</a> <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> has lost 90–95% of its <a href="/wiki/Mata_Atl%C3%A2ntica" class="mw-redirect" title="Mata Atlântica">Mata Atlântica</a> forest.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Brazil" title="Deforestation in Brazil">Deforestation in Brazil</a> increased by 88% for the month of June 2019, as compared with the previous year.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> However, Brazil still destroyed 1.3 million hectares in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-Guy-2020-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Brazil" title="Deforestation in Brazil">Brazil</a> is one of several countries that have declared their deforestation a national emergency.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a> was losing its natural semi-humid forests in the country's western regions at a rate of 15,000 hectares at a randomly studied 2-month period in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> In 2009, Paraguay's parliament refused to pass a law that would have stopped cutting of natural forests altogether.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> As of 2007, <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Haiti" title="Deforestation in Haiti">less than 50% of Haiti's forests remained</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> From 2015 to 2019, the rate of <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">deforestation</a> in the Democratic Republic of the Congo doubled.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> In 2021, deforestation of the <a href="/wiki/Congolian_rainforests" title="Congolian rainforests">Congolese rainforest</a> increased by 5%.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> The <a href="/wiki/World_Wildlife_Fund" class="mw-redirect" title="World Wildlife Fund">World Wildlife Fund</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">ecoregion</a> project catalogues habitat types throughout the world, including habitat loss such as deforestation, showing for example that even in the rich forests of parts of <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Mid-Continental_Canadian_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid-Continental Canadian forests">Mid-Continental Canadian forests</a> of the prairie provinces half of the forest cover has been lost or altered. In 2011, <a href="/wiki/Conservation_International" title="Conservation International">Conservation International</a> listed the top 10 most endangered forests, characterized by having all lost 90% or more of their original <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a>, and each harboring at least 1500 <a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">endemic</a> plant species (species found nowhere else in the world).<a href="#cite_note-ci2011-76">[76]</a> As of 2015<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deforestation&action=edit">[update]</a>, it is estimated that 70% of the world's forests are within one kilometer of a forest edge, where they are most prone to human interference and destruction.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-Haddad2015-78">[78]</a> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Top 10 Most Endangered Forests in 2011<a href="#cite_note-ci2011-76">[76]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Endangered forest </th> <th>Region </th> <th>Remaining habitat </th> <th>Predominate vegetation type </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Indo-Burma" title="Indo-Burma">Indo-Burma</a> </td> <td>Asia-Pacific </td> <td>5% </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_moist_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests">Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests</a> </td> <td>Rivers, floodplain wetlands, mangrove forests. <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Cambodia" title="Deforestation in Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a> </td> <td>Asia-Pacific </td> <td>5% </td> <td>Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests </td> <td>See note for region covered.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sundaland" title="Sundaland">Sundaland</a> </td> <td>Asia-Pacific </td> <td>7% </td> <td>Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests </td> <td>Western half of the Indo-Malayan archipelago including southern <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Borneo" title="Deforestation in Borneo">Borneo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> </td> <td>Asia-Pacific </td> <td>7% </td> <td>Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests </td> <td>Forests over the entire country including 7,100 islands.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Forest" title="Atlantic Forest">Atlantic Forest</a> </td> <td>South America </td> <td>8% </td> <td>Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests </td> <td>Forests along <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>'s Atlantic coast, extends to parts of <a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uruguay" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mountains of Southwest China </td> <td>Asia-Pacific </td> <td>8% </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Temperate_coniferous_forest" title="Temperate coniferous forest">Temperate coniferous forest</a> </td> <td>See note for region covered.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/California_Floristic_Province" title="California Floristic Province">California Floristic Province</a> </td> <td>North America </td> <td>10% </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_dry_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests">Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests</a> </td> <td>See note for region covered.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Coastal_Forests_of_Eastern_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa">Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa</a> </td> <td>Africa </td> <td>10% </td> <td>Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> & Indian Ocean Islands </td> <td>Africa </td> <td>10% </td> <td>Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reunion_(island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reunion (island)">Reunion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Afromontane" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Afromontane">Eastern Afromontane</a> </td> <td>Africa </td> <td>11% </td> <td>Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests <a href="/wiki/Montane_grasslands_and_shrublands" title="Montane grasslands and shrublands">Montane grasslands and shrublands</a> </td> <td>Forests scattered along the eastern edge of Africa, from <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> in the north to <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> in the south.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_country">By country</h3></div> Deforestation in particular countries: <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Deforestation_by_country" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_topic" title="Template:World topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_topic" title="Template talk:World topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Deforestation_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Deforestation by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Albania">Albania</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Angola" title="Deforestation in Angola">Angola</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Argentina">Argentina</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Armenia">Armenia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Australia">Australia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Bangladesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Belize" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Belize">Belize</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Bhutan" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Bolivia" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Brazil" title="Deforestation in Brazil">Brazil</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Burundi" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Burundi">Burundi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Cambodia" title="Deforestation in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Canada">Canada</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Chad" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Chad">Chad</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Chile" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Chile">Chile</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in China">China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Colombia" title="Deforestation in Colombia">Colombia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Costa_Rica" title="Deforestation in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Cuba">Cuba</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_El_Salvador" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Eritrea" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Estonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Estonia">Estonia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Ethiopia" title="Deforestation in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in France">France</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Ghana" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Ghana">Ghana</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Guatemala" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Guinea">Guinea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Haiti" title="Deforestation in Haiti">Haiti</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Honduras" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Honduras">Honduras</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Iceland" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Iceland">Iceland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_India" title="Deforestation in India">India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Indonesia" title="Deforestation in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Iran">Iran</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Ivory_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Kenya" title="Deforestation in Kenya">Kenya</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Laos" title="Deforestation in Laos">Laos</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Liberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Liberia">Liberia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Madagascar" title="Deforestation in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Malaysia" title="Deforestation in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Mali" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Mali">Mali</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Mexico">Mexico</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Mongolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Myanmar" title="Deforestation in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Nepal" title="Deforestation in Nepal">Nepal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_New_Zealand" title="Deforestation in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Nigeria" title="Deforestation in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_North_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in North Korea">North Korea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_North_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Panama" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Panama">Panama</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Deforestation in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Paraguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Peru" title="Deforestation in Peru">Peru</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_the_Philippines" title="Deforestation in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Poland">Poland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Russia">Russia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Rwanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Senegal" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Senegal">Senegal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Serbia">Serbia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Sierra_Leone" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Singapore">Singapore</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Somalia">Somalia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in South Africa">South Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_South_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in South Korea">South Korea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Spain">Spain</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Deforestation in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Sudan">Sudan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Suriname" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Suriname">Suriname</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Syria">Syria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Taiwan" title="Deforestation in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Tajikistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Thailand" title="Deforestation in Thailand">Thailand</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Togo" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Togo">Togo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Turkey">Turkey</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Uganda" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Uganda">Uganda</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_the_United_States" title="Deforestation in the United States">United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Uruguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Venezuela" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Vietnam" title="Deforestation in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Zambia" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Zambia">Zambia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Zimbabwe" title="Deforestation in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_of_the_Amazon_rainforest#Causes_of_deforestation" title="Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest">Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest § Causes of deforestation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Brazil#Causes" title="Deforestation in Brazil">Deforestation in Brazil § Causes</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drivers_of_deforestation_and_forest_degradation_by_region,_2000%E2%80%932010.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Drivers_of_deforestation_and_forest_degradation_by_region%2C_2000%E2%80%932010.svg/220px-Drivers_of_deforestation_and_forest_degradation_by_region%2C_2000%E2%80%932010.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Drivers_of_deforestation_and_forest_degradation_by_region%2C_2000%E2%80%932010.svg/330px-Drivers_of_deforestation_and_forest_degradation_by_region%2C_2000%E2%80%932010.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Drivers_of_deforestation_and_forest_degradation_by_region%2C_2000%E2%80%932010.svg/440px-Drivers_of_deforestation_and_forest_degradation_by_region%2C_2000%E2%80%932010.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="272" /></a><figcaption>Drivers of deforestation and forest degradation by region, 2000–2010<a href="#cite_note-FAO_&_UNEP-2020-12">[12]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drivers_of_tropical_deforestration.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Drivers_of_tropical_deforestration.png/220px-Drivers_of_tropical_deforestration.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Drivers_of_tropical_deforestration.png/330px-Drivers_of_tropical_deforestration.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Drivers_of_tropical_deforestration.png/440px-Drivers_of_tropical_deforestration.png 2x" data-file-width="1470" data-file-height="1048" /></a><figcaption>Drivers of tropical deforestration</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Riau_deforestation_2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Riau_deforestation_2006.jpg/220px-Riau_deforestation_2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Riau_deforestation_2006.jpg/330px-Riau_deforestation_2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Riau_deforestation_2006.jpg/440px-Riau_deforestation_2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3406" data-file-height="2232" /></a><figcaption>The last batch of sawnwood from the <a href="/wiki/Peat_swamp_forest" title="Peat swamp forest">peat forest</a> in <a href="/wiki/Indragiri_Hulu" class="mw-redirect" title="Indragiri Hulu">Indragiri Hulu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Indonesia" title="Deforestation in Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. Deforestation for <a href="/wiki/Elaeis_guineensis" title="Elaeis guineensis">oil palm</a> plantation.</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_expansion" title="Agricultural expansion">Agricultural expansion</a> continues to be the main driver of deforestation and forest fragmentation and the associated loss of forest biodiversity.<a href="#cite_note-FAO_&_UNEP-2020-12">[12]</a> Large-scale commercial agriculture (primarily cattle ranching and cultivation of soya bean and oil palm) accounted for 40 percent of tropical deforestation between 2000 and 2010, and local subsistence agriculture for another 33 percent.<a href="#cite_note-FAO_&_UNEP-2020-12">[12]</a> Trees are cut down for use as building material, timber or sold as fuel (sometimes in the form of <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Timber" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber">timber</a>), while cleared land is used as <a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">pasture</a> for <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a> and agricultural crops. The vast majority of agricultural activity resulting in deforestation is <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_subsidy" title="Agricultural subsidy">subsidized by government tax revenue</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Disregard of ascribed value, lax <a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">forest management</a>, and deficient environmental laws are some of the factors that lead to large-scale deforestation. The types of drivers vary greatly depending on the region in which they take place. The regions with the greatest amount of deforestation for livestock and row crop agriculture are Central and South America, while commodity crop deforestation was found mainly in Southeast Asia. The region with the greatest forest loss due to shifting agriculture was sub-Saharan Africa.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_expansion" title="Agricultural expansion">Agricultural expansion</a></div> The overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-UNFCC-2007-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Subsistence_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsistence farming">Subsistence farming</a> is responsible for 48% of deforestation; <a href="/wiki/Commercial_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial agriculture">commercial agriculture</a> is responsible for 32%; <a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">logging</a> is responsible for 14%, and fuel wood removals make up 5%.<a href="#cite_note-UNFCC-2007-9">[9]</a> More than 80% of deforestation was attributed to agriculture in 2018.<a href="#cite_note-ScienceDaily-2018-10">[10]</a> Forests are being converted to plantations for coffee, tea, <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a>, rice, <a href="/wiki/Rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber">rubber</a>, and various other popular products.<a href="#cite_note-WWF-2020-11">[11]</a> The rising demand for certain products and global trade arrangements causes <a href="/wiki/Forest_conversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest conversion">forest conversions</a>, which ultimately leads to <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Top_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Top soil">top soil</a> oftentimes erodes after forests are cleared which leads to sediment increase in rivers and streams. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anthropogenic_Biomes_of_the_World,_Version_2,_2000_Global_(13603947015).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Anthropogenic_Biomes_of_the_World%2C_Version_2%2C_2000_Global_%2813603947015%29.jpg/220px-Anthropogenic_Biomes_of_the_World%2C_Version_2%2C_2000_Global_%2813603947015%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Anthropogenic_Biomes_of_the_World%2C_Version_2%2C_2000_Global_%2813603947015%29.jpg/330px-Anthropogenic_Biomes_of_the_World%2C_Version_2%2C_2000_Global_%2813603947015%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Anthropogenic_Biomes_of_the_World%2C_Version_2%2C_2000_Global_%2813603947015%29.jpg/440px-Anthropogenic_Biomes_of_the_World%2C_Version_2%2C_2000_Global_%2813603947015%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3044" data-file-height="2450" /></a><figcaption>Anthropogenic biomes of the world</figcaption></figure> Most deforestation also occurs in tropical regions. The estimated amount of total land mass used by agriculture is around 38%.<a href="#cite_note-Longobardi-2016-92">[92]</a> Since 1960, roughly 15% of the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_rainforest" title="Amazon rainforest">Amazon</a> has been removed with the intention of replacing the land with agricultural practices.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> It is no coincidence that Brazil has recently become the world's largest beef exporter at the same time that the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_rainforest" title="Amazon rainforest">Amazon rainforest</a> is being clear cut.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Another prevalent method of agricultural deforestation is <a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn agriculture</a>, which was primarily used by subsistence farmers in tropical regions but has now become increasingly less sustainable. The method does not leave land for continuous agricultural production but instead cuts and burns small plots of forest land which are then converted into agricultural zones. The farmers then exploit the nutrients in the ashes of the burned plants.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> As well as, intentionally set fires can possibly lead to devastating measures when unintentionally spreading fire to more land, which can result in the destruction of the protective canopy.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> The repeated cycle of low yields and shortened fallow periods eventually results in less vegetation being able to grow on once burned lands and a decrease in average soil biomass.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> In small local plots sustainability is not an issue because of longer fallow periods and lesser overall deforestation. The relatively small size of the plots allowed for no net input of CO2 to be released.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Livestock_ranching">Livestock ranching</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Beef#Environmental_impact" title="Beef">Consumption and production of beef is the primary driver of deforestation in the Amazon</a>, with around 80% of all converted land being used to rear cattle.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> 91% of Amazon land deforested since 1970 has been converted to cattle ranching.<a href="#cite_note-fao-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">Livestock</a> <a href="/wiki/Ranch" title="Ranch">ranching</a> requires large portions of land to raise herds of animals and livestock crops for consumer needs. According to the <a href="/wiki/World_Wildlife_Fund" class="mw-redirect" title="World Wildlife Fund">World Wildlife Fund</a>, "Extensive cattle ranching is the number one culprit of deforestation in virtually every Amazon country, and it accounts for 80% of current deforestation."<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> The cattle industry is responsible for a significant amount of <a href="/wiki/Methane_emissions" title="Methane emissions">methane emissions</a> since 60% of all mammals on earth are livestock cows.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Replacing forest land with pastures creates a loss of <a href="/wiki/Stocking_(forestry)" title="Stocking (forestry)">forest stock</a>, which leads to the implication of increased greenhouse gas emissions by burning agriculture methodologies and <a href="/wiki/Land-use_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Land-use change">land-use change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wood_industry">Wood industry</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Wood_industry" title="Wood industry">Wood industry</a></div> A large contributing factor to deforestation is the <a href="/wiki/Wood_industry" title="Wood industry">lumber industry</a>. A total of almost 4 million hectares (9.9 million acres) of timber,<a href="#cite_note-auto-108">[108]</a> or about 1.3% of all forest land, is harvested each year. In addition, the increasing demand for low-cost timber products only supports the lumber company to continue logging.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Experts do not agree on whether industrial logging is an important contributor to global deforestation.<a href="#cite_note-causesof-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Some argue that poor people are more likely to clear forest because they have no alternatives, others that the poor lack the ability to pay for the materials and labour needed to clear forest.<a href="#cite_note-causesof-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_development">Economic development</h3></div> Other causes of contemporary deforestation may include <a href="/wiki/Political_corruption" title="Political corruption">corruption</a> of government institutions,<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> the <a href="/wiki/International_inequality" title="International inequality">inequitable distribution of wealth and power</a>,<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a><a href="#cite_note-population1-116">[116]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">overpopulation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-r1-118">[118]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> The impact of population growth on deforestation has been contested. One study found that population increases due to high fertility rates were a primary driver of tropical deforestation in only 8% of cases.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> In 2000 the United Nations <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> (FAO) found that "the role of population dynamics in a local setting may vary from decisive to negligible", and that deforestation can result from "a combination of <a href="/wiki/Population_pressure" title="Population pressure">population pressure</a> and stagnating economic, social and technological conditions".<a href="#cite_note-population1-116">[116]</a> <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a> is often viewed as another root cause of deforestation,<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> though there are cases in which the impacts of globalization (new flows of labor, capital, commodities, and ideas) have promoted localized forest recovery.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Garimpo_de_ouro_ilegal_na_Amaz%C3%B4nia_em_Madre_de_Dios,_Per%C3%BA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Garimpo_de_ouro_ilegal_na_Amaz%C3%B4nia_em_Madre_de_Dios%2C_Per%C3%BA.jpg/220px-Garimpo_de_ouro_ilegal_na_Amaz%C3%B4nia_em_Madre_de_Dios%2C_Per%C3%BA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Garimpo_de_ouro_ilegal_na_Amaz%C3%B4nia_em_Madre_de_Dios%2C_Per%C3%BA.jpg/330px-Garimpo_de_ouro_ilegal_na_Amaz%C3%B4nia_em_Madre_de_Dios%2C_Per%C3%BA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Garimpo_de_ouro_ilegal_na_Amaz%C3%B4nia_em_Madre_de_Dios%2C_Per%C3%BA.jpg/440px-Garimpo_de_ouro_ilegal_na_Amaz%C3%B4nia_em_Madre_de_Dios%2C_Per%C3%BA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2676" data-file-height="1506" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Illegal_mining" title="Illegal mining">Illegal</a> gold mining in Madre de Dios, <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>.</figcaption></figure> The degradation of forest ecosystems has also been traced to economic incentives that make forest conversion appear more profitable than forest conservation.<a href="#cite_note-economicvalue-125">[125]</a> Many important forest functions have no markets, and hence, no economic value that is readily apparent to the forests' owners or the communities that rely on forests for their well-being.<a href="#cite_note-economicvalue-125">[125]</a> Some commentators have noted a shift in the drivers of deforestation over the past 30 years.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Whereas deforestation was primarily driven by subsistence activities and government-sponsored development projects like <a href="/wiki/Transmigration_program" title="Transmigration program">transmigration</a> in countries like <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a> in <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a>, and so on, during the late 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, by the 1990s the majority of deforestation was caused by industrial factors, including extractive industries, large-scale cattle ranching, and extensive agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-rud-127">[127]</a> Since 2001, commodity-driven deforestation, which is more likely to be permanent, has accounted for about a quarter of all forest disturbance, and this loss has been concentrated in South America and Southeast Asia.<a href="#cite_note-CurtisSlay2018-128">[128]</a> As the human population grows, new homes, communities, and expansions of cities will occur, leading to an increase in roads to connect these communities. Rural roads promote economic development but also facilitate deforestation.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-129">[129]</a> About 90% of the deforestation has occurred within 100 km of roads in most parts of the Amazon.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mining">Mining</h3></div> The importance of <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> as a cause of deforestation increased quickly in the beginning the 21st century, among other because of increased demand for minerals. The direct impact of mining is relatively small, but the indirect impacts are much more significant. More than a third of the earth's forests are possibly impacted, at some level and in the years 2001–2021, "755,861 km2... ...had been deforested by causes indirectly related to mining activities alongside other deforestation drivers (based on data from WWF)"<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> In the year 2023, mining, including for the elements needed for the <a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">energy transition</a> strongly contributed to deforestation. Mining is a particular threat to biodiversity, because, for example, in 2019, 79% of global metal ore extraction came from five of the six most species-rich biomes. Also, mining is the largest industry driver of fatal attacks on environmental defenders. This violence is mostly happening in Latin America, and Asia which are crucial for minerals needed to clean energy technologies. The recommended solutions are to respect human rights and the will of local communities but also implement a different economic approach: "Governments must recognize and embrace the challenge of addressing <a href="/wiki/Overconsumption_(economics)" title="Overconsumption (economics)">overconsumption</a> as a cause of commodity-driven deforestation and conversion and hold themselves accountable to related targets." "In all sectors with unsustainable levels of demand, the root issue of overconsumption must be addressed, as reflected in Target 16 of the <a href="/wiki/Kunming-Montreal_Global_Biodiversity_Framework" title="Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework">Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework</a> (KM-GBF). "<a href="/wiki/Circular_economy" title="Circular economy">circular models</a> of design and production should be adopted to lower materials demand."<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3></div> Another cause of deforestation is due to the <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">effects of climate change</a>: More <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfires</a>,<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> insect outbreaks, <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">invasive species</a>, and more frequent <a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">extreme weather</a> events (such as storms) are factors that increase deforestation.<a href="#cite_note-Seymour-2019-134">[134]</a> A study suggests that "tropical, arid and temperate forests are experiencing a significant decline in resilience, probably related to increased water limitations and climate variability" which may shift ecosystems towards <a href="/wiki/Critical_transition" title="Critical transition">critical transitions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_collapse" title="Ecosystem collapse">ecosystem collapses</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10.1038/s41586-022-04959-9-135">[135]</a> By contrast, "boreal forests show divergent local patterns with an average increasing trend in resilience, probably benefiting from warming and CO2 fertilization, which may outweigh the adverse effects of climate change".<a href="#cite_note-10.1038/s41586-022-04959-9-135">[135]</a> It has been proposed that a loss of resilience in forests "can be detected from the increased temporal autocorrelation (TAC) in the state of the system, reflecting a decline in recovery rates due to the critical slowing down (CSD) of system processes that occur at thresholds".<a href="#cite_note-10.1038/s41586-022-04959-9-135">[135]</a> 23% of tree cover losses result from wildfires and climate change increase their frequency and power.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> The rising temperatures cause massive wildfires especially in the <a href="/wiki/Boreal_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Boreal forest">Boreal forests</a>. One possible effect is the change of the forest composition.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Deforestation can also cause forests to become more fire prone through mechanisms such as logging.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_causes">Military causes</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">Environmental impact of war</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US-Huey-helicopter-spraying-Agent-Orange-in-Vietnam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/US-Huey-helicopter-spraying-Agent-Orange-in-Vietnam.jpg/220px-US-Huey-helicopter-spraying-Agent-Orange-in-Vietnam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/US-Huey-helicopter-spraying-Agent-Orange-in-Vietnam.jpg/330px-US-Huey-helicopter-spraying-Agent-Orange-in-Vietnam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/US-Huey-helicopter-spraying-Agent-Orange-in-Vietnam.jpg/440px-US-Huey-helicopter-spraying-Agent-Orange-in-Vietnam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="579" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/U.S._Army" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Army">U.S. Army</a> <a href="/wiki/Bell_UH-1_Iroquois" title="Bell UH-1 Iroquois">Huey helicopter</a> spraying <a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></figcaption></figure> Operations in <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a> can also cause deforestation. For example, in the 1945 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Battle of Okinawa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bombardment" title="Bombardment">bombardment</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Military_operation" title="Military operation">combat operations</a> reduced a lush tropical landscape into "a vast field of mud, lead, decay and maggots".<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Deforestation can also result from the intentional <a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">tactics</a> of <a href="/wiki/Military_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Military forces">military forces</a>. <a href="/wiki/Clearing_(geography)" title="Clearing (geography)">Clearing</a> forests became an element in the Russian Empire's successful <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_War" title="Caucasian War">conquest of the Caucasus</a> in the mid-19th century.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> The British (during the <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a>) and the United States (in the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>) used <a href="/wiki/Defoliant" title="Defoliant">defoliants</a> (like <a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a> or others).<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a>] The destruction of forests in Vietnam War is one of the most commonly used examples of <a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">ecocide</a>, including by Swedish Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Olof_Palme" title="Olof Palme">Olof Palme</a>, lawyers, historians and other academics.<a href="#cite_note-Zierler-2011-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-Falk-1973-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-Giovanni-2022-147">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impacts">Impacts</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_atmosphere_and_climate">On atmosphere and climate</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Biophysical_Effects_on_Global_Temperature_From_Deforestation_by_10%C2%B0_Latitude_Band.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Biophysical_Effects_on_Global_Temperature_From_Deforestation_by_10%C2%B0_Latitude_Band.jpg/220px-Biophysical_Effects_on_Global_Temperature_From_Deforestation_by_10%C2%B0_Latitude_Band.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Biophysical_Effects_on_Global_Temperature_From_Deforestation_by_10%C2%B0_Latitude_Band.jpg/330px-Biophysical_Effects_on_Global_Temperature_From_Deforestation_by_10%C2%B0_Latitude_Band.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Biophysical_Effects_on_Global_Temperature_From_Deforestation_by_10%C2%B0_Latitude_Band.jpg/440px-Biophysical_Effects_on_Global_Temperature_From_Deforestation_by_10%C2%B0_Latitude_Band.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4223" data-file-height="3795" /></a><figcaption>Biophysical mechanisms by which forests influence climate.<a href="#cite_note-10.3389/ffgc.2022.756115/full-148">[148]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Per-capita-co2-food-deforestation_(1).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Per-capita-co2-food-deforestation_%281%29.svg/220px-Per-capita-co2-food-deforestation_%281%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Per-capita-co2-food-deforestation_%281%29.svg/330px-Per-capita-co2-food-deforestation_%281%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Per-capita-co2-food-deforestation_%281%29.svg/440px-Per-capita-co2-food-deforestation_%281%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Per capita CO2 emissions from deforestation for food production</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manantenina_bushfire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Manantenina_bushfire.jpg/220px-Manantenina_bushfire.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Manantenina_bushfire.jpg/330px-Manantenina_bushfire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Manantenina_bushfire.jpg/440px-Manantenina_bushfire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2166" /></a><figcaption>Illegal "<a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a>" practice in <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, 2010</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spatial_pattern_of_forest_carbon_loss_across_the_tropics.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Spatial_pattern_of_forest_carbon_loss_across_the_tropics.webp/220px-Spatial_pattern_of_forest_carbon_loss_across_the_tropics.webp.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Spatial_pattern_of_forest_carbon_loss_across_the_tropics.webp/330px-Spatial_pattern_of_forest_carbon_loss_across_the_tropics.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Spatial_pattern_of_forest_carbon_loss_across_the_tropics.webp/440px-Spatial_pattern_of_forest_carbon_loss_across_the_tropics.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="1827" data-file-height="1186" /></a><figcaption>Mean annual carbon loss from tropical deforestation.<a href="#cite_note-10.1038/s41893-022-00854-3-149">[149]</a></figcaption></figure> Deforestation is a major contributor to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> It is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a>. Recent calculations suggest that CO2 emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (excluding <a href="/wiki/Peatland" title="Peatland">peatland</a> emissions) contribute about 12% of total anthropogenic CO2 emissions, with a range from 6% to 17%.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> A 2022 study shows annual carbon emissions from tropical deforestation have doubled during the last two decades and continue to increase: by 0.97 ± 0.16 PgC (<a href="/wiki/Petagram" class="mw-redirect" title="Petagram">petagrams</a> of carbon, i.e. billions of tons) per year in 2001–2005 to 1.99 ± 0.13 PgC per year in 2015–2019.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1038/s41893-022-00854-3-149">[149]</a> According to a review, north of 50°N, large scale deforestation leads to an overall net global cooling; but deforestation in the tropics leads to substantial warming: not just due to CO2 impacts, but also due to other biophysical mechanisms (making carbon-centric metrics inadequate). Moreover, it suggests that standing tropical forests help cool the average global temperature by more than 1 °C.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.3389/ffgc.2022.756115/full-148">[148]</a> According to a later study, deforestation in northern latitudes can also increase warming, while the conclusion about cooling from deforestation in these areas made by previous studies results from the failure of models to properly capture the effects of evapotranspiration.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> The incineration and burning of forest plants to clear land releases large amounts of CO2, which contributes to global warming.<a href="#cite_note-Fearnidel-157">[157]</a> Scientists also state that tropical deforestation releases 1.5 billion tons of carbon each year into the atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-158">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Carbon_sink_or_source">Carbon sink or source</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(energy)#Climate_impacts" title="Biomass (energy)">Biomass (energy) § Climate impacts</a></div> A study suggests logged and structurally degraded tropical forests are <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon sources</a> for at least a decade – even when recovering[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] – due to larger carbon losses <a href="/wiki/Soil_carbon" title="Soil carbon">from soil organic matter</a> and deadwood, indicating that the tropical forest <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sink</a> (at least in South Asia) "may be much smaller than previously estimated", contradicting that "recovering logged and degraded tropical forests are net carbon sinks".<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SouthEast_Asia_fires_Oct_2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/SouthEast_Asia_fires_Oct_2006.jpg/220px-SouthEast_Asia_fires_Oct_2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/SouthEast_Asia_fires_Oct_2006.jpg/330px-SouthEast_Asia_fires_Oct_2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/SouthEast_Asia_fires_Oct_2006.jpg/440px-SouthEast_Asia_fires_Oct_2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7200" data-file-height="4800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Borneo" title="Deforestation in Borneo">Fires on Borneo and Sumatra</a>, 2006. People use <a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a> deforestation to clear land for agriculture.</figcaption></figure> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration § Forestry</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carbon_sequestration&action=edit#Forestry">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proportion_of_carbon_stock_in_forest_carbon_pools,_2020.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Proportion_of_carbon_stock_in_forest_carbon_pools%2C_2020.svg/220px-Proportion_of_carbon_stock_in_forest_carbon_pools%2C_2020.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Proportion_of_carbon_stock_in_forest_carbon_pools%2C_2020.svg/330px-Proportion_of_carbon_stock_in_forest_carbon_pools%2C_2020.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Proportion_of_carbon_stock_in_forest_carbon_pools%2C_2020.svg/440px-Proportion_of_carbon_stock_in_forest_carbon_pools%2C_2020.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="230" /></a><figcaption>Proportion of carbon stock in forest carbon pools, 2020<a href="#cite_note-Carbon_sequestration_FAO-2020-160">[160]</a></figcaption></figure> Forests are an important part of the <a href="/wiki/Global_carbon_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Global carbon cycle">global carbon cycle</a> because trees and plants absorb <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> through <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. Therefore, they play an important role in <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Carbon_sequestration_AR6_WGIII_Ch_13-161">[161]</a>: 37  By removing the <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> carbon dioxide from the air, forests function as terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a>, meaning they store large amounts of carbon in the form of biomass, encompassing roots, stems, branches, and leaves. Throughout their lifespan, trees continue to sequester carbon, storing atmospheric CO2 long-term.<a href="#cite_note-Carbon_sequestration_Sedjo,_R._2012-162">[162]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">Sustainable forest management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a> are therefore important contributions to climate change mitigation. An important consideration in such efforts is that forests can turn from sinks to carbon sources.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> In 2019 forests took up a third less carbon than they did in the 1990s, due to higher temperatures, <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">droughts</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> and deforestation. The typical tropical forest may become a carbon source by the 2060s.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Researchers have found that, in terms of environmental services, it is better to avoid deforestation than to allow for deforestation to subsequently reforest, as the latter leads to irreversible effects in terms of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil degradation">soil degradation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> Furthermore, the probability that legacy carbon will be released from soil is higher in younger boreal forest.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> Global greenhouse gas emissions caused by damage to tropical rainforests may have been substantially underestimated until around 2019.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Additionally, the effects of afforestation and reforestation will be farther in the future than keeping existing forests intact.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> It takes much longer − several decades − for the benefits for global warming to manifest to the same carbon sequestration benefits from mature trees in tropical forests and hence from limiting deforestation.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> Therefore, scientists consider "the protection and recovery of carbon-rich and long-lived ecosystems, especially natural forests" to be "the major climate <a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">solution</a>".<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> The planting of trees on marginal crop and <a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">pasture</a> lands helps to incorporate carbon from atmospheric CO 2 into <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> For this carbon sequestration process to succeed the carbon must not return to the atmosphere from biomass burning or rotting when the trees die.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> To this end, land allotted to the trees must not be converted to other uses. Alternatively, the wood from them must itself be sequestered, e.g., via <a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">biochar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage">bioenergy with carbon capture and storage</a>, landfill or stored by use in construction. Earth offers enough room to plant an additional 0.9 billion ha of tree canopy cover, although this estimate has been criticized,<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> and the true area that has a net cooling effect on the climate when accounting for biophysical feedbacks like albedo is 20-80% lower.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_sequestration_:7-180">[180]</a> Planting and protecting these trees would sequester 205 billion tons of carbon if the trees survive future climate stress to reach maturity.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_sequestration_:7-180">[180]</a> To put this number into perspective, this is about 20 years of current global carbon emissions (as of 2019) .<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> This level of sequestration would represent about 25% of the atmosphere's carbon pool in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-Carbon_sequestration_:7-180">[180]</a> Life expectancy of forests varies throughout the world, influenced by tree species, site conditions, and natural disturbance patterns. In some forests, carbon may be stored for centuries, while in other forests, carbon is released with frequent stand replacing fires. Forests that are harvested prior to stand replacing events allow for the retention of carbon in manufactured forest products such as <a href="/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">lumber</a>.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> However, only a portion of the carbon removed from logged forests ends up as durable goods and buildings. The remainder ends up as sawmill by-products such as pulp, paper, and pallets.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> If all new construction globally utilized 90% wood products, largely via adoption of <a href="/wiki/Mass_timber" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass timber">mass timber</a> in <a href="/wiki/Low_rise" class="mw-redirect" title="Low rise">low rise</a> construction, this could sequester 700 million net tons of carbon per year.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> This is in addition to the elimination of carbon emissions from the displaced construction material such as steel or concrete, which are carbon-intense to produce. A meta-analysis found that mixed species plantations would increase carbon storage alongside other benefits of diversifying planted forests.<a href="#cite_note-Carbon_sequestration_:6-187">[187]</a> Although a bamboo forest stores less total carbon than a mature forest of trees, a <a href="/wiki/Bamboo_cultivation" title="Bamboo cultivation">bamboo plantation</a> sequesters carbon at a much faster rate than a mature forest or a tree plantation. Therefore, the farming of bamboo timber may have significant carbon sequestration potential.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> (FAO) reported that: "The total carbon stock in forests decreased from 668 gigatonnes in 1990 to 662 gigatonnes in 2020".<a href="#cite_note-Carbon_sequestration_FAO-2020-160">[160]</a>: 11  In <a href="/wiki/Boreal_forest_of_Canada" title="Boreal forest of Canada">Canada's boreal forests</a> as much as 80% of the total carbon is stored in the soils as dead organic matter.<a href="#cite_note-Carbon_sequestration_cfs.nrcan.gc.ca-189">[189]</a> The <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> says: "Secondary forest regrowth and restoration of degraded forests and non-forest ecosystems can play a large role in carbon sequestration (high confidence) with high resilience to disturbances and additional benefits such as enhanced biodiversity."<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> Impacts on temperature are affected by the location of the forest. For example, reforestation in boreal or <a href="/wiki/Subarctic" title="Subarctic">subarctic</a> regions has less impact on climate. This is because it substitutes a high-<a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a>, snow-dominated region with a lower-albedo forest canopy. By contrast, tropical reforestation projects lead to a positive change such as the formation of <a href="/wiki/Clouds" class="mw-redirect" title="Clouds">clouds</a>. These clouds then <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">reflect the sunlight</a>, lowering temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-Carbon_sequestration_Canadell-192">[192]</a>: 1457  Planting trees in <a href="/wiki/Tropical_climate" title="Tropical climate">tropical climates</a> with <a href="/wiki/Wet_season" title="Wet season">wet seasons</a> has another advantage. In such a setting, trees grow more quickly (fixing more carbon) because they can grow year-round. Trees in tropical climates have, on average, larger, brighter, and more abundant leaves than non-tropical climates. A study of the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/girth" class="extiw" title="wikt:girth">girth</a> of 70,000 trees across <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> has shown that tropical forests fix more carbon dioxide pollution than previously realized. The research suggested almost one-fifth of fossil fuel emissions are absorbed by forests across Africa, <a href="/wiki/Amazonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazonia">Amazonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>. Simon Lewis stated, "Tropical forest trees are absorbing about 18% of the carbon dioxide added to the atmosphere each year from burning fossil fuels, substantially buffering the rate of change."<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_the_environment">On the environment</h3></div> According to a 2020 study, if deforestation continues at current rates it can trigger a total or almost total <a href="/wiki/Human_extinction" title="Human extinction">extinction of humanity</a> in the next 20 to 40 years. They conclude that "from a statistical point of view... the probability that our civilisation survives itself is less than 10% in the most optimistic scenario." To avoid this collapse, humanity should pass from a civilization dominated by the economy to "cultural society" that "privileges the interest of the ecosystem above the individual interest of its components, but eventually in accordance with the overall communal interest."<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Changes_to_the_water_cycle">Changes to the water cycle</h4></div> The <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a> is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> through their roots and release it into the atmosphere. When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer transpire this water, resulting in a much <a href="/wiki/Dry_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Dry climate">drier climate</a>. Deforestation reduces the content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as atmospheric moisture. The dry soil leads to lower water intake for the trees to extract.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Deforestation reduces soil cohesion, so that <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">erosion</a>, flooding and <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslides</a> ensue.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> Shrinking <a href="/wiki/Forest_cover" title="Forest cover">forest cover</a> lessens the landscape's capacity to intercept, retain and <a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpire</a> precipitation. Instead of trapping precipitation, which then percolates to groundwater systems, deforested areas become sources of surface water runoff, which moves much faster than subsurface flows. Forests return most of the water that falls as precipitation to the atmosphere by transpiration. In contrast, when an area is deforested, almost all precipitation is lost as run-off.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> That quicker transport of surface water can translate into <a href="/wiki/Flash_flood" title="Flash flood">flash flooding</a> and more localized floods than would occur with the forest cover. Deforestation also contributes to decreased <a href="/wiki/Evapotranspiration" title="Evapotranspiration">evapotranspiration</a>, which lessens atmospheric moisture which in some cases affects precipitation levels downwind from the deforested area, as water is not recycled to downwind forests, but is lost in runoff and returns directly to the oceans. According to one study, in deforested north and northwest China, the average annual precipitation decreased by one third between the 1950s and the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Madagascar_highland_plateau.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Madagascar_highland_plateau.jpg/220px-Madagascar_highland_plateau.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Madagascar_highland_plateau.jpg/330px-Madagascar_highland_plateau.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Madagascar_highland_plateau.jpg/440px-Madagascar_highland_plateau.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>Deforestation of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Highlands_(Madagascar)" title="Central Highlands (Madagascar)">Highland Plateau</a> in Madagascar has led to extensive <a href="/wiki/Siltation" title="Siltation">siltation</a> and unstable flows of western rivers.</figcaption></figure> Trees, and plants in general, affect the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a> significantly:<a href="#cite_note-Mishra-2010-201">[201]</a> <ul><li>their canopies intercept a proportion of <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a>, which is then evaporated back to the atmosphere (<a href="/wiki/Interception_(water)" title="Interception (water)">canopy interception</a>);</li> <li>their litter, stems and trunks slow down <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">surface runoff</a>;</li> <li>their roots create <a href="/wiki/Macropore" title="Macropore">macropores</a> – large conduits – in the soil that increase <a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">infiltration</a> of water;</li> <li>they contribute to terrestrial evaporation and reduce <a href="/wiki/Water_content" title="Water content">soil moisture</a> via <a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a>;</li> <li>their <a href="/wiki/Plant_litter" title="Plant litter">litter</a> and other organic residue change soil properties that affect the capacity of soil to store water.</li> <li>their leaves control the <a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">humidity</a> of the atmosphere by <a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiring</a>. 99% of the water absorbed by the roots moves up to the leaves and is transpired.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a></li></ul> As a result, the presence or absence of trees can change the quantity of water on the surface, in the soil or groundwater, or in the atmosphere. This in turn changes erosion rates and the availability of water for either ecosystem functions or human services. Deforestation on lowland plains moves cloud formation and rainfall to higher elevations.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> The forest may have little impact on flooding in the case of large rainfall events, which overwhelm the storage capacity of forest soil if the soils are at or close to saturation. <a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest" title="Tropical rainforest">Tropical rainforests</a> produce about 30% of Earth's <a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Times-204">[204]</a> Deforestation disrupts normal weather patterns creating hotter and drier weather thus increasing drought, desertification, crop failures, melting of the polar ice caps, <a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">coastal flooding</a> and displacement of major vegetation regimes.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Soil_erosion">Soil erosion</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Erp_-_20111006_(6).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Erp_-_20111006_%286%29.jpg/220px-Erp_-_20111006_%286%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Erp_-_20111006_%286%29.jpg/330px-Erp_-_20111006_%286%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Erp_-_20111006_%286%29.jpg/440px-Erp_-_20111006_%286%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Deforestation in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>.</figcaption></figure> Due to surface <a href="/wiki/Plant_litter" title="Plant litter">plant litter</a>, forests that are undisturbed have a minimal rate of <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>. The rate of erosion occurs from deforestation, because it decreases the amount of litter cover, which provides protection from <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">surface runoff</a>.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> The rate of erosion is around 2 metric tons per square kilometre.<a href="#cite_note-Homestead-207">[207]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">self-published source?</a>] This can be an advantage in excessively leached tropical rain forest soils. Forestry operations themselves also increase erosion through the <a href="/wiki/Road_building" class="mw-redirect" title="Road building">development of</a> (<a href="/wiki/Forest_road" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest road">forest</a>) <a href="/wiki/Road" title="Road">roads</a> and the use of mechanized equipment.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6-77">[77]</a> Deforestation in China's Loess Plateau many years ago has led to soil erosion; this erosion has led to valleys opening up. The increase of soil in the runoff causes the Yellow River to flood and makes it yellow-colored.<a href="#cite_note-Homestead-207">[207]</a> Greater erosion is not always a consequence of deforestation, as observed in the southwestern regions of the US. In these areas, the loss of grass due to the presence of trees and other shrubbery leads to more erosion than when trees are removed.<a href="#cite_note-Homestead-207">[207]</a> Soils are reinforced by the presence of trees, which secure the soil by binding their roots to soil bedrock. Due to deforestation, the removal of trees causes sloped lands to be more susceptible to <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslides.</a><a href="#cite_note-Mishra-2010-201">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_changes_to_the_soil">Other changes to the soil</h4></div> Clearing forests changes the environment of the <a href="/wiki/Soil_biology" title="Soil biology">microbial communities within the soil</a>, and causes a <a href="/wiki/Loss_of_biodiversity" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss of biodiversity">loss of biodiversity</a> in regards to the microbes since biodiversity is actually highly dependent on <a href="/wiki/Soil_texture" title="Soil texture">soil texture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-YaleNews-2014-208">[208]</a> Although the effect of deforestation has much more profound consequences on sandier soils compared to clay-like soils, the disruptions caused by deforestation ultimately reduces properties of soil such as <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity" title="Hydraulic conductivity">hydraulic conductivity</a> and water storage, thus reducing the efficiency of water and heat absorption.<a href="#cite_note-YaleNews-2014-208">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shukla-1990-209">[209]</a> In a simulation of the deforestation process in the Amazon, researchers found that surface and soil temperatures increased by 1 to 3 degrees Celsius demonstrating the loss of the soil's ability to absorb radiation and moisture.<a href="#cite_note-Shukla-1990-209">[209]</a> Furthermore, soils that are rich in organic decay matter are more susceptible to fire, especially during long droughts.<a href="#cite_note-YaleNews-2014-208">[208]</a> Changes in soil properties could turn the soil itself into a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_source" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon source">carbon source</a> rather than a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sink</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rebecca-2007-210">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Biodiversity_loss">Biodiversity loss</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a></div> Deforestation on a human scale results in decline in <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> and on a natural global scale is known to cause the extinction of many species.<a href="#cite_note-Benton-212">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> The removal or destruction of areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-r1-118">[118]</a> Forests support biodiversity, providing habitat for <a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">wildlife</a>;<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> moreover, forests foster <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_plants" title="Medicinal plants">medicinal conservation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> With forest <a href="/wiki/Biotope" title="Biotope">biotopes</a> being irreplaceable source of new drugs (such as <a href="/wiki/Paclitaxel" title="Paclitaxel">taxol</a>), deforestation can destroy <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> variations (such as crop resistance) irretrievably.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illegal_export_of_rosewood_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Illegal_export_of_rosewood_001.jpg/220px-Illegal_export_of_rosewood_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Illegal_export_of_rosewood_001.jpg/330px-Illegal_export_of_rosewood_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Illegal_export_of_rosewood_001.jpg/440px-Illegal_export_of_rosewood_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging_in_Madagascar" title="Illegal logging in Madagascar">Illegal logging in Madagascar</a>. In 2009, the vast majority of the illegally obtained <a href="/wiki/Rosewood" title="Rosewood">rosewood</a> was exported to <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>.</figcaption></figure> Since the tropical rainforests are the most diverse <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> on Earth<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> and about 80% of the world's known <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> can be found in tropical rainforests,<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a <a href="/wiki/Soil_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil degradation">degraded</a><a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> environment with reduced biodiversity.<a href="#cite_note-Benton-212">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> Road construction and development of adjacent land, which greatly reduces the area of intact wilderness and causes soil erosion, is a major contributing factor to the loss of biodiversity in tropical regions.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6-77">[77]</a> A study in <a href="/wiki/Rond%C3%B4nia" title="Rondônia">Rondônia</a>, Brazil, has shown that deforestation also removes the microbial community which is involved in the recycling of nutrients, the production of clean water and the removal of pollutants.<a href="#cite_note-ro-223">[223]</a> It has been estimated that 137 plant, animal and insect species go extinct every day due to rainforest deforestation, which equates to 50,000 species a year.<a href="#cite_note-rain-tree.com-224">[224]</a> Others state that tropical rainforest deforestation is contributing to the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Holocene_mass_extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocene mass extinction">Holocene mass extinction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> The known extinction rates from deforestation rates are very low, approximately one species per year from mammals and birds, which extrapolates to approximately 23,000 species per year for all species. Predictions have been made that more than 40% of the animal and <a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">plant species</a> in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> could be wiped out in the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> Such predictions were called into question by 1995 data that show that within regions of Southeast Asia much of the original forest has been converted to monospecific plantations, but that potentially endangered species are few and tree flora remains widespread and stable.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-228">[228]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rain_forest_location_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Rain_forest_location_map.png/220px-Rain_forest_location_map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Rain_forest_location_map.png/330px-Rain_forest_location_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Rain_forest_location_map.png/440px-Rain_forest_location_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>Location of <a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest" title="Tropical rainforest">tropical</a> (dark green) and temperate/subtropical (light green) <a href="/wiki/Rainforest" title="Rainforest">rainforests</a> in the world</figcaption></figure> Scientific understanding of the process of extinction is insufficient to accurately make predictions about the impact of deforestation on biodiversity.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> Most predictions of forestry related biodiversity loss are based on species-area models, with an underlying assumption that as the forest declines species diversity will decline similarly.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-230">[230]</a> However, many such models have been proven to be wrong and <a href="/wiki/Loss_of_habitat" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss of habitat">loss of habitat</a> does not necessarily lead to large scale loss of species.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-230">[230]</a> Species-area models are known to overpredict the number of species known to be threatened in areas where actual deforestation is ongoing, and greatly overpredict the number of threatened species that are widespread.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-228">[228]</a> In 2012, a study of the Brazilian Amazon predicts that despite a lack of extinctions thus far, up to 90 percent of predicted extinctions will finally occur in the next 40 years.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Oxygen-supply_misconception">Oxygen-supply misconception</h4></div> Rainforests are widely believed by lay persons to contribute a significant amount of the world's oxygen,<a href="#cite_note-The_Times-204">[204]</a> although it is now accepted by scientists that rainforests contribute little net <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a> and deforestation has only a minor effect on atmospheric oxygen levels.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> In fact about 50 percent of oxygen on Earth is produced by algae.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_human_health">On human health</h3></div> Deforestation reduces safe working hours for millions of people in the tropics, especially for those performing heavy labour outdoors. Continued global heating and forest loss is expected to amplify these impacts, reducing work hours for vulnerable groups even more.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> A study conducted from 2002 to 2018 also determined that the increase in temperature as a result of climate change, and the lack of shade due to deforestation, has increased the <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">mortality rate</a> of workers in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wolff-2021-236">[236]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Infectious_diseases">Infectious diseases</h4></div> Deforestation eliminates a great number of species of plants and animals which also often results in exposure of people to <a href="/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis">zoonotic diseases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FAO_&_UNEP-2020-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> Forest-associated diseases include malaria, Chagas disease (also known as American trypanosomiasis), African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), leishmaniasis, Lyme disease, HIV and Ebola.<a href="#cite_note-FAO_&_UNEP-2020-12">[12]</a> The majority of new infectious diseases affecting humans, including the <a href="/wiki/SARS-CoV-2" title="SARS-CoV-2">SARS-CoV-2 virus</a> that caused the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a>, are zoonotic and their emergence may be linked to habitat loss due to forest area change and the expansion of human populations into forest areas, which both increase human exposure to wildlife.<a href="#cite_note-FAO_&_UNEP-2020-12">[12]</a> Deforestation has been coupled with an increase in the occurrence of disease outbreaks. In <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, thousands of acres of forest have been cleared for pig farms. This has resulted in an increase in the spread of the <a href="/wiki/Nipah_virus" title="Nipah virus">Nipah virus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>, deforestation has led to an increase in malaria cases which is now the leading cause of morbidity and mortality the country.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> A 2017 study found that deforestation substantially increased the incidence of malaria in Nigeria.<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> Another pathway through which deforestation affects disease is the relocation and dispersion of disease-carrying hosts. This disease emergence pathway can be called "<a href="/wiki/Colonisation_(biology)" title="Colonisation (biology)">range expansion</a>", whereby the host's range (and thereby the range of pathogens) expands to new geographic areas.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> Through deforestation, hosts and reservoir species are forced into neighboring habitats. Accompanying the reservoir species are pathogens that have the ability to find new hosts in previously unexposed regions. As these pathogens and species come into closer contact with humans, they are infected both directly and indirectly. Another example of range expansion due to deforestation and other <a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic hazard">anthropogenic</a> habitat impacts includes the <a href="/wiki/Capybara" title="Capybara">Capybara</a> rodent in <a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a>.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/World_Economic_Forum" title="World Economic Forum">World Economic Forum</a>, 31% of <a href="/wiki/Emerging_infectious_disease" title="Emerging infectious disease">emerging diseases</a> are linked to deforestation.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> A publication by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">United Nations Environment Programme</a> in 2016 found that deforestation, <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a> agriculture are among the main causes that increase the risk of <a href="/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis">zoonotic diseases</a>, that is diseases that pass from animals to humans.<a href="#cite_note-UNEP-2016-247">[247]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="COVID-19_pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pandemic_prevention#Environmental_policy_and_economics" title="Pandemic prevention">Pandemic prevention § Environmental policy and economics</a></div> Scientists have linked the <a href="/wiki/Coronavirus_disease_2019" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronavirus disease 2019">Coronavirus pandemic</a> to the destruction of nature, especially to deforestation, <a href="/wiki/Habitat_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat loss">habitat loss</a> in general and <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_trade" title="Wildlife trade">wildlife trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">United Nations Environment Programme</a> (UNEP) the <a href="/wiki/Coronavirus_disease_2019" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronavirus disease 2019">Coronavirus disease 2019</a> is zoonotic, e.g., the virus passed from animals to humans. UNEP concludes that: "The most fundamental way to protect ourselves from zoonotic diseases is to prevent destruction of nature. Where ecosystems are healthy and biodiverse, they are resilient, adaptable and help to regulate diseases.<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_the_economy_and_agriculture">On the economy and agriculture</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malayasia_iko_2002169.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Malayasia_iko_2002169.jpg/220px-Malayasia_iko_2002169.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Malayasia_iko_2002169.jpg/330px-Malayasia_iko_2002169.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Malayasia_iko_2002169.jpg/440px-Malayasia_iko_2002169.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>A satellite image showing <a href="/wiki/Social_and_environmental_impact_of_palm_oil" title="Social and environmental impact of palm oil">deforestation for a palm oil plantation</a> in Malaysia</figcaption></figure><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: cites are very old. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (June 2020)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Economic losses due to <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Brazil" title="Deforestation in Brazil">deforestation in Brazil</a> could reach around 317 billion dollars per year, approximately 7 times higher in comparison to the cost of all commodities produced through deforestation.<a href="#cite_note-TheWorldBank-250">[250]</a> The forest products industry is a large part of the economy in both developed and developing countries. Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or <a href="/wiki/Over-exploitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Over-exploitation">over-exploitation</a> of wood products, typically leads to a loss of long-term income and long-term biological productivity. <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> and many other regions have experienced lower revenue because of declining timber harvests. Illegal logging causes billions of dollars of losses to national economies annually.<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> The resilience of human food systems and their capacity to adapt to future change is linked to biodiversity – including dryland-adapted shrub and tree species that help combat desertification, forest-dwelling insects, bats and bird species that pollinate crops, trees with extensive root systems in <a href="/wiki/Mountain_ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Mountain ecosystems">mountain ecosystems</a> that prevent <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a>, and mangrove species that provide resilience against flooding in coastal areas.<a href="#cite_note-FAO_&_UNEP-2020-12">[12]</a> With climate change exacerbating the risks to food systems, the role of forests in capturing and storing carbon and mitigating climate change is important for the agricultural sector.<a href="#cite_note-FAO_&_UNEP-2020-12">[12]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Haiti_deforestation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Haiti_deforestation.jpg/220px-Haiti_deforestation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Haiti_deforestation.jpg/330px-Haiti_deforestation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Haiti_deforestation.jpg/440px-Haiti_deforestation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Satellite image of <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>'s border with the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a> (right) shows the amount of <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Haiti" title="Deforestation in Haiti">deforestation on the Haitian side</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deforestation_around_Pakke_Tiger_Reserve,_India.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Deforestation_around_Pakke_Tiger_Reserve%2C_India.JPG/200px-Deforestation_around_Pakke_Tiger_Reserve%2C_India.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Deforestation_around_Pakke_Tiger_Reserve%2C_India.JPG/300px-Deforestation_around_Pakke_Tiger_Reserve%2C_India.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Deforestation_around_Pakke_Tiger_Reserve%2C_India.JPG/400px-Deforestation_around_Pakke_Tiger_Reserve%2C_India.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Deforestation around Pakke Tiger Reserve, India</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Monitoring">Monitoring</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Terra_Ind%C3%ADgena_Tenharim_do_Igarap%C3%A9_Preto,_Amazonas_(41737918674).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Terra_Ind%C3%ADgena_Tenharim_do_Igarap%C3%A9_Preto%2C_Amazonas_%2841737918674%29.jpg/220px-Terra_Ind%C3%ADgena_Tenharim_do_Igarap%C3%A9_Preto%2C_Amazonas_%2841737918674%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Terra_Ind%C3%ADgena_Tenharim_do_Igarap%C3%A9_Preto%2C_Amazonas_%2841737918674%29.jpg/330px-Terra_Ind%C3%ADgena_Tenharim_do_Igarap%C3%A9_Preto%2C_Amazonas_%2841737918674%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Terra_Ind%C3%ADgena_Tenharim_do_Igarap%C3%A9_Preto%2C_Amazonas_%2841737918674%29.jpg/440px-Terra_Ind%C3%ADgena_Tenharim_do_Igarap%C3%A9_Preto%2C_Amazonas_%2841737918674%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Agents from IBAMA, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>'s environmental police, searching for illegal logging activity in <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_territory_(Brazil)" title="Indigenous territory (Brazil)">Indigenous territory</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_rainforest" title="Amazon rainforest">Amazon rainforest</a>, 2018</figcaption></figure> There are multiple methods that are appropriate and reliable for reducing and monitoring deforestation. One method is the "visual interpretation of aerial photos or satellite imagery that is labor-intensive but does not require high-level training in computer image processing or extensive computational resources".<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-130">[130]</a> Another method includes hot-spot analysis (that is, locations of rapid change) using expert opinion or coarse resolution satellite data to identify locations for detailed digital analysis with high resolution satellite images.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-130">[130]</a> Deforestation is typically assessed by quantifying the amount of area deforested, measured at the present time. From an environmental point of view, quantifying the damage and its possible consequences is a more important task, while conservation efforts are more focused on forested land protection and development of land-use alternatives to avoid continued deforestation.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-130">[130]</a> Deforestation rate and total area deforested have been widely used for monitoring deforestation in many regions, including the Brazilian Amazon deforestation monitoring by INPE.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-158">[158]</a> A global satellite view is available, an example of <a href="/wiki/Land_change_science" title="Land change science">land change science</a> monitoring of land cover over time.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> Satellite imaging has become crucial in obtaining data on levels of deforestation and reforestation. <a href="/wiki/Landsat" class="mw-redirect" title="Landsat">Landsat</a> <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellite</a> data, for example, has been used to map tropical deforestation as part of <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>'s Landsat Pathfinder Humid Tropical Deforestation Project. The project yielded deforestation maps for the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon Basin">Amazon Basin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> for three periods in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> Greenpeace has mapped out the forests that are still intact<a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> and published this information on the internet.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Resources_Institute" title="World Resources Institute">World Resources Institute</a> in turn has made a simpler thematic map<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> showing the amount of forests present just before the age of man (8000 years ago) and the current (reduced) levels of forest.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Control">Control</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International,_national_and_subnational_policies">International, national and subnational policies</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Conceptual_framework_of_a_policy_mix_perspective_on_zero-deforestation_governance.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Conceptual_framework_of_a_policy_mix_perspective_on_zero-deforestation_governance.png/220px-Conceptual_framework_of_a_policy_mix_perspective_on_zero-deforestation_governance.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Conceptual_framework_of_a_policy_mix_perspective_on_zero-deforestation_governance.png/330px-Conceptual_framework_of_a_policy_mix_perspective_on_zero-deforestation_governance.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Conceptual_framework_of_a_policy_mix_perspective_on_zero-deforestation_governance.png/440px-Conceptual_framework_of_a_policy_mix_perspective_on_zero-deforestation_governance.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1151" /></a><figcaption>An incomplete concept of a framework of policy mix sequencing for zero-deforestation governance. Non-intervention in processes related to beef production via policies may be a main driver of tropical deforestation.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a> and <a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income_in_Brazil" title="Universal basic income in Brazil">Universal basic income in Brazil</a></div> Policies for forest protection include information and education programs, economic measures to increase revenue returns from authorized activities and measures to increase effectiveness of "forest technicians and forest managers".<a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> Poverty and agricultural rent were found to be principal factors leading to deforestation.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> Contemporary domestic and foreign political decision-makers could possibly create and implement policies whose outcomes ensure that economic activities in critical forests are consistent with their scientifically ascribed value for <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a>, climate change mitigation and other purposes. Such policies may use and organize the development of complementary technical and economic means – including for lower levels of beef production, sales and consumption (which would also have major benefits for <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a>),<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> higher levels of specified other economic activities in such areas (such as reforestation, forest protection, <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">sustainable agriculture</a> for specific classes of food products and <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_sector_of_the_economy" title="Quaternary sector of the economy">quaternary work</a> in general), <a href="/wiki/Product_information" class="mw-redirect" title="Product information">product information</a> <a href="/wiki/Law-making" class="mw-redirect" title="Law-making">requirements</a>, practice- and product-certifications and <a href="/wiki/Eco-tariffs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eco-tariffs">eco-tariffs</a>, along with the required monitoring and <a href="/wiki/Traceability" title="Traceability">traceability</a>. <a href="/wiki/Policy#Induction_of_policies" title="Policy">Inducing the creation and enforcement of such policies</a> could, for instance, achieve a global phase-out of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_beef" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of beef">deforestation-associated beef</a>.<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">additional citation(s) needed</a>] With complex polycentric governance measures, goals like sufficient climate change mitigation as decided with e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> and a stoppage of deforestation by 2030 as decided at the <a href="/wiki/2021_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference" title="2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference">2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference</a> could be achieved.<a href="#cite_note-10.1017/sus.2021.21-266">[266]</a> A study has suggested higher income nations need to reduce <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">imports</a> of tropical forest-related products and help with theoretically forest-related socioeconomic development. Proactive government policies and international forest policies "revisit[ing] and redesign[ing] global forest trade" are needed as well.<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> In 2022 the <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European parliament</a> approved a bill aiming to stop the import linked with deforestation. This <a href="/wiki/EU_Regulation_on_Deforestation-free_products" title="EU Regulation on Deforestation-free products">EU Regulation on Deforestation-free products</a> (EUDR), may cause to Brazil, for example, to stop deforestation for agricultural production and begun to "increase productivity on existing agricultural land".<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> The legislation was adopted with some changes by the <a href="/wiki/European_Council" title="European Council">European Council</a> in May 2023 and is expected to enter into force several weeks after. The bill requires companies who want to import certain types of products to the European Union to prove the production of those commodities is not linked to areas deforested after 31 of December 2020. It prohibits also import of products linked with <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> abuse. The list of products includes: <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">cocoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber">rubber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soybean" title="Soybean">soy</a>. Some derivatives of those products are also included: <a href="/wiki/Chocolate" title="Chocolate">chocolate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Furniture" title="Furniture">furniture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">printed paper</a> and several palm oil based derivates.<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a><a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a> But unfortunately, as the report Bankrolling ecosystem destruction shows,<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> this regulation of product imports is not enough. The European financial sector is investing billions of euros in the destruction of nature. Banks do not respond positively to requests to stop this, which is why the report calls for European regulation in this area to be tightened and for banks to be banned from continuing to finance deforestation.<a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_pledges">International pledges</h3></div> In 2014, about 40 countries signed the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Declaration_on_Forests" title="New York Declaration on Forests">New York Declaration on Forests</a>, a voluntary pledge to halve deforestation by 2020 and end it by 2030. The agreement was not legally binding, however, and some key countries, such as Brazil, China, and Russia, did not sign onto it. As a result, the effort failed, and deforestation increased from 2014 to 2020.<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-Butlerb-275">[275]</a> In November 2021, 141 countries (with around 85% of the world's <a href="/wiki/Primary_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary forest">primary</a> <a href="/wiki/Tropical_forest" title="Tropical forest">tropical forests</a> and 90% of global <a href="/wiki/Tree_cover" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree cover">tree cover</a>) agreed at the <a href="/wiki/2021_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference" title="2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference">COP26 climate summit in Glasgow</a> to the Glasgow Leaders' Declaration on Forests and Land Use, a pledge to end and reverse deforestation by 2030.<a href="#cite_note-Butlerb-275">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-SpringJessop-276">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> The agreement was accompanied by about $19.2 billion in associated funding commitments.<a href="#cite_note-SpringJessop-276">[276]</a> The 2021 <a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Agreement" title="Glasgow Agreement">Glasgow agreement</a> improved on the New York Declaration by now including Brazil and many other countries that did not sign the 2014 agreement.<a href="#cite_note-Butlerb-275">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-SpringJessop-276">[276]</a> Some key nations with high rates of deforestation (including Malaysia, Cambodia, Laos, Paraguay, and Myanmar) have not signed the Glasgow Declaration.<a href="#cite_note-SpringJessop-276">[276]</a> Like the earlier agreement, the Glasgow Leaders' Declaration was entered into outside the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">UN Framework Convention on Climate Change</a> and is thus not legally binding.<a href="#cite_note-SpringJessop-276">[276]</a> In November 2021, the EU executive outlined a draft law requiring companies to prove that the agricultural commodities beef, wood, palm oil, soy, <a href="/wiki/Coffee_bean" title="Coffee bean">coffee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">cocoa</a> destined for the EU's 450 million consumers were not linked to deforestation.<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a> In September 2022, the EU Parliament supported and strengthened the plan from the EU's executive with 453 votes to 57.<a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> In 2018 the biggest palm oil trader, Wilmar, decided to control its suppliers to avoid deforestation<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">additional citation(s) needed</a>] In 2021, over 100 world leaders, representing countries containing more than 85% of the world's forests, committed to halt and reverse deforestation and land degradation by 2030.<a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Land_rights">Land rights</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shennongjia_virgin_forest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Shennongjia_virgin_forest.jpg/220px-Shennongjia_virgin_forest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Shennongjia_virgin_forest.jpg/330px-Shennongjia_virgin_forest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Shennongjia_virgin_forest.jpg/440px-Shennongjia_virgin_forest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2234" data-file-height="1490" /></a><figcaption>Transferring <a href="/wiki/Land_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Land rights">land rights</a> to indigenous inhabitants is argued to efficiently conserve forests.</figcaption></figure> Indigenous communities have long been the frontline of resistance against deforestation.<a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> Transferring rights over land from public domain to its <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous inhabitants</a> is argued to be a cost-effective strategy to conserve forests.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian1-283">[283]</a> This includes the protection of such rights entitled in existing laws, such as India's <a href="/wiki/The_Scheduled_Tribes_and_Other_Traditional_Forest_Dwellers_(Recognition_of_Forest_Rights)_Act,_2006" title="The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006">Forest Rights Act</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian1-283">[283]</a> The transferring of such rights in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, perhaps the largest <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">land reform</a> in modern times, has been argued to have increased forest cover.<a href="#cite_note-rightsandresources-284">[284]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, forested areas given tenure to indigenous groups have even lower rates of <a href="/wiki/Clearing_(geography)" title="Clearing (geography)">clearing</a> than <a href="/wiki/National_park" title="National park">national parks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-rightsandresources-284">[284]</a> Community concessions in the <a href="/wiki/Congolian_rainforests" title="Congolian rainforests">Congolian rainforests</a> have significantly less deforestation as communities are incentivized to manage the land sustainably, even reducing poverty.<a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forest_management">Forest management</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">Forest management</a></div> In areas where "<a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a>" is practiced, switching to "<a href="/wiki/Slash-and-char" title="Slash-and-char">slash-and-char</a>" would prevent the rapid deforestation and subsequent degradation of soils. The <a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">biochar</a> thus created, given back to the soil, is not only a durable <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> method, but it also is an extremely beneficial <a href="/wiki/Soil_conditioner" title="Soil conditioner">amendment</a> to the soil. Mixed with <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> it brings the creation of <a href="/wiki/Terra_preta" title="Terra preta">terra preta</a>, one of the richest soils on the planet and the only one known to regenerate itself.<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bamboo_Feb09.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Bamboo_Feb09.jpg/220px-Bamboo_Feb09.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Bamboo_Feb09.jpg/330px-Bamboo_Feb09.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Bamboo_Feb09.jpg/440px-Bamboo_Feb09.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Bamboo is advocated as a more sustainable alternative for cutting down wood for fuel.<a href="#cite_note-bamboo-286">[286]</a></figcaption></figure> Certification, as provided by global certification systems such as <a href="/wiki/Programme_for_the_Endorsement_of_Forest_Certification" title="Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification">Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forest_Stewardship_Council" title="Forest Stewardship Council">Forest Stewardship Council</a>, contributes to tackling deforestation by creating market demand for timber from sustainably managed forests. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), "A major condition for the adoption of sustainable forest management is a demand for products that are produced sustainably and consumer willingness to pay for the higher costs entailed. [...] By promoting the positive attributes of forest products from sustainably managed forests, certification focuses on the demand side of environmental conservation."<a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Financial_compensations_for_reducing_emissions_from_deforestation">Financial compensations for reducing emissions from deforestation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD)</a> in developing countries has emerged as a new potential to complement ongoing climate policies. The idea consists in providing financial compensations for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from deforestation and forest degradation".<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a> REDD can be seen as an alternative to the <a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">emissions trading</a> system as in the latter, polluters must pay for permits for the right to emit certain pollutants (i.e. CO2). Main international organizations including the United Nations and the World Bank, have begun to develop programs aimed at curbing deforestation. The blanket term Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) describes these sorts of programs, which use direct monetary or other incentives to encourage developing countries to limit and/or roll back deforestation. Funding has been an issue, but at the <a href="/wiki/UN_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Framework Convention on Climate Change">UN Framework Convention on Climate Change</a> (UNFCCC) Conference of the Parties-15 (COP-15) in Copenhagen in December 2009, an accord was reached with a collective commitment by developed countries for new and additional resources, including <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a> and investments through international institutions, that will approach US$30 billion for the period 2010–2012.<a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a> Significant work is underway on tools for use in monitoring developing countries' adherence to their agreed REDD targets. These tools, which rely on remote forest monitoring using satellite imagery and other data sources, include the <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Global_Development" title="Center for Global Development">Center for Global Development</a>'s FORMA (Forest Monitoring for Action) initiative<a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Group_on_Earth_Observations" title="Group on Earth Observations">Group on Earth Observations</a>' Forest Carbon Tracking Portal.<a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> Methodological guidance for forest monitoring was also emphasized at COP-15.<a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a> The environmental organization <a href="/wiki/Avoided_Deforestation_Partners" title="Avoided Deforestation Partners">Avoided Deforestation Partners</a> leads the campaign for development of REDD through funding from the U.S. government.<a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_environmental_history" title="Timeline of environmental history">Timeline of environmental history</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous_Rainforest_Collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse">Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse</a><a href="#cite_note-Benton-212">[212]</a> was an event that occurred 300 million years ago. Climate change devastated tropical rainforests causing the extinction of many plant and animal species. The change was abrupt, specifically, at this time climate became cooler and drier, conditions that are not favorable to the growth of rainforests and much of the biodiversity within them. Rainforests were fragmented forming shrinking 'islands' further and further apart. Populations such as the sub class <a href="/wiki/Lissamphibia" title="Lissamphibia">Lissamphibia</a> were devastated, whereas <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">Reptilia</a> survived the collapse. The surviving organisms were better adapted to the drier environment left behind and served as legacies in succession after the collapse.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:N%C3%A9olithique_0001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/N%C3%A9olithique_0001.jpg/220px-N%C3%A9olithique_0001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/N%C3%A9olithique_0001.jpg/330px-N%C3%A9olithique_0001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/N%C3%A9olithique_0001.jpg/440px-N%C3%A9olithique_0001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, ax heads, chisels, and polishing tools.</figcaption></figure> Rainforests once covered 14% of the earth's land surface; now they cover a mere 6% and experts estimate that the last remaining rainforests could be consumed in less than 40 years.<a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a> Small scale deforestation was practiced by some societies for tens of thousands of years before the beginnings of civilization.<a href="#cite_note-FutureEaters-295">[295]</a> The first evidence of deforestation appears in the <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesolithic period">Mesolithic period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a> It was probably used to convert closed forests into more open ecosystems favourable to game animals.<a href="#cite_note-FutureEaters-295">[295]</a> With the advent of agriculture, larger areas began to be deforested, and fire became the prime tool to clear land for crops. In Europe there is little solid evidence before 7000 BC. Mesolithic <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">foragers</a> used fire to create openings for <a href="/wiki/Red_deer" title="Red deer">red deer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wild_boar" title="Wild boar">wild boar</a>. In Great Britain, shade-tolerant species such as <a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">oak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ash_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash tree">ash</a> are replaced in the <a href="/wiki/Palynology" title="Palynology">pollen record</a> by <a href="/wiki/Hazel" title="Hazel">hazels</a>, brambles, grasses and nettles. Removal of the forests led to decreased <a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a>, resulting in the formation of upland <a href="/wiki/Peat_bog" class="mw-redirect" title="Peat bog">peat bogs</a>. Widespread decrease in <a href="/wiki/Elm" title="Elm">elm</a> <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> across Europe between 8400 and 8300 BC and 7200–7000 BC, starting in southern Europe and gradually moving north to Great Britain, may represent land <a href="/wiki/Clearing_(geography)" title="Clearing (geography)">clearing</a> by fire at the onset of <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> agriculture. The <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Neolithic period">Neolithic period</a> saw extensive deforestation for <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">farming land</a>.<a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a> Stone axes were being made from about 3000 BC not just from flint, but from a wide variety of hard rocks from across Britain and North America as well. They include the noted <a href="/wiki/Langdale_axe_industry" title="Langdale axe industry">Langdale axe industry</a> in the <a href="/wiki/English_Lake_District" class="mw-redirect" title="English Lake District">English Lake District</a>, quarries developed at <a href="/wiki/Penmaenmawr" title="Penmaenmawr">Penmaenmawr</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Wales" title="North Wales">North Wales</a> and numerous other locations. Rough-outs were made locally near the quarries, and some were polished locally to give a fine finish. This step not only increased the <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical strength">mechanical strength</a> of the axe, but also made penetration of wood easier. <a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">Flint</a> was still used from sources such as <a href="/wiki/Grimes_Graves" class="mw-redirect" title="Grimes Graves">Grimes Graves</a> but from many other mines across Europe. Evidence of deforestation has been found in <a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan</a> <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>; for example the environs of the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Knossos" class="mw-redirect" title="Palace of Knossos">Palace of Knossos</a> were severely deforested in the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-299">[299]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-industrial_history">Pre-industrial history</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation during the Roman period</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_by_continent" title="Deforestation by continent">Deforestation by continent</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rano_Raraku_quarry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Rano_Raraku_quarry.jpg/220px-Rano_Raraku_quarry.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Rano_Raraku_quarry.jpg/330px-Rano_Raraku_quarry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Rano_Raraku_quarry.jpg/440px-Rano_Raraku_quarry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Easter_Island" title="Easter Island">Easter Island</a>, deforested. </figcaption></figure> Just as archaeologists have shown that prehistoric farming societies had to cut or burn forests before planting, documents and artifacts from early civilizations often reveal histories of deforestation. Some of the most dramatic are eighth century BCE Assyrian <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Timber_Transportation_relief" title="Assyrian Timber Transportation relief">reliefs</a> depicting logs being floated downstream from conquered areas to the less forested capital region as spoils of war. Ancient Chinese texts make clear that some areas of the Yellow River valley had already destroyed many of their forests over 2000 years ago and had to plant trees as crops or import them from long distances.<a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a> In South China much of the land came to be privately owned and used for the commercial growing of timber.<a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a> Three regional studies of historic erosion and alluviation in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a> found that, wherever adequate evidence exists, a major phase of erosion follows the introduction of farming in the various regions of Greece by about 500–1,000 years, ranging from the later Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age.<a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a> The thousand years following the mid-first millennium BC saw serious, intermittent pulses of soil erosion in numerous places. The historic <a href="/wiki/Silting" class="mw-redirect" title="Silting">silting</a> of ports along the southern coasts of <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Clarus" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarus">Clarus</a>, and the examples of <a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Priene" title="Priene">Priene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a>, where harbors had to be abandoned because of the silt deposited by the Meander) and in coastal <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> during the last centuries BC.<a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a><a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a> <a href="/wiki/Easter_Island" title="Easter Island">Easter Island</a> has suffered from heavy <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a> in recent centuries, aggravated by agriculture and deforestation.<a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a> The disappearance of the island's trees seems to coincide with a decline of its civilization around the 17th and 18th century. Scholars have attributed the collapse to deforestation and over-exploitation of all resources.<a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-307">[307]</a> The famous silting up of the harbor for <a href="/wiki/Bruges" title="Bruges">Bruges</a>, which moved port commerce to <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>, also followed a period of increased settlement growth (and apparently of deforestation) in the upper river basins. In early medieval <a href="/wiki/Riez" title="Riez">Riez</a> in upper <a href="/wiki/Provence" title="Provence">Provence</a>, alluvial silt from two small rivers raised the riverbeds and widened the floodplain, which slowly buried the Roman settlement in alluvium and gradually moved new construction to higher ground; concurrently the headwater valleys above Riez were being opened to pasturage.<a href="#cite_note-308">[308]</a> A typical <a href="/wiki/Progress_trap" title="Progress trap">progress trap</a> was that cities were often built in a forested area, which would provide wood for some industry (for example, construction, shipbuilding, pottery). When deforestation occurs without proper replanting, however; local wood supplies become difficult to obtain near enough to remain competitive, leading to the city's abandonment, as happened repeatedly in Ancient <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>. Because of fuel needs, mining and metallurgy often led to deforestation and city abandonment.<a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rugendas_-_Defrichement_d_une_Foret.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Rugendas_-_Defrichement_d_une_Foret.jpg/220px-Rugendas_-_Defrichement_d_une_Foret.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Rugendas_-_Defrichement_d_une_Foret.jpg/330px-Rugendas_-_Defrichement_d_une_Foret.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Rugendas_-_Defrichement_d_une_Foret.jpg/440px-Rugendas_-_Defrichement_d_une_Foret.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="614" /></a><figcaption>Deforestation of Brazil's <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Forest" title="Atlantic Forest">Atlantic Forest</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1820–1825</figcaption></figure> With most of the population remaining active in (or indirectly dependent on) the agricultural sector, the main pressure in most areas remained land <a href="/wiki/Clearing_(geography)" title="Clearing (geography)">clearing</a> for crop and cattle farming. Enough wild green was usually left standing (and partially used, for example, to collect firewood, timber and fruits, or to graze pigs) for wildlife to remain viable. The elite's (nobility and higher clergy) protection of their own hunting privileges and game often protected significant woodland.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Major parts in the spread (and thus more durable growth) of the population were played by monastical 'pioneering' (especially by the <a href="/wiki/Benedictine" class="mw-redirect" title="Benedictine">Benedictine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Commerce" title="Commerce">Commercial</a> orders) and some <a href="/wiki/Feudal" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal">feudal</a> lords' recruiting farmers to settle (and become tax payers) by offering relatively good legal and fiscal conditions. Even when speculators sought to encourage towns, settlers needed an agricultural belt around or sometimes within defensive walls. When populations were quickly decreased by causes such as the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>, the <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas#Disease_and_indigenous_population_loss" title="European colonization of the Americas">colonization of the Americas</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Brierley_et_al_2019-310">[310]</a> or devastating warfare (for example, <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol">Mongol</a> hordes in eastern and central Europe, <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> in Germany), this could lead to settlements being abandoned. The land was reclaimed by nature, but the <a href="/wiki/Secondary_forest" title="Secondary forest">secondary forests</a> usually lacked the original <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">Mongol invasions and conquests</a> alone resulted in the reduction of 700 million tons of carbon from the atmosphere by enabling the re-growth of carbon-absorbing forests on depopulated lands over a significant period of time.<a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a><a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_60009006_Goudwinning_door_middel_van_het_afspo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_60009006_Goudwinning_door_middel_van_het_afspo.jpg/220px-Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_60009006_Goudwinning_door_middel_van_het_afspo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_60009006_Goudwinning_door_middel_van_het_afspo.jpg/330px-Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_60009006_Goudwinning_door_middel_van_het_afspo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_60009006_Goudwinning_door_middel_van_het_afspo.jpg/440px-Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_60009006_Goudwinning_door_middel_van_het_afspo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>Deforestation in <a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">Suriname</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1880–1900</figcaption></figure> From 1100 to 1500 AD, significant deforestation took place in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">expanding human population</a>.<a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a> The large-scale building of wooden sailing ships by European (coastal) naval owners since the 15th century for exploration, <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonisation</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">slave trade</a>, and other trade on the high seas, consumed many forest resources and became responsible for the introduction of numerous <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a> outbreaks in the 14th century. <a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a> also contributed to the over harvesting of forests, as in Spain. This led to a weakening of the domestic economy after Columbus' discovery of America, as the economy became dependent on colonial activities (plundering, mining, cattle, plantations, trade, etc.)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The massive use of <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> on an industrial scale in <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern Europe">Early Modern Europe</a> was a new type of consumption of western forests.<a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a> Each of Nelson's <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> war ships at Trafalgar (1805) required 6,000 mature oaks for its construction.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In France, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Colbert" title="Jean-Baptiste Colbert">Colbert</a> planted <a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">oak</a> forests to supply the French navy in the future. When the oak plantations matured in the mid-19th century, the masts were no longer required because shipping had changed.<a href="#cite_note-315">[315]</a> Efforts to stop or slow deforestation have been attempted for many centuries because it has long been known that deforestation can cause environmental damage sufficient in some cases to cause societies to collapse. In <a href="/wiki/Tonga" title="Tonga">Tonga</a>, paramount rulers developed policies designed to prevent conflicts between short-term gains from converting forest to farmland and long-term problems forest loss would cause,<a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a> while during the 17th and 18th centuries in <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Tokugawa</a>, Japan,<a href="#cite_note-317">[317]</a> the shōguns developed a highly sophisticated system of long-term planning to stop and even reverse deforestation of the preceding centuries through substituting timber by other products and more efficient use of land that had been farmed for many centuries. In 16th-century Germany, landowners also developed <a href="/wiki/Silviculture" title="Silviculture">silviculture</a> to deal with the problem of deforestation. However, these policies tend to be limited to environments with good rainfall, no dry season and very young <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soils</a> (through <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Glaciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaciation">glaciation</a>). This is because on older and less fertile soils trees grow too slowly for silviculture to be economic, whilst in areas with a strong dry season there is always a risk of forest fires destroying a tree crop before it matures. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_and_20th_centuries">19th and 20th centuries</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burma024.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Burma024.jpg/220px-Burma024.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Burma024.jpg/330px-Burma024.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Burma024.jpg/440px-Burma024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5861" data-file-height="4789" /></a><figcaption>Deforestation in Burma (now <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>) circa 1920, during the <a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma" title="British rule in Burma">British colonial era</a></figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_by_continent" title="Deforestation by continent">Deforestation by continent</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Steamboats">Steamboats</h4></div> In the 19th century, the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Steamboat" title="Steamboat">steamboats</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> was the cause of deforestation of banks of major rivers, such as the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>, with increased and more severe flooding one of the environmental results. The steamboat crews cut wood daily from the riverbanks to fuel the steam engines. Between <a href="/wiki/St._Louis" title="St. Louis">St. Louis</a> and the confluence with the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_River" title="Ohio River">Ohio River</a> to the south, the Mississippi became broader and shallower and changed its channel laterally. Attempts to improve navigation by the use of <a href="/wiki/Snagboat" title="Snagboat">snag pullers</a> often resulted in crews' <a href="/wiki/Clearing_(geography)" title="Clearing (geography)">clearing</a> large trees 100 to 200 feet (61 m) back from the banks. Several French colonial towns of the <a href="/wiki/Illinois_Country" title="Illinois Country">Illinois Country</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Kaskaskia,_Illinois" title="Kaskaskia, Illinois">Kaskaskia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cahokia,_Illinois" title="Cahokia, Illinois">Cahokia</a> and St. Philippe, <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, were flooded and abandoned in the late 19th century, with a loss to the cultural record of their <a href="/wiki/Archeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Archeology">archeology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-318">[318]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2></div> Different cultures of different places in the world have different interpretations of the actions of the cutting down of trees. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Meitei_mythology" title="Meitei mythology">Meitei mythology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meitei_folklore" title="Meitei folklore">Meitei folklore</a> of <a href="/wiki/Manipur" title="Manipur">Manipur</a> (India), deforestation is mentioned as one of the reasons to make <a href="/wiki/Mother_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother nature">mother nature</a> weep and mourn for the death of her precious children.<a href="#cite_note-319">[319]</a><a href="#cite_note-320">[320]</a><a href="#cite_note-321">[321]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clearcutting" title="Clearcutting">Clearcutting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearing_(geography)" title="Clearing (geography)">Clearing (geography)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_transition" title="Forest transition">Forest transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Year_of_Forests" title="International Year of Forests">International Year of Forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Land use, land-use change and forestry">Land use, land-use change and forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountaintop_removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Mountaintop removal">Mountaintop removal</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionaryofforestry.org/dict/term/deforestation">SAFnet Dictionary|Definition For [deforestation]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110725234528/http://dictionaryofforestry.org/dict/term/deforestation">Archived</a> 25 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 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Sukumar, 2022: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_CCP7.pdf">CrossChapter Paper 7: Tropical Forests</a>. In: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/chapter/ccp7/">Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability</a>. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. 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Our World in Data (OWID). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20221107180838/https://ourworldindata.org/deforestation">Archived</a> from the original on 7 November 2022. <q>Data: Historical data on forests from Williams (2003) – Deforesting the Earth. Historical data on agriculture from The History Database of Global Environment (HYDE). Modern data from the FAO</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Deforestation+and+Forest+Loss+%2F+Humanity+destroyed+one+third+of+the+world%27s+forests+by+expanding+agricultural+land&rft.pub=Our+World+in+Data+%28OWID%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fourworldindata.org%2Fdeforestation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Duke Press policy studies / Global deforestation and the nineteenth-century world economy / edited by Richard P. Tucker and J. F. Richards </li> <li id="cite_note-Wilson-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson_32-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson_32-3">d</a> <a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a>, 2002, The Future of Life, Vintage <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-76811-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-76811-4">0-679-76811-4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/jul/01/forests.conservation">Map reveals extent of deforestation in tropical countries</a>, guardian.co.uk, 1 July 2008. </li> <li id="cite_note-worldbook-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-worldbook_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-worldbook_34-1">b</a> Maycock, Paul F. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldbookonline.com/wb/article?id=ar704660">Deforestation</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]. WorldBookOnline. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNunez2019" class="citation web cs1">Nunez, Christina (7 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170117004102/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/deforestation/">"Deforestation and Its Effect on the Planet"</a>. National Geographic. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/deforestation/">the original</a> on 17 January 2017. Retrieved 2 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=Deforestation+and+Its+Effect+on+the+Planet&rft.date=2019-02-07&rft.aulast=Nunez&rft.aufirst=Christina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fenvironment%2Fglobal-warming%2Fdeforestation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nielsen-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen_36-1">b</a> Ron Nielsen, The Little Green Handbook: Seven Trends Shaping the Future of Our Planet, Picador, New York (2006) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-42581-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-42581-4">978-0-312-42581-4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FAO_2020-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FAO_2020_37-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fao.org/3/ca8753en/ca8753en.pdf">Global Forest Resources Assessment / 2020 / Key findings</a> (PDF). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2020. pp. 2, 3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4060%2Fca8753en">10.4060/ca8753en</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-5-132581-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-5-132581-0"><bdi>978-92-5-132581-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230922053533/https://www.fao.org/3/ca8753en/ca8753en.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Forest+Resources+Assessment+%2F+2020+%2F+Key+findings&rft.pages=2%2C+3&rft.pub=Food+and+Agriculture+Organization+of+the+United+Nations&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4060%2Fca8753en&rft.isbn=978-92-5-132581-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2F3%2Fca8753en%2Fca8753en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mongabay_WRI-38"><a href="#cite_ref-Mongabay_WRI_38-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButler2021" class="citation news cs1">Butler, Rhett A. (31 March 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/global-forest-loss-increases-in-2020-but-pandemics-impact-unclear/">"Global forest loss increases in 2020"</a>. Mongabay. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210401022404/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/global-forest-loss-increases-in-2020-but-pandemics-impact-unclear/">Archived</a> from the original on 1 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mongabay&rft.atitle=Global+forest+loss+increases+in+2020&rft.date=2021-03-31&rft.aulast=Butler&rft.aufirst=Rhett+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.mongabay.com%2F2021%2F03%2Fglobal-forest-loss-increases-in-2020-but-pandemics-impact-unclear%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> ● Data from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.wri.org/gfr/forest-extent-indicators/forest-loss">"Indicators of Forest Extent / Forest Loss"</a>. World Resources Institute. 4 April 2024. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240527180607/https://research.wri.org/gfr/forest-extent-indicators/forest-loss">Archived</a> from the original on 27 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indicators+of+Forest+Extent+%2F+Forest+Loss&rft.pub=World+Resources+Institute&rft.date=2024-04-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearch.wri.org%2Fgfr%2Fforest-extent-indicators%2Fforest-loss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> Chart in section titled "Annual rates of global tree cover loss have risen since 2000". </li> <li id="cite_note-WRI_20220428-39"><a href="#cite_ref-WRI_20220428_39-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.wri.org/gfr/latest-analysis-deforestation-trends">"Forest Pulse: The Latest on the World's Forests"</a>. WRI.org. World Resources Institute. June 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230627150528/https://research.wri.org/gfr/latest-analysis-deforestation-trends">Archived</a> from the original on 27 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WRI.org&rft.atitle=Forest+Pulse%3A+The+Latest+on+the+World%27s+Forests&rft.date=2023-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearch.wri.org%2Fgfr%2Flatest-analysis-deforestation-trends&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> ● 2022 Global Forest Watch data quoted by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGrathPoynting2023" class="citation news cs1">McGrath, Matt; Poynting, Mark (27 June 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-66013854">"Climate change: Deforestation surges despite pledges"</a>. BBC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230629065610/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-66013854">Archived</a> from the original on 29 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Climate+change%3A+Deforestation+surges+despite+pledges&rft.date=2023-06-27&rft.aulast=McGrath&rft.aufirst=Matt&rft.au=Poynting%2C+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-66013854&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAchardEvaStibigMayaux2002" class="citation journal cs1">Achard, F; Eva, H. D.; Stibig, H. J.; Mayaux, P; Gallego, J; Richards, T; Malingreau, J. P. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC23428">"Determination of deforestation rates of the world's humid tropical forests"</a>. Science. 297 (5583): 999–1003. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Sci...297..999A">2002Sci...297..999A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1070656">10.1126/science.1070656</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12169731">12169731</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46315941">46315941</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Determination+of+deforestation+rates+of+the+world%27s+humid+tropical+forests&rft.volume=297&rft.issue=5583&rft.pages=999-1003&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1070656&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46315941%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12169731&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Sci...297..999A&rft.aulast=Achard&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Eva%2C+H.+D.&rft.au=Stibig%2C+H.+J.&rft.au=Mayaux%2C+P&rft.au=Gallego%2C+J&rft.au=Richards%2C+T&rft.au=Malingreau%2C+J.+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpublications.jrc.ec.europa.eu%2Frepository%2Fhandle%2FJRC23428&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pantropical-41"><a href="#cite_ref-pantropical_41-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/y1997e/y1997e1f.htm">"Pan-tropical Survey of Forest Cover Changes 1980–2000"</a>. Forest Resources Assessment. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forest+Resources+Assessment&rft.atitle=Pan-tropical+Survey+of+Forest+Cover+Changes+1980%E2%80%932000&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2Fdocrep%2F004%2Fy1997e%2Fy1997e1f.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/MEETING/003/X9591E.HTM">Committee On Forestry</a>. FAO (16 March 2001). Retrieved 29 August 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJha2005" class="citation news cs1">Jha, Alok (21 October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2005/oct/21/brazil.conservationandendangeredspecies">"Amazon rainforest vanishing at twice rate of previous estimates"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Amazon+rainforest+vanishing+at+twice+rate+of+previous+estimates&rft.date=2005-10-21&rft.aulast=Jha&rft.aufirst=Alok&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2005%2Foct%2F21%2Fbrazil.conservationandendangeredspecies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/1021/p04s01-sten.html">Satellite images reveal Amazon forest shrinking faster</a>, csmonitor.com, 21 October 2005. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> FAO. 2016. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. How are the world’s forests changing? </li> <li id="cite_note-WRI_20240404-46"><a href="#cite_ref-WRI_20240404_46-0">^</a> ● 2021 data: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.wri.org/gfr/latest-analysis-deforestation-trends">"Forest Pulse: The Latest on the World's Forests"</a>. WRI.org. World Resources Institute. June 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230627150528/https://research.wri.org/gfr/latest-analysis-deforestation-trends">Archived</a> from the original on 27 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WRI.org&rft.atitle=Forest+Pulse%3A+The+Latest+on+the+World%27s+Forests&rft.date=2023-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearch.wri.org%2Fgfr%2Flatest-analysis-deforestation-trends&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> ● 2022 and 2023 data: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.wri.org/gfr/latest-analysis-deforestation-trends">"Forest Pulse: The Latest on the World's Forests"</a>. WRI.org. World Resources Institute / Global Forest Review. 4 April 2024. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20240404205336/https://research.wri.org/gfr/latest-analysis-deforestation-trends">Archived</a> from the original on 4 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WRI.org&rft.atitle=Forest+Pulse%3A+The+Latest+on+the+World%27s+Forests&rft.date=2024-04-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearch.wri.org%2Fgfr%2Flatest-analysis-deforestation-trends&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AmazonWatch_202209-47"><a href="#cite_ref-AmazonWatch_202209_47-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://amazonwatch.org/assets/files/2022-amazonia-against-the-clock-executive-summary.pdf">"Amazon Against the Clock: A Regional Assessment on Where and How to Protect 80% by 2025"</a> (PDF). Amazon Watch. September 2022. p. 8. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220910025229/https://amazonwatch.org/assets/files/2022-amazonia-against-the-clock-executive-summary.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 10 September 2022. <q>Graphic 2: Current State of the Amazon by country, by percentage / Source: RAISG (Red Amazónica de Información Socioambiental Georreferenciada) Elaborated by authors.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Amazon+Watch&rft.atitle=Amazon+Against+the+Clock%3A+A+Regional+Assessment+on+Where+and+How+to+Protect+80%25+by+2025&rft.pages=8&rft.date=2022-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famazonwatch.org%2Fassets%2Ffiles%2F2022-amazonia-against-the-clock-executive-summary.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldwatch.org/node/4521">Worldwatch: Wood Production and Deforestation Increase & Recent Content</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081025184730/http://www.worldwatch.org/node/4521">Archived</a> 25 October 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Worldwatch_Institute" title="Worldwatch Institute">Worldwatch Institute</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Butler-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Butler_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Butler_49-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButler,_Rhett_A.2005" class="citation web cs1">Butler, Rhett A. (16 November 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.mongabay.com/2005/1115-forests.html">"World deforestation rates and forest cover statistics, 2000–2005"</a>. mongabay.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mongabay.com&rft.atitle=World+deforestation+rates+and+forest+cover+statistics%2C+2000%E2%80%932005&rft.date=2005-11-16&rft.au=Butler%2C+Rhett+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.mongabay.com%2F2005%2F1115-forests.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> The fear is that highly diverse habitats, such as tropical rainforest, are vanishing at a faster rate that is partly masked by the slower deforestation of less biodiverse, dry, open forests. Because of this omission, the most harmful impacts of deforestation (such as habitat loss) could be increasing despite a possible decline in the global rate of deforestation. </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0629-deforestation.html">"Remote sensing versus self-reporting"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Remote+sensing+versus+self-reporting&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.mongabay.com%2F2008%2F0629-deforestation.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> The World Bank estimates that 80% of logging operations are illegal in <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a> and 42% in <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, while in <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>, illegal logging accounts for 80% of all logging activities. (World Bank (2004). Forest Law Enforcement.) (The Peruvian Environmental Law Society (2003). Case Study on the Development and Implementation of Guidelines for the Control of Illegal Logging with a View to Sustainable Forest Management in Peru.) </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoleyDefriesAsnerBarford2005" class="citation journal cs1">Foley, J. A.; Defries, R; Asner, G. P.; Barford, C; Bonan, G; Carpenter, S. R.; Chapin, F. S.; Coe, M. T.; Daily, G. C.; Gibbs, H. K.; Helkowski, J. H.; Holloway, T; Howard, E. A.; Kucharik, C. J.; Monfreda, C; Patz, J. A.; Prentice, I. C.; Ramankutty, N; Snyder, P. K. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rcin.org.pl/Content/31092">"Global Consequences of Land Use"</a>. 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Quaternary International. 366: 51–69. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015QuInt.366...51K">2015QuInt.366...51K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quaint.2015.01.053">10.1016/j.quaint.2015.01.053</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1040-6182">1040-6182</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quaternary+International&rft.atitle=Charcoal+usage+in+medieval+and+modern+times+in+the+Harz+Mountains+Area%2C+Central+Germany%3A+Wood+selection+and+fast+overexploitation+of+the+woodlands&rft.volume=366&rft.pages=51-69&rft.date=2015-04-24&rft.issn=1040-6182&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.quaint.2015.01.053&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015QuInt.366...51K&rft.aulast=Knapp&rft.aufirst=Hannes&rft.au=Nelle%2C+Oliver&rft.au=Kirleis%2C+Wiebke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS1040618215000774&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://clustercrush.com/make-wine-not-war-the-story-of-napoleon-and-frances-oak-forests/">"Make Wine Not War: The Story of Napoleon and France's Oak Forests"</a>. 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Retrieved 8 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cluster+Crush&rft.atitle=Make+Wine+Not+War%3A+The+Story+of+Napoleon+and+France%27s+Oak+Forests&rft.date=2015-05-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclustercrush.com%2Fmake-wine-not-war-the-story-of-napoleon-and-frances-oak-forests%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> Diamond, Jared Collapse: How Societies Choose To Fail or Succeed; Viking Press 2004, pp. 301–302 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-311700-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-311700-9">0-14-311700-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> Diamond, Jared Collapse: How Societies Choose To Fail or Succeed; Viking Press 2004, pp. 320–331 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-311700-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-311700-9">0-14-311700-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a> Norris, F. Terry (1997) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HwH3kdOgvfAC&pg=PA73">"Where Did the Villages Go? Steamboats, Deforestation, and Archaeological Loss in the Mississippi Valley"</a>, in Common Fields: an environmental history of St. Louis, Andrew Hurley, ed., St. Louis, MO: Missouri Historical Society Press, pp. 73–89. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-883982-15-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-883982-15-7">978-1-883982-15-7</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-319"><a href="#cite_ref-319">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh1996" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source-2">Singh, Ch Manihar (1996). A History of Manipuri Literature (in English and Manipuri). <a href="/wiki/Sahitya_Akademi" title="Sahitya Akademi">Sahitya Akademi</a>. pp. 16, 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-260-0086-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-260-0086-9"><bdi>978-81-260-0086-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Manipuri+Literature&rft.pages=16%2C+17&rft.pub=Sahitya+Akademi&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-81-260-0086-9&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Ch+Manihar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDattaŚarmā1994" class="citation book cs1">Datta, Bīrendranātha; Śarmā, Nabīnacandra (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uRvaAAAAMAAJ">A Handbook of Folklore Material of North-East India</a>. India: Anundoram Borooah Institute of Language, Art & Culture, Assam. p. 356.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Handbook+of+Folklore+Material+of+North-East+India&rft.place=India&rft.pages=356&rft.pub=Anundoram+Borooah+Institute+of+Language%2C+Art+%26+Culture%2C+Assam&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Datta&rft.aufirst=B%C4%ABrendran%C4%81tha&rft.au=%C5%9Aarm%C4%81%2C+Nab%C4%ABnacandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuRvaAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-321"><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarua1999" class="citation book cs1">Barua, Lalit Kumar (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AoECgkZ0Wu0C">Oral Tradition and Folk Heritage of North East India</a>. India: Spectrum Publications. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-87502-02-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-87502-02-9"><bdi>978-81-87502-02-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oral+Tradition+and+Folk+Heritage+of+North+East+India&rft.place=India&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Spectrum+Publications&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-81-87502-02-9&rft.aulast=Barua&rft.aufirst=Lalit+Kumar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAoECgkZ0Wu0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/File:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/12px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/18px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/24px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="219" data-file-height="218" /></a> This article incorporates text from a <a href="/wiki/Free_content" title="Free content">free content</a> work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 (<a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Global_Forest_Resources_Assessment_2020_%E2%80%93_Key_findings.pdf">license statement/permission</a>). Text taken from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/3/CA8753EN/CA8753EN.pdf">Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings</a>, FAO, FAO. <a href="/wiki/File:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/12px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/18px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/24px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="219" data-file-height="218" /></a> This article incorporates text from a <a href="/wiki/Free_content" title="Free content">free content</a> work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (<a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_State_of_the_World%E2%80%99s_Forests_2020._In_brief.pdf">license statement/permission</a>). Text taken from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8985en">The State of the World’s Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief</a>, FAO & UNEP, FAO & UNEP. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output 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decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deforestation" class="extiw" title="commons:Deforestation">Deforestation</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earthenginepartners.appspot.com/science-2013-global-forest">Global map of deforestation based on Landsat data</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131225223447/http://www.intactforests.org/world.map.html">Old-growth forest zones within the remaining world forests</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uk.oneworld.net/guides/forests">OneWorld Tropical Forests Guide</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722152721/http://uk.oneworld.net/guides/forests">Archived</a> 22 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.effects-of-deforestation.com">General info on deforestation effects</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210418233540/http://www.effects-of-deforestation.com/">Archived</a> 18 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rainforestfoundation.org/climate-change/">Deforestation and Climate Change</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRitchieRoser2021" class="citation journal cs1">Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max (9 February 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ourworldindata.org/drivers-of-deforestation">"Drivers of Deforestation"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Our_World_in_Data" title="Our World in Data">Our World in Data</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Our+World+in+Data&rft.atitle=Drivers+of+Deforestation&rft.date=2021-02-09&rft.aulast=Ritchie&rft.aufirst=Hannah&rft.au=Roser%2C+Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fourworldindata.org%2Fdrivers-of-deforestation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADeforestation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Deforestation_and_desertification" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Deforestation_and_desertification" title="Template:Deforestation and desertification"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Deforestation_and_desertification" title="Template talk:Deforestation and desertification"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Deforestation_and_desertification" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Deforestation and desertification"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Deforestation_and_desertification" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Deforestation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Deforestation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assarting" title="Assarting">Assarting</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_by_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation by region">Deforestation by region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountaintop_removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Mountaintop removal">Mountaintop removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">Slash-and-burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash-and-char" title="Slash-and-char">Slash-and-char</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Manantenina_bushfire.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Illegal slash and burn in Madagascar"><img alt="Illegal slash and burn in Madagascar" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Manantenina_bushfire.jpg/140px-Manantenina_bushfire.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Manantenina_bushfire.jpg/210px-Manantenina_bushfire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Manantenina_bushfire.jpg/280px-Manantenina_bushfire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2166" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aridification" title="Aridification">Aridification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_desertification" title="Historic desertification">Historic desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moisture_recycling" title="Moisture recycling">Moisture recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_retrogression_and_degradation" title="Soil retrogression and degradation">Soil retrogression and degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desertification_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification_in_the_Gobi_Desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in the Gobi Desert">Gobi Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification_in_Lebanon" title="Desertification in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification_in_Libya" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification_in_Mali" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification_in_Mauritania" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification_in_Mongolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification_in_the_Sahel" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in the Sahel">Sahel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification_in_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Desertification in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mitigation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">Afforestation</a></li> <li>Arid Lands Information Network</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">Biochar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_grazing" title="Conservation grazing">Conservation grazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_greening" title="Desert greening">Desert greening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoforestry" title="Ecoforestry">Ecoforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmer-managed_natural_regeneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Farmer-managed natural regeneration">Farmer-managed regeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flexible_Mechanisms" title="Flexible Mechanisms">Flexible Mechanisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(Africa)" title="Great Green Wall (Africa)">Great Green Wall (Africa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(China)" title="Great Green Wall (China)">Great Green Wall (China)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_intensive_rotational_grazing" class="mw-redirect" title="Managed intensive rotational grazing">Managed intensive rotational grazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oasification" title="Oasification">Oasification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_to_Combat_Desertification" title="United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification">United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_Landscape_Integrity_Index" title="Forest Landscape Integrity Index">Forest Landscape Integrity Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape" title="Intact forest landscape">Intact forest landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Land use, land-use change and forestry">Land use, land-use change and forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_landscape" title="Natural landscape">Natural landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_preta" title="Terra preta">Terra preta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Deforestation" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Deforestation" title="Template:Deforestation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Deforestation" title="Template talk:Deforestation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Deforestation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Deforestation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Deforestation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Deforestation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_by_continent" title="Deforestation by continent">Deforestation by continent</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Angola" title="Deforestation in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">DR Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Ethiopia" title="Deforestation in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Kenya" title="Deforestation in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Madagascar" title="Deforestation in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Nigeria" title="Deforestation in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:NASAburningbrazil.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Deforestation in Brazil"><img alt="Deforestation in Brazil" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/NASAburningbrazil.jpg/120px-NASAburningbrazil.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/NASAburningbrazil.jpg/180px-NASAburningbrazil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/NASAburningbrazil.jpg/240px-NASAburningbrazil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="433" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in the Americas">Americas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_of_the_Amazon_Rainforest" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation of the Amazon Rainforest">Amazon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Brazil" title="Deforestation in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li>Canada (<a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_British_Columbia" title="Deforestation in British Columbia">British Columbia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Central_America" title="Deforestation in Central America">Central America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Colombia" title="Deforestation in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Costa_Rica" title="Deforestation in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Haiti" title="Deforestation in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mexico#Environmental_conditions" title="Geography of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_the_United_States" title="Deforestation in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Borneo" title="Deforestation in Borneo">Borneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Cambodia" title="Deforestation in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_China#Deforestation" title="Environmental issues in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_India" title="Deforestation in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Indonesia" title="Deforestation in Indonesia">Indonesia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Borneo#Indonesian_Borneo" title="Deforestation in Borneo">Kalimantan</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Laos" title="Deforestation in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Malaysia" title="Deforestation in Malaysia">Malaysia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Borneo#Malaysian_Borneo" title="Deforestation in Borneo">East Malaysia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Mongolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Myanmar" title="Deforestation in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Nepal" title="Deforestation in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_the_Philippines" title="Deforestation in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Deforestation in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Taiwan" title="Deforestation in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Thailand" title="Deforestation in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Vietnam" title="Deforestation in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_by_region#Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation by region">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Deforestation in Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_clearing_in_Australia" title="Land clearing in Australia">Australia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Victoria" title="Deforestation in Victoria">Victoria</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_New_Zealand" title="Deforestation in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Deforestation in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_degradation" title="Forest degradation">Forest degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestation" class="mw-redirect" title="Forestation">Forestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">Logging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Deforestation_by_region" title="Category:Deforestation by region">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Deforestation" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Deforestation">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Forestry" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Forestry">WikiProject Forestry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_impact_on_the_environment" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template talk:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_impact_on_the_environment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_issues" title="List of environmental issues">list of issues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (ethics)">Social ecology (ethics)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Causes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture" title="Environmental impact of agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impacts_of_animal_agriculture" title="Environmental impacts of animal agriculture">animal agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cannabis_cultivation" title="Environmental impact of cannabis cultivation">cannabis cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_irrigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of irrigation">irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">meat production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cocoa_production" title="Environmental impact of cocoa production">cocoa production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_and_environmental_impact_of_palm_oil" title="Social and environmental impact of palm oil">palm oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">(US)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_bitcoin" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of bitcoin">Bitcoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate behavior">Corporate behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">Energy industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels" title="Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels">biofuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_biodiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of biodiesel">biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the coal industry">coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_electricity_generation" title="Environmental impact of electricity generation">electricity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fracking_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental impact of fracking in the United States">fracking (US)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_nuclear_power" title="Environmental impact of nuclear power">nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry" title="Environmental impact of the oil shale industry">oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of the petroleum industry">petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of transport">transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_crime" title="Environmental crime">Environmental crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_impact_of_explosives" title="Ecological impact of explosives">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use#Environment" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cleaning_products" title="Environmental impact of cleaning products">cleaning agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_concrete" title="Environmental impact of concrete">concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic#Environmental_effects" title="Plastic">plastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology" title="Impact of nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paint" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paint">paint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paper">paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pesticides" title="Environmental impact of pesticides">pesticides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">pharmaceuticals and personal care</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fishing" title="Environmental impact of fishing">fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_down_the_food_web" title="Fishing down the food web">fishing down the food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Overconsumption">Overconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">Overdrafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">Overgrazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarrying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">Reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impacts_of_tourism" title="Impacts of tourism">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_rail" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of rail">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_ecology" title="Road ecology">roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_threats" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodiversity threats">Biodiversity threats</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">runaway climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_crisis" title="Ecological crisis">Ecological crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Effects of climate change on agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Effects of climate change on livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_security" title="Environmental security">Environmental insecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater cycle">Freshwater cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle" title="Human impact on the nitrogen cycle">Nitrogen cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss and damage">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_belt" title="Green belt">Loss of green belts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_cycle#Human_influences" title="Phosphorus cycle">Phosphorus cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification#Possible_impacts" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Water degradation">Water degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mitigation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle" title="Alternative fuel vehicle">Alternative fuel vehicle propulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_resilience" title="Community resilience">Community resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-economic_decoupling" title="Eco-economic decoupling">Decoupling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_mitigation" title="Environmental mitigation">Environmental mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitigation_banking" title="Mitigation banking">Mitigation banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">Organic farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_consumption" title="Sustainable consumption">Sustainable consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Environmental impact">Commons</a></li> <li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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