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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Norfolk_Island_jail1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Norfolk_Island_jail1.jpg/300px-Norfolk_Island_jail1.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Norfolk_Island_jail1.jpg/450px-Norfolk_Island_jail1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Norfolk_Island_jail1.jpg/600px-Norfolk_Island_jail1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="657" /></a><figcaption>The Norfolk Island convict settlement today</figcaption></figure> <p>The history of <a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Island" title="Norfolk Island">Norfolk Island</a> dates back to the fourteenth or fifteenth century when it was settled by <a href="/wiki/Polynesia" title="Polynesia">Polynesian</a> seafarers. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_history">Early history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Norfolk Island was first settled by East <a href="/wiki/Polynesia" title="Polynesia">Polynesian</a> seafarers either from the <a href="/wiki/Kermadec_Islands" title="Kermadec Islands">Kermadec Islands</a> north of New Zealand or from the <a href="/wiki/North_Island" title="North Island">North Island</a> of New Zealand. They arrived in the fourteenth or fifteenth century, and survived for several generations before disappearing.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their main village site has been excavated at Emily Bay, and they also left behind stone tools, the <a href="/wiki/Polynesian_rat" title="Polynesian rat">Polynesian rat</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Banana_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Banana tree">banana trees</a> as evidence of their sojourn. The <i>harakeke</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Phormium_tenax" title="Phormium tenax">Phormium tenax</a></i>), or New Zealand flax plant, was brought to Norfolk Island either from New Zealand directly or from <a href="/wiki/Raoul_Island" title="Raoul Island">Raoul Island</a> (Sunday Island) by these Polynesian settlers.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The flax is no relation of European flax but is related to the <a href="/wiki/Daylily" title="Daylily">daylily</a> and other genera within the sub-family <i>Hemerocallidaceae</i>. The final fate of the early settlers remains a mystery.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first European known to have sighted the island was <a href="/wiki/Captain_James_Cook" class="mw-redirect" title="Captain James Cook">Captain James Cook</a>, in 1774, on his second voyage to the South Pacific on <a href="/wiki/HMS_Resolution_(Cook)" class="mw-redirect" title="HMS Resolution (Cook)">HMS <i>Resolution</i></a>. He named it after the <a href="/wiki/Mary_Howard,_Duchess_of_Norfolk_(d._1773)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary Howard, Duchess of Norfolk (d. 1773)">Duchess of Norfolk</a> (c. 1712 – 1773). The Duchess was dead at the time of the island's sighting by Cook, but Cook had set out from England in 1772 and could not have known of her May 1773 death. </p><p>Cook went ashore on Tuesday 11 October 1774, and is said to have been impressed with the tall straight trees and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_flax" class="mw-redirect" title="New Zealand flax">New Zealand flax</a> plants, which, although not related to the Northern Hemisphere <a href="/wiki/Flax" title="Flax">flax</a> plants after which they are named, produce fibres of economic importance. He took samples back to Britain and reported on their potential uses for the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Kippis" title="Andrew Kippis">Andrew Kippis</a> as the biographer of this voyage puts it as follows: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>As the Resolution pursued her course from <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a>, land was discovered, which, on a nearer approach, was found to be an island, of good height, and five leagues in circuit. Captain Cook named it Norfolk Isle, in honour of the noble family of <a href="/wiki/Howard_(family)" class="mw-redirect" title="Howard (family)">Howard</a><i> (Fn.: It is situated in the latitude of 29° 2' 30" south, and in the longitude of 168° 16' east). </i>It was uninhabited; and the first persons that ever set foot on it were unquestionably our English navigators. Various trees and plants were observed that are common at New Zealand; and in particular, the flax plant, which is rather more luxuriant here than in any other part of that country. The chief produce of the island is a kind of spruce pine, exceedingly straight and tall, which grows in great abundance. Such is the size of many of the trees that, breast high, they are as thick as two men can fathom. Among the vegetables of the place, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Palm-cabbage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Palm-cabbage (page does not exist)">palm-cabbage</a> afforded both a wholesome and palatable refreshment; and, indeed, proved the most agreeable repast that our people had for a considerable time enjoyed...</p></blockquote> <p>The cabbage palm referred to is a cabbage tree species <a href="/wiki/Cordyline_obtecta" title="Cordyline obtecta">Cordyline obtecta</a>, also found in New Zealand, the edible heart of which resembles a small cabbage. At the time, Britain was heavily dependent on flax (<i>Linum usitatissimum</i>) (for <a href="/wiki/Sail" title="Sail">sails</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Hemp" title="Hemp">hemp</a> (<i>Cannabis</i> sp.) (for <a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">ropes</a>) from the shores of the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a> ports. Any threat to their supply endangered Britain's sea power.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The UK also relied on timbers from <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> for mainmasts, and these were not supplied after the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American War of Independence</a>. The alternative source of Norfolk Island for these, (or in the case of flax and hemp, similar) supplies is argued by some historians, notably <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Blainey" title="Geoffrey Blainey">Geoffrey Blainey</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tyranny_of_Distance:_How_Distance_Shaped_Australia%27s_History" title="The Tyranny of Distance: How Distance Shaped Australia's History">Tyranny of Distance</a></i>, as being a major reason for the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Convict_settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Convict settlement">convict settlement</a> of <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a> by the <a href="/wiki/First_Fleet" title="First Fleet">First Fleet</a> in 1788. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Captainjamescookportrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Captainjamescookportrait.jpg/250px-Captainjamescookportrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Captainjamescookportrait.jpg/330px-Captainjamescookportrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Captainjamescookportrait.jpg/500px-Captainjamescookportrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6131" data-file-height="7692" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Portrait_of_James_Cook" title="Portrait of James Cook">Portrait of James Cook</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Dance-Holland" title="Nathaniel Dance-Holland">Nathaniel Dance-Holland</a>, 1775</figcaption></figure> <p>James Cook said that, </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"except for New Zealand, in no other island in the South Sea was wood and mast-timber so ready to hand".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Sir_John_Call,_1st_Baronet" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir John Call, 1st Baronet">Sir John Call</a>, Member of Parliament, member of the Royal Society, and former chief engineer of the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a>, stated the advantages of Norfolk Island in a proposal for colonisation he put to the Home Office in August 1784: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"This Island has an Advantage not common to New Caledonia, New Holland and New Zealand by not being inhabited, so that no Injury can be done by possessing it to the rest of Mankind…there seems to be nothing wanting but Inhabitants and Cultivation to make it a delicious Residence. The Climate, Soil, and Sea provide everything that can be expected from them. The Timber, Shrubs, Vegetables and Fish already found there need no Embellishment to pronounce them excellent samples; but the most invaluable of all is the Flax-plant, which grows more luxuriant than in New Zealand."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Georg_Forster" title="Georg Forster">George Forster</a>, who had been on Cook's second voyage to the Pacific and had been with him when he landed on Norfolk Island, was at the time professor of natural history at the <a href="/wiki/Vilnius_University" title="Vilnius University">University of Vilna (or Vilnius)</a> in Polish Lithuania: Forster discussed the proposed <a href="/wiki/Botany_Bay" title="Botany Bay">Botany Bay</a> colony in an article written in November 1786, "Neuholland, und die brittische Colonie in Botany Bay". Though unaware of the British intention to settle Norfolk Island, which was not announced until 5 December 1786, Forster referred to "the nearness of New Zealand; the excellent flax plant (<i>Phormium</i>) that grows so abundantly there; its incomparable shipbuilding timber", as among the advantages of the new colony.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The proposal written by <a href="/wiki/James_Matra" title="James Matra">James Matra</a> under the supervision of Sir Joseph Banks for establishing a settlement in <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a>, stated that <a href="/wiki/Botany_Bay" title="Botany Bay">Botany Bay</a> was: “no further than a fortnight from New Zealand, which is covered with timber even to the water's edge. The trees are so big and tall that a single tree is enough to make a mast of a first rate <a href="/wiki/Man-of-war" title="Man-of-war">man of war</a>. New Zealand produces in addition flax, which is an object equally of utility and curiosity. Any quantity of it might be raised in the colony, as this plant grows naturally in New Zealand. It can be made to serve the various purposes of cotton, hemp and linen, and is easier manufactured than any of them. In naval affairs, it could not fail of being of the utmost consequence; a cable of ten inches (250 mm) being supposed to be of equal strength and durability to one of European hemp of eighteen inches.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1786 the British government included Norfolk Island as an auxiliary settlement, as proposed by John Call, in its plan for colonisation of New South Wales. The flax and ship timber of New Zealand were attractive, but these prospective advantages were balanced by the obvious impossibility of forming a settlement there in the face of undoubted opposition from the native Maori.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was no native population to oppose a settlement on Norfolk Island, which also possessed those desirable natural resources, but the island was too small of itself to sustain a colony. Hence the ultimate decision for a dual colonisation along the lines proposed by Call. </p><p>The decision to settle Norfolk Island was taken under the impetus of the shock Britain had just received from Empress <a href="/wiki/Catherine_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Catherine II of Russia">Catherine II of Russia</a>. Practically all the hemp and flax required by the Royal Navy for cordage and sailcloth was imported from the Russian dominions through the ports of St. Petersburg (<a href="/wiki/Kronstadt" title="Kronstadt">Kronstadt</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Riga" title="Riga">Riga</a>. Comptroller of the Navy Sir Charles Middleton explained to Prime Minister Pitt in a letter of 5 September 1786: "It is for Hemp only we are dependent on Russia. Masts can be procured from Nova Scotia, and Iron in plenty from the Ores of this Country; but as it is impracticable to carry on a Naval War without Hemp, it is materially necessary to promote the growth of it in this Country and Ireland".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the summer of 1786, the Empress Catherine, in the context of tense negotiations on a renewed treaty of commerce, had emphasised her control over this vital commodity by asking the merchants who supplied it to restrict sales to English buyers: “the Empress has contrary to Custom speculated on this Commodity”, complained the author of a subsequent memorandum to the Home Secretary. "It is unnecessary", said the memorandum, "to remark the Consequences which might result from a prohibition of supply from that Quarter altogether".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This implicit threat to the viability of the Royal Navy became apparent in mid-September (a month after the decision had been taken to settle Botany Bay) and caused the Pitt Administration to begin an urgent search for new sources of supply, including from Norfolk Island, which was then added to the plan to colonise New South Wales. </p><p>The need for an alternative non-Russian source of naval stores is indicated by the information from the British Ambassador in Copenhagen, Hugh Elliott, who wrote to Foreign Secretary, Lord Carmarthen on 12 August 1788: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>“There is no Topick so common in the Mouths of the Russian Ministers, as to insist on the Facility with which the Empress, when Mistress of the Baltic, either by Conquest, Influence, or Alliance with the other two Northern Powers, could keep England in a State of Dependence for its Baltic Commerce and Naval Stores”.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>On 6 December 1786, an <a href="/wiki/Order_in_Council" title="Order in Council">Order in Council</a> was issued, designating "the Eastern Coast of New South Wales, or some one or other of the Islands adjacent" as the destination for transported convicts, as required by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Transportation,_etc._Act_1784&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transportation, etc. Act 1784 (page does not exist)">Transportation, etc. Act 1784</a> (<a href="/wiki/24_Geo._3._Sess._2" class="mw-redirect" title="24 Geo. 3. Sess. 2">24 Geo. 3. Sess. 2</a>. c. 56) that authorised the sending of convicted felons to any place appointed by the King in Council. Norfolk Island was thereby brought officially within the bounds of the projected colony. </p><p>An article in <i>The Daily Universal Register</i> (the forerunner of <i>The Times</i>) of 23 December 1786 revealed the plan for a dual colonisation of Norfolk Island and Botany Bay: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"The ships for Botany Bay are not to leave all the convicts there; some of them are to be taken to Norfolk Island, which is about eight hundred miles East of Botany Bay, and about four hundred miles short of New Zealand".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The advantage of Britain's new colony in providing a non-Russian source of flax and hemp for naval supplies was referred to in an article in <i>Lloyd’s Evening Post</i> of 5 October 1787 which urged: "It is undoubtedly the interest of Great-Britain to remain neutral in the present contest between the Russians and the Turks" and observed, "Should England cease to render her services to the Empress of Russia, in a war against the Turks, there can be little of nothing to fear from her ill-will. England will speedily be enabled to draw from her colony of New South Wales, the staple of Russia, hemp and flax." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First_penal_settlement">First penal settlement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: First penal settlement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Island_Foundation_Day" title="Norfolk Island Foundation Day">Norfolk Island Foundation Day</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Norfolk_Island_convict_buildings.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Norfolk_Island_convict_buildings.jpg/250px-Norfolk_Island_convict_buildings.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Norfolk_Island_convict_buildings.jpg/330px-Norfolk_Island_convict_buildings.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Norfolk_Island_convict_buildings.jpg/500px-Norfolk_Island_convict_buildings.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="773" /></a><figcaption>Convict buildings</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Norfolk_Island_convict_grave.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Norfolk_Island_convict_grave.jpg/250px-Norfolk_Island_convict_grave.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Norfolk_Island_convict_grave.jpg/330px-Norfolk_Island_convict_grave.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Norfolk_Island_convict_grave.jpg/500px-Norfolk_Island_convict_grave.jpg 2x" data-file-width="688" data-file-height="959" /></a><figcaption>Gravestone of a convict</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Norfolk_Island_jail8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Norfolk_Island_jail8.jpg/220px-Norfolk_Island_jail8.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Norfolk_Island_jail8.jpg/330px-Norfolk_Island_jail8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Norfolk_Island_jail8.jpg/440px-Norfolk_Island_jail8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="968" data-file-height="676" /></a><figcaption>Norfolk Island jail</figcaption></figure> <p>Governor <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Phillip" title="Arthur Phillip">Arthur Phillip</a>'s instructions given to him in April 1787 included an injunction to send a party to secure Norfolk Island "as soon as Circumstances may admit of it…. to prevent its being occupied by the Subjects of any other European Power". This could only have been a reference to the expedition then in the Pacific commanded by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Galaup,_comte_de_La_P%C3%A9rouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse">Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse</a>. <i>The Daily Universal Register</i> of 11 November 1786 had stated: "the Botany Bay scheme is laid aside, as there is a strong presumption that a squadron from Brest are now, or soon will be, in possession of the very spot we meant to occupy in New Holland". This may have been a reference to a report from the British Ambassador in Paris, who had believed that when La Pérouse's expedition set out from Brest in August 1785 it had as one of its objectives the establishment of a settlement in New Zealand to forestall the British.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>La Pérouse did attempt to visit Norfolk Island, but only to investigate, not to take possession. He had instructions to investigate any colonies the British may have established and learned of the intention to settle Botany Bay and Norfolk Island from despatches sent to him from Paris through St. Petersburg and by land across Siberia to Petropavlovsk in Kamchatka, where he received them on 26 September 1787, just four days before his departure from that port.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His ships, the <i>Boussole</i> and <i>Astrolabe</i>, anchored off the northern side of the island on 13 January 1788, but at the time high seas were running that made it too dangerous for the two ships’ boats that were put out to attempt a landing: “It was obvious that I would have had to wait maybe for a very long time for a moment suitable for a landing and a visit to this island was not worth this sacrifice”, he recorded in his journal.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Having noted that the island was still uninhabited, he was presumably the less inclined to risk a landing when there was no British settlement there to report on. </p><p>When the First Fleet arrived at <a href="/wiki/Port_Jackson" title="Port Jackson">Port Jackson</a> in January 1788, Phillip ordered Lieutenant <a href="/wiki/Philip_Gidley_King" title="Philip Gidley King">Philip Gidley King</a> to lead a party of 15 convicts and seven free men, including surgeon <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jamison" title="Thomas Jamison">Thomas Jamison</a> (the future Principal Surgeon of <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a>), to take control of the island and prepare for its commercial development. They arrived on 6 March 1788.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During the first year of the settlement, which was also called "Sydney" like its parent, more convicts and soldiers were sent to the island from New South Wales. A second village was started at Ball Bay, named after the captain of <i>HMS Supply</i>, Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball. On 8 January 1789, the first child was born, Norfolk King, the son of Philip Gidley King and a convict, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ann_Inett&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ann Inett (page does not exist)">Ann Inett</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mh_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mh-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Norfolk King went on to become the first British Naval officer born in Australia, and was a Lieutenant, commanding the schooner <a href="/wiki/HMS_Ballahoo_(1804)" title="HMS Ballahoo (1804)"><i>Ballahoo</i></a> when an American privateer captured her.) </p><p>A "Letter from an Officer of Marines at New South Wales, 16 November 1788", published in the London newspaper, <i>The World,</i> 15 May 1789, reported the glowing description of the island and its prospects by Philip Gidley King, but also drew attention to the fatal defect of the lack of a safe port: “The said Island lies near Port Jackson, and is nearly as large as the Isle of Wight. Lieutenant King, who was sent with a detachment of marines and some convicts, to settle there, gives the most flattering portrayal of it. The island is fully wooded. Its timber is in the opinion of everyone the most beautiful and finest in the world...they are most suitable for masts, yards, spars and such. The New Zealand flax-plant grows there in abundance. European grains and seeds also thrive wonderfully well on Norfolk Island. It only lacks a good port and suitable landing places, without which the island is of no use, but with them it would be of the greatest importance for Great Britain. How far these deficiencies can be improved by art and the hand of man, time must decide.”<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>An idealised vision of the new British settlement was given in the novel by Therese Forster, <i>Abentheuer auf einer Reise nach Neu-Holland [Adventures on a Voyage to New Holland],</i> published in the German women's magazine, <i>Flora</i> for 1793 and 1794: </p> <blockquote> <p>We went towards the centre of this small island where at the foot of a round hill a crystal-clear river rushes forth, dividing up further on into several arms. Towards North and West the hill is covered with the most beautiful ploughed fields all the way down to the sea. The sight of these great flax fields is one of the loveliest I ever beheld. The slender stalks, of the most beautiful green and reaching far above a man's head, bent in the gentle breeze that blew from the sea. Their red blossoms, shining like rubies, danced in the green waves. The top of the hill and the whole of the south and east sides are covered with enormous pines whose dark green is enhanced by a pleasant foreground of cabbage palms and banana trees, and I also observed a low bush among them the fruit of which resembles our red currants but is much larger and hangs in purple and red clusters that help to give the whole a gay appearance. The dwellings of the colonists are strewn along the fringes of the forest and from my post I could see several of them. Simple houses surrounded by barns and stalls and the fields all enclosed with hedges give the region a youthful appearance the like of which is rarely found in Europe. And plants here bloom more luxuriantly and more perfectly with a natural vigour that knows no exhaustion and fears no poverty, a vigour that has disappeared from our continent.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>More convicts were sent, and the island was seen as a farm, supplying Sydney with <a href="/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">grain</a> and vegetables during its early years of near-starvation. However, crops often failed due to the salty wind, rats, and <a href="/wiki/Caterpillar" title="Caterpillar">caterpillars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lack of a natural safe harbour hindered communication and the transport of supplies and produce. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Manning_Clark" title="Manning Clark">Manning Clark</a> observed that "at first the convicts behaved well, but as more arrived from Sydney Cove, they renewed their wicked practices". These included an attempted overthrow of King in January 1789 by convicts described by <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Hazzard" title="Margaret Hazzard">Margaret Hazzard</a> as "incorrigible rogues who took his 'goodwill' for weakness". While some convicts responded well to the opportunities offered to become respectable, most remained "idle and miserable wretches" according to Clark, despite the climate and their isolation from previous haunts of crime. </p><p>The impending starvation at Sydney led to a great transplantation of convicts and marines to Norfolk Island in March 1790 on <a href="/wiki/HMS_Sirius_(1786)" title="HMS Sirius (1786)">HMS <i>Sirius</i></a>. This attempt to relieve the pressure on Sydney turned to disaster when <i>Sirius</i> was wrecked and, although there was no loss of life, some stores were destroyed, and the ship's crew was marooned for ten months. This news was met in Sydney with "unspeakable consternation".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Norfolk Island was now further cut off from Sydney which, with the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Fleet_(Australia)" title="Second Fleet (Australia)">Second Fleet</a> with its cargo of sick and abused convicts, had more pressing problems with which to contend. </p><p>In spite of this the settlement grew slowly as more convicts were sent from Sydney. Many convicts chose to remain as settlers on the expiry of their sentence, and the population grew to over 1,000 by 1792. Norfolk Island in 1793 was described by Josef Espinosa y Tello, an officer of the Spanish expedition led by <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Malaspina" class="mw-redirect" title="Alessandro Malaspina">Alessandro Malaspina</a> that visited New South Wales. </p> <blockquote> <p>The colony of Norfolk, settled shortly after that at Port Jackson, merits little attention both because of the small size of that island and because of the hilly nature of its terrain, and the particular circumstance of its lacking entirely an anchorage or a place where longboats can be drawn up with any security. Despite this, some 1,500 persons live there, and its fertile soil produces copiously all kinds of grains, although the difficulty of clearing the ground covered with trees and undergrowth retards the large harvests which the fertility of the land would yield without that obstacle. The pines are of a prodigious height, straight, thick and of the finest grain, and several have been felled of above 7 feet in diameter at the foot, six at 17 and five at 37 yards, having 147 feet of height in total and 120 to the first branches. The flax brought there from New Zealand bears a good aspect, but no great hopes are rested on its cultivation, and it seems that the second trials of this plant made in London have not achieved the happy outcome of the first.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <div class="infobox" style="width: 40%;"> <p>Lieutenant governors of the first settlement: </p> <ul><li>6 March 1788 – 24 March 1790: Lieutenant <a href="/wiki/Philip_Gidley_King" title="Philip Gidley King">Philip Gidley King</a> (1758–1808)</li> <li>24 March 1790 – Nov 1791: Major <a href="/wiki/Robert_Ross_(British_Marines_officer)" title="Robert Ross (British Marines officer)">Robert Ross</a> (c.1740–1794)</li> <li>4 November 1791 – Oct 1796: Lieutenant Philip Gidley King</li> <li>October 1796 – Nov 1799: Captain <a href="/wiki/John_Townson" title="John Townson">John Townson</a> (1760–1835)</li> <li>November 1799 – Jul 1800: Captain <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Rowley_(soldier)" title="Thomas Rowley (soldier)">Thomas Rowley</a> (c.1748–1806)</li> <li>26 June 1800 – 9 September 1804: Major <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Foveaux" title="Joseph Foveaux">Joseph Foveaux</a> (1765–1846)</li> <li>9 September 1804 – January 1810: Lieutenant <a href="/wiki/John_Piper_(military_officer)" title="John Piper (military officer)">John Piper</a> (1773–1851)</li> <li>January 1810–15 February 1813: Lieutenant <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Crane" title="Thomas Crane">Thomas Crane</a> (caretaker)</li> <li>15 February 1813 – 15 February 1814: Superintendent <a href="/wiki/William_Hutchinson_(Superintendent)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Hutchinson (Superintendent)">William Hutchinson</a></li></ul> </div> <p>Norfolk Island was governed by a succession of short-term commandants for the next 11 years, starting with King's replacement, Robert Ross, from 1789 to 1790. When <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Foveaux" title="Joseph Foveaux">Joseph Foveaux</a> arrived as Lieutenant Governor in 1800, he found the settlement quite run down, little maintenance having been carried out in the previous four years, and he set about building it up, particularly through public works and attempts to improve education.<sup id="cite_ref-ADB_Foveaux_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ADB_Foveaux-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As early as 1794, Lieutenant-Governor of New South Wales Francis Grose suggested its closure as a penal settlement as it was too remote and difficult for shipping, and too costly to maintain.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1803, the Secretary of State, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hobart,_4th_Earl_of_Buckinghamshire" title="Robert Hobart, 4th Earl of Buckinghamshire">Lord Hobart</a>, called for the removal of part of the Norfolk Island military establishment, settlers and convicts to <a href="/wiki/Van_Diemen%27s_Land" title="Van Diemen's Land">Van Diemen's Land</a>, due to its great expense and the difficulties of communication between Norfolk Island and Sydney. This was achieved more slowly than anticipated, due to reluctance of settlers to uproot themselves from the land they had struggled to tame, and compensation claims for loss of stock. It was also delayed by King's insistence on its value for providing refreshment to the whalers. The first group of 159 left in February 1805 and comprised mainly convicts and their families and military personnel, only four settlers departing. Between November 1807 and September 1808, five groups of 554 people departed. Only about 200 remained, forming a small settlement until the remnants were removed in 1813. A small party remained to slaughter stock and destroy all buildings so that there would be no inducement for anyone, especially from another European power, to visit that place. </p><p>From 15 February 1814 to 6 June 1825 the island lay abandoned. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second_penal_settlement">Second penal settlement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Second penal settlement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="infobox" style="width:40%;"> <p>Commandants of the second settlement: </p> <ul><li>6 June 1825 – March 1826: Captain <a href="/wiki/Richard_Turton_(Commandant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Turton (Commandant)">Richard Turton</a></li> <li>March 1826 – August 1827: Captain <a href="/wiki/Vance_Young_Donaldson_(Commandant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vance Young Donaldson (Commandant)">Vance Young Donaldson</a> (1791–?)</li> <li>August 1827 – November 1828: Captain <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edward_Wright_(Commandant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Edward Wright (Commandant)">Thomas Edward Wright</a></li> <li>November 1828 – February 1829: Captain <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Hunt_(Commandant)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Hunt (Commandant) (page does not exist)">Robert Hunt</a></li> <li>February 1829–29 June 1829: Captain <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Wakefield_(Commandant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Wakefield (Commandant)">Joseph Wakefield</a></li> <li>29 June 1829 – 1834: Lieutenant-Colonel <a href="/wiki/James_Thomas_Morisset_(Commandant)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Thomas Morisset (Commandant)">James Thomas Morisset</a> (1782–1852)</li> <li>1834: Captain <a href="/wiki/Foster_Fyans_(Commandant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Foster Fyans (Commandant)">Foster Fyans</a> (1790–1870) (Acting)</li> <li>1834 – April 1839: Major <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Anderson_(Commandant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Anderson (Commandant)">Joseph Anderson</a> (1790–1877)</li> <li>April–July 1839: Major <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bunbury_(British_Army_officer,_born_1791)" title="Thomas Bunbury (British Army officer, born 1791)">Thomas Bunbury</a> (1791–1862)</li> <li>July 1839 – March 1840: Major <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Ryan_(Commandant)" title="Thomas Ryan (Commandant)">Thomas Ryan</a> (b. c. 1790) (Acting)</li> <li>17 March 1840 – 1844: Captain <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Maconochie_(penal_reformer)" title="Alexander Maconochie (penal reformer)">Alexander Maconochie</a> (1787–1860)</li> <li>8 February 1844 – 5 August 1846: Major <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Childs_(Commandant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Childs (Commandant)">Joseph Childs</a></li> <li>6 August 1846 – 18 January 1853: <a href="/wiki/John_Giles_Price_(Commandant)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Giles Price (Commandant)">John Giles Price</a> (1808–1857)</li> <li>January 1853 – September 1853: Captain <a href="/wiki/Rupert_Deering" title="Rupert Deering">Rupert Deering</a></li> <li>September 1853 – 5 May 1855: Captain <a href="/wiki/H._Day_(Commandant)" class="mw-redirect" title="H. Day (Commandant)">H. Day</a></li> <li>5 May 1855 – 8 June 1856: <a href="/wiki/T.S._Stewart" class="mw-redirect" title="T.S. Stewart">T.S. Stewart</a> (Caretaker)</li></ul> </div> <p>In 1824 the British government instructed the Governor of New South Wales <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Brisbane" title="Thomas Brisbane">Thomas Brisbane</a> to occupy Norfolk Island as a place to send "the worst description of convicts". Its remoteness, seen previously as a disadvantage, was now viewed as an asset for the detention of the "twice-convicted" men, who had committed further crimes since arriving in New South Wales. Brisbane assured his masters that "the felon who is sent there is forever excluded from all hope of return" He saw Norfolk Island as "the nec plus ultra of Convict degradation". The convicts detained have long been assumed be a hardcore of recidivists, or 'doubly-convicted capital respites' – that is, men transported to Australia who committed fresh colonial crimes for which they were sentenced to death, and were spared the gallows on condition of life at Norfolk Island. However, a recent study has demonstrated, utilising a database of 6,458 Norfolk Island convicts, that the reality was somewhat different: more than half were detained at Norfolk Island without ever receiving a colonial conviction, and only 15% had been reprieved from a death sentence. Furthermore, the overwhelming majority of convicts sent to Norfolk Island had committed non-violent property sentences, the average length of detention was three years, and the scale of punishments inflicted upon the prisoners was significantly less than assumed.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His successor, Governor <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Darling" title="Ralph Darling">Ralph Darling</a>, was even more severe than Brisbane, wishing that "every man should be worked in irons that the example may deter others from the commission of crime" and "to hold out [Norfolk Island] as a place of the extremest punishment short of death". Governor <a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Arthur,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir George Arthur, 1st Baronet">Arthur</a>, in Van Diemen's Land, likewise believed that "when prisoners are sent to Norfolk Island, they should on no account be permitted to return. Transportation thither should be considered as the ultimate limit and a punishment short only of death". Reformation of the convicts was not seen as an objective of the Norfolk Island penal settlement. </p><p>The evidence that has passed down through the years points to the creation of a "Hell in Paradise". A widespread and popular notion of the harshness of penal settlements, including Norfolk Island, has come from the novel <i><a href="/wiki/For_the_Term_of_his_Natural_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="For the Term of his Natural Life">For the Term of his Natural Life</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Clarke" title="Marcus Clarke">Marcus Clarke</a>, which appears to be based on the writings and recollections of witnesses. However, though Clarke did carry out primary research, he selected the most sensational examples possible. </p><p>Following a convict mutiny in 1834, Father <a href="/wiki/William_Ullathorne" class="mw-redirect" title="William Ullathorne">William Ullathorne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vicar_general" title="Vicar general">vicar general</a> of Sydney, visited Norfolk Island to comfort the mutineers due for execution. He found it "the most heartrending scene that I ever witnessed". Having the duty of informing the prisoners as to who was reprieved and who was to die, he was shocked to record as "a literal fact that each man who heard his reprieve wept bitterly, and that each man who heard of his condemnation to death went down on his knees with dry eyes, and thanked God." </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Norfolk_Island_jail2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Norfolk_Island_jail2.jpg/250px-Norfolk_Island_jail2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Norfolk_Island_jail2.jpg/330px-Norfolk_Island_jail2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Norfolk_Island_jail2.jpg/500px-Norfolk_Island_jail2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="725" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Norfolk_Island_jail4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Norfolk_Island_jail4.jpg/250px-Norfolk_Island_jail4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Norfolk_Island_jail4.jpg/330px-Norfolk_Island_jail4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Norfolk_Island_jail4.jpg/500px-Norfolk_Island_jail4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="801" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>The 1846 report of magistrate <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Pringle_Stuart&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Pringle Stuart (page does not exist)">Robert Pringle Stuart</a> exposed the scarcity and poor quality of food, inadequacy of housing, horrors of torture and incessant flogging, insubordination of convicts, and corruption of overseers. </p><p>Bishop <a href="/wiki/Robert_Willson_(bishop)" title="Robert Willson (bishop)">Robert Willson</a> visited Norfolk Island from Van Diemen's Land on three occasions. Following his first visit in 1846 he reported to the House of Lords who, for the first time, came to realise the enormity of atrocities perpetrated under the British flag and attempted to remedy the evils. Willson returned in 1849 and found that many of the reforms had been implemented. However, rumours of resumed atrocities brought him back in 1852, and this visit resulted in a damning report, listing atrocities and blaming the system, which invested one man at this remote place with absolute power over so many people. </p><p>Only a handful of convicts left any written record and their descriptions (as quoted by Hazzard and Hughes) of living and working conditions, food and housing, and, in particular, the punishments given for seemingly trivial offences, are unremittingly horrifying, describing a settlement devoid of all human decency, under the iron rule of the tyrannical autocratic commandants. However, these conclusions have been reached by a reliance on a series of over-used (mainly published) sources, without their having been tested or drawn into question by detailed archival research. Such work is currently being done and has, for example, drawn into question the sensationalised version of Norfolk Island's past, such as in demonstrating that the widespread assumption that Norfolk Island convicts engaged in 'murder-suicide pacts' – that is, drawing lots to select a killer and willing victim to 'escape' from Norfolk Island – is a myth.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The actions of some of the commandants, such as <a href="/wiki/James_Thomas_Morisset_(Commandant)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Thomas Morisset (Commandant)">Morisset</a> and particularly <a href="/wiki/John_Giles_Price_(Commandant)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Giles Price (Commandant)">Price</a> appear to be excessively harsh. All but one were military officers, brought up in a system where discipline was severe throughout the period of transportation. In addition, the commandants relied on a large number of military guards, civil overseers, ex-convict constables, and convict informers to provide them with intelligence and carry out their orders. </p><p>Of the commandants, only <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Maconochie_(penal_reformer)" title="Alexander Maconochie (penal reformer)">Alexander Maconochie</a> appeared to reach the conclusion that brutality would breed defiance, as demonstrated by the mutinies of <a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Island_Convict_Mutinies" class="mw-redirect" title="Norfolk Island Convict Mutinies">1826, 1834 and 1846</a>, and he attempted to apply his theories of penal reform, providing incentives as well as punishment. His methods were criticised as being too lenient and he was replaced, a move that returned the settlement to its harsh rule. However, recent research has also demonstrated that the level of punishment under Maconochie's regime was much higher than assumed, as the average number of lashes per flogging – 93 – was higher under Maconochie than at any other time during the second penal settlement's history.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second penal settlement began to be wound down by the British government after 1847 and the last convicts were removed to <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a> in May 1855. It was abandoned because transportation to Van Diemen's Land had ceased in 1853 and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Penal_servitude" class="mw-redirect" title="Penal servitude">penal servitude</a> in the United Kingdom. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Settlement_by_Pitcairn_Islanders">Settlement by Pitcairn Islanders</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Settlement by Pitcairn Islanders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 8 June 1856, the next settlement began on Norfolk Island. These were the descendants of Tahitians and the <a href="/wiki/HMS_Bounty" title="HMS Bounty">HMS <i>Bounty</i></a> mutineers, resettled from the <a href="/wiki/Pitcairn_Islands" title="Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a>, which had become too small for their growing population. The British government had permitted the transfer of the Pitcairners to Norfolk, which was thus established as a colony separate from New South Wales but under the administration of that colony's governor. They left <a href="/wiki/Pitcairn_Islands" title="Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a> on 3 May 1856 and arrived with 194 persons on 8 June. </p><p>The Pitcairners occupied many of the buildings remaining from the penal settlements, and gradually established their traditional farming and whaling industries on the island. Although some families decided to return to Pitcairn in 1858 and 1863, the island's population continued to slowly grow as the island accepted settlers, often arriving with whaling fleets. </p><p>In 1867, the headquarters of the <a href="/wiki/Melanesian_Mission" title="Melanesian Mission">Melanesian Mission</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> were established on the island, and in 1882 the church of <a href="/wiki/St._Barnabas" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Barnabas">St. Barnabas</a> was erected to the memory of the mission's head Bishop <a href="/wiki/John_Coleridge_Patteson" class="mw-redirect" title="John Coleridge Patteson">John Coleridge Patteson</a>, with windows designed by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Burne-Jones" title="Edward Burne-Jones">Edward Burne-Jones</a> and executed by <a href="/wiki/William_Morris" title="William Morris">William Morris</a>. In 1920 the mission was relocated from the island to the <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands" title="Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a> to be closer to its target population. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Norfolk_Island_St_Barnabas_Chapel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Norfolk_Island_St_Barnabas_Chapel.jpg/220px-Norfolk_Island_St_Barnabas_Chapel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Norfolk_Island_St_Barnabas_Chapel.jpg/330px-Norfolk_Island_St_Barnabas_Chapel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Norfolk_Island_St_Barnabas_Chapel.jpg/440px-Norfolk_Island_St_Barnabas_Chapel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="713" /></a><figcaption>Anglican Church of St. Barnabas, Norfolk Island</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Twentieth_century">Twentieth century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Twentieth century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be <b>updated</b>. The reason given is: Limited self-government was abolished in 2016.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>After the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth of Australia">Commonwealth of Australia</a> in 1901, Norfolk Island was placed under the authority of the new Commonwealth government to be administered as an external territory. </p><p>During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the island became a key <a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Island_Airport" title="Norfolk Island Airport">airbase</a> and refuelling depot between Australia and New Zealand, and New Zealand and the <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands" title="Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a>. Since Norfolk Island fell within New Zealand's area of responsibility it was garrisoned by a <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Army" title="New Zealand Army">New Zealand Army</a> unit known as <a href="/wiki/N_Force" title="N Force">N Force</a> at a large army camp which had the capacity to house a 1,500 strong force. N Force relieved a company of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Australian_Imperial_Force" title="Second Australian Imperial Force">Second Australian Imperial Force</a>. The island proved too remote to come under attack during the war and N Force left the island in February 1944. </p><p>In the late 1960s a mini-invasion by British <a href="/wiki/Ex-pats" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex-pats">ex-pats</a> followed after the island was featured on a <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> television documentary presented by <a href="/wiki/Alan_Whicker" title="Alan Whicker">Alan Whicker</a>. Fifty families decided to emigrate from the United Kingdom to Norfolk Island as a result of the programme.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1979, Norfolk was granted limited self-government by Australia, under which the island elects a government that runs most of the island's affairs. As such, residents of Norfolk Island are not represented in the Commonwealth <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Australia" title="Parliament of Australia">Parliament of Australia</a>, making them the only group of residents of an Australian state or territory not represented there. </p><p>In 2006, a formal review process took place, in which the Australian government considered revising this model of government. The review was completed on 20 December 2006, when it was decided that there would be no changes in the governance of Norfolk Island.<sup id="cite_ref-ag_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ag-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Financial problems and a reduction in tourism led to Norfolk Island's administration appealing to the Australian federal government for assistance in 2010. In return, the islanders were to pay income tax for the first time but would be eligible for greater welfare benefits. However, by May 2013 agreement had not been reached and islanders were having to leave to find work and welfare. An agreement was finally signed in Canberra on 12 March 2015 to replace self-government with a local council but against the wishes of the Norfolk Island government. A majority of Norfolk Islanders objected to the Australian plan to make changes to Norfolk Island without first consulting them and allowing their say, with 68% of voters against forced changes. An example of growing friction between Norfolk Island and increased Australian rule was featured in a 2019 episode of Discovery Channel's annual <a href="/wiki/Shark_Week" title="Shark Week">Shark Week</a>. The episode featured Norfolk Island's policy of culling growing cattle populations by killing older cattle and feeding the carcasses to tiger sharks well off the coast. This is done to help prevent tiger sharks from coming further toward shore in search of food. Norfolk Island holds one of the largest populations of tiger sharks in the world. Australia has banned the culling policy as cruelty to animals. Norfolk Islanders fear this will lead to increased shark attacks and damage an already waning tourist industry. </p><p>On 4 October 2015, the time zone for Norfolk Island was changed from <a href="/wiki/UTC%2B11:30" title="UTC+11:30">UTC+11:30</a> to <a href="/wiki/UTC%2B11:00" title="UTC+11:00">UTC+11:00</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reduced_autonomy_2016">Reduced autonomy 2016</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Reduced autonomy 2016"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In March 2015, the Australian Government announced comprehensive reforms for Norfolk Island. The action was justified on the grounds it was necessary "to address issues of sustainability which have arisen from the model of self-government requiring Norfolk Island to deliver local, state and federal functions since 1979". On 17 June 2015, the Norfolk Island Legislative Assembly was abolished, with the territory becoming run by an Administrator and an advisory council. Elections for a new Regional Council were held on 28 May 2016, with the new council taking office on 1 July 2016. </p><p>From that date, most Australian Commonwealth laws were extended to Norfolk Island. This means that taxation, social security, immigration, customs and health arrangements apply on the same basis as in mainland Australia. Travel between Norfolk Island and mainland Australia became domestic travel on 1 July 2016. For the <a href="/wiki/2016_Australian_federal_election" title="2016 Australian federal election">2016 Australian federal election</a>, 328 people on Norfolk Island voted in the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Capital_Territory" title="Australian Capital Territory">ACT</a> <a href="/wiki/Division_of_Canberra" title="Division of Canberra">electorate of Canberra</a>, out of 117,248 total votes. Since 2018, Norfolk Island is covered by the <a href="/wiki/Division_of_Bean" title="Division of Bean">electorate of Bean</a>. </p><p>There is opposition to the reforms, led by Norfolk Island People for Democracy Inc., an association appealing to the United Nations to include the island on its list of "<a href="/wiki/United_Nations_list_of_non-self-governing_territories" title="United Nations list of non-self-governing territories">non-self-governing territories</a>". There has also been movement to join New Zealand since the autonomy reforms. </p><p>In October 2019, the Norfolk Island People For Democracy advocacy group conducted a survey of 457 island residents (about one quarter of the entire population) and found that 37% preferred <a href="/wiki/Associated_state" title="Associated state">free association</a> with New Zealand, 35% preferred free association with Australia, 25% preferred <a href="/wiki/Self-governance" title="Self-governance">full independence</a>, and 3% preferred full integration with Australia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Helen Sampson, <i>Over the Horizon: the Polynesian Settlement on Norfolk Island,</i> Norfolk Island, Helen Sampson, 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Atholl Anderson and Peter White, <i>The Prehistoric Archaeology of Norfolk Island,</i> Australian Museum Sydney, 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/103116/Cun112167Coy.pdf">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDon_Macnaughtan2001" class="citation web cs1">Don Macnaughtan (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://waikowhai2.wordpress.com/mystery-islands-of-south-polynesia/#norfolk">"Mystery Islands of Remote South Polynesia: Bibliography of Prehistoric Settlement on Norfolk Island, the Kermadecs, Lord Howe, and the Auckland Islands"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mystery+Islands+of+Remote+South+Polynesia%3A+Bibliography+of+Prehistoric+Settlement+on+Norfolk+Island%2C+the+Kermadecs%2C+Lord+Howe%2C+and+the+Auckland+Islands&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Don+Macnaughtan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwaikowhai2.wordpress.com%2Fmystery-islands-of-south-polynesia%2F%23norfolk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Norfolk+Island" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Jiggens, <i>Sir Joseph Banks and the Question of Hemp: Hemp, Seapower and Empire,1776–1815,</i> Indooroopilly, Jayjay, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Georg Forster, <i>Reise um die Weld</i>, 1777, Teil 2, reprinted in <i>Georg Forsters Werke: sämmtliche Schriften</i>, Berlin, Akademie-verlag, Bd.3, 1965, p.339.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Proposal for a Colonization of the south Pacific", August 1734(?), PRO Home 42/7: 49 57, <i>Historical Records of New South Wales</i>, Vol.II, pp.350 67, App.A (where it is described as an "anonymous proposal"). Call's authorship is identified in Alan Frost, <i>Convicts & Empire: A Naval Question, 1776 1811</i>, Melbourne, Oxford U.P., 1980, pp.19 26, 203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Allgemeines historisches Taschenbuch: oder Abriss der merkwürdigsten neuen Welt-Begebenheiten für 1787, enthaltend Zusätze zu des für das Jahr 1786 herausgegeben Geschichte der wichtigsten Staat- und Handelsveranderungen von Ostindien von M.C. Sprengel, Professor der Geschichte auf der Universität zu Halle</i>, Berlin, 1787, S.8, 11, 14; Zusatz 7: Historisch-Genealogischer Calender vom Jahr 1786, “Neuholland, und die brittische Colonie in Botany Bay”, S.xxxiii-liv; re-published in <i>Georg Forster’s Kleine Schriften: Ein Beytrag zur Völker- und Länderkunde, Naturgeschichte und Philosophie des Lebens, gesammlet von Georg Forster</i>, Erster Theil, Leipzig, Kummer, 1789, S.233-74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">published in <i>The General Advertiser</i>, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Whitehall_Evening_Post" title="Whitehall Evening Post">Whitehall Evening Post</a></i>, 14 October, <i>The Public Advertiser</i>,16 October, and <i>The London Chronicle</i> and <i>The General Evening Post</i>, 17 October 1786.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank Clarke, "The Reasons for the Settlement of Norfolk Island, 1788", Raymond Nobbs (ed.), <i>Norfolk Island and its First Settlement, 1788–1814</i>, Sydney, Library of Australian History, 1988, pp.28–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Letters and Papers of Charles Middleton, Lord Barham</i>, Vol.2, (Navy Records Society, Vol.37), 1907, p.223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Memorandum to Grenville on the Trade of Canada, 4 November 1789, National Archives, Kew, CO 42/66, ff.403-7; cited in Alan Frost, <i>Convicts and Empire, a Naval Question</i>, Melbourne, Oxford UP, 1980, pp.137, 218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elliott to Carmarthen, 12 August 1788, National Archives, Kew, FO 22/10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Norfolk Island: Phantasy and Reality, 1770–1814", <i>The Great Circle</i> (Journal of the Australian Association for Maritime History) vol.25, no.2, 2003, pp.20–41. Also at: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.nla.gov.au/pathways/jnls/austjnls/view/324.html">http://www.nla.gov.au/pathways/jnls/austjnls/view/324.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">La Pérouse to Castries, 28 September 1787, Archives du Dépôt des cartes et plans de la Marine, Vol.105, <i>Journal de Lapérouse</i>, John Dunmore & Maurice de Brossard, <i>Le Voyage de Lapérouse</i>, Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1985, Vol.II, pp.cxxxvii, 276.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Dunmore (ed.), <i>The Journal of Jean-François de Galaup de la Pérouse, 1785–1789</i>, London, Hakluyt Society, Vol.2, 1995, pp.442–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mh-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mh_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoare1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Merval_Hoare" title="Merval Hoare">Hoare, Merval</a> (1969). <i>Norfolk Island: An Outline of Its History, 1774 – 1968</i>. St.Lucia, Queensland: University of Queensland Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Norfolk+Island%3A+An+Outline+of+Its+History%2C+1774+%E2%80%93+1968&rft.place=St.Lucia%2C+Queensland&rft.pub=University+of+Queensland+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Hoare&rft.aufirst=Merval&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Norfolk+Island" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Therese Forster, née Heyne, also known as Therese Huber, in <i>Flora: Teutschlands Töchtern geweiht von Freunden und Freundinnen des schönen Geschlechts,</i> 4 (1793) 241-74; 1 (1794) 7–43, 209–75 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/en/view/bsb10612174?page=250,251">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8qlGAAAAcAAJ&q=Norfolk">[3]</a>; also published in a book in 1801 under the name of her second husband, Ludwig Ferdinand Huber, <i>Erzählungen,</i> Erste Sammlung, Bd.1, Braunschweig, S.84–202; English translation by Rodney Livingstone, <i>Adventures on a Journey to New Holland,</i> edited by Leslie Bodi, Melbourne, Lansdowne Press, 1966.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRhea2016" class="citation book cs1">Rhea, Zane Ma (2016). <i>Frontiers of Taste: Food Sovereignty, Sustainability and Indigenous–Settler Relations In Australia</i>. Springer. p. 100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789811016301" title="Special:BookSources/9789811016301"><bdi>9789811016301</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Frontiers+of+Taste%3A+Food+Sovereignty%2C+Sustainability+and+Indigenous%E2%80%93Settler+Relations+In+Australia&rft.pages=100&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9789811016301&rft.aulast=Rhea&rft.aufirst=Zane+Ma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Norfolk+Island" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTench,_Watkin" class="citation web cs1">Tench, Watkin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081204080711/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/t/tench/watkin/settlement/chapter6.html">"The Settlement at Port Jackson"</a>. p. Chapter 6. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/t/tench/watkin/settlement/chapter6.html">the original</a> on 4 December 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Settlement+at+Port+Jackson&rft.pages=Chapter+6&rft.au=Tench%2C+Watkin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetext.library.adelaide.edu.au%2Ft%2Ftench%2Fwatkin%2Fsettlement%2Fchapter6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Norfolk+Island" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Josef Espinosa y Tello, <i>Memorias sobre las Obervaciones Astronomicas, hechas por los Navegantes Españoles en Distintos Lugares del Globo,</i> Madrid, Imprenta Real, 1809, Tomo II, tercera memoria, "Digresion sobre el establecimiento ingles de puerto Jackson", p.73. In fact, the "flax" <i>(harakeke)</i> was already growing wild on the island when the English settlers arrived, having been brought there some 400 years earlier by Maori settlers.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ADB_Foveaux-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ADB_Foveaux_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFB._H._Fletcher1966" class="citation web cs1">B. H. Fletcher (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A010376b.htm">"Foveaux, Joseph (1767–1846)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Australian_Dictionary_of_Biography" title="Australian Dictionary of Biography">Australian Dictionary of Biography</a>, Volume 1</i>. <a href="/wiki/Melbourne_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Melbourne University Press">MUP</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">407–</span>409<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Australian+Dictionary+of+Biography%2C+Volume+1&rft.atitle=Foveaux%2C+Joseph+%281767%E2%80%931846%29&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E407-%3C%2Fspan%3E409&rft.date=1966&rft.au=B.+H.+Fletcher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adb.online.anu.edu.au%2Fbiogs%2FA010376b.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Norfolk+Island" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grose to Hunter, 8 December 1794, <i>Historical Records of New South Wales,</i> Sydney, 1893, Vol.2, p.275.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. Causer, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1331354/">'"The Worst Types of Sub-Human Beings": the Myth and Reality of the Convicts of the Norfolk Island Penal Settlement</a>, 1825–1855', <i>Islands of History</i>, Sydney, 2011, pp. 8–31</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. Causer, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1331355/">'Norfolk Island's "Suicide Lotteries": Myth and Reality'</a>, <i>Islands of History</i>, Sydney, 2011, pp.61–68</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Moore citing T. Causer, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://westengland.academia.edu/JohnMoore/Papers/1125805/Alexander_Maconochies_Mark_System">'Alexander Maconochie's "Mark System"</a>', <i>Prison Service Journal</i>, no. 198 (2011), pp. 38–46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Alan Whicker's Journey of a Lifetime</i>, broadcast on <a href="/wiki/BBC_Two" title="BBC Two">BBC Two</a>, 25 April 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ag-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ag_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100920094021/http://www.ag.gov.au/www/agd/agd.nsf/Page/TerritoriesofAustralia_NorfolkIsland_NorfolkIslandGovernanceandAdministration">"Governance & Administration"</a>. Attorney-General's Department. 28 February 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ag.gov.au/www/agd/agd.nsf/Page/TerritoriesofAustralia_NorfolkIsland_NorfolkIslandGovernanceandAdministration">the original</a> on 20 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Governance+%26+Administration&rft.pub=Attorney-General%27s+Department&rft.date=2008-02-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ag.gov.au%2Fwww%2Fagd%2Fagd.nsf%2FPage%2FTerritoriesofAustralia_NorfolkIsland_NorfolkIslandGovernanceandAdministration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Norfolk+Island" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Australia246" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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New South Wales">New South Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Queensland" title="History of Queensland">Queensland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Australia" title="History of South Australia">South Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tasmania" title="History of Tasmania">Tasmania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Victoria" title="History of Victoria">Victoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_Australia" title="History of Western Australia">Western Australia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/States_and_territories_of_Australia" title="States and territories of Australia">Mainland territories</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Australian_Capital_Territory" title="History of the Australian Capital Territory">Australian Capital Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jervis_Bay_Territory#History" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jervis Bay Territory">Jervis Bay Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Territory" title="History of the Northern Territory">Northern Territory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/States_and_territories_of_Australia" title="States and territories of Australia">External territories</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Ashmore_and_Cartier_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Ashmore and Cartier Islands">Ashmore and Cartier Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Australian_Antarctic_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Australian Antarctic Territory">Australian Antarctic Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christmas_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Coral_Sea_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Coral Sea Islands">Coral Sea Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Heard_Island_and_McDonald_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Heard Island and McDonald Islands">Heard Island and McDonald Islands</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Norfolk Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Convicts_in_Australia678" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Convicts_in_Australia" title="Template:Convicts in Australia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Convicts_in_Australia" title="Template talk:Convicts in Australia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Convicts_in_Australia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Convicts in Australia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Convicts_in_Australia678" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Convicts_in_Australia" title="Convicts in Australia">Convicts in Australia</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convict_assignment" title="Convict assignment">Assignment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia_Day" title="Australia Day">Australia Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipist" title="Emancipist">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_factory" title="Female factory">Female factories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certificate_of_freedom" title="Certificate of freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Australia" title="History of Australia">History of Australia</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Australia_(1788%E2%80%931850)" title="History of Australia (1788–1850)">1788–1850</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Holland_(Australia)" title="New Holland (Australia)">New Holland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convict_women_in_Australia" title="Convict women in Australia">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_penal_colonies" title="List of Australian penal colonies">Penal colonies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cockatoo_Island" title="Cockatoo Island">Cockatoo Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosehill,_New_South_Wales" title="Rosehill, New South Wales">Rosehill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Cove" title="Sydney Cove">Sydney Cove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moreton_Bay" title="Moreton Bay">Moreton Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redcliffe,_Queensland" title="Redcliffe, Queensland">Redcliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Island" title="Maria Island">Maria Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Arthur,_Tasmania" title="Port Arthur, Tasmania">Port Arthur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richmond,_Tasmania" title="Richmond, Tasmania">Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risdon_Cove" title="Risdon Cove">Risdon Cove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macquarie_Harbour_Penal_Station" title="Macquarie Harbour Penal Station">Macquarie Harbour</a> (<a href="/wiki/Convicts_on_the_West_Coast_of_Tasmania" title="Convicts on the West Coast of Tasmania">History</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Island" title="Norfolk Island">Norfolk Island</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltwater_River,_Tasmania" title="Saltwater River, Tasmania">Saltwater River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sullivans_Cove" title="Sullivans Cove">Sullivans Cove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convict_era_of_Western_Australia" title="Convict era of Western Australia">Western Australia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Fleet" title="First Fleet">First Fleet</a> (1788)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Fleet_(Australia)" title="Second Fleet (Australia)">Second Fleet</a> (1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Fleet_(Australia)" title="Third Fleet (Australia)">Third Fleet</a> (1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lady_Shore_(1794_ship)#Mutiny" title="Lady Shore (1794 ship)"><i>Lady Shore</i> mutiny</a> (1797)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castle_Hill_convict_rebellion" title="Castle Hill convict rebellion">Castle Hill Rebellion</a> (1804)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rum_Rebellion" title="Rum Rebellion">Rum Rebellion</a> (1808)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emu_(1812_ship)" title="Emu (1812 ship)">Capture of the brig <i>Emu</i></a> (1813)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_(1806_Chittagong_ship)" title="Argo (1806 Chittagong ship)"><i>Argo</i> disappearance</a> (1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Island_convict_mutinies" title="Norfolk Island convict mutinies">Norfolk Island mutinies</a> (1826–1846)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_mutiny" title="Cyprus mutiny"><i>Cyprus</i> mutiny</a> (1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathurst_Rebellion" title="Bathurst Rebellion">Bathurst Rebellion</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badger_escape" title="Badger escape"><i>Badger</i> escape</a> (1833)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_escape" title="Frederick escape"><i>Frederick</i> escape</a> (1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_III_(ship)" title="George III (ship)">Wreck of the <i>George III</i></a> (1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hive_shipwreck" title="Hive shipwreck">Wreck of the <i>Hive</i></a> (1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neva_(1813_ship)" title="Neva (1813 ship)">Wreck of the <i>Neva</i></a> (1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooking_Pot_Uprising" title="Cooking Pot Uprising">Cooking Pot Uprising</a> (1846)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalpa_rescue" title="Catalpa rescue">Catalpa rescue</a> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australasian_Anti-Transportation_League" title="Australasian Anti-Transportation League">Anti-Transportation League</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Convict_ship" title="Convict ship">Convict ships</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Fleet" title="First Fleet">First Fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Fleet_(Australia)" title="Second Fleet (Australia)">Second Fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Fleet_(Australia)" title="Third Fleet (Australia)">Third Fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convict_ships_to_New_South_Wales" title="Convict ships to New South Wales">New South Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convict_ships_to_Norfolk_Island" title="Convict ships to Norfolk Island">Norfolk Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convict_ships_to_Tasmania" title="Convict ships to Tasmania">Tasmania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_convict_ship_voyages_to_Western_Australia" title="List of convict ship voyages to Western Australia">Western Australia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Governors_of_the_Australian_states" title="Governors of the Australian states">Governors</a> and<br />commandants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Arthur,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir George Arthur, 1st Baronet">Arthur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Bligh" title="William Bligh">Bligh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bourke" title="Richard Bourke">Bourke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Brisbane" title="Thomas Brisbane">Brisbane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Collins_(lieutenant_governor)" title="David Collins (lieutenant governor)">Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Darling" title="Ralph Darling">Darling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Davey_(governor)" title="Thomas Davey (governor)">Davey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Denison" title="William Denison">Denison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_John_Eardley-Wilmot,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir John Eardley-Wilmot, 1st Baronet">Eardley-Wilmot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Franklin" title="John Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Gipps" title="George Gipps">Gipps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hunter_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="John Hunter (Royal Navy officer)">Hunter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Johnston_(British_Marines_officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="George Johnston (British Marines officer)">Johnston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Gidley_King" title="Philip Gidley King">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Logan" title="Patrick Logan">Logan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachlan_Macquarie" title="Lachlan Macquarie">Macquarie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(explorer)" title="William Paterson (explorer)">Paterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Phillip" title="Arthur Phillip">Phillip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Sorell" title="William Sorell">Sorell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_convicts_transported_to_Australia" title="List of convicts transported to Australia">Notable convicts</a><br /><span style="font-size: 85%;">and personnel</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surgeons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Bland" title="William Bland">William Bland</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Bowes_Smyth" title="Arthur Bowes Smyth">Arthur Bowes Smyth</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Redfern" title="William Redfern">William Redfern</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/D%27Arcy_Wentworth" title="D'Arcy Wentworth">D'Arcy Wentworth</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Entrepreneurs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enoch_Barratt" title="Enoch Barratt">Enoch Barratt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Connor" title="Daniel Connor">Daniel Connor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Cooper_(convict_and_merchant)" title="Daniel Cooper (convict and merchant)">Daniel Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Davies_(publisher)" title="John Davies (publisher)">John Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Field_(Australian_pastoralist)" title="William Field (Australian pastoralist)">William Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hutchinson_(superintendent)" title="William Hutchinson (superintendent)">William Hutchinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Hyde" title="Mary Hyde">Mary Hyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kable" title="Henry Kable">Henry Kable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Levey" title="Solomon Levey">Solomon Levey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simeon_Lord" title="Simeon Lord">Simeon Lord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Reibey" title="Mary Reibey">Mary Reibey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sidaway" title="Robert Sidaway">Robert Sidaway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Squire" title="James Squire">James Squire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tawell" title="John Tawell">John Tawell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Terry" title="Samuel Terry">Samuel Terry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Architects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Blackburn_(architect)" title="James Blackburn (architect)">James Blackburn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Greenway" title="Francis Greenway">Francis Greenway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bushranger" title="Bushranger">Bushrangers</a><br />and escapees</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Badger" title="Charlotte Badger">Charlotte Badger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Brady" title="Matthew Brady">Matthew Brady</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Bryant" title="Mary Bryant">Mary Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Bryant_(convict)" title="William Bryant (convict)">William Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Buckley_(convict)" title="William Buckley (convict)">William Buckley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moondyne_Joe" title="Moondyne Joe">Moondyne Joe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Caesar" title="John Caesar">John Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Cash" title="Martin Cash">Martin Cash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Chopin" title="William Chopin">William Chopin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Howe_(bushranger)" title="Michael Howe (bushranger)">Michael Howe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Kavenagh" title="Lawrence Kavenagh">Lawrence Kavenagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mitchel" title="John Mitchel">John Mitchel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Muir_of_Huntershill" title="Thomas Muir of Huntershill">Thomas Muir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Boyle_O%27Reilly" title="John Boyle O'Reilly">John Boyle O'Reilly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pearce" title="Alexander Pearce">Alexander Pearce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Westwood_(bushranger)" title="William Westwood (bushranger)">William Westwood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Backler" title="Joseph Backler">Joseph Backler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bock" title="Thomas Bock">Thomas Bock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Browne_(painter)" title="Richard Browne (painter)">Richard Browne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knud_Bull" title="Knud Bull">Knud Bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Edgar" title="Edmund Edgar">Edmund Edgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Eyre_(painter)" title="John Eyre (painter)">John Eyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Buelow_Gould" title="William Buelow Gould">William Buelow Gould</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lycett" title="Joseph Lycett">Joseph Lycett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Rodius" title="Charles Rodius">Charles Rodius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Griffiths_Wainewright" title="Thomas Griffiths Wainewright">Thomas Griffiths Wainewright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Watling" title="Thomas Watling">Thomas Watling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Walsh_(convict)" title="James Walsh (convict)">James Walsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politicians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Cuffay" title="William Cuffay">William Cuffay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Groom" title="William Henry Groom">William Henry Groom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Izod_O%27Doherty" title="Kevin Izod O'Doherty">Kevin Izod O'Doherty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chroniclers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Cashman" title="Denis Cashman">Denis Cashman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Catchpole" title="Margaret Catchpole">Margaret Catchpole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_the_Poet" title="Frank the Poet">Frank the Poet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Savery" title="Henry Savery">Henry Savery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hardy_Vaux" title="James Hardy Vaux">James Hardy Vaux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Acton_Wroth" title="John Acton Wroth">John Acton Wroth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Explorers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Baxter_(explorer)" title="John Baxter (explorer)">John Baxter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Meehan_(surveyor)" title="James Meehan (surveyor)">James Meehan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Wild" title="Joseph Wild">Joseph Wild</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other<br />convicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esther_Abrahams" title="Esther Abrahams">Esther Abrahams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Baughan" title="John Baughan">John Baughan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bloodsworth" title="James Bloodsworth">James Bloodsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Billy_Blue" title="Billy Blue">Billy Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cadman_(convict)" title="John Cadman (convict)">John Cadman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Callaghan" title="Elizabeth Callaghan">Elizabeth Callaghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Dawson" title="Margaret Dawson">Margaret Dawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_Hynes_Halloran" title="Laurence Hynes Halloran">Laurence Hynes Halloran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Jeffrey" title="Mark Jeffrey">Mark Jeffrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B8rgen_J%C3%B8rgensen" title="Jørgen Jørgensen">Jørgen Jørgensen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_O%27Brien" title="William Smith O'Brien">William Smith O'Brien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Palin" title="Robert Palin">Robert Palin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Nichols" title="Isaac Nichols">Isaac Nichols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Potaski" title="Joseph Potaski">Joseph Potaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Ruse" title="James Ruse">James Ruse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Thackery" title="Elizabeth Thackery">Elizabeth Thackery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wade" title="Mary Wade">Mary Wade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Music</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_ballads" title="Transportation ballads">Transportation ballads</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Botany_Bay_(song)" title="Botany Bay (song)">Botany Bay</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Moreton_Bay_(song)" title="Moreton Bay (song)">Moreton Bay</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Jim_Jones_at_Botany_Bay" title="Jim Jones at Botany Bay">Jim Jones at Botany Bay</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Van_Diemen%27s_Land_(folk_song)" title="Van Diemen's Land (folk song)">Van Diemen's Land</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Film</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/For_the_Term_of_His_Natural_Life_(1908_film)" title="For the Term of His Natural Life (1908 film)">For the Term of His Natural Life</a></i> (1908)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Assigned_Servant" title="The Assigned Servant">The Assigned Servant</a></i> (1911)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/It_Is_Never_Too_Late_to_Mend_(1911_film)" title="It Is Never Too Late to Mend (1911 film)">It Is Never Too Late to Mend</a></i> (1911)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Lady_Outlaw" title="The Lady Outlaw">The Lady Outlaw</a></i> (1911)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Life_of_Rufus_Dawes" title="The Life of Rufus Dawes">The Life of Rufus Dawes</a></i> (1911)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Mark_of_the_Lash" title="The Mark of the Lash">The Mark of the Lash</a></i> (1911)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One_Hundred_Years_Ago" title="One Hundred Years Ago">One Hundred Years Ago</a></i> (1911)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Romantic_Story_of_Margaret_Catchpole" title="The Romantic Story of Margaret Catchpole">The Romantic Story of Margaret Catchpole</a></i> (1911)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sentenced_for_Life_(1911_film)" title="Sentenced for Life (1911 film)">Sentenced for Life</a></i> (1911)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moondyne#1913_film" title="Moondyne">Moondyne</a></i> (1913)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Transported" title="Transported">Transported</a></i> (1913)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Tenth_Straw" title="The Tenth Straw">The Tenth Straw</a></i> (1926)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/For_the_Term_of_His_Natural_Life_(1927_film)" title="For the Term of His Natural Life (1927 film)">For the Term of His Natural Life</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/To_New_Shores" title="To New Shores">To New Shores</a></i> (1937)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Red_Sky_at_Morning_(1944_film)" title="Red Sky at Morning (1944 film)">Red Sky at Morning</a></i> (1944)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Under_Capricorn" title="Under Capricorn">Under Capricorn</a></i> (1949)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Botany_Bay_(film)" title="Botany Bay (film)">Botany Bay</a></i> (1953)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adam%27s_Woman" title="Adam's Woman">Adam's Woman</a></i> (1970)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journey_Among_Women" title="Journey Among Women">Journey Among Women</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Confession_of_Alexander_Pearce" title="The Last Confession of Alexander Pearce">The Last Confession of Alexander Pearce</a></i> (2008)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Van_Diemen%27s_Land_(film)" title="Van Diemen's Land (film)"> Van Diemen's Land</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Nightingale_(2018_film)" title="The Nightingale (2018 film)">The Nightingale</a></i> (2017)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Television</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Devil_Makes_Sunday" title="The Devil Makes Sunday">The Devil Makes Sunday</a></i> (1961)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Devil_Makes_Sunday_(1962_film)" title="The Devil Makes Sunday (1962 film)">The Devil Makes Sunday</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Against_the_Wind_(miniseries)" title="Against the Wind (miniseries)">Against the Wind</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sara_Dane" title="Sara Dane">Sara Dane</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/For_the_Term_of_His_Natural_Life_(miniseries)" title="For the Term of His Natural Life (miniseries)">For the Term of His Natural Life</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Incredible_Journey_of_Mary_Bryant" title="The Incredible Journey of Mary Bryant">The Incredible Journey of Mary Bryant</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Banished_(TV_series)" title="Banished (TV series)">Banished</a></i> (2015)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Secret_River_(TV_series)" title="The Secret River (TV series)">The Secret River</a></i> (2015)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journals_of_the_First_Fleet" title="Journals of the First Fleet">Journals of the First Fleet</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/It_Is_Never_Too_Late_to_Mend_(novel)" title="It Is Never Too Late to Mend (novel)">It's Never Too Late to Mend</a></i> (1856)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Broad_Arrow" title="The Broad Arrow">The Broad Arrow</a></i> (1859)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Great_Expectations" title="Great Expectations">Great Expectations</a></i> (1861)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Wild_Goose" title="The Wild Goose">The Wild Goose</a></i> (1867)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/For_the_Term_of_His_Natural_Life" title="For the Term of His Natural Life">For the Term of His Natural Life</a></i> (1872)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moondyne" title="Moondyne">Moondyne</a></i> (1879)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bring_Larks_and_Heroes" title="Bring Larks and Heroes">Bring Larks and Heroes</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Fringe_of_Leaves" title="A Fringe of Leaves">A Fringe of Leaves</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Playmaker_(novel)" title="The Playmaker (novel)">The Playmaker</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Remembering_Babylon" title="Remembering Babylon">Remembering Babylon</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Potato_Factory" title="The Potato Factory">The Potato Factory</a></i> (1995)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jack_Maggs" title="Jack Maggs">Jack Maggs</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gould%27s_Book_of_Fish" title="Gould's Book of Fish">Gould's Book of Fish</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Secret_River" title="The Secret River">The Secret River</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Lieutenant_(novel)" title="The Lieutenant (novel)">The Lieutenant</a></i> (2008)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Parrot_and_Olivier_in_America" title="Parrot and Olivier in America">Parrot and Olivier in America</a></i> (2010)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Stage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Transports" title="The Transports">The Transports</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Our_Country%27s_Good" title="Our Country's Good">Our Country's Good</a></i> (1988)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Art</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Medal" title="Charlotte Medal">Charlotte Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Jackson_Painter" title="Port Jackson Painter">Port Jackson Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajah_Quilt" title="Rajah Quilt">Rajah Quilt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_punchbowls" title="Sydney punchbowls">Sydney punchbowls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_twenty-dollar_note" title="Australian twenty-dollar note">Twenty Dollar Note</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Convict_Sites" title="Australian Convict Sites">Australian<br />Convict Sites</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brickendon_Estate" title="Brickendon Estate">Brickendon Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadmans_Cottage" title="Cadmans Cottage">Cadmans Cottage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascades_Female_Factory" title="Cascades Female Factory">Cascades Female Factory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_Mines_Historic_Site" title="Coal Mines Historic Site">Coal Mines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commissariat_Store,_Brisbane" title="Commissariat Store, Brisbane">Commissariat Store, Brisbane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darlington_Probation_Station" title="Darlington Probation Station">Darlington Probation Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Farm" title="Elizabeth Farm">Elizabeth Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment_Farm_Cottage" title="Experiment Farm Cottage">Experiment Farm Cottage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fremantle_Prison" title="Fremantle Prison">Fremantle Prison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_North_Road_(New_South_Wales)" title="Great North Road (New South Wales)">Great North Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyde_Park_Barracks,_Sydney" title="Hyde Park Barracks, Sydney">Hyde Park Barracks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingston_and_Arthur%27s_Vale_Historic_Area" title="Kingston and Arthur's Vale Historic Area">Kingston and Arthur's Vale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lennox_Bridge,_Parramatta" title="Lennox Bridge, Parramatta">Lennox Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Government_House,_Parramatta" title="Old Government House, Parramatta">Old Government House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parramatta_Female_Factory" title="Parramatta Female Factory">Parramatta Female Factory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Arthur,_Tasmania" title="Port Arthur, Tasmania">Port Arthur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richmond_Bridge_(Tasmania)" title="Richmond Bridge (Tasmania)">Richmond Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richmond_Gaol" title="Richmond Gaol">Richmond Gaol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_Female_Factory" title="Ross Female Factory">Ross Female Factory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Old_Windmill,_Brisbane" title="The Old Windmill, Brisbane">The Old Windmill, Brisbane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaucluse_House" title="Vaucluse House">Vaucluse House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woolmers_Estate" title="Woolmers Estate">Woolmers Estate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    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