CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Byzantine Empire - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"322dc974-dd9a-406a-a552-cb38f080c968","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Byzantine_Empire","wgTitle":"Byzantine Empire","wgCurRevisionId":1283511836,"wgRevisionId":1283511836,"wgArticleId":16972981,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages with non-numeric formatnum arguments","Articles containing Medieval Greek-language text","Harv and Sfn no-target errors","Pages using the EasyTimeline extension","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages","Featured articles","Use dmy dates from October 2023","EngvarB from July 2019","Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text","Articles containing Latin-language text","Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images","Articles needing additional references from February 2025","All articles needing additional references","CS1 interwiki-linked names","CS1 German-language sources (de)","CS1 French-language sources (fr)","CS1: long volume value","Webarchive template wayback links","Byzantine Empire","330s establishments","1453 disestablishments in Europe","1453 disestablishments in Asia","Christendom","States and territories established in the 390s","States and territories disestablished in 1453","Christian states","Former countries in Africa","Former countries in the Balkans","Former countries in Europe","Former countries in West Asia","Tributary states of the Ottoman Empire","Historical transcontinental empires","Former empires"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Byzantine_Empire","wgRelevantArticleId":16972981,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["autoconfirmed"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q12544","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false}; RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.timeline.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.timeline.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.22"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Justinian555AD.png/1200px-Justinian555AD.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="650"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Justinian555AD.png/800px-Justinian555AD.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="434"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Justinian555AD.png/640px-Justinian555AD.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="347"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Byzantine Empire - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="auth.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Byzantine_Empire rootpage-Byzantine_Empire skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Byzantine+Empire" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Byzantine+Empire" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Byzantine+Empire" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Byzantine+Empire" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Nomenclature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nomenclature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Nomenclature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nomenclature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-518:_Constantinian,_Theodosian,_and_Leonid_dynasties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-518:_Constantinian,_Theodosian,_and_Leonid_dynasties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Pre-518: Constantinian, Theodosian, and Leonid dynasties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-518:_Constantinian,_Theodosian,_and_Leonid_dynasties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-518–717:_Justinian_and_Heraclian_dynasties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#518–717:_Justinian_and_Heraclian_dynasties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>518–717: Justinian and Heraclian dynasties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-518–717:_Justinian_and_Heraclian_dynasties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-718–867:_Isaurian,_Nikephorian,_and_Amorian_dynasties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#718–867:_Isaurian,_Nikephorian,_and_Amorian_dynasties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>718–867: Isaurian, Nikephorian, and Amorian dynasties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-718–867:_Isaurian,_Nikephorian,_and_Amorian_dynasties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-867–1081:_Macedonian_and_Doukas_dynasties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#867–1081:_Macedonian_and_Doukas_dynasties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>867–1081: Macedonian and Doukas dynasties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-867–1081:_Macedonian_and_Doukas_dynasties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1081–1204:_Komnenos_and_Angelos_dynasties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1081–1204:_Komnenos_and_Angelos_dynasties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>1081–1204: Komnenos and Angelos dynasties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1081–1204:_Komnenos_and_Angelos_dynasties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1204–1453:_Palaiologos_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1204–1453:_Palaiologos_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>1204–1453: Palaiologos dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1204–1453:_Palaiologos_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structures_of_the_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structures_of_the_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Structures of the state</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Structures_of_the_state-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Structures of the state subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Structures_of_the_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Governance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Governance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Governance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity_and_the_Church" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity_and_the_Church"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Christianity and the Church</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity_and_the_Church-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Warfare</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Warfare-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Warfare subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Military_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Military evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diplomacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diplomacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Diplomacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diplomacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Society</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Society subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Demography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Demography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Socio-economic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Socio-economic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Socio-economic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Socio-economic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Women</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Daily_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Daily_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Daily life</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Daily_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Daily life subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Daily_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Clothing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clothing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Clothing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clothing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cuisine_and_dining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuisine_and_dining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Cuisine and dining</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuisine_and_dining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recreation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recreation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Recreation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recreation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arts_and_sciences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arts_and_sciences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Arts and sciences</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Arts_and_sciences-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Arts and sciences subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Arts_and_sciences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Art_and_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art_and_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Art and architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art_and_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_and_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_and_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Science and technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_and_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Political aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Cultural aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Journals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Journals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Book_chapters_and_encyclopaedias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Book_chapters_and_encyclopaedias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>Book chapters and encyclopaedias</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Book_chapters_and_encyclopaedias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Byzantine Empire</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 168 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-168" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">168 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keurajeu%C3%ABn_Bizantium" title="Keurajeuën Bizantium – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Keurajeuën Bizantium" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Acèh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ady mw-list-item"><a href="https://ady.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8D" title="Бизантие Империэ – Adyghe" lang="ady" hreflang="ady" data-title="Бизантие Империэ" data-language-autonym="Адыгабзэ" data-language-local-name="Adyghe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Адыгабзэ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bisantynse_Ryk" title="Bisantynse Ryk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Bisantynse Ryk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantinisches_Reich" title="Byzantinisches Reich – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Byzantinisches Reich" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%A2%E1%8B%9B%E1%8A%95%E1%89%B3%E1%8B%AD%E1%8A%95_%E1%88%98%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%A5%E1%89%B5" title="ቢዛንታይን መንግሥት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ቢዛንታይን መንግሥት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bysant_v%C3%A4ldikodde" title="Bysant väldikodde – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Bysant väldikodde" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Anarâškielâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinopolis_Rice" title="Constantinopolis Rice – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Constantinopolis Rice" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الإمبراطورية البيزنطية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الإمبراطورية البيزنطية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Bizant%C3%ADn" title="Imperio Bizantín – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Imperio Bizantín" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%A6%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%BD%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բիւզանդական Կայսրութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Բիւզանդական Կայսրութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amir%C3%A3ria_Roman%C3%A3_ditu_Apirit%C3%A3" title="Amirãria Romanã ditu Apiritã – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Amirãria Romanã ditu Apiritã" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Armãneashti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiu_Bizant%C3%ADn" title="Imperiu Bizantín – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Imperiu Bizantín" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mburuvi_visant%C3%ADno" title="Mburuvi visantíno – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Mburuvi visantíno" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizans_imperiyas%C4%B1" title="Bizans imperiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Bizans imperiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%88" title="بیزانس ایمپیراتورلوغو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بیزانس ایمپیراتورلوغو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="বাইজেন্টাইন সাম্রাজ্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বাইজেন্টাইন সাম্রাজ্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_L%C3%B4-m%C3%A1_T%C3%A8-kok" title="Tang Lô-má Tè-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tang Lô-má Tè-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Византия империяһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Византия империяһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Візантыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Візантыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Бізантыйская імпэрыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Бізантыйская імпэрыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subangan_na_Imperyong_Romano" title="Subangan na Imperyong Romano – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Subangan na Imperyong Romano" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Византийска империя – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Византийска империя" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantinischs_Reich" title="Byzantinischs Reich – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Byzantinischs Reich" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizantijsko_Carstvo" title="Bizantijsko Carstvo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Bizantijsko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impalaeriezh_roman_ar_Reter" title="Impalaeriezh roman ar Reter – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Impalaeriezh roman ar Reter" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%8D%D0%B7%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8D_%D0%B3%D2%AF%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Византиин эзэнтэ гүрэн – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Византиин эзэнтэ гүрэн" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_Rom%C3%A0_d%27Orient" title="Imperi Romà d'Orient – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Imperi Romà d'Orient" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Висанти – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Висанти" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidlakang_Imperyong_Romano" title="Sidlakang Imperyong Romano – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Sidlakang Imperyong Romano" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantsk%C3%A1_%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1e" title="Byzantská říše – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Byzantská říše" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Ymerodraeth_Fysantaidd" title="Yr Ymerodraeth Fysantaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Yr Ymerodraeth Fysantaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_Byzantinske_Rige" title="Det Byzantinske Rige – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Det Byzantinske Rige" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لإمبراطورية لبيزنطية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لإمبراطورية لبيزنطية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantinisches_Reich" title="Byzantinisches Reich – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Byzantinisches Reich" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCtsants" title="Bütsants – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Bütsants" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CF%85%CE%B6%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%AE_%CE%91%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Βυζαντινή Αυτοκρατορία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βυζαντινή Αυτοκρατορία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_bizantino" title="Imperio bizantino – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Imperio bizantino" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizanca_imperio" title="Bizanca imperio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Bizanca imperio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizantziar_Inperioa" title="Bizantziar Inperioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bizantziar Inperioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3" title="امپراتوری بیزانس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="امپراتوری بیزانس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Samrajya" title="Byzantine Samrajya – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Byzantine Samrajya" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantinska_r%C3%ADki%C3%B0" title="Byzantinska ríkið – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Byzantinska ríkið" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_byzantin" title="Empire byzantin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Empire byzantin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantynske_Ryk" title="Byzantynske Ryk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Byzantynske Ryk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Impireacht_Bhios%C3%A1ntach" title="An Impireacht Bhiosántach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Impireacht Bhiosántach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_t-Impireachd_Bheasantian" title="An t-Impireachd Bheasantian – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="An t-Impireachd Bheasantian" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Bizantino" title="Imperio Bizantino – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Imperio Bizantino" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="बायझँटीन साम्राज्य – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="बायझँटीन साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BBng_L%C3%B2-m%C3%A2_Ti-koet" title="Tûng Lò-mâ Ti-koet – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Tûng Lò-mâ Ti-koet" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%99%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88_%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD" title="동로마 제국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="동로마 제국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daular_Rumawa" title="Daular Rumawa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Daular Rumawa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A6%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%BD%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բյուզանդական կայսրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բյուզանդական կայսրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="बाइज़ेंटाइन साम्राज्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बाइज़ेंटाइन साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bycantinske_m%C3%B3cnarstwo" title="Bycantinske mócnarstwo – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Bycantinske mócnarstwo" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizant" title="Bizant – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Bizant" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizancana_Imperio" title="Bizancana Imperio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Bizancana Imperio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_a_Bisantino" title="Imperio a Bisantino – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Imperio a Bisantino" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekaisaran_Romawi_Timur" title="Kekaisaran Romawi Timur – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kekaisaran Romawi Timur" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_roman_de_oriente" title="Imperio roman de oriente – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Imperio roman de oriente" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%B9%D1%8B_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Византияйы импери – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Византияйы импери" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austr%C3%B3mverska_keisarad%C3%A6mi%C3%B0" title="Austrómverska keisaradæmið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Austrómverska keisaradæmið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_bizantino" title="Impero bizantino – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Impero bizantino" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%99%D7%96%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%AA" title="האימפריה הביזנטית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="האימפריה הביזנטית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakaisaran_Bizantin" title="Kakaisaran Bizantin – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kakaisaran Bizantin" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C9%A9%C9%A9zant%C9%9B_ampiiri" title="Pɩɩzantɛ ampiiri – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Pɩɩzantɛ ampiiri" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%9D%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF" title="ಬೈಝೆಂಟೈನ್ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬೈಝೆಂಟೈನ್ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბიზანტიის იმპერია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბიზანტიის იმპერია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%8B%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%81_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Шығыс Рим империясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Шығыс Рим империясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperoureth_Besontin" title="Emperoureth Besontin – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Emperoureth Besontin" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ufalme_wa_Bizanti" title="Ufalme wa Bizanti – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ufalme wa Bizanti" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampir_byzanten" title="Ampir byzanten – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Ampir byzanten" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Emperatoriya_B%C3%AEzans%C3%AA" title="Împeratoriya Bîzansê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Împeratoriya Bîzansê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Византия империясы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Византия империясы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imper_Bizantin" title="Imper Bizantin – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Imper Bizantin" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Bizantino" title="Imperio Bizantino – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Imperio Bizantino" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_Romanum_Orientale" title="Imperium Romanum Orientale – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Imperium Romanum Orientale" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrumromas_imp%C4%93rija" title="Austrumromas impērija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Austrumromas impērija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Византий империя – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Византий империя" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizantija" title="Bizantija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Bizantija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantijns_Riek" title="Byzantijns Riek – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Byzantijns Riek" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_Bizantian" title="Impero Bizantian – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Impero Bizantian" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imper_Bizantin" title="Imper Bizantin – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Imper Bizantin" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biz%C3%A1nci_Birodalom" title="Bizánci Birodalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Bizánci Birodalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Византија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Византија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empira_Bizantina" title="Empira Bizantina – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Empira Bizantina" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%88%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="ബൈസന്റൈൻ സാമ്രാജ്യം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബൈസന്റൈൻ സാമ്രാജ്യം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi%C5%BCantini" title="Biżantini – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Biżantini" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9D%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="बायझेंटाईन साम्राज्य – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="बायझेंटाईन साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბიზანტიაშ იმპერია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბიზანტიაშ იმპერია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%8A%D9%87" title="امبراطوريه بيزنطيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="امبراطوريه بيزنطيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3" title="بیزانس – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="بیزانس" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empayar_Byzantium" title="Empayar Byzantium – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Empayar Byzantium" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakaisaran_Romawi_Timur" title="Kakaisaran Romawi Timur – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Kakaisaran Romawi Timur" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amp%C3%A9rio_Bizantino" title="Ampério Bizantino – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Ampério Bizantino" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%8D%D0%B7%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82_%D0%B3%D2%AF%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Византын эзэнт гүрэн – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Византын эзэнт гүрэн" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%98%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%87%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8_%E1%80%A1%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%AB%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC" title="ဘိုင်ဇန်တိုင်း အင်ပါယာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဘိုင်ဇန်တိုင်း အင်ပါယာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantijnse_Rijk" title="Byzantijnse Rijk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Byzantijnse Rijk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantiense_Riek" title="Byzantiense Riek – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Byzantiense Riek" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="बाइजान्टिन साम्राज्य – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="बाइजान्टिन साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="बैजन्ताइन साम्राज्य – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="बैजन्ताइन साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="東ローマ帝国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="東ローマ帝国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_Bizantino" title="Impero Bizantino – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Impero Bizantino" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Византийн импери – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Византийн импери" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uastr%C3%B6%C3%B6msk_Rik" title="Uaströömsk Rik – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Uaströömsk Rik" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98stromerriket" title="Østromerriket – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Østromerriket" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austromarriket" title="Austromarriket – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Austromarriket" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emp%C3%A8ri_Bizantin" title="Empèri Bizantin – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Empèri Bizantin" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A3%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9F%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%A8%E0%AD%80%E0%AD%9F_%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%AE%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%AF" title="ବିଜାଣ୍ଟିନୀୟ ସାମ୍ରାଜ୍ଯ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ବିଜାଣ୍ଟିନୀୟ ସାମ୍ରାଜ୍ଯ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vizantiya_imperiyasi" title="Vizantiya imperiyasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Vizantiya imperiyasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C" title="ਬੇਜ਼ਨਟਾਇਨ ਸਾਮਰਾਜ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬੇਜ਼ਨਟਾਇਨ ਸਾਮਰਾਜ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%B7%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="بازنطینی سلطنت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بازنطینی سلطنت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%8A" title="د بیزانس سترواکي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د بیزانس سترواکي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizantiin_Empaya" title="Bizantiin Empaya – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Bizantiin Empaya" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%85%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%8A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%A0%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%93" title="ចក្រភពប៊ីហ្សីនទីន – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ចក្រភពប៊ីហ្សីនទីន" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impire_Bizantin" title="Impire Bizantin – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Impire Bizantin" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_Roman_d%27Orient" title="Imperi Roman d'Orient – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Imperi Roman d'Orient" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantiensch_Riek" title="Byzantiensch Riek – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Byzantiensch Riek" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesarstwo_Bizanty%C5%84skie" title="Cesarstwo Bizantyńskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Cesarstwo Bizantyńskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1%CE%BD" title="Ρωμανίαν – Pontic" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt" data-title="Ρωμανίαν" data-language-autonym="Ποντιακά" data-language-local-name="Pontic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ποντιακά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A9rio_Bizantino" title="Império Bizantino – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Império Bizantino" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizans_%C4%B0mperiyas%C4%B1" title="Bizans İmperiyası – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Bizans İmperiyası" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiul_Roman_de_R%C4%83s%C4%83rit" title="Imperiul Roman de Răsărit – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Imperiul Roman de Răsărit" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_bizantin" title="Imperi bizantin – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Imperi bizantin" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D1%96%D1%88%D0%B0" title="Візантьска ріша – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Візантьска ріша" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Византия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Византия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Византия Империята – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Византия Империята" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A8riu_bizantinu" title="Impèriu bizantinu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Impèriu bizantinu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Byzantine Empire" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perandoria_Bizantine" title="Perandoria Bizantine – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Perandoria Bizantine" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mp%C3%A8riu_bizzantinu" title="Mpèriu bizzantinu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Mpèriu bizzantinu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B6%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%B0%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%BA" title="බයිසැන්ටයින් අධිරාජ්‍යය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="බයිසැන්ටයින් අධිරාජ්‍යය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Byzantine Empire" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="بازنطيني سلطنت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="بازنطيني سلطنت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantsk%C3%A1_r%C3%AD%C5%A1a" title="Byzantská ríša – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Byzantská ríša" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizantinsko_cesarstvo" title="Bizantinsko cesarstvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Bizantinsko cesarstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imbiraadooriyada_Biizantiin" title="Imbiraadooriyada Biizantiin – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Imbiraadooriyada Biizantiin" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی بیزەنتی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی بیزەنتی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Византија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Византија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizantsko_Carstvo" title="Bizantsko Carstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Bizantsko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bysantin_valtakunta" title="Bysantin valtakunta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Bysantin valtakunta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bysantinska_riket" title="Bysantinska riket – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bysantinska riket" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silangang_Imperyong_Romano" title="Silangang Imperyong Romano – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Silangang Imperyong Romano" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81" title="பைசாந்தியப் பேரரசு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பைசாந்தியப் பேரரசு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamnekda_tabizan%E1%B9%ADit" title="Tamnekda tabizanṭit – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tamnekda tabizanṭit" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-tara mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-tara.wikipedia.org/wiki/%27Mbere_Bizzandine" title="'Mbere Bizzandine – Tarantino" lang="nap-x-tara" hreflang="nap-x-tara" data-title="'Mbere Bizzandine" data-language-autonym="Tarandíne" data-language-local-name="Tarantino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tarandíne</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D0%B5" title="Византия империясе – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Византия империясе" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%9A%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%8C" title="จักรวรรดิไบแซนไทน์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จักรวรรดิไบแซนไทน์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Имперотурии Бизонс – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Имперотурии Бизонс" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizans_%C4%B0mparatorlu%C4%9Fu" title="Bizans İmparatorluğu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bizans İmparatorluğu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizanti%C3%BDa_imperi%C3%BDasy" title="Wizantiýa imperiýasy – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Wizantiýa imperiýasy" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Візантійська імперія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Візантійська імперія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%B7%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="بازنطینی سلطنت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بازنطینی سلطنت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inpero_bizantin" title="Inpero bizantin – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Inpero bizantin" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vizantijan_imperii" title="Vizantijan imperii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Vizantijan imperii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%BF_qu%E1%BB%91c_%C4%90%C3%B4ng_La_M%C3%A3" title="Đế quốc Đông La Mã – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đế quốc Đông La Mã" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCtsants" title="Bütsants – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Bütsants" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="東羅馬帝國 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="東羅馬帝國" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantyns_Ryk" title="Byzantyns Ryk – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Byzantyns Ryk" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyo_Bizantino" title="Imperyo Bizantino – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Imperyo Bizantino" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8B%9C%E5%8D%A0%E5%BA%AD%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="拜占庭帝国 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="拜占庭帝国" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%96%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2" title="ביזאנטישע אימפעריע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ביזאנטישע אימפעריע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il%E1%BA%B9%CC%80%E1%BB%8Dbal%C3%BAay%C3%A9_R%C3%B3m%C3%B9_Ap%C3%A1%C3%ACl%C3%A0o%C3%B2r%C3%B9n" title="Ilẹ̀ọbalúayé Rómù Apáìlàoòrùn – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ilẹ̀ọbalúayé Rómù Apáìlàoòrùn" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8B%9C%E5%8D%A0%E5%BA%AD%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="拜占庭帝國 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="拜占庭帝國" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0mperatoriya_Bizansi" title="İmperatoriya Bizansi – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="İmperatoriya Bizansi" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantijnse_Riek" title="Byzantijnse Riek – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Byzantijnse Riek" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zeêuws</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizant%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Bizantėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Bizantėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B" title="東羅馬帝國 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="東羅馬帝國" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-syl mw-list-item"><a href="https://syl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%A0%9B%EA%A0%A3%EA%A0%81%EA%A0%8E%EA%A0%98%EA%A0%86%EA%A0%90%EA%A0%A3%EA%A0%81%EA%A0%98_%EA%A0%A1%EA%A0%9D%EA%A0%9E%EA%A0%A3%EA%A0%81%EA%A0%8E%EA%A0%86%EA%A0%8E" title="ꠛꠣꠁꠎꠘ꠆ꠐꠣꠁꠘ ꠡꠝꠞꠣꠁꠎ꠆ꠎ – Sylheti" lang="syl" hreflang="syl" data-title="ꠛꠣꠁꠎꠘ꠆ꠐꠣꠁꠘ ꠡꠝꠞꠣꠁꠎ꠆ꠎ" data-language-autonym="ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ" data-language-local-name="Sylheti" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q12544#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Byzantine_Empire" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empire&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e"><span>View source</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empire&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-viewsource" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empire&action=edit"><span>View source</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empire&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Byzantine_Empire" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Byzantine_Empire" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empire&oldid=1283511836" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empire&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Byzantine_Empire&id=1283511836&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FByzantine_Empire"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FByzantine_Empire"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Byzantine_Empire&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empire&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikivoyage mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" hreflang="en"><span>Wikivoyage</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q12544" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-featured-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_articles*" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></span></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Continuation of the Roman Empire (330–1453)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Byzantine" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Byzantine (disambiguation)">Byzantine (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Byzantine Empire</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">330–1453</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Justinian555AD.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The empire in 555 under Justinian I, its greatest extent since the fall of the Western Roman Empire, vassals shaded in pink"><img alt="The empire in 555 under Justinian I, its greatest extent since the fall of the Western Roman Empire, vassals shaded in pink" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Justinian555AD.png/250px-Justinian555AD.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Justinian555AD.png/375px-Justinian555AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Justinian555AD.png/500px-Justinian555AD.png 2x" data-file-width="2111" data-file-height="1144" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The empire in 555 under <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a>, its greatest extent since the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vassal_state" title="Vassal state">vassals</a> shaded in pink</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> <span class="nowrap">(modern-day <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek" title="Medieval Greek">Greek</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">Christianity</a> (<a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">official</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks" title="Byzantine Greeks">Byzantine</a></li> <li>Roman</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="List of Byzantine emperors">Notable emperors</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 306–337 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine I</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 379–395 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 408–450 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_II" title="Theodosius II">Theodosius II</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 527–565 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 610–641 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 717–741 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo III</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 976–1025 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Basil_II" title="Basil II">Basil II</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1081–1118 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1143–1180 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Manuel_I_Komnenos" title="Manuel I Komnenos">Manuel I</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1261–1282 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Michael_VIII" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael VIII">Michael VIII</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1449–1453 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Constantine_XI_Palaiologos" title="Constantine XI Palaiologos">Constantine XI</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a> to <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></span></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">457</th><td class="infobox-data">2,350,000 km<sup>2</sup> (910,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">565</th><td class="infobox-data">3,400,000 km<sup>2</sup> (1,300,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">775</th><td class="infobox-data">880,000 km<sup>2</sup> (340,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1025</th><td class="infobox-data">1,675,000 km<sup>2</sup> (647,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1320</th><td class="infobox-data">420,000 km<sup>2</sup> (160,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 457<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997137_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997137-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">16,000,000</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 565<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997278_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997278-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">20,000,000</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 775<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997236_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997236-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">7,000,000</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1025<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997570_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997570-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">12,000,000</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1320<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997236_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997236-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">2,000,000</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">Solidus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">denarius</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hyperpyron" title="Hyperpyron">hyperpyron</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Byzantine Empire</b>, also known as the <b>Eastern Roman Empire</b>, was the continuation of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> centred on <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> during <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. Having survived <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">the events</a> that caused the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a> in the 5th century<span class="nowrap"> </span>AD, it endured until the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall of Constantinople</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in 1453. The term 'Byzantine Empire' was coined only after its demise; its citizens used the term 'Roman Empire' and called themselves 'Romans'.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the early centuries of the Roman Empire, the western provinces were <a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Latinised</a>, but the eastern parts kept their <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic culture">Hellenistic culture</a>. <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 324–337</span>) legalised <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and moved the capital to Constantinople. <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 379–395</span>) made Christianity the <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a> and Greek gradually replaced Latin for official use. The empire adopted a defensive strategy and, throughout its remaining history, experienced recurring cycles of decline and recovery. </p><p>It reached its greatest extent during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 527–565</span>), who briefly reconquered much of Italy and the western <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean coast</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">plague began</a> around 541, and a <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">devastating war with Persia</a> drained the empire's resources. The <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Arab conquests</a> led to the loss of the empire's richest provinces—<a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria</a>—to the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>. In 698, Africa <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carthage_(698)" title="Battle of Carthage (698)">was lost</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, but the empire stabilised under the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Isaurian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty">Isaurian dynasty</a>. It expanded once more under the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_dynasty" title="Macedonian dynasty">Macedonian dynasty</a>, experiencing <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Renaissance" title="Macedonian Renaissance">a two-century-long renaissance</a>. Thereafter, periods of civil war and Seljuk incursion resulted in the loss of most of <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Asia Minor</a>. The empire recovered during the <a href="/wiki/Komnenian_restoration" title="Komnenian restoration">Komnenian restoration</a>, and Constantinople remained the largest and wealthiest city in Europe until the 13th century. </p><p>The empire was largely dismantled in 1204, following the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Constantinople" title="Sack of Constantinople">sack of Constantinople</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a>; its former territories <a href="/wiki/Partitio_terrarum_imperii_Romaniae" title="Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae">were then divided</a> into competing Greek <a href="/wiki/Rump_state" title="Rump state">rump states</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frankokratia" title="Frankokratia">Latin realms</a>. Despite the eventual <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Palaiologos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty">recovery of Constantinople</a> in 1261, the reconstituted empire wielded only regional power during its final two centuries. Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans in <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Ottoman_wars" title="Byzantine–Ottoman wars">a series of wars</a> fought in the 14th and 15th centuries. The fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 brought the empire to an end, but its history and legacy remain topics of debate to this day. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nomenclature">Nomenclature</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Greeks" title="Names of the Greeks">Names of the Greeks</a></div> <p>The empire's inhabitants, now generally termed "Byzantines", regarded themselves as <a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a> (in Greek, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Ῥωμαῖοι</span></span> or <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Romaioi</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2022a351AschenbrennerRansohoff2022a1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2022a351AschenbrennerRansohoff2022a1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, their Islamic contemporaries called their empire the "land of the Romans" (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Bilād al-Rūm</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAschenbrennerRansohoff2022a1_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAschenbrennerRansohoff2022a1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Western Europe since 800 AD called them "Greeks" (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Graeci</i></span>), as the Papacy and medieval German emperors regarded themselves as the true inheritors of Roman identity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis20232AschenbrennerRansohoff2022a2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis20232AschenbrennerRansohoff2022a2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The adjective "Byzantine", derived from <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Byzantion</i></span></a> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Byzantium</i></span> in Latin), the name of the Greek settlement <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> was established on, was only used to describe the inhabitants of the city; it did not refer to the empire, called <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Romanía</i></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Ῥωμανία</span></span> or "Romanland") by its citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2022a349,_351CormackHaldonJeffreys20084_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2022a349,_351CormackHaldonJeffreys20084-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the empire's fall, <a href="/wiki/Early_modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern">early modern</a> scholars referred to it by many names, including the "Eastern Empire", the "Low Empire", the "Late Empire", the "Empire of the Greeks", "Empire of Constantinople", and "Roman Empire".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAschenbrennerRansohoff2022a2_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAschenbrennerRansohoff2022a2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increasing use of "Byzantine" and "Byzantine Empire" started with the 15th-century historian <a href="/wiki/Laonikos_Chalkokondyles" title="Laonikos Chalkokondyles">Laonikos Chalkokondyles</a>, whose works were widely propagated by <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Wolf" title="Hieronymus Wolf">Hieronymus Wolf</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2022a352_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2022a352-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Byzantine" was used adjectivally alongside terms such as "Empire of the Greeks" until the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2022a352,_355,_357_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2022a352,_355,_357-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is now the primary term, used to refer to all aspects of the empire; some modern historians believe it should not be used because it was originally a prejudicial and inaccurate term.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis20232–3CormackHaldonJeffreys20084Stouraitis2022b20,_29,_31,_33–36_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis20232–3CormackHaldonJeffreys20084Stouraitis2022b20,_29,_31,_33–36-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Byzantine Empire">History of the Byzantine Empire</a></div> <p>Given the significant overlap in historiographical <a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">periodisations</a> of "<a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Late Roman history</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>", and "Byzantine history", there is no consensus on a "foundation date" for the Byzantine Empire, or even if one existed. Greek and Orthodox scholarship define it as the foundation of Constantinople.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECameron2002190–191_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2002190–191-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The growth of the Anglo-centric study of "late antiquity" has led to some historians setting a start date in the seventh or eighth centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECameron2002166,_191Kaldellis2015Howard-Johnston2024_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2002166,_191Kaldellis2015Howard-Johnston2024-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others believe a "new empire" began during changes in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300</span><span class="nowrap"> </span>AD.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis20233,_34_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis20233,_34-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geoffrey Greatrex believes that it is impossible to precisely date the foundation of the Byzantine Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008232_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008232-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-518:_Constantinian,_Theodosian,_and_Leonid_dynasties"><span id="Pre-518:_Constantinian.2C_Theodosian.2C_and_Leonid_dynasties"></span>Pre-518: Constantinian, Theodosian, and Leonid dynasties</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Constantinian_and_Valentinianic_dynasties" title="Byzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties">Byzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Theodosian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Theodosian dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Theodosian dynasty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Leonid_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Leonid dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Leonid dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tetrarchy_map3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A map showing the division of the Roman empire c. 300" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Tetrarchy_map3.jpg/260px-Tetrarchy_map3.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Tetrarchy_map3.jpg/390px-Tetrarchy_map3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Tetrarchy_map3.jpg/520px-Tetrarchy_map3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="991" data-file-height="751" /></a><figcaption>Four-way division of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a> system established by <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Between the 3rd and 1st centuries<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> established <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a> over the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">eastern Mediterranean</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome#Government" title="Ancient Rome">its government</a> developed into the one-person rule of <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman emperors">an emperor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008233_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008233-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> enjoyed a period of <a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">relative stability</a> until <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">the 3rd century AD</a>, when external threats and internal crises caused it to splinter, as regional armies acclaimed their generals as "soldier-emperors".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008233Kaldellis202316–17Treadgold19977_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008233Kaldellis202316–17Treadgold19977-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of these, <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 284–305</span>), recognised that the state was too big to be ruled by a single person and attempted to address this.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008233_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008233-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He instituted a <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a>, a rule of four, dividing the empire into eastern and western halves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202317–18Treadgold199715,_17–18_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202317–18Treadgold199715,_17–18-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Tetrarchy system quickly failed, the division of the empire proved an enduring concept.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008235Kaldellis202317–18Treadgold199714_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008235Kaldellis202317–18Treadgold199714-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 306–337</span>) secured absolute power in 324.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008235_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008235-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the next six years, he rebuilt the city of Byzantium as a new <a href="/wiki/Capital_city" title="Capital city">capital</a> that he called “New Rome” (later named <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008235Treadgold199739–40Kaldellis202318_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008235Treadgold199739–40Kaldellis202318-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The old capital <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> was further from the prosperous eastern provinces and in a less strategically important location; it was not esteemed by the "soldier-emperors", who ruled from the frontiers, or by the empire's population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202317,_20_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202317,_20-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Constitutio_Antoniniana" title="Constitutio Antoniniana">Having been granted citizenship</a>, they considered themselves just as Roman as those in the city of Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202318–20_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202318–20-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He continued reforms of the empire's military and civil administration and instituted the <a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">gold solidus</a> as a stable currency.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008235–236Kaldellis202343–44_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008235–236Kaldellis202343–44-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">favoured Christianity</a> and became an opponent of paganism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008236–237Kaldellis202381–84Treadgold199731–33,_40–42_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008236–237Kaldellis202381–84Treadgold199731–33,_40–42-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Constantine's dynasty prioritised <a href="/wiki/Perso-Roman_wars_of_337%E2%80%93361" title="Perso-Roman wars of 337–361">a lengthy conflict</a> against the comparably powerful <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanid Persia</a> and ended in 363 with the death of his nephew <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008238Kaldellis202393,_98,_111–112Treadgold199752–53,_59–62_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008238Kaldellis202393,_98,_111–112Treadgold199752–53,_59–62-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reign of the short <a href="/wiki/Valentinianic_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Valentinianic dynasty">Valentinianic dynasty</a>, marked by <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Wars#Fourth_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic Wars">wars against the Goths</a>, religious debates, and anti-corruption campaigns, ended in the East with the death of <a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianople" title="Battle of Adrianople">Battle of Adrianople</a> in 378.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008239–240Kaldellis2023114–118,_121–123Treadgold199763–67_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008239–240Kaldellis2023114–118,_121–123Treadgold199763–67-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman-empire-395AD.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A map showing the western and eastern Roman empires c. 395, divided in the Balkans and North Africa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Roman-empire-395AD.svg/330px-Roman-empire-395AD.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Roman-empire-395AD.svg/500px-Roman-empire-395AD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Roman-empire-395AD.svg/520px-Roman-empire-395AD.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="481" /></a><figcaption>Division of the empire after the death of Theodosius I in 395<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#85d295; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> The Western Roman Empire</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ed9595; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> The Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire</div></figcaption></figure> <p>Valens's successor, <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 379–395</span>), secured peace in the east by allowing the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> to settle in Roman territory;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008240Kaldellis2023128–129Treadgold199773_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008240Kaldellis2023128–129Treadgold199773-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he also twice intervened in the western half, defeating the usurpers <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Maximus" title="Magnus Maximus">Magnus Maximus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eugenius" title="Eugenius">Eugenius</a> in 388 and 394, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008241Kaldellis2023129–130,_135–137Treadgold199774–75_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008241Kaldellis2023129–130,_135–137Treadgold199774–75-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_under_Theodosius_I" title="Persecution of pagans under Theodosius I">actively condemned paganism</a>, confirmed the primacy of <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Nicene Orthodoxy</a> over <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianismin</a> the East, and established <a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">Christianity as the Roman state religion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008240–241Kaldellis2023126–128Treadgold199770–74_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008240–241Kaldellis2023126–128Treadgold199770–74-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was the last emperor to rule both the western and eastern halves of the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023136_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023136-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After his death, the West was destabilised but the East thrived due to its civilian administrators that continued to hold power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023165Treadgold199787_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023165Treadgold199787-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_II" title="Theodosius II">Theodosius II</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 408–450</span>) largely left the rule of the East to officials such as <a href="/wiki/Anthemius_(praetorian_prefect)" title="Anthemius (praetorian prefect)">Anthemius</a>, who constructed the <a href="/wiki/Theodosian_Walls" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodosian Walls">Theodosian Walls</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023165–167,_244_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023165–167,_244-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Constantinople had now firmly entrenched itself as <i>Rome's</i> capital.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008242Kaldellis202315,_20–21_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008242Kaldellis202315,_20–21-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aside from Constantinople’s walls, Theodosius' reign was also marked by the compilation of the <i><a href="/wiki/Codex_Theodosianus" title="Codex Theodosianus">Codex Theodosianus</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShepard200922-23Treadgold199791–92_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard200922-23Treadgold199791–92-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the theological dispute over <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a> (a doctrine eventually deemed <a href="/wiki/Heretical" class="mw-redirect" title="Heretical">heretical</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008242Kaldellis2023173Treadgold199792_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008242Kaldellis2023173Treadgold199792-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His reign also saw the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Attila" title="Attila">Attila</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>, who ravaged the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, leading to a large <a href="/wiki/Tribute" title="Tribute">tribute</a> being exacted from the eastern empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023193–196Treadgold199794–95_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023193–196Treadgold199794–95-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attila switched his attention to the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">rapidly-deteriorating western empire</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023200Treadgold1997209_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023200Treadgold1997209-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his people fractured after his death in 453.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, <a href="/wiki/Leo_I_(emperor)" title="Leo I (emperor)">Leo I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 457–474</span>) failed in his <a href="/wiki/Basiliscus#Military_career" title="Basiliscus">468 attempt to reconquer</a> the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">West</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023209Greatrex2008243Treadgold1997153_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023209Greatrex2008243Treadgold1997153-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The warlord <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a> deposed <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a> in 476, killed his titular successor <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a> in 480, and abolished the office of western emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008244Kaldellis2023214Treadgold1997158–159_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008244Kaldellis2023214Treadgold1997158–159-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through a combination of fortune and good political decisions, the Eastern Empire never experienced rebellious barbarian vassals or rule by barbarian warlords—the problems which ensured the downfall of the West.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023243–245_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023243–245-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)" title="Zeno (emperor)">Zeno</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 474–491</span>) convinced the problematic <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoth" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostrogoth">Ostrogoth</a> king <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_the_Great" title="Theodoric the Great">Theodoric</a> to take control of Italy from Odoacer;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008244Kaldellis2023220Treadgold1997162,_164_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008244Kaldellis2023220Treadgold1997162,_164-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> dying when the empire was at peace, he was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Anastasius_I_Dicorus" title="Anastasius I Dicorus">Anastasius I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 491–518</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008244Kaldellis2023220Treadgold1997164_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008244Kaldellis2023220Treadgold1997164-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His belief in <a href="/wiki/Monophysitism" title="Monophysitism">monophysitism</a> brought occasional issues, but Anastasius was a capable administrator and instituted successful financial reforms including the abolition of the <a href="/wiki/Collatio_lustralis" title="Collatio lustralis">chrysargyron tax</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008Kaldellis2023244224_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008Kaldellis2023244224-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was the first emperor since Diocletian who did not face any serious problems affecting the empire during his reign.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997172_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997172-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="518–717:_Justinian_and_Heraclian_dynasties"><span id="518.E2.80.93717:_Justinian_and_Heraclian_dynasties"></span>518–717: Justinian and Heraclian dynasties</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Heraclian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:262px;max-width:262px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:124px;max-width:124px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:162px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosaic_of_Justinianus_I_-_Basilica_San_Vitale_(Ravenna).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A close up photograph of a mosaic of a person painted on a golden coloured background. The person has a dark brown cloth covering up his upper body till the neck, three jewels on his right shoulder, a crown with two pendants each hanging from both ends and an aura like circle around his head" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Mosaic_of_Justinianus_I_-_Basilica_San_Vitale_%28Ravenna%29.jpg/250px-Mosaic_of_Justinianus_I_-_Basilica_San_Vitale_%28Ravenna%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="122" height="162" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1997" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:134px;max-width:134px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:162px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Belisarius_mosaic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A close up photograph of a mosaic of a person painted on a golden coloured background. The person has a white cloth covering up his upper body till the neck, an embroidered pattern on his right shoulder, wavy hair, a stubble beard and a moustache" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Belisarius_mosaic.jpg/250px-Belisarius_mosaic.jpg" decoding="async" width="132" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Belisarius_mosaic.jpg/330px-Belisarius_mosaic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1107" data-file-height="1370" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinian">Justinian</a> (<i>left</i>), and the general <a href="/wiki/Belisarius" title="Belisarius">Belisarius</a> (<i>right</i>). <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">Mosaics</a>, 6th century, from the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale" title="Basilica of San Vitale">Basilica of San Vitale</a>, Ravenna, Italy</div></div></div></div> <p>The reign of <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> was a watershed in Byzantine history.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a250Louth2009a106Kaldellis2023257–258Treadgold1997174_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a250Louth2009a106Kaldellis2023257–258Treadgold1997174-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following his accession in 527, the legal code was rewritten as the <i><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a></i> and Justinian produced extensive legislation on provincial administration;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELouth2009a108–109Kaldellis2023269–271Sarris200245Treadgold1997178–180_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELouth2009a108–109Kaldellis2023269–271Sarris200245Treadgold1997178–180-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he reasserted imperial control over religion and morality through purges of non-Christians and "deviants";<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarris200243–45Kaldellis2023271–274Louth2009a114–119_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarris200243–45Kaldellis2023271–274Louth2009a114–119-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and having ruthlessly subdued <a href="/wiki/Nika_riots" title="Nika riots">the 532 Nika revolt</a> he rebuilt much of Constantinople, including the original <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELouth2009a111–114Kaldellis2023274–277Sarris200246_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELouth2009a111–114Kaldellis2023274–277Sarris200246-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Justinian I took advantage of political instability in Italy to attempt the reconquest of lost western territories. The <a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandal Kingdom</a> in North Africa <a href="/wiki/Vandalic_War" title="Vandalic War">was subjugated in 534</a> by the general <a href="/wiki/Belisarius" title="Belisarius">Belisarius</a>, who <a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(535%E2%80%93554)" title="Gothic War (535–554)">then invaded Italy</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic Kingdom</a> was destroyed in 554.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarris200246Kaldellis2023279–283,_287–288,_305–307Moorhead2009202–209_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarris200246Kaldellis2023279–283,_287–288,_305–307Moorhead2009202–209-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 540s, Justinian began to suffer reversals on multiple fronts. Capitalising on Constantinople's preoccupation with the West, <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a> of the Sasanian Empire invaded Byzantine territory and sacked <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> in 540.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023297Treadgold1997193–194Haldon2008a252–253_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023297Treadgold1997193–194Haldon2008a252–253-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emperor's internal reforms and policies began to falter, and <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">a devastating plague</a> killed a large proportion of the population and severely reduced the empire's social and financial stability.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarris200249Kaldellis2023298–301_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarris200249Kaldellis2023298–301-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most difficult period of the Ostrogothic war, against their king <a href="/wiki/Totila" title="Totila">Totila</a>, came during this decade, while divisions among Justinian's advisors undercut the administration's response.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997196–207Kaldellis2023298–299,_305–306Moorhead2009207–208_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997196–207Kaldellis2023298–299,_305–306Moorhead2009207–208-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also did not fully heal the divisions in <a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Chalcedonian Christianity">Chalcedonian Christianity</a>, as the <a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Second Council of Constantinople">Second Council of Constantinople</a> failed to make a real difference.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997210–211,_214Louth2009a117–118Haldon2008a253_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997210–211,_214Louth2009a117–118Haldon2008a253-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Justinian died in 565; his reign was more successful than any other Byzantine emperor, yet he left his empire under serious strain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023318–319Treadgold1997217Sarris200251_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023318–319Treadgold1997217Sarris200251-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Financially and territorially overextended, <a href="/wiki/Justin_II" title="Justin II">Justin II</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 565–578</span>) was soon at war on many fronts. Fearing the aggressive <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Avars" title="Pannonian Avars">Avars</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> conquered much of northern Italy by 572.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarris200251Haldon2008a254Treadgold1997220–222_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarris200251Haldon2008a254Treadgold1997220–222-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_572%E2%80%93591" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591">Sasanian wars restarted</a> in the same year, and continued until the emperor <a href="/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Maurice</a> emerged victorious in 591; by this time, the Avars and <a href="/wiki/Slavic_migrations_to_the_Balkans" title="Slavic migrations to the Balkans">Slavs had repeatedly invaded the Balkans</a>, causing great instability.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELouth2009a124–127Haldon2008a254Sarris200251_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELouth2009a124–127Haldon2008a254Sarris200251-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maurice <a href="/wiki/Maurice%27s_Balkan_campaigns" title="Maurice's Balkan campaigns">campaigned extensively in the region</a> during the 590s, and although he re-established Byzantine control up to the <a href="/wiki/Danube_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Danube River">Danube</a>, he pushed his troops too far in 602—they mutinied, proclaimed an officer named <a href="/wiki/Phocas" title="Phocas">Phocas</a> as emperor, and executed Maurice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023336–338Treadgold1997232–235Haldon2008a254_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023336–338Treadgold1997232–235Haldon2008a254-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sasanians seized their moment and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">reopened hostilities</a>; Phocas was unable to cope and soon faced <a href="/wiki/Heraclian_revolt" title="Heraclian revolt">a major rebellion</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a>. Phocas lost Constantinople in 610 and was executed; this destructive civil war accelerated the empire's decline.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023347–350Haldon2008a254Louth2009b226–227Treadgold1997241_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023347–350Haldon2008a254Louth2009b226–227Treadgold1997241-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Walls_of_Constantinople.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photograph of a large double-layered fortification." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Walls_of_Constantinople.JPG/330px-Walls_of_Constantinople.JPG" decoding="async" width="260" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Walls_of_Constantinople.JPG/500px-Walls_of_Constantinople.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Walls_of_Constantinople.JPG/960px-Walls_of_Constantinople.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople" title="Walls of Constantinople">Theodosian Walls</a> of Constantinople, critically important during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(717%E2%80%93718)" title="Siege of Constantinople (717–718)">717–718 siege</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Under <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a>, the Sassanids occupied the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and Egypt and advanced into Asia Minor, while Byzantine control of Italy weakened, and the Avars and Slavs raided in the Balkans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a254–255Treadgold1997287–293Kaldellis2023351–355_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a254–255Treadgold1997287–293Kaldellis2023351–355-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Heraclius repelled <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(626)" title="Siege of Constantinople (626)">a siege of Constantinople</a> in 626 and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nineveh_(627)" title="Battle of Nineveh (627)">defeated the Sassanids</a> in 627, this was a <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic_victory" title="Pyrrhic victory">pyrrhic victory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarris200256–58Haldon2008a255Kaldellis2023364–367,_369,_372Louth2009b227–229Treadgold1997397–400_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarris200256–58Haldon2008a255Kaldellis2023364–367,_369,_372Louth2009b227–229Treadgold1997397–400-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Arab conquests</a> soon saw the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">conquest of the Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Arab conquest of Egypt">Egypt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">the Sassanid Empire</a> by the newly-formed Arabic <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023375Haldon2008a256Louth2009b229–230_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023375Haldon2008a256Louth2009b229–230-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By Heraclius' death in 641, the empire had been severely reduced economically and territorially—the loss of the wealthy eastern provinces had deprived Constantinople of three-quarters of its revenue.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023387Haldon2008a256Treadgold2002129_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023387Haldon2008a256Treadgold2002129-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The next seventy-five years are poorly documented.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023387_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023387-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars#Arab_attacks_on_Anatolia_and_sieges_of_Constantinople" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Arab raids into Asia Minor</a> began almost immediately, and the Byzantines responded by holding fortified centres and avoiding battle wherever possible; although Anatolia was invaded annually, it avoided permanent Arab occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a257Kaldellis2023387_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a257Kaldellis2023387-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/First_Fitna" title="First Fitna">First Fitna</a> in 656 gave Byzantium breathing space, which it used wisely: some order was restored in the Balkans by <a href="/wiki/Constans_II" title="Constans II">Constans II</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 641–668</span>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023389Louth2009b230–231_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023389Louth2009b230–231-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the administrative reorganisation implemented by him known as the "<a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">theme system</a>", which allocated troops to defend specific provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997315–316Louth2009b239–240_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997315–316Louth2009b239–240-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Constantine_IV" title="Constantine IV">Constantine IV</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 668–685</span>) repelled the Arab efforts to <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(674%E2%80%93678)" title="Siege of Constantinople (674–678)">capture Constantinople in the 670s</a> using <a href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997323–327Haldon2008a257Louth2009b232–233_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997323–327Haldon2008a257Louth2009b232–233-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but suffered <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ongal" title="Battle of Ongal">a reversal</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Bulgars" title="Bulgars">Bulgars</a>, who soon established <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">an empire in the northern Balkans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023403Haldon2008a257–258Treadgold2002134–135_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023403Haldon2008a257–258Treadgold2002134–135-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, he and Constans had done enough to secure the empire's position, especially as the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> was undergoing <a href="/wiki/Second_Fitna" title="Second Fitna">another civil war</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023403Treadgold2002135_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023403Treadgold2002135-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Justinian_II" title="Justinian II">Justinian II</a> sought to build on the stability established by his father Constantine, but was overthrown in 695 after attempting to exact too much from his subjects; over the next twenty-two years, there were six more rebellions during <a href="/wiki/Twenty_Years%27_Anarchy" title="Twenty Years' Anarchy">an era of political instability</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold2002136–138Haldon2008a257Kaldellis2023438–440_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold2002136–138Haldon2008a257Kaldellis2023438–440-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reconstituted caliphate sought to break Byzantium by taking Constantinople, but the newly crowned <a href="/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo III</a> <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(717%E2%80%93718)" title="Siege of Constantinople (717–718)">repelled the 717–718 siege</a>, the first major setback of the Muslim conquests.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold2002137–138Haldon2008a257Auzépy2009265_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold2002137–138Haldon2008a257Auzépy2009265-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="718–867:_Isaurian,_Nikephorian,_and_Amorian_dynasties"><span id="718.E2.80.93867:_Isaurian.2C_Nikephorian.2C_and_Amorian_dynasties"></span>718–867: Isaurian, Nikephorian, and Amorian dynasties</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Isaurian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Nikephorian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Amorian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Amorian dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Amorian dynasty</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solidus-Leo_III_and_Constantine_V-sb1504.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two gold coins, each depicting a man" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Solidus-Leo_III_and_Constantine_V-sb1504.jpg/250px-Solidus-Leo_III_and_Constantine_V-sb1504.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Solidus-Leo_III_and_Constantine_V-sb1504.jpg/330px-Solidus-Leo_III_and_Constantine_V-sb1504.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Solidus-Leo_III_and_Constantine_V-sb1504.jpg/500px-Solidus-Leo_III_and_Constantine_V-sb1504.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Gold <i>solidus</i> of <a href="/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo III</a> (left), and his son and heir, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_V" title="Constantine V">Constantine V</a> (right)</figcaption></figure> <p>Leo and his son <a href="/wiki/Constantine_V" title="Constantine V">Constantine V</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 741–775</span>), two of the most capable Byzantine emperors, withstood continued Arab attacks, civil unrest, and natural disasters, and reestablished the state as a major regional power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a258–259Kaldellis2023443,_451–452Auzépy2009255–260_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a258–259Kaldellis2023443,_451–452Auzépy2009255–260-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leo's reign produced the <i><a href="/wiki/Ecloga" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecloga">Ecloga</a></i>, a new code of law to succeed that of Justinian I.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023444–445Auzépy2009275–276_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023444–445Auzépy2009275–276-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also continued to reform the theme system in order to lead offensive campaigns against the Muslims, culminating in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Akroinon" title="Battle of Akroinon">a decisive victory in 740</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAuzépy2009265–273Kaegi2009385–385Kaldellis2023450_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAuzépy2009265–273Kaegi2009385–385Kaldellis2023450-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Constantine overcame an early civil war against his brother-in-law <a href="/wiki/Artabasdos" title="Artabasdos">Artabasdos</a>, made peace with the new <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_V#Repeated_campaigns_against_the_Bulgarians" title="Constantine V">campaigned successfully</a> against the Bulgars, and continued to make administrative and military reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a260Kaldellis2023450–454Treadgold2002140–141_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a260Kaldellis2023450–454Treadgold2002140–141-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to both emperors' support for the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Byzantine Iconoclasm</a>, where the use of <a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">religious icons</a> was banned, they were later vilified by Byzantine historians;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023443,_447–449,_454–459Haldon2008a258–261Auzépy2009253–254_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023443,_447–449,_454–459Haldon2008a258–261Auzépy2009253–254-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Constantine's reign also saw the loss of <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombards</a>, and the beginning of a split from the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Roman papacy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold2002140–141Kaldellis2023459–561Auzépy2009284–287_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold2002140–141Kaldellis2023459–561Auzépy2009284–287-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 780, Empress <a href="/wiki/Irene_of_Athens" title="Irene of Athens">Irene</a> assumed power as regent for her son <a href="/wiki/Constantine_VI" title="Constantine VI">Constantine VI</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a261Treadgold2002141–142Magdalino2002170_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a261Treadgold2002141–142Magdalino2002170-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although she was a capable administrator who temporarily resolved the iconoclasm controversy,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a261Kaldellis2023464–469_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a261Kaldellis2023464–469-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the empire was destabilised by her conflict with her son. The Bulgars and Abbasids inflicted numerous defeats on the Byzantine armies, and the papacy crowned <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> as Roman emperor in 800.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023470–473Magdalino2002169–171Haldon2008a261_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023470–473Magdalino2002169–171Haldon2008a261-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 802, the unpopular Irene was overthrown by <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_I" title="Nikephoros I">Nikephoros I</a>; he reformed the empire's administration but died <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pliska" title="Battle of Pliska">in battle against the Bulgars</a> in 811.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023473–474,_478–481_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023473–474,_478–481-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Military defeats and societal disorder, especially the resurgence of iconoclasm, characterised the next eighteen years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008265Auzépy2009257,_259,_289Kaldellis2023482–483,_485–491_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008265Auzépy2009257,_259,_289Kaldellis2023482–483,_485–491-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Byzantine_Empire_814.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map centred on Western Europe. The territories of the Byzantine Empire are shaded dark green; namely the Italian islands, southern Greece, south-central Bulgaria, southern Crimea and most of Turkey." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Byzantine_Empire_814.svg/250px-Byzantine_Empire_814.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Byzantine_Empire_814.svg/330px-Byzantine_Empire_814.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Byzantine_Empire_814.svg/500px-Byzantine_Empire_814.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="380" /></a><figcaption>The Byzantine Empire <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 814</span>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Stability was somewhat restored during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Theophilos_(emperor)" title="Theophilos (emperor)">Theophilos</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 829–842</span>). He capitalised on economic growth to complete construction programmes, including rebuilding the <a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople#Sea_walls" title="Walls of Constantinople">sea walls of Constantinople</a>, overhaul provincial governance, and wage inconclusive campaigns against the Abbasids.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023491–495Holmes2008265Auzépy2009273–274_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023491–495Holmes2008265Auzépy2009273–274-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After his death, his empress <a href="/wiki/Theodora_(wife_of_Theophilos)" title="Theodora (wife of Theophilos)">Theodora</a>, ruling on behalf of her son <a href="/wiki/Michael_III" title="Michael III">Michael III</a>, permanently extinguished the iconoclastic movement;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023498–501Holmes2008266_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023498–501Holmes2008266-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the empire prospered under their sometimes-fraught rule. Michael was posthumously vilified by historians loyal to the dynasty of his successor <a href="/wiki/Basil_I" title="Basil I">Basil I</a>, who had him assassinated in 867 and was credited with his predecessor's achievements.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008265–266Kaldellis2023504–505Auzépy2009254Tougher2009292–293,_296_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008265–266Kaldellis2023504–505Auzépy2009254Tougher2009292–293,_296-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="867–1081:_Macedonian_and_Doukas_dynasties"><span id="867.E2.80.931081:_Macedonian_and_Doukas_dynasties"></span>867–1081: Macedonian and Doukas dynasties</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Macedonian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Doukas_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty</a></div> <p>Basil I (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 867–886</span>) continued Michael's policies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETougher2009292,_296Holmes2008266_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETougher2009292,_296Holmes2008266-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His armies campaigned with mixed results in Italy but <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bathys_Ryax" title="Battle of Bathys Ryax">defeated</a> the <a href="/wiki/Paulician_principality_of_Tephrike" title="Paulician principality of Tephrike">Paulicians of Tephrike</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008266Kaldellis2023522–524Treadgold1997455–458_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008266Kaldellis2023522–524Treadgold1997455–458-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His successor <a href="/wiki/Leo_VI_the_Wise" title="Leo VI the Wise">Leo VI</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 886–912</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> compiled and propagated a huge number of written works. These included the <i><a href="/wiki/Basilika" title="Basilika">Basilika</a></i>, a Greek translation of Justinian I's legal code incorporating over 100 new laws created by Leo; the <i><a href="/wiki/Tactica_of_Emperor_Leo_VI_the_Wise" title="Tactica of Emperor Leo VI the Wise">Tactica</a></i>, a military treatise; and the <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Prefect" title="Book of the Prefect">Book of the Eparch</a></i>, a manual on Constantinople's trading regulations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b493,_496–498Kaldellis2023429–433Holmes2008267_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b493,_496–498Kaldellis2023429–433Holmes2008267-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In non-literary contexts Leo was less successful: the empire <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Taormina_(902)" title="Siege of Taormina (902)">lost in Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Boulgarophygon" title="Battle of Boulgarophygon">against the Bulgarians</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008267Kaldellis2023534–535_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008267Kaldellis2023534–535-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and he provoked theological scandal by marrying four times in an attempt to father a legitimate heir.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023537–539Holmes2008267Shepard2009b503_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023537–539Holmes2008267Shepard2009b503-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The early reign of this heir, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_VII" title="Constantine VII">Constantine VII</a>, was tumultuous, as his mother <a href="/wiki/Zoe_Karbonopsina" title="Zoe Karbonopsina">Zoe</a>, his uncle <a href="/wiki/Alexander_(Byzantine_emperor)" title="Alexander (Byzantine emperor)">Alexander</a>, the patriarch <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Mystikos" title="Nicholas Mystikos">Nicholas</a>, the powerful <a href="/wiki/Simeon_I_of_Bulgaria" title="Simeon I of Bulgaria">Simeon I of Bulgaria</a>, and other influential figures jockeyed for power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b505Kaldellis2023540–543Holmes2008267_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b505Kaldellis2023540–543Holmes2008267-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 920, the admiral <a href="/wiki/Romanos_I_Lekapenos" title="Romanos I Lekapenos">Romanos I</a> used his fleet to secure power, crowning himself and demoting Constantine to the position of junior co-emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023543–544Shepard2009b505–507_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023543–544Shepard2009b505–507-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His reign, marked by <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Bulgarian_war_of_913%E2%80%93927#Peace_treaty" title="Byzantine–Bulgarian war of 913–927">the end of the war against Bulgaria</a> and successes in the east under the general <a href="/wiki/John_Kourkouas" title="John Kourkouas">John Kourkouas</a>, ended in 944 due to the machinations of his sons, whom Constantine then usurped.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b508–509Kaldellis2023546–552Holmes2008268_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b508–509Kaldellis2023546–552Holmes2008268-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Constantine's ineffectual sole rule has often been construed as <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Renaissance" title="Macedonian Renaissance">the zenith of Byzantine learning</a>, but the works compiled were largely intended to legitimise and glorify the emperor's <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_dynasty" title="Macedonian dynasty">Macedonian dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023553–555Holmes2008268_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023553–555Holmes2008268-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Romanos_II" title="Romanos II">His son and successor</a> died young; under two soldier-emperors, <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_II_Phokas" title="Nikephoros II Phokas">Nikephoros II</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 963–969</span>) and <a href="/wiki/John_I_Tzimiskes" title="John I Tzimiskes">John I Tzimiskes</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 969–976</span>), the army claimed numerous military successes, including the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_conquest_of_Cilicia" title="Byzantine conquest of Cilicia">conquest of Cilicia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Antioch_(968%E2%80%93969)" title="Siege of Antioch (968–969)">Antioch</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Sviatoslav%27s_invasion_of_Bulgaria" title="Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria">sensational victory against Bulgaria and the Kievan Rus'</a> in 971. John in particular was an astute administrator who reformed military structures and implemented effective fiscal policies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023563–573Holmes2008268–269Magdalino2002176_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023563–573Holmes2008268–269Magdalino2002176-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After John's death, Constantine VII's grandsons <a href="/wiki/Basil_II" title="Basil II">Basil II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constantine_VIII" title="Constantine VIII">Constantine VIII</a> ruled jointly for half a century, although the latter exercised no real power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008268_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008268-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their early reign was occupied by conflicts against two prominent generals, <a href="/wiki/Bardas_Skleros" title="Bardas Skleros">Bardas Skleros</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bardas_Phokas_the_Younger" title="Bardas Phokas the Younger">Bardas Phokas</a>, which ended in 989 after the former's death and the latter's submission, and a power struggle against the eunuch <a href="/wiki/Basil_Lekapenos" title="Basil Lekapenos">Basileios</a>, who was dismissed in 985.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b522–526Magdalino2002202Kaldellis2023573–578_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b522–526Magdalino2002202Kaldellis2023573–578-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Basil, who never married or had children, subsequently refused to delegate any authority: he sidelined the military establishment by taking personal command of the army and promoting officers loyal to him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b526,_531Kaldellis2023578–579Holmes2008269_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b526,_531Kaldellis2023578–579Holmes2008269-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His reign witnessed <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_conquest_of_Bulgaria" title="Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria">the decades-long campaign against Bulgaria</a>, which ended in total Byzantine victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kleidion" title="Battle of Kleidion">Battle of Kleidion</a> in 1014.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008269Shepard2009b526–29Kaldellis2023579–582_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008269Shepard2009b526–29Kaldellis2023579–582-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diplomatic efforts, critical for this success,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b529Holmes2008271_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b529Holmes2008271-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Georgian_treaty_of_1022" title="Byzantine–Georgian treaty of 1022">annexation of several Georgian provinces</a> in the 1020s and coexistence with the new <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023584Holmes2008270–271Magdalino2002180_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023584Holmes2008270–271Magdalino2002180-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When he died in 1025, Basil's empire stretched from the Danube and Sicily in the west to the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> in the east; his swift expansion was unaccompanied by administrative reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b531–536Holmes2008271_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b531–536Holmes2008271-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_seizure_of_Edessa_in_Syria_by_the_Byzantine_army_and_the_Arabic_counterattack_from_the_Chronicle_of_John_Skylitzes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Depiction of an army attacking a walled town" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/The_seizure_of_Edessa_in_Syria_by_the_Byzantine_army_and_the_Arabic_counterattack_from_the_Chronicle_of_John_Skylitzes.jpg/290px-The_seizure_of_Edessa_in_Syria_by_the_Byzantine_army_and_the_Arabic_counterattack_from_the_Chronicle_of_John_Skylitzes.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/The_seizure_of_Edessa_in_Syria_by_the_Byzantine_army_and_the_Arabic_counterattack_from_the_Chronicle_of_John_Skylitzes.jpg/435px-The_seizure_of_Edessa_in_Syria_by_the_Byzantine_army_and_the_Arabic_counterattack_from_the_Chronicle_of_John_Skylitzes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/The_seizure_of_Edessa_in_Syria_by_the_Byzantine_army_and_the_Arabic_counterattack_from_the_Chronicle_of_John_Skylitzes.jpg/580px-The_seizure_of_Edessa_in_Syria_by_the_Byzantine_army_and_the_Arabic_counterattack_from_the_Chronicle_of_John_Skylitzes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1709" data-file-height="705" /></a><figcaption>The seizure of <a href="/wiki/Edessa" title="Edessa">Edessa</a> (1031) by the Byzantines under <a href="/wiki/George_Maniakes" title="George Maniakes">George Maniakes</a> and the counterattack by the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Turks" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuk Turks">Seljuk Turks</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After Constantine VIII's death in 1028, his daughters, the empresses <a href="/wiki/Zoe_Porphyrogenita" title="Zoe Porphyrogenita">Zoe</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 1028–1052</span>) and <a href="/wiki/Theodora_Porphyrogenita" title="Theodora Porphyrogenita">Theodora</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 1042–1056</span>), held the keys to power: four emperors (<a href="/wiki/Romanos_III_Argyros" title="Romanos III Argyros">Romanos III</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_IV_the_Paphlagonian" title="Michael IV the Paphlagonian">Michael IV</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_V_Kalaphates" title="Michael V Kalaphates">Michael V</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Constantine_IX_Monomachos" title="Constantine IX Monomachos">Constantine IX</a>) ruled only because of their connection to Zoe, while <a href="/wiki/Michael_VI_Bringas" title="Michael VI Bringas">Michael VI</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 1056–1057</span>) was selected by Theodora.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2002202–203Holmes2008271–272Angold2009587–588Kaldellis2023588–589_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2002202–203Holmes2008271–272Angold2009587–588Kaldellis2023588–589-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This political instability, regular budget deficits, a series of expensive military failures, and other problems connected to over-extension led to substantial issues in the empire;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023590,_593Magdalino2002181–182Angold2009587–598_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023590,_593Magdalino2002181–182Angold2009587–598-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> its strategic focus moved from maintaining its hegemony to prioritising defence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023602_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023602-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The empire soon came under sustained assault on three fronts, from the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Seljuk_wars" title="Byzantine–Seljuk wars">Seljuk Turks in the east</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pechenegs" title="Pechenegs">Pecheneg nomads</a> in the north, and the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Normans in the west</a>. The Byzantine army struggled to confront these enemies, who did not organise themselves as traditional states, and were thus untroubled by defeats in set-piece battles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008272–273Magdalino2002182Kaldellis2023636_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008272–273Magdalino2002182Kaldellis2023636-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1071 <a href="/wiki/Bari" title="Bari">Bari</a>, the last remaining Byzantine settlement in Italy, was <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bari" title="Siege of Bari">captured by the Normans</a>, while the Seljuks won a decisive victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert" title="Battle of Manzikert">Battle of Manzikert</a>, taking the emperor <a href="/wiki/Romanos_IV_Diogenes" title="Romanos IV Diogenes">Romanos IV Diogenes</a> prisoner.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008273Magdalino2002184–185,_189_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008273Magdalino2002184–185,_189-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter event sparked a decade-long civil war, and as a result the Seljuks took possession of Anatolia up to the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Marmara" title="Sea of Marmara">Sea of Marmara</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023629–637Angold2009609–610_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023629–637Angold2009609–610-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1081–1204:_Komnenos_and_Angelos_dynasties"><span id="1081.E2.80.931204:_Komnenos_and_Angelos_dynasties"></span>1081–1204: Komnenos and Angelos dynasties</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Komnenos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Angelos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty</a></div> <p>One prominent general, <a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I</a>, usurped the throne in 1081. In contrast to the prior turmoil, the three reigns of Alexios (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1081–1118</span>), his son <a href="/wiki/John_II_Komnenos" title="John II Komnenos">John II</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 1118–1143</span>), and his grandson <a href="/wiki/Manuel_I_Komnenos" title="Manuel I Komnenos">Manuel I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 1143–1180</span>) lasted a century and <a href="/wiki/Komnenian_restoration" title="Komnenian restoration">restored the empire's regional authority</a> for the final time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008273–274Angold2009611_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008273–274Angold2009611-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alexios immediately faced the Normans under <a href="/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard">Robert Guiscard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Norman_wars#First_Norman_invasion_of_the_Balkans_(1081–1085)" title="Byzantine–Norman wars">repelled them through warfare and diplomacy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023639–642Holmes2008275Magdalino2002190_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023639–642Holmes2008275Magdalino2002190-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He then targeted the Pechenegs and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Levounion" title="Battle of Levounion">decisively defeated them in 1091</a> with help from the <a href="/wiki/Cumans" title="Cumans">Cumans</a>, who were in turn defeated three years later.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023642–644Holmes2008275Angold2009611–612_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023642–644Holmes2008275Angold2009611–612-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, looking to recover Asia Minor from the Seljuks, he approached <a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_II" title="Pope Urban II">Pope Urban II</a> for help <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1095</span>. He did not anticipate the scale of western Christendom's response—the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a> led to the recapture of western Anatolia, although Alexios and its leaders soon fell out.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008275Magdalino2002190Angold2009621–623_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008275Magdalino2002190Angold2009621–623-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rest of his reign was spent <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Devol" title="Treaty of Devol">dealing with the Normans</a> and Seljuks, establishing a new, loyal aristocracy to ensure stability, and carrying out fiscal and ecclesiastical reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008274–275Angold2009612–613,_619–621,_623–625Kaldellis2023645–647,_659–663_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008274–275Angold2009612–613,_619–621,_623–625Kaldellis2023645–647,_659–663-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comnenus_mosaics_Hagia_Sophia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A mosaic depicting a haloed woman holding a baby, flanked by a man and woman, both crowned and haloed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Comnenus_mosaics_Hagia_Sophia.jpg/220px-Comnenus_mosaics_Hagia_Sophia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Comnenus_mosaics_Hagia_Sophia.jpg/330px-Comnenus_mosaics_Hagia_Sophia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Comnenus_mosaics_Hagia_Sophia.jpg/440px-Comnenus_mosaics_Hagia_Sophia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3386" data-file-height="1783" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a> of Constantinople (modern Istanbul), depicting <a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>, flanked by <a href="/wiki/John_II_Komnenos" title="John II Komnenos">John II Komnenos</a> (left) and his wife <a href="/wiki/Irene_of_Hungary" title="Irene of Hungary">Irene of Hungary</a> (right), 12th century</figcaption></figure> <p>Alexios' concentration of power in the hands of his <a href="/wiki/Komnenos_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Komnenos dynasty">Komnenos dynasty</a> meant the most serious political threats came from within the imperial family—before his coronation, John II had to overcome <a href="/wiki/Irene_Doukaina" title="Irene Doukaina">his mother Irene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anna_Komnene" title="Anna Komnene">his sister Anna</a>, and the primary threat during his reign was <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Komnenos_(son_of_Alexios_I)" title="Isaac Komnenos (son of Alexios I)">his brother Isaac</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008274Magdalino2009629–630_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008274Magdalino2009629–630-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> John campaigned annually and extensively—he fought the Pechenegs in 1122, the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Hungarian_War_(1127%E2%80%931129)" title="Byzantine–Hungarian War (1127–1129)">Hungarians in the late 1120s</a>, and the Seljuks throughout his reign, waging <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Seljuk_wars#Byzantine_counter-attack:_1118–1180" title="Byzantine–Seljuk wars">large campaigns in Syria</a> in his final years—but he did not achieve large territorial gains.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008275Magdalino2009631–633Kaldellis2023664–670_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008275Magdalino2009631–633Kaldellis2023664–670-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1138, John raised the imperial standard over the Crusader <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a> to intimidate the city into allying with the Byzantines, but did not attack, fearing that it would provoke western Christendom to respond.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023669Holmes2008275_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023669Holmes2008275-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Manuel I used his father's overflowing imperial treasury in pursuit of his ambitions, and also to secure the empire's position in an increasingly multilateral geopolitical landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023670,_676–677Magdalino2009644–646_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023670,_676–677Magdalino2009644–646-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through a combination of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_diplomacy" title="Byzantine diplomacy">diplomacy and bribery</a>, he cultivated a ring of allies and clients around the empire: the Turks of the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" title="Sultanate of Rum">Sultanate of Rum</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1000%E2%80%931301)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)">Kingdom of Hungary</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician Armenians</a>, Balkan princes, Italian and Dalmatian cities, and most importantly Antioch and the <a href="/wiki/Crusader_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusader States">Crusader States</a>, marrying <a href="/wiki/Maria_of_Antioch" title="Maria of Antioch">one of their princesses</a> in 1161.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023678,_683–688Holmes2008275–276_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023678,_683–688Holmes2008275–276-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Manuel averted the threat of war during the tumultuous passage of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Crusade" title="Second Crusade">Second Crusade</a> through Byzantine territories in 1147, but the campaign's failure was blamed on the Byzantines by western contemporaries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023679–681Magdalino2009637–638_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023679–681Magdalino2009637–638-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was less successful militarily: an invasion of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Sicily</a> was decisively defeated by <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_Sicily" title="William I of Sicily">King William I</a> in 1156, leading to tensions with <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Barbarossa" title="Frederick Barbarossa">Frederick Barbarossa</a>, the Holy Roman Emperor;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023682–683Magdalino2002194Magdalino2009638–641_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023682–683Magdalino2002194Magdalino2009638–641-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> two decades later, an invasion of Anatolia was resoundingly defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Myriokephalon" title="Battle of Myriokephalon">Battle of Myriokephalon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2009643–644Kaldellis2023692–693_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2009643–644Kaldellis2023692–693-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_012.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A painting of an army marching into a city gate with much smoke in the background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_012.jpg/250px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_012.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_012.jpg/330px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_012.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_012.jpg/500px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Ferdinand_Victor_Delacroix_012.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2223" data-file-height="1820" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Entry_of_the_Crusaders_in_Constantinople" title="Entry of the Crusaders in Constantinople"><i>The Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople</i></a>, by <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Eugène Delacroix</a> (1840)</figcaption></figure> <p>Manuel's death left the empire rudderless and it soon came under intense pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023695_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023695-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His son <a href="/wiki/Alexios_II_Komnenos" title="Alexios II Komnenos">Alexios II</a> was too young to rule, and his troubled regency was overthrown by his uncle <a href="/wiki/Andronikos_I_Komnenos" title="Andronikos I Komnenos">Andronikos I Komnenos</a>: he was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_II_Angelos" title="Isaac II Angelos">Isaac II</a> in 1185.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2002194Holmes2008276_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2002194Holmes2008276-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Centrifugal forces swirled at the borders as ambitious rulers seized their chance: Hungary and the Turks captured Byzantine territories, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Komnenos_of_Cyprus" title="Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus">an exiled Komnenian prince</a> seized Cyprus; and most injuriously, <a href="/wiki/Uprising_of_Asen_and_Peter" title="Uprising of Asen and Peter">a revolt in 1185</a> caused the foundation of a <a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">resurrected Bulgarian state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008276Magdalino2002194–195Magdalino2009655_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008276Magdalino2002194–195Magdalino2009655-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relations with the West deteriorated further after Constantinople allied with <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a>, the vanquisher of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Crusade" title="Third Crusade">Third Crusade</a>, whose leaders also fought against Byzantium as they passed through its territory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2002195–196Magdalino2009648–651Kaldellis2023706–710_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2002195–196Magdalino2009648–651Kaldellis2023706–710-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1195, Isaac II was deposed by his brother <a href="/wiki/Alexios_III_Angelos" title="Alexios III Angelos">Alexios III</a>; this quarrel proved fatal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008276_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008276-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a> was originally intended to target <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayyubid Sultanate">Egypt</a>, but amid strategic difficulties, Isaac II's son <a href="/wiki/Alexios_IV_Angelos" title="Alexios IV Angelos">Alexios Angelos</a> convinced the crusaders to restore his father to the throne in exchange for a huge tribute.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023718–720Magdalino2009651–652_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023718–720Magdalino2009651–652-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(1203)" title="Siege of Constantinople (1203)">attacked Constantinople in 1203</a>, reinstating Isaac II and his son to the throne. The new rulers swiftly grew unpopular and were deposed by <a href="/wiki/Alexios_V_Doukas" title="Alexios V Doukas">Alexios V</a>, an event used by the crusaders as a pretext to <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Constantinople" title="Sack of Constantinople">sack the city in April 1204</a>, ransacking the wealth it had accumulated over nine centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023720–724Magdalino2009652–653_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023720–724Magdalino2009652–653-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1204–1453:_Palaiologos_dynasty"><span id="1204.E2.80.931453:_Palaiologos_dynasty"></span>1204–1453: Palaiologos dynasty</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Palaiologos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LatinEmpire2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A map showing the competing states after the Fourth Crusade." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/LatinEmpire2.png/250px-LatinEmpire2.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/LatinEmpire2.png/375px-LatinEmpire2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/LatinEmpire2.png/500px-LatinEmpire2.png 2x" data-file-width="1715" data-file-height="902" /></a><figcaption>The partition of the empire following the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1204</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2008280Kaldellis2023733–734Reinert2002250–253Angold2009b731_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2008280Kaldellis2023733–734Reinert2002250–253Angold2009b731-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Byzantine territories fragmented into competing political entities. The crusaders crowned <a href="/wiki/Baldwin_I,_Latin_Emperor" title="Baldwin I, Latin Emperor">Baldwin I</a> as the ruler of a new <a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a> in Constantinople; it soon suffered <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianople_(1205)" title="Battle of Adrianople (1205)">a crushing defeat</a> against the Bulgarians in 1205. It also failed to expand west or east, where three Greek successor states had formed: the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Empire of Nicaea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Empire of Trebizond</a> in Asia Minor, and the <a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Despotate of Epirus</a> on the Adriatic. The Venetians acquired many ports and islands, and the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Achaea" title="Principality of Achaea">Principality of Achaea</a> emerged in southern Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2008280Kaldellis2023733–734Reinert2002250–253Angold2009b731_136-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2008280Kaldellis2023733–734Reinert2002250–253Angold2009b731-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trebizond <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sinope" title="Siege of Sinope">lost</a> the key port of <a href="/wiki/Sinop,_Turkey" title="Sinop, Turkey">Sinope</a> in 1214 and thereafter was unable to affect matters away from the southeastern Black Sea.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023755–758Angold2009b737_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023755–758Angold2009b737-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For a time, it seemed that Epirus was the one most likely to reclaim Constantinople from the Latins, and its ruler <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Komnenos_Doukas" title="Theodore Komnenos Doukas">Theodore Doukas</a> crowned himself emperor, but he suffered a critical defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Klokotnitsa" title="Battle of Klokotnitsa">Battle of Klokotnitsa</a> in 1230, and Epirote power waned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2008283Reinert2002254Angold2009b737–738Kaldellis2023766–770_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2008283Reinert2002254Angold2009b737–738Kaldellis2023766–770-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nicaea, ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Laskaris" title="Laskaris">Laskarid dynasty</a> and composed of a mixture of Byzantine refugees and native Greeks, blocked the Latins and the Seljuks of Rum from expanding east and west respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinert2002253Kaldellis2023760–762_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinert2002253Kaldellis2023760–762-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_III_Doukas_Vatatzes" title="John III Doukas Vatatzes">John III</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1221–1254</span>) was a very capable emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023771Laiou2008282–283_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023771Laiou2008282–283-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His <a href="/wiki/Protectionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Protectionist">protectionist</a> economic policies strongly encouraged Nicaean <a href="/wiki/Autarky" title="Autarky">self-sufficiency</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAngold2009b740Laiou2008282–283Kaldellis2023772_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAngold2009b740Laiou2008282–283Kaldellis2023772-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and he made many diplomatic treaties, especially after <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> armies <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Bulgaria_and_Serbia" title="Mongol invasion of Bulgaria and Serbia">ravaged Bulgaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_K%C3%B6se_Da%C4%9F" title="Battle of Köse Dağ">defeated Rum</a> between 1237 and 1243. This chaos was an opportunity for John, and he fought many successful campaigns against the states disrupted by the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasions">Mongol invasions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023774–781Reinert2002254_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023774–781Reinert2002254-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon after his death, <a href="/wiki/John_IV_Laskaris" title="John IV Laskaris">his grandson</a> was usurped by <a href="/wiki/Michael_VIII_Palaiologos" title="Michael VIII Palaiologos">Michael VIII</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Palaiologos" title="Palaiologos">Palaiologos dynasty</a>, who <a href="/wiki/Reconquest_of_Constantinople" title="Reconquest of Constantinople">recaptured Constantinople</a> in 1261.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2008283Reinert2002254_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2008283Reinert2002254-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Michael desired to restore the empire's glory through a rebuilding programme in Constantinople, clever diplomatic alliances, and expansionist wars in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinert2002256–257Laiou2008286_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinert2002256–257Laiou2008286-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He staved off the threatening <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_Anjou" title="Charles I of Anjou">Charles I of Anjou</a> first by recognising papal primacy and certain Catholic doctrines at the 1274 <a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Lyon" title="Second Council of Lyon">Second Council of Lyon</a>, and then by aiding the <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Vespers" title="Sicilian Vespers">Sicilian Vespers</a> against Charles in 1282.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinert2002257–258Laiou2009803–804_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinert2002257–258Laiou2009803–804-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, his religious concessions were despised by most of the populace, and were repudiated by his successor <a href="/wiki/Andronikos_II_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos II Palaiologos">Andronikos II</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1282–1328</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinert2002258Laiou2008287_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinert2002258Laiou2008287-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He and his grandson <a href="/wiki/Andronikos_III_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos III Palaiologos">Andronikos III</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1328–1341</span>) led several campaigns to restore imperial influence, succeeding in Epirus and Thessaly. They also made several critical mistakes, including dismissing the fleet in 1285, hiring the mercenary <a href="/wiki/Catalan_Company" title="Catalan Company">Catalan Company</a>, who turned on the Byzantines, in the 1300s, and fighting each other between 1320 and 1328.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2008287–288Reinert2002260–263Kaldellis2023847_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2008287–288Reinert2002260–263Kaldellis2023847-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A disastrous civil war between 1341 and 1354 caused long-term economic difficulties, while the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottoman Turks</a> gradually expanded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2008289–290Reinert2002265–268_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2008289–290Reinert2002265–268-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_si%C3%A8ge_de_Constantinople_(1453)_by_Jean_Le_Tavernier_after_1455.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A painting of a siege of a city" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Le_si%C3%A8ge_de_Constantinople_%281453%29_by_Jean_Le_Tavernier_after_1455.jpg/250px-Le_si%C3%A8ge_de_Constantinople_%281453%29_by_Jean_Le_Tavernier_after_1455.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Le_si%C3%A8ge_de_Constantinople_%281453%29_by_Jean_Le_Tavernier_after_1455.jpg/330px-Le_si%C3%A8ge_de_Constantinople_%281453%29_by_Jean_Le_Tavernier_after_1455.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Le_si%C3%A8ge_de_Constantinople_%281453%29_by_Jean_Le_Tavernier_after_1455.jpg/500px-Le_si%C3%A8ge_de_Constantinople_%281453%29_by_Jean_Le_Tavernier_after_1455.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1210" data-file-height="1788" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">siege of Constantinople</a> in 1453, depicted in a 15th-century French miniature</figcaption></figure> <p>The diminished and weak Byzantine state only survived for another century through effective diplomacy and fortunately-timed external events.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2008291_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2008291-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ottomans gradually subjugated Anatolia and simultaneously expanded into Europe from 1354, taking <a href="/wiki/Philippopolis_(Thrace)" title="Philippopolis (Thrace)">Philippopolis</a> in 1363, <a href="/wiki/Adrianopolis" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrianopolis">Adrianopolis</a> in 1369, and <a href="/wiki/Thessalonica" class="mw-redirect" title="Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a> in 1387.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2008291Reinert2002268–269_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2008291Reinert2002268–269-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Emperors were crowned and deposed at the whim of the Venetians, Genoese, and Ottomans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2009829_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2009829-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After <a href="/wiki/Manuel_II_Palaiologos" title="Manuel II Palaiologos">Manuel II</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1391–1425</span>) refused to pay homage to Sultan <a href="/wiki/Bayezid_I" title="Bayezid I">Bayezid I</a> in 1394, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(1394%E2%80%931402)" title="Siege of Constantinople (1394–1402)">Constantinople was besieged</a> until the rampaging warlord <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a> decisively <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ankara" title="Battle of Ankara">defeated Bayezid</a> in 1402, with the city perilously close to surrender.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinert2002273–274Laiou2009831–832Kaldellis2023887–889_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinert2002273–274Laiou2009831–832Kaldellis2023887–889-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Manuel II oversaw two decades of peace while the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum" title="Ottoman Interregnum">Ottomans convulsed in civil war</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinert2002274–276Laiou2008292Kaldellis2023892–894_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinert2002274–276Laiou2008292Kaldellis2023892–894-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1421, his unsuccessful backing of the claimant <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_%C3%87elebi" title="Mustafa Çelebi">Mustafa Çelebi</a> led to a <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(1422)" title="Siege of Constantinople (1422)">renewed Turkish assault</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinert2002276_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinert2002276-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <a href="/wiki/John_VIII_Palaiologos" title="John VIII Palaiologos">John VIII</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1425–1448</span>) reconciled with the Catholic West at the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Florence" title="Council of Florence">Council of Florence</a>, his empire steadily diminished.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinert2002278–279Kaldellis2023903–908_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinert2002278–279Kaldellis2023903–908-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1452, Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a> resolved to capture Constantinople, and laid siege early the following year. On 29 May 1453, <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">the city was captured</a>, the last emperor, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_XI_Palaiologos" title="Constantine XI Palaiologos">Constantine XI</a>, died in battle, and the Byzantine Empire ended.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinert2002280–283Laiou2008292–293Kaldellis2023910–914_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinert2002280–283Laiou2008292–293Kaldellis2023910–914-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structures_of_the_state">Structures of the state</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Byzantine_Empire_Themata-750-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A map centred on Turkey. From west to east and north to south with the corresponding colours in brackets; are the themes of Opsikion (light purple), Thracesians (light grey), Cibyrrhaeots (light green), Optimatoi (green), Anatolic (brown), Bucellarians (orange) and Armeniacs (purple). On the map are marked the major rivers; the Aegean, Black and Mediterranean Seas; the cities of Ephesos, Constantinople, Ancyra, Tarsus, Adana, Antioch and Edessa; and the islands of Samos, Crete and Cyprus." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Byzantine_Empire_Themata-750-en.svg/250px-Byzantine_Empire_Themata-750-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Byzantine_Empire_Themata-750-en.svg/330px-Byzantine_Empire_Themata-750-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Byzantine_Empire_Themata-750-en.svg/500px-Byzantine_Empire_Themata-750-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="743" data-file-height="457" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <i>themes</i> of Asia Minor, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 750</span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Byzantine_Empire_Themata-950-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A map centred on Turkey. From west to east and north to south with the corresponding colours in brackets; are the themes of Opsikion (light purple), Samos (dark grey), Thracesians (light grey), Cibyrrhaeots (light green), Optimatoi (dark grey), Anatolic and Seleucia (brown), Bucellarians (orange), Paphlagonia (navy blue), Cappadocia (green), Charsianon (pink), Armeniacs (purple), Lycandus and Mesopotamia (brown), Sebastea (blue), Koloneia (dark green) and Chaldia (light blue). On the map are marked the major rivers; the Aegean, Black and Mediterranean Seas; the cities of Ephesos, Constantinople, Ancyra, Tarsus, Adana, Antioch and Edessa; and the islands of Crete and Cyprus." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Byzantine_Empire_Themata-950-en.svg/220px-Byzantine_Empire_Themata-950-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Byzantine_Empire_Themata-950-en.svg/330px-Byzantine_Empire_Themata-950-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Byzantine_Empire_Themata-950-en.svg/440px-Byzantine_Empire_Themata-950-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="747" data-file-height="455" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <i>themes</i> of Asia Minor, <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 950</span></div></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Governance">Governance</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_the_Byzantine_emperor" title="Coronation of the Byzantine emperor">Coronation of the Byzantine emperor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Subdivisions of the Byzantine Empire">Subdivisions of the Byzantine Empire</a></div> <p>Diocletian and Constantine's 4th-century reforms reorganised the empire's provinces into overarching <a href="/wiki/Roman_diocese" title="Roman diocese">Dioceses</a> and then into <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture" title="Praetorian prefecture">Praetorian prefecture</a>'s, separating the army from the civil administration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELouth2005306–308Treadgold1997b82–83_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELouth2005306–308Treadgold1997b82–83-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The central government, led by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">emperor</a> from the time of the earlier <a href="/wiki/Pax_romana" class="mw-redirect" title="Pax romana">pax romana</a> and into the late <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Palaiologos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty">Palaiologan era</a>, typically focused on the military, foreign relations, administering the law, and collecting taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning199298Stewart202210–11_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning199298Stewart202210–11-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_senate" title="Byzantine senate">senate</a> evolved into a ceremonial body within the imperial court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202335Howard-Johnston20248Browning199298_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202335Howard-Johnston20248Browning199298-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cities had been a collection of self-governing communities with central government and church representatives from the 5th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning199298Kaldellis2023185_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning199298Kaldellis2023185-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, constant warfare significantly altered this, as regular raids and ongoing conflict led to power centralising due to the empire's fight for survival.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning199298Howard-Johnston202467Kaldellis2023397,_407–409_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning199298Howard-Johnston202467Kaldellis2023397,_407–409-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the 7th century, the prefectures were abandoned, and in the 9th century, the provinces were divided into administrative units called <a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)"><i>themes</i> (or <i>themata</i>)</a>, governed solely by a military commander (<i><a href="/wiki/Strategos" title="Strategos">strategos</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELouth2005303Treadgold1997b430–431Kaldellis2023418,_421_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELouth2005303Treadgold1997b430–431Kaldellis2023418,_421-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law">Law</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></div> <p>Theodosius II (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 402–450</span>) formalised <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> by appointing five jurists as principal authorities and compiling legislation issued since Constantine's reign into the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Theodosianus" title="Codex Theodosianus">Codex Theodosianus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023168Stein199914,_16,_28Kaiser2015120_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023168Stein199914,_16,_28Kaiser2015120-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process culminated in the <i><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a></i> under Justinian I (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 527–565</span>), who commissioned a complete standardisation of imperial decrees since Hadrian's time and resolved conflicting legal opinions of the jurists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGregory2010135Stein199933–35Dingledy20192–14Kaiser2015123–126_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregory2010135Stein199933–35Dingledy20192–14Kaiser2015123–126-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result became the definitive legal authority. This body of law covered <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil matters</a> and also <a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a>, including imperial power and administrative organisation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein19998MerrymanPérez-Perdomo200721_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein19998MerrymanPérez-Perdomo200721-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After 534, Justinian issued the <a href="/wiki/Novellae_Constitutiones" title="Novellae Constitutiones">Novellae (New Laws)</a> in Greek, which marked a transition from Roman to Byzantine law. Legal historian Bernard Stolte distinguishes Roman law as this because Western Europe inherited law through the Latin texts of the <i>Corpus Juris Civilis</i> only.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStolte2015356,_370Stolte2018231–232_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStolte2015356,_370Stolte2018231–232-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Zachary Chitwood argues that the <i>Corpus Juris Civilis</i> was largely inaccessible in Latin, particularly in the provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChitwood201723_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChitwood201723-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the 7th-century Arab conquests, people began questioning the development and application of law, leading to stronger ties between law and Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChitwood2017185_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChitwood2017185-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This context influenced Leo III (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 717–741</span>) to develop the <i><a href="/wiki/Ecloga" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecloga">Ecloga</a></i>, which placed an emphasis on humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChitwood2017185Nicol19886523–24_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChitwood2017185Nicol19886523–24-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ecloga inspired practical legal texts like the <i>Farmers' Law, Seamen's Law,</i> and <i>Soldiers' Law</i>, which Chitwood suggests were used daily in the provinces as companions to the <i>Corpus Juris Civilis</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChitwood201723,_132,_364_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChitwood201723,_132,_364-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Macedonian dynasty, efforts to reform law began with the publication of the <i>Procheiron</i> and the <i>Eisagoge</i>, which aimed to define the emperor's power under prevailing laws, and to replace the <i>Ecloga</i> due to its association with <a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">iconoclasm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning199297Kaldellis2023529Chitwood201725–32,_44_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning199297Kaldellis2023529Chitwood201725–32,_44-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leo VI (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 886–912</span>) completed a <a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">complete codification</a> of Roman law in Greek through the <i><a href="/wiki/Basilika" title="Basilika">Basilika</a></i>, a work of 60 books which became the foundation of Byzantine law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning199297–98Chitwood201732–35Kaldellis2023529_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning199297–98Chitwood201732–35Kaldellis2023529-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1345, Constantine Harmenopoulos compiled the <i><a href="/wiki/Constantine_Harmenopoulos" title="Constantine Harmenopoulos">Hexabiblos</a></i>, a six-volume law book derived from various Byzantine legal sources.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein199935_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein199935-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity_and_the_Church">Christianity and the Church</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">Christianity as the Roman state religion</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church#Byzantine_period" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">History of the Eastern Orthodox Church § Byzantine period</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire</a></div> <p>Christianity, bolstered by <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a>'s support, began shaping all aspects of life in the early Byzantine Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapaconstantinou2016xxxiiCameron201631Cameron2006b544–551Drake2007418,_422Greatrex2008236_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapaconstantinou2016xxxiiCameron201631Cameron2006b544–551Drake2007418,_422Greatrex2008236-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the transition, the historian Anthony Kaldellis views Christianity as "bringing no economic, social, or political changes to the state other than being more deeply integrated into it".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023141,_186,_342_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023141,_186,_342-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the Roman state in the West collapsed politically, cultural differences began to divide the Christian churches of the East and West.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown19768Löhr20079_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown19768Löhr20079-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Internal disputes within the Eastern churches led to the migration of monastic communities to Rome, exacerbating tensions between Rome and Constantinople.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023390Cameron2017A_United_Church,_chapter_1_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023390Cameron2017A_United_Church,_chapter_1-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These disputes,<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> particularly in Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean, eventually split the church into three branches: <a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Chalcedonian Christianity">Chalcedonian</a>, Monophysite (Coptic), and <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Nestorian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams2021366Micheau2006373,_375_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams2021366Micheau2006373,_375-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chalcedonian group maintained dominance within the empire's territories, while the Monophysite and Nestorian branches largely fell under Muslim rule in the 7th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMicheau2006373–374,_376_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMicheau2006373–374,_376-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eastern patriarchs frequently sought the Papacy's mediation in doctrinal and practical matters, but the pope's authority was not universally acknowledged, even in nearby regions like Northern Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholson196054,_60CasidayNorris2007a3_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholson196054,_60CasidayNorris2007a3-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 600, the Slavic settlement of the Balkans disrupted communication between Rome and Constantinople, further widening the divide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELouth200847Kolbaba2008214–215_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELouth200847Kolbaba2008214–215-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Arab and Lombard invasions, and the increased <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> presence, deepened this estrangement and intensified disputes over jurisdiction and authority between the two spiritual centres.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKolbaba2008213–215,_218–221_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolbaba2008213–215,_218–221-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Differences in ritual and theology, such as the use of <a href="/wiki/Azymite" title="Azymite">unleavened bread</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Filioque" title="Filioque">Filioque clause</a>, as well as divergences in ecclesiology—<a href="/wiki/Plenitudo_potestatis" title="Plenitudo potestatis">plenitudo potestatis</a> versus the authority of <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Councils" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecumenical Councils">Ecumenical Councils</a>—and issues of mutual respect, contributed to the separation of Western Christianity from Eastern Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyendorff197995,_97_101Kolbaba2008223_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyendorff197995,_97_101Kolbaba2008223-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This separation began by 597 and culminated in 1054 during the <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown200813Kolbaba2008223_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown200813Kolbaba2008223-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Warfare">Warfare</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_evolution">Military evolution</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_army" title="Eastern Roman army">Eastern Roman army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army" title="Byzantine army">Byzantine army</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_navy" title="Byzantine navy">Byzantine navy</a></div> <p>In the late 6th century, following Justinian I's wars, seven mobile <a href="/wiki/Field_armies" class="mw-redirect" title="Field armies">field armies</a> called <i><a href="/wiki/Comitatenses" title="Comitatenses">comitatenses</a></i>, numbering around 150,000 troops, were deployed around the empire; they remained the finest armies in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold199563–64,_206Haldon199967_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold199563–64,_206Haldon199967-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were aided by twenty-five frontier garrisons of approximately 195,000 lower-quality <i><a href="/wiki/Limitanei" title="Limitanei">limitanei</a></i> troops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold199563,_204Haldon199967Decker201371_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold199563,_204Haldon199967Decker201371-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional troops included <a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">subsidised allied forces</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imperial_guard" title="Imperial guard">imperial guard units</a> like the <i><a href="/wiki/Scholae_Palatinae" title="Scholae Palatinae">Scholae Palatinae</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon199968_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon199968-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Naval forces were limited: <a href="/wiki/Flotilla" title="Flotilla">flotillas</a> were based at key locations, while 30,000 oarsmen were assembled to row 500, mostly requisitioned, <a href="/wiki/Maritime_transport" title="Maritime transport">transports</a> to support the <a href="/wiki/Vandalic_War" title="Vandalic War">Vandalic War</a> in Africa in 533.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold199563–64Haldon199968–69Haldon2008b554_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold199563–64Haldon199968–69Haldon2008b554-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The losses suffered in the 7th-century <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Arab conquests</a> led to fundamental changes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon199974Decker201374_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon199974Decker201374-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The field armies were withdrawn into the core Anatolian territories and assigned to settle in specific districts, which became known as <i>themata</i> and eventually replaced the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province#Late_imperial_period" title="Roman province">old provinces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold199523Haldon2008b554–555_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold199523Haldon2008b554–555-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The thematic armies, supported by the proceeds of their districts, came to resemble a provincial <a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">militia</a> with a small professional core, aided by foreign mercenaries and imperial regiments at Constantinople.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b555–556Kaldellis2021a463_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b555–556Kaldellis2021a463-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To defend against <a href="/wiki/Early_Caliphate_navy" title="Early Caliphate navy">its new Muslim enemy</a>, the navy was similarly reorganised into several provincialised fleets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon199974Haldon2008b559_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon199974Haldon2008b559-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It became the dominant power in the eastern Mediterranean, with <a href="/wiki/Dromon" title="Dromon">dromons</a> equipped with <a href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</a> proving crucial on several occasions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDecker2013207–208,_222–224Kaldellis2021a463Howard-Johnston2008947_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDecker2013207–208,_222–224Kaldellis2021a463Howard-Johnston2008947-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the 8th-century empire stabilised, the thematic militias proved rebellious and only suitable for defensive operations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2021a463Treadgold199525,_209Decker201377–78_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2021a463Treadgold199525,_209Decker201377–78-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The professional <i><a href="/wiki/Tagma_(military)" title="Tagma (military)">tagmata</a></i> regiments, first introduced in the mid-700s and consisting of native Byzantine units alongside foreign forces such as the <a href="/wiki/Varangian_Guard" title="Varangian Guard">Varangian Guard</a>, had completely replaced them by the 11th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon199992Decker201378–82_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon199992Decker201378–82-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mobile <i>tagmata</i>, suitable for offensive warfare, evolved new tactical and strategic structures;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b556_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b556-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the late 10th-century army, perhaps the highest-quality force the empire produced, numbered approximately 140,000, up from below 100,000 in the late 700s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold199567Kaldellis2021a463Kaldellis2023562_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold199567Kaldellis2021a463Kaldellis2023562-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, its defensive capacities were neglected, especially during the 11th-century civil wars, leading to the loss of Anatolia to the Seljuks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b557Treadgold1995214–218_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b557Treadgold1995214–218-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The navy had also been reduced, as the empire increasingly relied on potentially hostile powers such as <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b560_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b560-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Post-1081 reforms re-established an effective army; the institution of <a href="/wiki/Feudal" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal">feudal</a>-like <i><a href="/wiki/Pronoia" title="Pronoia">pronoia</a></i> grants provided revenue to individuals in exchange for soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b557Kaldellis2021a464Bartusis19975–6_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b557Kaldellis2021a464Bartusis19975–6-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new army heavily relied on foreign mercenaries alongside indigenous Byzantine troops, but the financial demands of a standing army proved too much for the Byzantine state, which succumbed to the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a> in 1204.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b557Bartusis19975–7Decker201382_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b557Bartusis19975–7Decker201382-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army_(Palaiologan_era)" title="Byzantine army (Palaiologan era)">army of the Palaiologan dynasty</a>, which retook Constantinople in 1461, was generally composed of a similar mix of mercenaries and indigenous troops, but it had lost all offensive capability by the late 1200s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b557–558Decker201382–83_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b557–558Decker201382–83-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The empire's continued survival depended on foreign armies; attempts in the 1340s to rebuild the fleet, unwisely disbanded in 1284, were forcibly halted by <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b558–560Kaldellis2023812,_860–861_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b558–560Kaldellis2023812,_860–861-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No post-1204 Byzantine field army fielded more than 5,000 troops, and less than 8,000 defended <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">the final siege of Constantinople</a> in 1453.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDecker201340Haldon2008b559_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDecker201340Haldon2008b559-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diplomacy">Diplomacy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_diplomacy" title="Byzantine diplomacy">Byzantine diplomacy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign relations of the Byzantine Empire">Foreign relations of the Byzantine Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_the_Grammarian_as_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Manuscript illustration of an embassy travelling between two rulers" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/John_the_Grammarian_as_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun.jpg/250px-John_the_Grammarian_as_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/John_the_Grammarian_as_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun.jpg/500px-John_the_Grammarian_as_ambassador_before_Theophilos_and_Mamun.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="907" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption>The embassy of <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_John_VII_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch John VII of Constantinople">John the Grammarian</a> in 829, sent by emperor <a href="/wiki/Theophilos_(emperor)" title="Theophilos (emperor)">Theophilos</a> to the Abbasid caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">Al-Ma'mun</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>Byzantine strategy was primarily defensive, aside from the brief period of aggression between the ninth and eleventh centuries, because of the empire's habitual lack of resources.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2008940Kaldellis2021a463_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2008940Kaldellis2021a463-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To avoid risky and expensive military campaigns, the Byzantines <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_diplomacy" title="Byzantine diplomacy">engaged in extensive diplomatic efforts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon1999278Decker2013130Kaldellis2021a465_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon1999278Decker2013130Kaldellis2021a465-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These took various forms, including: formal embassies, client management, alliance or peace negotiations, political marriages, <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> and bribery, or even <a href="/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage">espionage</a> and assassination.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDecker2013130,_135–137Kazhdan199015–17_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDecker2013130,_135–137Kazhdan199015–17-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Defensively-oriented Byzantine diplomacy was intended to protect the <i><a href="/wiki/Ecumene" title="Ecumene">oikoumenē</a></i>, the civilised Christian world which the empire rightfully ruled.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan199010–11Decker2013129_211-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan199010–11Decker2013129-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The decline of the key <a href="/wiki/Limitrophe_states" title="Limitrophe states"><i>limitrophe</i> system</a>, wherein client states along the borders served as intermediaries between the empire and other large enemies, exposed the empire to attack. By the eleventh century, Byzantine diplomacy was more bilateral and balanced.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan199011–15,_18–21_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan199011–15,_18–21-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although it lost some important advantages post-1204, diplomacy, including the still-influential Orthodox church, was nevertheless a central element in the empire's lengthy survival until 1453.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2008945Kazhdan199020–21Bartusis1997348Kaldellis2021a466_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2008945Kazhdan199020–21Bartusis1997348Kaldellis2021a466-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demography">Demography</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Population_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Population of the Byzantine Empire">Population of the Byzantine Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks" title="Byzantine Greeks">Byzantine Greeks</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Armenians in the Byzantine Empire">Armenians in the Byzantine Empire</a></div> <p>Scholars associate the Roman, Hellenic, and Christian imperial identities with the general population, but there is ongoing debate about how these and other regional identities blended together.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart20222–7,_10Muthesius202281,_96Kaldellis2022b248,_258Pohl201820Stouraitis2018125–127_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart20222–7,_10Muthesius202281,_96Kaldellis2022b248,_258Pohl201820Stouraitis2018125–127-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As many as 27 million people lived in the empire at its peak in 540, but this fell to 12 million by 800.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997b197,_384–385Kaldellis202321–22Stathakopoulos2008310_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997b197,_384–385Kaldellis202321–22Stathakopoulos2008310-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although plague and territorial losses to Arab Muslim invaders weakened the empire, it eventually recovered and by the near end of the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_dynasty" title="Macedonian dynasty">Macedonian dynasty</a> in 1025, the population is estimated to have been as high as 18 million.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStathakopoulos2008312Treadgold1997b931–932_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStathakopoulos2008312Treadgold1997b931–932-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few decades after the recapture of Constantinople in 1282, the empire's population was in the range of 3–5 million; by 1312, the number had dropped to 2 million.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStathakopoulos2008313Treadgold1997b1112_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStathakopoulos2008313Treadgold1997b1112-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the time the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople, there were only 50,000 people in the city, one-tenth of its population in its prime.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStathakopoulos2008310,_314Stathakopoulos202331Kaldellis202321_218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStathakopoulos2008310,_314Stathakopoulos202331Kaldellis202321-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_university" title="Byzantine university">Byzantine university</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_rhetoric" title="Byzantine rhetoric">Byzantine rhetoric</a></div> <p>Education was voluntary and required financial means, so the most literate people were often those associated with the church.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarkopoulos2008786Jeffreys2008798_219-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkopoulos2008786Jeffreys2008798-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Primary education focused on teaching foundational subjects like reading, writing, and arithmetic whereas secondary school focused on the <a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">trivium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quadrivium" title="Quadrivium">quadrivium</a> as their curriculum.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarkopoulos2008789_220-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkopoulos2008789-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Constantinople" title="University of Constantinople">Imperial University of Constantinople</a> was formed in 425, and refounded in 1046 as a centre for law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConstantelos1998p._19:_"The_fifth_century_marked_a_definite_turning_point_in_Byzantine_higher_education._Theodosios_ΙΙ_founded_in_425_a_major_university_with_31_chairs_for_law,_philosophy,_medicine,_arithmetic,_geometry,_astronomy,_music,_rhetoric_and_other_subjects._Fifteen_chairs_were_assigned_to_Latin_and_16_to_Greek._The_university_was_reorganised_by_Michael_III_(842–867)_and_flourished_down_to_the_fourteenth_century."_221-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConstantelos1998p._19:_"The_fifth_century_marked_a_definite_turning_point_in_Byzantine_higher_education._Theodosios_ΙΙ_founded_in_425_a_major_university_with_31_chairs_for_law,_philosophy,_medicine,_arithmetic,_geometry,_astronomy,_music,_rhetoric_and_other_subjects._Fifteen_chairs_were_assigned_to_Latin_and_16_to_Greek._The_university_was_reorganised_by_Michael_III_(842–867)_and_flourished_down_to_the_fourteenth_century."-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdanWharton1990122_222-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdanWharton1990122-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosser2011xxx_223-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosser2011xxx-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery">Slavery</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Slavery in the Byzantine Empire</a></div> <p>During the 3rd century, 10–15% of the population was enslaved (numbering around 3 million in the east).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Rotman202232Lavan201616,_19_224-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Rotman202232Lavan201616,_19-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Youval Rotman calls the changes to slavery during this period "different degrees of unfreedom".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERotman200918,_179Rotman202259_225-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERotman200918,_179Rotman202259-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Previous roles fulfilled by slaves became high-demand free market professions (like tutors), and the state encouraged the <a href="/wiki/Colonus_(person)" title="Colonus (person)"><i>coloni</i></a>, tenants bound to the land, as a new legal category between freemen and slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202339Lenski2021473–474_226-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202339Lenski2021473–474-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 294 the enslavement of children was progressively forbidden; <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 393–423</span>) began freeing enslaved prisoners of war, and from the 9th century, emperors freed the slaves of conquered people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERotman200930–31Kaldellis2023425Rotman202242Lenski2021470Rotman2010_227-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERotman200930–31Kaldellis2023425Rotman202242Lenski2021470Rotman2010-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Christianity as an institution had no direct impact, but by the 6th century it was a bishop's duty to ransom Christians, there were established limits on trading them, and state policies prohibited the enslavement of Christians; these changes shaped Byzantine slave-holding from the 8th century onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023140Rotman2009Chapter_2Rotman202237–38,_53Lenski2021461–462_228-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023140Rotman2009Chapter_2Rotman202237–38,_53Lenski2021461–462-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-Christians could still be enslaved, and prices remained stable until 1300, when prices for adult slaves, particularly women, started rising.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2010237_229-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2010237-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Rotman202253Lenski2021467–468_230-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Rotman202253Lenski2021467–468-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Socio-economic">Socio-economic</h3></div> <p>Agriculture was the main basis of taxation and the state sought to bind everyone to land for productivity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202338Brandes2008563_231-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202338Brandes2008563-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most land holdings were small and medium-sized lots around villages, and family farms were the primary source of agriculture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202339Harvey2008329_232-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202339Harvey2008329-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>coloni,</i> sometimes called proto-serfs, were free citizens, though historians continue to debate their exact status.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202339Harvey2008331_233-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202339Harvey2008331-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>Ekloge</i> laws of 741 made marriage a Christian institution and no longer a private contract, where it evolved alongside the increased rights of slaves and the change in power relations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023444Rotman202285Lenski2021464–465_234-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023444Rotman202285Lenski2021464–465-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marriage was considered an institution required to sustain the population, transfer property rights, and support the elderly of the family; the Empress <a href="/wiki/Theodora_(wife_of_Theophilos)" title="Theodora (wife of Theophilos)">Theodora</a> had also said it was needed to restrict sexual <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">hedonism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbot1997121Kazhdan1990a132_235-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbot1997121Kazhdan1990a132-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women usually married between the ages of 15 and 20, and the average family had two children.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERotman202283Talbot1997121Kaldellis202341Stathakopoulos2008309,_313_236-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERotman202283Talbot1997121Kaldellis202341Stathakopoulos2008309,_313-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Divorce could be done by mutual consent but was restricted over time, for example, only being allowed if a married person was joining a convent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202388,_321,_444,_529,_588,_769Talbot1997119,_122,_128_237-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202388,_321,_444,_529,_588,_769Talbot1997119,_122,_128-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inheritance rights were well developed, including for all women.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris201713Kaldellis202341Garland2006xiv_238-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris201713Kaldellis202341Garland2006xiv-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The historian Anthony Kaldellis suggests that these rights may have been what prevented the emergence of large properties and a hereditary nobility capable of intimidating the state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340_239-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prevalence of widows (estimated at 20%) meant women often controlled family assets as heads of households and businesses, contributing to the rise of some empresses to power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340,_592Stephenson201066_240-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340,_592Stephenson201066-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women played significant roles as taxpayers, landowners, and petitioners, often seeking the resolution of property disputes in court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340,_592Talbot1997129Garland2006xvi_241-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340,_592Talbot1997129Garland2006xvi-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women">Women</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Women in the Byzantine Empire">Women in the Byzantine Empire</a></div> <p>Women had the same socio-economic status as men, but faced legal discrimination and limitations in economic opportunities and vocations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Talbot1997118–119_242-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Talbot1997118–119-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prohibited from serving as soldiers or holding political office, and restricted from serving as <a href="/wiki/Deaconess" title="Deaconess">deaconesses</a> in the Church from the 7th century onwards, women were mostly assigned labour-intensive household responsibilities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Talbot1997126–127Karras2004309–314_243-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Talbot1997126–127Karras2004309–314-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They worked in the food and textile industries, as medical staff, in public baths, in retail, and were practising members of artisan guilds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbot1997130–131Harris2017133Garland2006xivKaldellis202340–41_244-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbot1997130–131Harris2017133Garland2006xivKaldellis202340–41-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also worked in entertainment, tavern keeping, and prostitution, a class where some saints and empresses may have originated from.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbot1997131Kazhdan1990a136_245-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbot1997131Kazhdan1990a136-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prostitution was widespread, and attempts were made to limit it, especially during Justinian's reign under the influence of Theodora.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrosdidier_de_Matons196723–25Garland199911–39_246-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrosdidier_de_Matons196723–25Garland199911–39-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women participated in public life, engaging in social events and protests.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Karras2004310_247-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Karras2004310-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women's rights were better in the empire than in comparable societies. Western European and American women took until the 19th century to surpass them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023529Harris2017133_248-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023529Harris2017133-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek" title="Medieval Greek">Medieval Greek</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:294px;max-width:294px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:142px;max-width:142px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mudil_Psalter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photograph of two pages of a book written in a Greek script. The lower portions of both pages are damaged." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Mudil_Psalter.jpg/140px-Mudil_Psalter.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Mudil_Psalter.jpg/210px-Mudil_Psalter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Mudil_Psalter.jpg/280px-Mudil_Psalter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="358" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:148px;max-width:148px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Joshua_Roll.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photograph of an illustrated manuscript written in Greek. At the left are two people who are standing talking to a person who is seated, while 5 soldiers listen. At the right are a group of soldiers going somewhere." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Joshua_Roll.jpg/146px-Joshua_Roll.jpg" decoding="async" width="146" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Joshua_Roll.jpg/219px-Joshua_Roll.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Joshua_Roll.jpg/292px-Joshua_Roll.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1365" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Left: The Mudil Psalter, the oldest complete <a href="/wiki/Psalter" title="Psalter">psalter</a> in the Coptic language (<a href="/wiki/Coptic_Museum" title="Coptic Museum">Coptic Museum</a>, Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Cairo" title="Coptic Cairo">Coptic Cairo</a>)<br /> Right: The <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Roll" title="Joshua Roll">Joshua Roll</a>, a 10th-century illuminated Greek manuscript possibly made in Constantinople (<a href="/wiki/Vatican_Library" title="Vatican Library">Vatican Library</a>, Rome)</div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> were the primary languages of the late Roman Empire, with the former prevalent in the west and the latter in the east.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2008778_249-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2008778-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Latin was historically important in the military, legal system, and government, its use declined in Byzantine territories from 400 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2010208Rochette2023282–283_250-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2010208Rochette2023282–283-250"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>247<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Greek had begun to replace it even in those functions by the time of <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;">r. 527–565</span>), who may have tried to arrest Latin's decline. Its extinction in the east was thereafter inevitable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2008778Rochette2023283–284_251-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2008778Rochette2023283–284-251"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>248<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar process of linguistic <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenization</a> occurred in Asia Minor, whose inhabitants had mostly abandoned their indigenous languages for Greek by early Byzantine times.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2010208–209_252-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2010208–209-252"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>249<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still, much of the population of the empire would have known neither Latin nor Greek, especially in rural areas—their languages included <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> in <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Armenia" title="Byzantine Armenia">that people's homelands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> dialects such as <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> in Mesopotamia and the Levant, <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a> in Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a> on the Levant coast and in <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a> in rural North Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2008778–779Horrocks2010207–210_253-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2008778–779Horrocks2010207–210-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>250<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The empire lost its linguistic diversity in the wars of the 7th and 8th centuries, becoming overwhelmingly Greek-speaking.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold2002142_254-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold2002142-254"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>251<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this troubled period, classical <a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek" title="Attic Greek">Attic Greek</a>—one of the <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">linguistic registers</a> the Byzantine Greeks inherited—fell out of use, while the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">everyday vernacular</a> registers were still used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning198251_255-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning198251-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>252<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the empire gained some stability from the 9th century onwards, and especially after the <a href="/wiki/Komnenian_restoration" title="Komnenian restoration">Komnenian restoration</a>, Attic Greek came back into fashion for written works. In a phenomenon called <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossia</a>, the gap between vernacular spoken Greek, which was rarely written in published works, and literary registers only spoken in formal contexts, became very wide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning198251Horrocks2008781–782_256-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning198251Horrocks2008781–782-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Palaiologos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty">Palaiologan period</a>, although classically-written works remained the normal style, Western-inspired writers began to use more vernacular elements, especially for <a href="/wiki/Romance_(prose_fiction)" title="Romance (prose fiction)">romances</a> or near-contemporary histories. One example is the <i><a href="/wiki/Chronicle_of_the_Morea" title="Chronicle of the Morea">Chronicle of the Morea</a></i>, probably written by a French immigrant who was ignorant of formal Greek literature and who incorporated spoken Greek into his work.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2008783Horrocks2010216–218JeffreysMango2002298–300_257-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2008783Horrocks2010216–218JeffreysMango2002298–300-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>254<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All such written vernacular was in verse form, becoming the ancestor of <a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek" title="Modern Greek">modern Greek</a> poetry, while prose remained classically-written.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning198251–52JeffreysMango2002299_258-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning198251–52JeffreysMango2002299-258"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>255<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_economy" title="Byzantine economy">Byzantine economy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_silk" title="Byzantine silk">Byzantine silk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sino-Roman_relations" title="Sino-Roman relations">Sino-Roman relations</a></div> <p>The empire's geographic and maritime advantages reduced the costs of transporting goods and facilitated trade, making it a key driver of economic growth from antiquity and through the post-classical period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009473LaiouMorrisson200713_259-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009473LaiouMorrisson200713-259"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Infrastructure, including roads, public buildings, and the legal system, supported trade and other economic activities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiouMorrisson200724_260-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiouMorrisson200724-260"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>257<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regions like Asia Minor, the Aegean islands, Egypt, the Levant, and Africa thrived as mature economic centres despite political challenges and military insecurities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009467LaiouMorrisson2007246_261-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009467LaiouMorrisson2007246-261"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>258<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the mid-6th century onward, plagues, invasions, and wars caused populations and economies to decline, leading to the collapse of the ancient economy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009472,_474,_479Laiou2002c698LaiouMorrisson200724_262-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009472,_474,_479Laiou2002c698LaiouMorrisson200724-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Major cities like Constantinople, Antioch, <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a> continued to support substantial populations exceeding 100,000, while the countryside transitioned into fortified settlements.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2002a177LaiouMorrisson200725–26_263-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2002a177LaiouMorrisson200725–26-263"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>260<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These rural areas developed into hamlets and villages, reflecting an economic shift between historical periods towards more efficient land use.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009465,_471LaiouMorrisson200725–26,_232_264-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009465,_471LaiouMorrisson200725–26,_232-264"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>261<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Low population density prompted emperors to encourage migration and resettlement, stimulating agriculture and demographic growth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiouMorrisson200744–46_265-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiouMorrisson200744–46-265"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>262<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 9th century, the economy began to revive, marked by increased agricultural production and urban expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009473–474Laiou2002a269–270_266-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009473–474Laiou2002a269–270-266"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>263<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Advances in science, technical knowledge, and literacy gave the empire a competitive edge over its neighbours.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiouMorrisson200719–22,_24_267-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiouMorrisson200719–22,_24-267"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>264<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 11th and 12th centuries witnessed consistent and rapid population growth, marking the peak of this revival.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009476LaiouMorrisson200790–92_268-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009476LaiouMorrisson200790–92-268"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>265<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Italian merchants, particularly the Venetians, Genoese, and Pisans, took control of international trade, thus reducing the influence of native merchants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009473–476Laiou2002a25,_402_269-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009473–476Laiou2002a25,_402-269"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>266<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The political system grew increasingly extractive and authoritarian, contributing to the empire's collapse in 1204.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2002a23Laiou2002b1164LaiouMorrisson2007233_270-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2002a23Laiou2002b1164LaiouMorrisson2007233-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>267<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fall of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 destroyed centuries of its wealth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2002b535_271-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2002b535-271"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>268<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large landholdings were confiscated, and the empire fragmented into smaller rump states ruled by competing factions, making governance inefficient and increasing the costs of doing business.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023739LaiouMorrisson2007167–168_272-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023739LaiouMorrisson2007167–168-272"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The state gradually lost control over trade practices, price regulations, the outflow of precious metals, and possibly even the minting of coins.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatschke2002805–806_273-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatschke2002805–806-273"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>270<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Italian merchants further dominated trade as the events of 1204 opened the Black Sea to Western merchants, permanently altering the empire's fortunes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009477Matschke2002771–772LaiouMorrisson2007203_274-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009477Matschke2002771–772LaiouMorrisson2007203-274"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>271<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Farmers and manufacturers increasingly produced goods for local use and were affected by the insecurity of constant warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatschke2002779LaiouMorrisson2007168_275-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatschke2002779LaiouMorrisson2007168-275"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>272<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite these challenges, the empire's mixed economy (characterised by state interventions, public works, and market liberalisation)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2002c754_276-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2002c754-276"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>273<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> remained a model of medieval economic adaptability, even as it deteriorated under external pressures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009471LaiouMorrisson2007232–235_277-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009471LaiouMorrisson2007232–235-277"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>274<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Daily_life">Daily life</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clothing">Clothing</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-One_source plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-one_source" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>relies largely or entirely on a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_with_a_single_source" title="Wikipedia:Articles with a single source">single source</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Byzantine_Empire" title="Talk:Byzantine Empire">talk page</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empire&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">introducing citations to additional sources</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Byzantine+Empire%22">"Byzantine Empire"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Byzantine+Empire%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Byzantine+Empire%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Byzantine+Empire%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Byzantine+Empire%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Byzantine+Empire%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2025</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_dress" title="Byzantine dress">Byzantine dress</a></div> <p>Historical evidence of Byzantine dress is scant. It is known that the court had a distinguishable dress, and that ordinary men and women observed certain conventions of clothing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShepard200969Ball20054Dawson200641,_43_278-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard200969Ball20054Dawson200641,_43-278"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>275<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fashion trends started in the provinces, and not in the capital, which was more conservative.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall200557,_75–76,_118–119_279-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall200557,_75–76,_118–119-279"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>276<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The imperial dress was centred around the <i><a href="/wiki/Loros" title="Loros">loros</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Tzangion" title="Tzangion">tzangia</a></i> and crown, which represented the empire and the court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall200535,_177_280-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall200535,_177-280"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>277<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>loros</i> derived from the <a href="/wiki/Trabea" title="Trabea"><i>trabea triumphalis</i></a>, a ceremonial toga worn by consuls. It was more prominent in the early empire, indicating a continuation of the traditions of the Roman Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall200512,_29_281-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall200512,_29-281"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>278<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Jennifer Ball suggests that the <i><a href="/wiki/Chlamys" title="Chlamys">chlamys</a></i> cloak, which originated in the military, was similar to a modern-day business suit and an evolution of the <i><a href="/wiki/Paludamentum" title="Paludamentum">paludamentum</a></i> cloak worn by aristocratic men, including the emperor during the early empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall200524,_30,_32,_34Dawson200643_282-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall200524,_30,_32,_34Dawson200643-282"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>279<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the middle empire, dresses replaced the tunic for women.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall20059_283-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall20059-283"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>280<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The late empire saw the larger influence on Byzantine dress of non-Greek cultures like the Italians (Genoese and Venetians), Turks (Ottomans), and the Bulgarians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall20056_284-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall20056-284"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>281<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuisine_and_dining">Cuisine and dining</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_cuisine" title="Byzantine cuisine">Byzantine cuisine</a></div> <p>Feasting was central to the culture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryer2008673_285-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryer2008673-285"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>282<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 10th century, dining shifted from <a href="/wiki/Triclinium" title="Triclinium">reclining</a> to tables with clean linen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsh1995244–245_286-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsh1995244–245-286"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>283<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The introduction of the fork and salad dressing (with oil and vinegar) further shaped Italian and Western traditions<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsh1995244Decker2008496_287-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsh1995244Decker2008496-287"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>284<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Classical Greco-Roman era foods were common such as the condiment <i><a href="/wiki/Garum" title="Garum">garos</a></i> (similar to fermented <a href="/wiki/Fish_sauce" title="Fish sauce">fish sauces</a> today) as well as the still popular <a href="/wiki/Baklava" title="Baklava">baklava</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaas2005184–185Bryer2008671Ash1995233Vryonis1971482_288-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaas2005184–185Bryer2008671Ash1995233Vryonis1971482-288"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>285<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fruits like <a href="/wiki/Aubergine" class="mw-redirect" title="Aubergine">aubergine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Orange_(fruit)" title="Orange (fruit)">orange</a>, unknown during classical times, were added to diets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson2014123_289-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson2014123-289"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>286<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Foods that have continued into the modern era include the cured meat <a href="/wiki/Pastirma" title="Pastirma">paston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feta" title="Feta">Feta</a> cheese, salt roe similar to the modern <a href="/wiki/Boutargue" class="mw-redirect" title="Boutargue">boutargue</a>, black sea caviar, <a href="/wiki/Tiropita" title="Tiropita">tiropita</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dolma" title="Dolma">dolmades</a>, and the soup <i><a href="/wiki/Tarhana" title="Tarhana">trachanas</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsh1995244Davidson2014123Bryer2008671Salaman1986184_290-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsh1995244Davidson2014123Bryer2008671Salaman1986184-290"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>287<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were famed medieval sweet wines such as the <a href="/wiki/Malvasia" title="Malvasia">Malvasia</a> from <a href="/wiki/Monemvasia" title="Monemvasia">Monemvasia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Commandaria" title="Commandaria">Commandaria</a>, and the eponymous <a href="/wiki/Rumney_wine" title="Rumney wine">Rumney wine</a> which were drunk, as were <a href="/wiki/Millet_beer" title="Millet beer">millet beer</a> (known as <i>boza</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Retsina" title="Retsina">retsina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryer2008672–673Unwin2010185_291-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryer2008672–673Unwin2010185-291"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>288<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recreation">Recreation</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tabula_-_boardgame_-_Zeno_game.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A depiction of a board game" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Tabula_-_boardgame_-_Zeno_game.svg/220px-Tabula_-_boardgame_-_Zeno_game.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Tabula_-_boardgame_-_Zeno_game.svg/330px-Tabula_-_boardgame_-_Zeno_game.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Tabula_-_boardgame_-_Zeno_game.svg/440px-Tabula_-_boardgame_-_Zeno_game.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="303" /></a><figcaption>A game of <a href="/wiki/Tabula_(game)" title="Tabula (game)">τάβλι (tabula)</a> played by the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> emperor <a href="/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)" title="Zeno (emperor)">Zeno</a> in 480 and recorded by <a href="/wiki/Agathias" title="Agathias">Agathias</a> in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 530</span> because of a very unlucky dice throw for Zeno (red).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHornSchädler2019_292-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHornSchädler2019-292"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>289<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Chariot_racing" title="Chariot racing">Chariot races</a> were held from the early era until 1204, becoming one of the world's longest continuous sporting events.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2008a681–682Kaldellis202313,_138_293-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2008a681–682Kaldellis202313,_138-293"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>290<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mime_artist" title="Mime artist">Mimes</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pantomime" title="Pantomime">pantomime</a> and some wild animal shows were prominent until the 6th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2008a680_294-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2008a680-294"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>291<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because Christian bishops and pagan philosophers did not like these activities, the state's funding for them ceased, leading to their decline and a move to private entertainment and sporting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2008a678–683Kaldellis2023187,_233_295-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2008a678–683Kaldellis2023187,_233-295"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>292<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Persian version of polo introduced by the Crusaders called <a href="/wiki/Tzykanisterion" title="Tzykanisterion">Tzykanion</a> was played by the nobility and urban aristocracy in major cities during the middle and late eras, as was the sport of jousting introduced from the West.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991a2137,_"Tzykanisterion"Kazanaki-Lappa2002643Jeffreys2008a683Kaldellis2023672,_844_296-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991a2137,_"Tzykanisterion"Kazanaki-Lappa2002643Jeffreys2008a683Kaldellis2023672,_844-296"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>293<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over time, <a href="/wiki/Board_game" title="Board game">game boards</a> like <a href="/wiki/Tabula_(game)" title="Tabula (game)">tavli</a> became increasingly popular.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2008a683_297-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2008a683-297"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>294<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arts_and_sciences">Arts and sciences</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art_and_architecture">Art and architecture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Byzantine architecture</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:332px;max-width:332px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:100px;max-width:100px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:182px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spas_vsederzhitel_sinay.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Spas_vsederzhitel_sinay.jpg/98px-Spas_vsederzhitel_sinay.jpg" decoding="async" width="98" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Spas_vsederzhitel_sinay.jpg/147px-Spas_vsederzhitel_sinay.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Spas_vsederzhitel_sinay.jpg/196px-Spas_vsederzhitel_sinay.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2023" data-file-height="3774" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:228px;max-width:228px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:182px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hosios_Loukas_Katholikon_(nave,_South-West_squinch)_-_Baptism_-_detail_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Hosios_Loukas_Katholikon_%28nave%2C_South-West_squinch%29_-_Baptism_-_detail_02.jpg/250px-Hosios_Loukas_Katholikon_%28nave%2C_South-West_squinch%29_-_Baptism_-_detail_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="226" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Hosios_Loukas_Katholikon_%28nave%2C_South-West_squinch%29_-_Baptism_-_detail_02.jpg/500px-Hosios_Loukas_Katholikon_%28nave%2C_South-West_squinch%29_-_Baptism_-_detail_02.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1468" data-file-height="1180" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:207px;max-width:207px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:151px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Meister_von_Nerezi_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Meister_von_Nerezi_001.jpg/250px-Meister_von_Nerezi_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="205" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Meister_von_Nerezi_001.jpg/330px-Meister_von_Nerezi_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Meister_von_Nerezi_001.jpg/500px-Meister_von_Nerezi_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="1494" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:121px;max-width:121px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:151px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ivoire_Barberini_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Objets_d%27art_OA_9063_;_MND_211.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ivoire_Barberini_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Objets_d%27art_OA_9063_%3B_MND_211.jpg/120px-Ivoire_Barberini_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Objets_d%27art_OA_9063_%3B_MND_211.jpg" decoding="async" width="119" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ivoire_Barberini_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Objets_d%27art_OA_9063_%3B_MND_211.jpg/250px-Ivoire_Barberini_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_Objets_d%27art_OA_9063_%3B_MND_211.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="7962" data-file-height="10131" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:330px;max-width:330px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:223px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_(focused_on_the_original_Roman_building).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_%28focused_on_the_original_Roman_building%29.jpg/328px-Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_%28focused_on_the_original_Roman_building%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="328" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_%28focused_on_the_original_Roman_building%29.jpg/492px-Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_%28focused_on_the_original_Roman_building%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_%28focused_on_the_original_Roman_building%29.jpg/656px-Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_%28focused_on_the_original_Roman_building%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1940" data-file-height="1323" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Clockwise, from top left: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christ_Pantocrator_(Sinai)" title="Christ Pantocrator (Sinai)">Christ Pantocrator</a> icon, 6th century, <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Monastery" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinai Monastery">Sinai Monastery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosios_Loukas" title="Hosios Loukas">Hosios Loukas</a> mosaics, detail, early 11th century</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barberini_ivory" title="Barberini ivory">Barberini ivory</a>, an early 6th-century ivory diptych<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECormack201839_298-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECormack201839-298"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>295<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a> exterior</li> <li><i>Dead Christ and Mourners</i>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1164</span>, <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Saint_Panteleimon,_Gorno_Nerezi" title="Church of Saint Panteleimon, Gorno Nerezi">Gorno Nerezi</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._3_299-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._3-299"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>296<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></div></div></div> <p>Subjects in <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine art</a> were primarily <a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Christian</a> and typically non-naturalistic in their representation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_paras._2_and_13_300-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_paras._2_and_13-300"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>297<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Emerging from both the <a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_art_and_architecture" title="Early Christian art and architecture">earliest Christian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Late_Antique_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antique art">Late Antique art</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodley19942Cormack201811–12_301-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodley19942Cormack201811–12-301"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>298<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> many early examples were lost amid the <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Roman Persecution</a>; the fragmented mosaics of the 3rd-century <a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos_church" title="Dura-Europos church">Dura-Europos church</a> are a unique exception.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodley199412–14_302-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodley199412–14-302"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>299<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_mosaics" title="Byzantine mosaics">Byzantine mosaics</a>, known for their <a href="/wiki/Gold_ground" title="Gold ground">gold ground</a> style, became a hallmark of the empire, displaying both secular and sacred themes in diverse places, including churches (<a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale" title="Basilica of San Vitale">Basilica of San Vitale</a>), the circus (<a href="/wiki/Hippodrome_of_Constantinople" title="Hippodrome of Constantinople">Hippodrome of Constantinople</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Palace_of_Constantinople" title="Great Palace of Constantinople">Great Palace of Constantinople</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodley199434James2003§_paras._3–4_303-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodley199434James2003§_paras._3–4-303"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>300<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early 6th-century reign of Justinian I saw systemic developments: <a href="/wiki/Religious_art" title="Religious art">religious art</a> came to dominate, and once-popular public marble and bronze <a href="/wiki/Monumental_sculpture" title="Monumental sculpture">monumental sculpture</a> fell out of favour due to <a href="/wiki/Pagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan">pagan</a> associations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodley199432–33,_56–57Cormack201814_304-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodley199432–33,_56–57Cormack201814-304"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>301<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Justinian commissioned the monumental <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a> church, and its influential elements became architectural hallmarks for the empire: the immense size, large <a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">dome</a>, innovative use of <a href="/wiki/Pendentive" title="Pendentive">pendentives</a> and highly decorative interior were imitated as far north as the <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_Saint_Sophia,_Novgorod" title="Cathedral of Saint Sophia, Novgorod">Cathedral of Saint Sophia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Novgorod" class="mw-redirect" title="Novgorod">Novgorod</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Sophia_Cathedral,_Kyiv" title="Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv">Saint Sophia Cathedral</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._10Cormack201833–40CurlWilson2021§_paras._3_and_5_305-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._10Cormack201833–40CurlWilson2021§_paras._3_and_5-305"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>302<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Hagia Sophia's creators, the engineer-architects <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Miletus" title="Isidore of Miletus">Isidore of Miletus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthemius_of_Tralles" title="Anthemius of Tralles">Anthemius of Tralles</a>, are uniquely esteemed;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodley199467_306-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodley199467-306"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>303<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> most Byzantine artists were unrecorded and typically deemed to have little importance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._7_307-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._7-307"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>304<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Smaller-scale art flourished throughout the entire Byzantine period: costly <a href="/wiki/Ivory_carving" title="Ivory carving">ivory carvings</a>—often as diptychs (<a href="/wiki/Barberini_ivory" title="Barberini ivory">Barberini ivory</a>) or triptychs (<a href="/wiki/Harbaville_Triptych" title="Harbaville Triptych">Harbaville Triptych</a>)—featured imperial commemorations or religious scenes and were particularly valued, as were <a href="/wiki/Metalwork" class="mw-redirect" title="Metalwork">metalwork</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_enamel" title="Byzantine enamel">enamels</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._4Cormack201839_308-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._4Cormack201839-308"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>305<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other costly objects included <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_illuminated_manuscripts" title="Byzantine illuminated manuscripts">illuminated manuscripts</a>, which were lavishly illustrated for a wide range of texts, and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_silk" title="Byzantine silk">silks</a>, often dyed in the prized <a href="/wiki/Imperial_purple" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial purple">imperial purple</a>; both became highly popular in Western Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_paras._4–5_309-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_paras._4–5-309"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>306<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rise of small, portable <a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">icon</a> paintings, used for both public and private religious worship, grew increasingly controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodley1994101–102Cormack20182_310-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodley1994101–102Cormack20182-310"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>307<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During two periods of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Byzantine Iconoclasm</a> (726–843), possibly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Aniconism_in_Islam" title="Aniconism in Islam">Islamic prohibitions on religious images</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELowden1997147–148_311-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELowden1997147–148-311"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>308<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> icons were suppressed and enormous amounts of figurative religious art was destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1997185_312-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1997185-312"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>309<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Iconoclast" class="mw-redirect" title="Iconoclast">Iconoclasts</a> condemned their use, likening them to pagan <a href="/wiki/Idolatry" title="Idolatry">idolatry</a> and ascribing recent <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Arab_wars_(780%E2%80%931180)#Raids_under_the_last_Umayyads_and_the_rise_of_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine–Arab wars (780–1180)">Umayyad defeats</a> as <a href="/wiki/Divine_retribution" title="Divine retribution">divine retribution</a> for their use. <a href="/wiki/Iconophile" class="mw-redirect" title="Iconophile">Iconophiles</a> eventually prevailed, maintaining their essential use for <a href="/wiki/Veneration" title="Veneration">veneration</a>, considered distinct from <a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">worship</a>, and found precedent in <a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">gospel</a> references.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodley1994115–116Lowden1997147–151_313-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodley1994115–116Lowden1997147–151-313"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>310<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_art_(Byzantine)" title="Macedonian art (Byzantine)">Post-iconoclast Macedonian art</a> (867–1056) saw a <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Renaissance" title="Macedonian Renaissance">cultural renaissance</a>, and many artworks from this period survive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodley1994132Lowden1997187–188_314-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodley1994132Lowden1997187–188-314"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>311<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subjects and styles became standardised, particularly <a href="/wiki/Cross-in-square" title="Cross-in-square">cross-in-square</a> churches, and already-existing frontality and <a href="/wiki/Symmetry" title="Symmetry">symmetry</a> evolved into a dominant artistic aesthetic, observable in the small <a href="/wiki/Pala_d%27Oro" title="Pala d'Oro">Pala d'Oro</a> enamel and the large mosaics of the <a href="/wiki/Hosios_Loukas" title="Hosios Loukas">Hosios Loukas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daphni_Monastery" title="Daphni Monastery">Daphni</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nea_Moni_of_Chios" title="Nea Moni of Chios">Nea Moni</a> monasteries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._3Cormack2018146–147_315-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._3Cormack2018146–147-315"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>312<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The subsequent Komnenos-Angelos periods (1081–1204) saw increased imperial patronage, alongside figurative artwork of increased emotional expression (<i>Dead Christ and Mourners</i>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1164</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._3_299-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._3-299"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>296<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Byzantine artistic influence spread widely to <a href="/wiki/Norman%E2%80%93Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_culture" title="Norman–Arab–Byzantine culture">Norman Sicily</a> (the <i><a href="/wiki/Madrid_Skylitzes" title="Madrid Skylitzes">Madrid Skylitzes</a></i>) and Venice (the mosaics of <a href="/wiki/St_Mark%27s_Basilica" title="St Mark's Basilica">St Mark's Basilica</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._3_299-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._3-299"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>296<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Serbian churches flourished, as three successive <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Serbian_architecture" title="Medieval Serbian architecture">schools of architecture</a>—<a href="/wiki/Ra%C5%A1ka_architectural_school" title="Raška architectural school">Raška</a> (1170–1282), <a href="/wiki/Serbo-Byzantine_architecture" title="Serbo-Byzantine architecture">Byzantine Serbia</a> (1282–1355), and <a href="/wiki/Morava_architectural_school" title="Morava architectural school">Morava</a> (1355–1489)—combined a <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_architecture" title="Romanesque architecture">Romanesque</a> aesthetic with increasingly voluminous decorations and domes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurlWilson2021§_para._7_316-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurlWilson2021§_para._7-316"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>313<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As smaller <a href="/wiki/Palaeologan_Renaissance#Art_and_architecture" title="Palaeologan Renaissance">Palaeologan artworks</a> (1261–1453) gained <a href="/wiki/Relic" title="Relic">relic</a> status in Western Europe—many looted in the 1204 Fourth Crusade—they greatly influenced the <a href="/wiki/Italo-Byzantine" title="Italo-Byzantine">Italo-Byzantine</a> style of <a href="/wiki/Cimabue" title="Cimabue">Cimabue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duccio" title="Duccio">Duccio</a>, and later <a href="/wiki/Giotto" title="Giotto">Giotto</a>; the latter is traditionally regarded by art historians as the inaugurator of <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_painting" title="Italian Renaissance painting">Italian Renaissance painting</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodley1994166Cormack2018159,_186Andronikou20222–4_317-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodley1994166Cormack2018159,_186Andronikou20222–4-317"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>314<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_literature" title="Byzantine literature">Byzantine literature</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_literature" title="Byzantine literature">Byzantine literature</a> concerns all <a href="/wiki/Greek_literature" title="Greek literature">Greek literature</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning2022§_para._1_318-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning2022§_para._1-318"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>315<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the empire was <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Languages of the Roman Empire">linguistically diverse</a>, the vast majority of extant texts are in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek" title="Medieval Greek">medieval Greek</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapaioannou2021a1–2,_5–7_319-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapaioannou2021a1–2,_5–7-319"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>316<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in two <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossic</a> variants: a scholarly form based on <a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek" title="Attic Greek">Attic Greek</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning1991a_320-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning1991a-320"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>317<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most contemporary scholars consider all medieval Greek texts to be literature,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapaioannou2021a10_321-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapaioannou2021a10-321"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>318<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but some offer varying constraints.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan19991van_Dieten1980101–105_322-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan19991van_Dieten1980101–105-322"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>319<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The literature's early period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 330–650</span>) was dominated by the competing cultures of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Paganism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning2022§_paras._1–2Kaldellis2021162–163_323-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning2022§_paras._1–2Kaldellis2021162–163-323"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>320<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers#Greek_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Greek Church Fathers</a>—educated in an Ancient Greek <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> tradition—sought to synthesise these influences.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning2022§_para._1_318-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning2022§_para._1-318"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>315<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Important early writers include <a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">John Chrysostom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a>, all of whom aimed to reinvent older forms to fit the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236_324-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236-324"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>321<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Theological <a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">miracle</a> stories were particularly innovative and popular;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236_324-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236-324"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>321<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <i><a href="/wiki/Sayings_of_the_Desert_Fathers" title="Sayings of the Desert Fathers">Sayings of the Desert Fathers</a></i> (<i>Apophthegmata Patrum</i>) were copied in nearly every Byzantine monastery.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartín2021685_325-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartín2021685-325"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>322<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Dark_Ages" title="Byzantine Dark Ages">Byzantine Dark Ages</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 650–800</span>), production of literature mostly stopped, though some important theologians were active, such as <a href="/wiki/Maximus_the_Confessor" title="Maximus the Confessor">Maximus the Confessor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germanus_I_of_Constantinople" title="Germanus I of Constantinople">Germanus I of Constantinople</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_of_Damascus" title="John of Damascus">John of Damascus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236_324-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236-324"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>321<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The subsequent cultural Macedonian Renaissance (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 800–1000</span>; the "Encyclopedism period") saw a renewed proliferation of literature and revived the earlier Hellenic-Christian synthesis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning2022§_para._1_318-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning2022§_para._1-318"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>315<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Works by <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_philosophers" title="List of ancient Greek philosophers">Ancient Greek philosophers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_tragedy" title="Greek tragedy">tragedians</a> were translated, and <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">hagiography</a> was heavily reorganised.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236_324-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236-324"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>321<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After this early flowering of monastic literature, there was a dearth until <a href="/wiki/Symeon_the_New_Theologian" title="Symeon the New Theologian">Symeon the New Theologian</a> in the late 10th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236_324-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236-324"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>321<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A new generation (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1000–1250</span>), including Symeon, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Psellos" title="Michael Psellos">Michael Psellos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Prodromos" title="Theodore Prodromos">Theodore Prodromos</a>, rejected the Encyclopedist emphasis on order, and were interested in individual-focused ideals variously concerning <a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">mysticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Authorial_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Authorial voice">authorial voice</a>, heroism, humour and love.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236–1237_326-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236–1237-326"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>323<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This included the Hellenistic-inspired <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_romance" title="Byzantine romance">Byzantine romance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">chivalric</a> approaches in rhetoric, historiography and the influential epic <i><a href="/wiki/Digenes_Akritas" title="Digenes Akritas">Digenes Akritas</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236_324-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236-324"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>321<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The empire's final centuries saw a renewal of hagiography and increased Western influence, leading to mass Greek to Latin translations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1237_327-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1237-327"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>324<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Authors such as <a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Gemistos Plethon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bessarion" title="Bessarion">Bessarion</a> exemplified a new focus on human <a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">vices</a> alongside the preservation of classical traditions, the latter greatly influenced the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1237_327-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1237-327"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>324<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_music" title="Byzantine music">Byzantine music</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 262px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="width: 260px; height: 190px; overflow: hidden;"> <div style="position: relative; top: -25px; left: -45px; width: 350px"><div class="noresize"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosaic_of_the_Female_Musicians.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Late 4th-century "Mosaic of the Musicians" playing the organ, aulos, and lyre from a Byzantine villa in Maryamin, Syria[325]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Mosaic_of_the_Female_Musicians.jpg/500px-Mosaic_of_the_Female_Musicians.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Mosaic_of_the_Female_Musicians.jpg/960px-Mosaic_of_the_Female_Musicians.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1678" data-file-height="1180" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosaic_of_the_Female_Musicians.jpg" title="File:Mosaic of the Female Musicians.jpg"> </a></div>Late 4th-century "Mosaic of the Musicians" playing the <a href="/wiki/Pipe_organ" title="Pipe organ">organ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aulos" title="Aulos">aulos</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lyre" title="Lyre">lyre</a> from a Byzantine villa in <a href="/wiki/Maryamin,_Hama" class="mw-redirect" title="Maryamin, Hama">Maryamin</a>, Syria<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERing1994318_328-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERing1994318-328"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>325<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div> </div> </div> <p><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_music" title="Byzantine music">Byzantine music</a> is eclectically descended from early <a href="/wiki/Plainsong" title="Plainsong">Christian plainsong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Jewish music</a>, and a variety of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_music" title="Ancient music">ancient music</a>; its exact connections to <a href="/wiki/Musical_system_of_ancient_Greece" title="Musical system of ancient Greece">ancient Greek music</a> remain uncertain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199028–29Conomos19911426_329-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199028–29Conomos19911426-329"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>326<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It included both <a href="/wiki/Sacred_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred music">sacred</a> and <a href="/wiki/Secular_music" title="Secular music">secular</a> traditions, but the latter is little known, whereas the former remains the central music of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox">Eastern Orthodox</a> liturgy into the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConomos19911424–1426LevyTroelsgård2016§_Introduction_330-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConomos19911424–1426LevyTroelsgård2016§_Introduction-330"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>327<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The empire's church music, known as Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">chant</a>, was exclusively unaccompanied <a href="/wiki/Monody" title="Monody">monodic</a> vocal music, sung in Greek.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199026–27,_29_331-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199026–27,_29-331"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>328<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the 8th century, chant melodies were governed by the <i><a href="/wiki/Okt%C5%8D%C4%93chos" class="mw-redirect" title="Oktōēchos">Oktōēchos</a></i> framework, a set of eight <a href="/wiki/Mode_(music)" title="Mode (music)">modes</a>—<a href="/wiki/Echos" title="Echos">echos</a> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἦχος</span></span>; <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">sound</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>)—each of these provide predetermined <a href="/wiki/Motif_(music)" title="Motif (music)">motivic</a> formulae for composition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199045–46Conomos19911425LevyTroelsgård2016§5_"System_of_eight_modes_('oktōēchos')",_§7_"Formulaic_chants"_332-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199045–46Conomos19911425LevyTroelsgård2016§5_"System_of_eight_modes_('oktōēchos')",_§7_"Formulaic_chants"-332"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>329<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These formulae were chosen for proper <a href="/wiki/Text_stress" class="mw-redirect" title="Text stress">text stress</a> and occasionally for <a href="/wiki/Text_painting" class="mw-redirect" title="Text painting">text painting</a>, then collated through <a href="/wiki/Centonisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Centonisation">centonisation</a> into <a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">hymns</a> or <a href="/wiki/Psalm" class="mw-redirect" title="Psalm">psalms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199029LevyTroelsgård2016§7_"Formulaic_chants"_333-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199029LevyTroelsgård2016§7_"Formulaic_chants"-333"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>330<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Byzantine chant was central to the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Rite" title="Byzantine Rite">Byzantine Rite</a>; the earliest music was not <a href="/wiki/Musical_notation" title="Musical notation">notated</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199026–27_334-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199026–27-334"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>331<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including early mono<a href="/wiki/Strophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Strophic">strophic</a> short hymns like the <a href="/wiki/Troparion" title="Troparion">troparion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevyTroelsgård2016§10_"Syllabic_hymn_settings"_335-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevyTroelsgård2016§10_"Syllabic_hymn_settings"-335"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>332<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proto-<a href="/wiki/Ekphonetic_notation" title="Ekphonetic notation">Ekphonetic notation</a> (9th century onwards) marked simple <a href="/wiki/Recitation" title="Recitation">recitation</a> patterns. The <a href="/wiki/Neumatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neumatic">neumatic</a> Palaeo-Byzantine notation system emerged in the 10th century, and the Middle Byzantine "Round Notation" from the mid-12th century onwards is the first fully <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/diastematic" class="extiw" title="wikt:diastematic">diastematic</a> scheme.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVelimirović1990LevyTroelsgård2016§3_"Melodic_notation"_336-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVelimirović1990LevyTroelsgård2016§3_"Melodic_notation"-336"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>333<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several major forms developed alongside <a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_composers" title="List of Byzantine composers">well-known composers</a>: the long <a href="/wiki/Kontakion" title="Kontakion">kontakion</a> (5th century onwards), popularised by <a href="/wiki/Romanos_the_Melodist" title="Romanos the Melodist">Romanos the Melodist</a>; the also-extensive <a href="/wiki/Canon_(hymnography)" title="Canon (hymnography)">kanōn</a> (late 7th century onwards), developed by <a href="/wiki/Andrew_of_Crete" title="Andrew of Crete">Andrew of Crete</a>; and the shorter <a href="/wiki/Sticheron" title="Sticheron">sticheron</a> (at least 8th century onwards), championed by <a href="/wiki/Kassia" title="Kassia">Kassia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConomos19911425LevyTroelsgård2016§3_"Melodic_notation"Mellas20202_337-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConomos19911425LevyTroelsgård2016§3_"Melodic_notation"Mellas20202-337"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>334<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the Palaiologan period, the dominance of strict compositional rules lessened and <a href="/wiki/John_Koukouzeles" title="John Koukouzeles">John Koukouzeles</a> led a new school favouring a more <a href="/wiki/Ornament_(music)" title="Ornament (music)">ornamental</a> "kalophonic" style which deeply informed post-empire Neo-Byzantine music.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConomos19911425–1426_338-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConomos19911425–1426-338"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>335<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Secular music, often state-sponsored, was ubiquitous in daily life and featured in a variety of ceremonies, festivals, and theatre.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETouliatos2001§_Introduction_339-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETouliatos2001§_Introduction-339"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>336<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secular vocal music was rarely notated, and extant manuscripts date much later, suggesting the tradition was passed through <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a> and likely <a href="/wiki/Improvised" class="mw-redirect" title="Improvised">improvised</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETouliatos2001§_"Sources"_340-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETouliatos2001§_"Sources"-340"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>337<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prohibited for liturgical use, a wide variety of Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Musical_instrument" title="Musical instrument">instruments</a> flourished in secular contexts, although no notated instrumental music survives.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConomosKazhdan19911426_341-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConomosKazhdan19911426-341"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>338<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is uncertain to what extent instrumentalists improvised or if they doubled vocalists monophonically or <a href="/wiki/Heterophony" title="Heterophony">heterophonically</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConomosKazhdan19911426Touliatos2001§2_"Instruments_and_performing_practice"_342-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConomosKazhdan19911426Touliatos2001§2_"Instruments_and_performing_practice"-342"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>339<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the best known instruments are the <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic organ">hydraulic organ</a>, used for circus and imperial court events; the <a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Greece" title="Music of ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a>-descended <a href="/wiki/Aulos" title="Aulos">aulos</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Wind_instrument" title="Wind instrument">wind instrument</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Tambouras" title="Tambouras">tambouras</a>, a plucked <a href="/wiki/String_instrument" title="String instrument">string instrument</a>; and mostly popularly, the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_lyra" title="Byzantine lyra">Byzantine lyra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConomosKazhdan19911426Touliatos2001§2_"Instruments_and_performing_practice"_342-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConomosKazhdan19911426Touliatos2001§2_"Instruments_and_performing_practice"-342"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>339<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prominent genres included <a href="/wiki/Acclamatio" title="Acclamatio">acclamation</a> chants of laudation or salutation; the celebratory <a href="/wiki/Acritic_songs" title="Acritic songs">Acritic songs</a>; symposia instrumental <a href="/wiki/Banquet" title="Banquet">banquets</a>, based on ancient <a href="/wiki/Symposium" title="Symposium">symposiums</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Dance_music" title="Dance music">dance music</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETouliatos2001§3_"Genres_and_composers"_343-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETouliatos2001§3_"Genres_and_composers"-343"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>340<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_and_technology">Science and technology</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Byzantine science</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">List of Byzantine inventions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_philosophy" title="Byzantine philosophy">Byzantine philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_scholars" title="List of Byzantine scholars">List of Byzantine scholars</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20131203_Istanbul_048.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photograph of the interior of a building built with blue arches and pillars and ornate yellow walls" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/20131203_Istanbul_048.jpg/250px-20131203_Istanbul_048.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/20131203_Istanbul_048.jpg/500px-20131203_Istanbul_048.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="3968" data-file-height="2976" /></a><figcaption>Interior of the <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a>; the influence of <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>' principles of solid geometry is evident.</figcaption></figure> <p>The scholars of the empire played a principal role in transmitting classical knowledge to the <a href="/wiki/Greek_contributions_to_the_Islamic_world" title="Greek contributions to the Islamic world">Islamic world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Renaissance Italy</a>, as well as producing commentaries that helped expand scientific knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobins19938–9Lazaris2020a17Telelis2020186_344-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobins19938–9Lazaris2020a17Telelis2020186-344"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>341<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This medieval Greek scholarship was not only based on scientific treatises from antiquity but also drew from Islamic, Latin, and Hebrew works, which helped spearhead new developments as late as the 11th and 12th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazaris2020a3,_11Inglebert202027TatakesMoutafakis2003180_345-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazaris2020a3,_11Inglebert202027TatakesMoutafakis2003180-345"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>342<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two pots surrounded by caltrops" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg/170px-Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg/255px-Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg/340px-Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1881" data-file-height="1590" /></a><figcaption>Ceramic grenades which were filled with <a href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</a>, surrounded by <a href="/wiki/Caltrop" title="Caltrop">caltrops</a>, 10th–12th century, <a href="/wiki/National_Historical_Museum_(Greece)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Historical Museum (Greece)">National Historical Museum</a>, Athens</figcaption></figure> <p>Key people passed on important traditions that underpinned this scholarship, especially in the realms of philosophy, geometry, astronomy, and grammar.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManolova202066_346-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManolova202066-346"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>343<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the Hagia Sophia architect <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Miletus" title="Isidore of Miletus">Isidore of Miletus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 530</span>), compiled <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>' works which <a href="/wiki/Leo_the_Mathematician" title="Leo the Mathematician">Leo the Mathematician</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 850</span>) incorporated into formal courses, and is why the <a href="/wiki/Archimedes_Palimpsest" title="Archimedes Palimpsest">Archimedes Palimpsest</a> is known today.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManolova202066Jones2005520-521_347-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManolova202066Jones2005520-521-347"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>344<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a> and his critiques of <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Aristotelian physics</a>, the pharmacologist <a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Pedanius Dioscorides</a>, and Ptolematic geography and astronomy had an important influence on western science, as seen with <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s influence on <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Copernicus</a> and Philoponus on <a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gersonides" title="Gersonides">Gersonides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Buridan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme">Oresme</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWildberg2018Lindberg1992162_348-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWildberg2018Lindberg1992162-348"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>345<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Military innovations included the <a href="/wiki/Stirrup" title="Stirrup">riding stirrup</a> which provided stability for mounted archers and dramatically transformed the army; a specialised type of <a href="/wiki/Horseshoe" title="Horseshoe">horseshoe</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Lateen" title="Lateen">lateen sail</a>, which improved a ship's responsiveness to wind; and <a href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</a>—an incendiary weapon capable of burning even when doused with water, first appearing around the time of the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(674%E2%80%93678)" title="Siege of Constantinople (674–678)">Siege of Constantinople (674–678)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazaris2020a16Salmon2020445–446Partington199913_349-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazaris2020a16Salmon2020445–446Partington199913-349"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>346<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_medicine" title="Byzantine medicine">healthcare</a>, the empire pioneered the concept of the hospital as an institution offering medical care and the possibility of a cure for the patients, rather than merely being a place to die.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindberg1992349Nutton19849Miller1997ix,_3–4Bennett20167–14_350-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg1992349Nutton19849Miller1997ix,_3–4Bennett20167–14-350"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>347<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy of the Roman Empire</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_aftermath">Political aftermath</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Succession_to_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Succession to the Byzantine Empire">Succession to the Byzantine Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eastern_Mediterranean_1450.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A map centred on Greece and Turkey in 1450 AD. The Byzantine Empire holds only Southern Greece and northwestern Turkey" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Eastern_Mediterranean_1450.svg/220px-Eastern_Mediterranean_1450.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Eastern_Mediterranean_1450.svg/330px-Eastern_Mediterranean_1450.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Eastern_Mediterranean_1450.svg/440px-Eastern_Mediterranean_1450.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2497" data-file-height="2369" /></a><figcaption>The Eastern Mediterranean just before the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After Constantinople fell, the Ottomans quickly absorbed the remaining independent territories, including Morea in 1460, Trebizond in 1461, <a href="/wiki/Acciaioli_family" title="Acciaioli family">Acciaiuoli</a> Athens in 1456, and <a href="/wiki/Gattilusio" title="Gattilusio">Gattilusi</a> Lesvos in 1462.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023914Nicol1993407–408Bryer2009856_351-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023914Nicol1993407–408Bryer2009856-351"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>348<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They dismantled the Empire's political and secular institutions, leaving the impoverished Church to manage what would be later called the <i><a href="/wiki/Rum_Millet" class="mw-redirect" title="Rum Millet">Rum Millet</a></i>, primarily as a tool for taxing its followers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023914–915Bryer2009869Papademetriou201552_352-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023914–915Bryer2009869Papademetriou201552-352"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>349<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the sole sovereign Orthodox state, Russia developed the <a href="/wiki/Moscow,_third_Rome" title="Moscow, third Rome">Third Rome doctrine</a>, emphasising its cultural heritage as distinct from Western Europe, because the latter had inherited much of the empire's secular learning.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeton-Watson196731Kaldellis2023901Mango2008960–961_353-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeton-Watson196731Kaldellis2023901Mango2008960–961-353"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>350<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Danubian_Principalities" title="Danubian Principalities">Danubian Principalities</a> became a haven for Orthodox Christians and <a href="/wiki/Phanariots" title="Phanariots">Phanariot</a> Greeks who sought to recreate a Byzantine Greek Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2000215_354-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2000215-354"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>351<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In modern Greece, members of the <i>Rum Millet</i> <a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Greeks#Romans_(Ῥωμαῖοι)" title="Names of the Greeks">increasingly identified as Greeks</a>, eventually leading to a <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">successful war of independence</a> in the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023915Treadgold1997b1125_355-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023915Treadgold1997b1125-355"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>352<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern Greek state nearly doubled its territory through the pursuit of the <a href="/wiki/Megali_Idea" title="Megali Idea">Megali Idea</a>—a colonialist vision of reclaiming the former lands of the eastern empire—achieving limited success during the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean war</a> but making significant gains during the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_Wars" title="Balkan Wars">Balkan wars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241240Kaldellis2022b360_356-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241240Kaldellis2022b360-356"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>353<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the 15th century, Byzantine history has been deeply politicised, woven into nationalist, colonialist, and imperialist narratives.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241233,_1235,_1248AschenbrennerRansohoff2022b372Kaldellis2022b352_357-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241233,_1235,_1248AschenbrennerRansohoff2022b372Kaldellis2022b352-357"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>354<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This politicisation appears not only in Greece but also in Bulgarian, Romanian, Serbian, Hungarian, and Turkish nationalism, as well as in former French and Russian imperialist agendas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241229–41,_1234,_1238Haarer201018–19_358-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241229–41,_1234,_1238Haarer201018–19-358"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>355<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the English-speaking world, interpretations of Byzantine history frequently surface in political debates, alongside the growing appreciation for its legacy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241248Haarer201010–12Goldwyn2022325_359-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241248Haarer201010–12Goldwyn2022325-359"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>356<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The complexity of this history makes it a sensitive topic, especially regarding Greece's role in Europe's evolving sense of identity and the origin stories of many European nations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241248Haarer201018-19Stewart20223Kaldellis20232–3Cameron2010177–178_360-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241248Haarer201018-19Stewart20223Kaldellis20232–3Cameron2010177–178-360"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>357<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_aftermath">Cultural aftermath</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Succession_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Succession of the Roman Empire">Succession of the Roman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars in the Renaissance</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyril_Metodej.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photograph of statue, which depicts two bearded and hooded men; the one on the left is holding up a cross and the one on the right is holding up a book" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Cyril_Metodej.jpg/250px-Cyril_Metodej.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Cyril_Metodej.jpg/330px-Cyril_Metodej.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Cyril_Metodej.jpg 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="318" /></a><figcaption>Monument to <a href="/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius" class="mw-redirect" title="Saints Cyril and Methodius">St. Cyril and St. Methodius</a>, Byzantine missionaries to the Slavs, on <a href="/wiki/Radho%C5%A1%C5%A5" title="Radhošť">Mt. Radhošť</a> in Czechia</figcaption></figure> <p>The Byzantine Empire distinctively blended Roman political traditions, Greek literary heritage, and Christianity, creating the civilisational framework that laid the foundation for medieval Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis20233–4Cameron2010175_361-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis20233–4Cameron2010175-361"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>358<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Empire preserved European civilisation by acting as a shield against forces from Eurasian Steppe people such as the Avars, Bulgars, Cumans, Huns, Pechenegs, and Turks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMango2008958–959Obolensky19943_362-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMango2008958–959Obolensky19943-362"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>359<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The empire's legal codes significantly influenced the civil law traditions of continental Europe, Russia, Latin America, Ethiopia, and even the English-speaking common law countries; and possibly influenced Islamic legal traditions as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStolte201510–11MerrymanPérez-Perdomo2007367–368Stein199936_363-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStolte201510–11MerrymanPérez-Perdomo2007367–368Stein199936-363"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>360<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalogubovaZenkov2018_364-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalogubovaZenkov2018-364"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>361<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also preserved and transmitted classical learning and manuscripts, making important contributions to the intellectual revival which fuelled <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Italian humanism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECameron2010165Mango2008960_365-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2010165Mango2008960-365"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>362<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Byzantine Empire played a pivotal role in shaping Christianity by supporting early Church fathers and the decisions of Church councils; developing the institution of <a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">monasticism</a>; and fostering the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Orthodox tradition</a> which continues to define much of Eastern European identity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoppe199125Cameron2010261Mango2008358_366-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoppe199125Cameron2010261Mango2008358-366"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>363<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was also instrumental in preserving the Greek language and is credited with developing the <a href="/wiki/Glagolitic_script" title="Glagolitic script">Glagolitic alphabet</a>, which later evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoppe199125Ivanič2016127Mango2008959,_961_367-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoppe199125Ivanič2016127Mango2008959,_961-367"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>364<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These innovations provided the first literary language for the Slavs and formed the educational foundation for all Slavic nations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoppe199125Ivanič2016127Cameron2010165Shepard20067–8_368-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoppe199125Ivanič2016127Cameron2010165Shepard20067–8-368"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>365<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="Family tree of Byzantine emperors">Family tree of Byzantine emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Byzantine_Empire%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of Byzantine Empire–related articles">Index of Byzantine Empire–related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_revolts_and_civil_wars" title="List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars">List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_wars" title="List of Byzantine wars">List of Byzantine wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">List of Roman dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Outline of the Byzantine Empire">Outline of the Byzantine Empire</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Greek language">Medieval Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Ῥωμαῖοι</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Medieval_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Medieval Greek">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Medieval Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Rhōmaîoi</i></span>. Due to the imperial seat's move to <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">adoption of state Christianity</a>, and the predominance of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek" title="Medieval Greek">Greek</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, most historians make a distinction between the earlier <i>Roman Empire</i> and the later <i>Byzantine Empire</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar20062,_15Kaldellis20072–3_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar20062,_15Kaldellis20072–3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leo VI was officially the son of Basil I, but a persistent rumour alleged that he had been fathered by Michael III, who had previously taken Leo's mother <a href="/wiki/Eudokia_Ingerina" title="Eudokia Ingerina">Eudokia Ingerina</a> as his mistress. One of Leo's first acts was to rebury Michael III in Basil's mausoleum in the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Apostles" title="Church of the Holy Apostles">Church of the Holy Apostles</a> complex, which exacerbated the rumours.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETougher2009296Kaldellis2023526_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETougher2009296Kaldellis2023526-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a>, one of the first major controversies, shook the empire until it was addressed by the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerndtSteinacher20141–2,_8–19Löhr200714_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerndtSteinacher20141–2,_8–19Löhr200714-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other controversies persisted, leading to schisms, such as debates on the fundamental definitions of Christ's nature at the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a> in 451.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESabo2018vi,_9Löhr200714–23_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESabo2018vi,_9Löhr200714–23-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997137-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997137_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, p. 137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997278-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997278_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, p. 278.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997236-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997236_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997236_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, p. 236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997570-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997570_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, p. 570.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillar20062,_15Kaldellis20072–3-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillar20062,_15Kaldellis20072–3_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMillar2006">Millar 2006</a>, pp. 2, 15; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2007">Kaldellis 2007</a>, pp. 2–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2022a351AschenbrennerRansohoff2022a1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2022a351AschenbrennerRansohoff2022a1_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2022a">Kaldellis 2022a</a>, pp. 351; <a href="#CITEREFAschenbrennerRansohoff2022a">Aschenbrenner & Ransohoff 2022a</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAschenbrennerRansohoff2022a1-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAschenbrennerRansohoff2022a1_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAschenbrennerRansohoff2022a">Aschenbrenner & Ransohoff 2022a</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis20232AschenbrennerRansohoff2022a2-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis20232AschenbrennerRansohoff2022a2_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 2; <a href="#CITEREFAschenbrennerRansohoff2022a">Aschenbrenner & Ransohoff 2022a</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2022a349,_351CormackHaldonJeffreys20084-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2022a349,_351CormackHaldonJeffreys20084_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2022a">Kaldellis 2022a</a>, pp. 349, 351; <a href="#CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008">Cormack, Haldon & Jeffreys 2008</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAschenbrennerRansohoff2022a2-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAschenbrennerRansohoff2022a2_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAschenbrennerRansohoff2022a">Aschenbrenner & Ransohoff 2022a</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2022a352-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2022a352_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2022a">Kaldellis 2022a</a>, p. 352.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2022a352,_355,_357-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2022a352,_355,_357_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2022a">Kaldellis 2022a</a>, pp. 352, 355, 357.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis20232–3CormackHaldonJeffreys20084Stouraitis2022b20,_29,_31,_33–36-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis20232–3CormackHaldonJeffreys20084Stouraitis2022b20,_29,_31,_33–36_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 2–3; <a href="#CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008">Cormack, Haldon & Jeffreys 2008</a>, p. 4; <a href="#CITEREFStouraitis2022b">Stouraitis 2022b</a>, pp. 20, 29, 31, 33–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2002190–191-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECameron2002190–191_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCameron2002">Cameron 2002</a>, pp. 190–191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2002166,_191Kaldellis2015Howard-Johnston2024-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECameron2002166,_191Kaldellis2015Howard-Johnston2024_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCameron2002">Cameron 2002</a>, pp. 166, 191; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2015">Kaldellis 2015</a>; <a href="#CITEREFHoward-Johnston2024">Howard-Johnston 2024</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis20233,_34-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis20233,_34_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 3, 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008232-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008232_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, p. 232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008233-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008233_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008233_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, p. 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008233Kaldellis202316–17Treadgold19977-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008233Kaldellis202316–17Treadgold19977_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, p. 233; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 16–17; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202317–18Treadgold199715,_17–18-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202317–18Treadgold199715,_17–18_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 17–18; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 15, 17–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008235Kaldellis202317–18Treadgold199714-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008235Kaldellis202317–18Treadgold199714_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, p. 235; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 17–18; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008235-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008235_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, p. 235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008235Treadgold199739–40Kaldellis202318-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008235Treadgold199739–40Kaldellis202318_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, p. 235; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 39–40; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202317,_20-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202317,_20_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 17, 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202318–20-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202318–20_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 18–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008235–236Kaldellis202343–44-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008235–236Kaldellis202343–44_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, pp. 235–236; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 43–44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008236–237Kaldellis202381–84Treadgold199731–33,_40–42-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008236–237Kaldellis202381–84Treadgold199731–33,_40–42_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, pp. 236–237; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 81–84; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 31–33, 40–42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008238Kaldellis202393,_98,_111–112Treadgold199752–53,_59–62-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008238Kaldellis202393,_98,_111–112Treadgold199752–53,_59–62_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, p. 238; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 93, 98, 111–112; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 52–53, 59–62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008239–240Kaldellis2023114–118,_121–123Treadgold199763–67-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008239–240Kaldellis2023114–118,_121–123Treadgold199763–67_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, pp. 239–240; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 114–118, 121–123; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 63–67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008240Kaldellis2023128–129Treadgold199773-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008240Kaldellis2023128–129Treadgold199773_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, p. 240; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 128–129; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, p. 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008241Kaldellis2023129–130,_135–137Treadgold199774–75-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008241Kaldellis2023129–130,_135–137Treadgold199774–75_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, p. 241; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 129–130, 135–137; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 74–75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008240–241Kaldellis2023126–128Treadgold199770–74-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008240–241Kaldellis2023126–128Treadgold199770–74_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, pp. 240–241; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 126–128; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 70–74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023136-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023136_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023165Treadgold199787-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023165Treadgold199787_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 165; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, p. 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023165–167,_244-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023165–167,_244_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 165–167, 244.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008242Kaldellis202315,_20–21-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008242Kaldellis202315,_20–21_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, p. 242; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 15, 20–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard200922-23Treadgold199791–92-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShepard200922-23Treadgold199791–92_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShepard2009">Shepard 2009</a>, p. 22-23; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 91–92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008242Kaldellis2023173Treadgold199792-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008242Kaldellis2023173Treadgold199792_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, p. 242; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 173; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023193–196Treadgold199794–95-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023193–196Treadgold199794–95_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 193–196; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 94–95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023200Treadgold1997209-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023200Treadgold1997209_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 200; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, p. 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023209Greatrex2008243Treadgold1997153-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023209Greatrex2008243Treadgold1997153_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 209; <a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, pp. 243; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008244Kaldellis2023214Treadgold1997158–159-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008244Kaldellis2023214Treadgold1997158–159_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, pp. 244; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 214; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 158–159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023243–245-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023243–245_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 243–245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008244Kaldellis2023220Treadgold1997162,_164-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008244Kaldellis2023220Treadgold1997162,_164_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, p. 244; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 220; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 162, 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008244Kaldellis2023220Treadgold1997164-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008244Kaldellis2023220Treadgold1997164_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, p. 244; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 220; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008Kaldellis2023244224-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreatrex2008Kaldellis2023244224_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008Kaldellis2023">Greatrex, 2008 & Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 244.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFGreatrex2008Kaldellis2023 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997172-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997172_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, p. 172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a250Louth2009a106Kaldellis2023257–258Treadgold1997174-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a250Louth2009a106Kaldellis2023257–258Treadgold1997174_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, p. 250; <a href="#CITEREFLouth2009a">Louth 2009a</a>, p. 106; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 257–258; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, p. 174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELouth2009a108–109Kaldellis2023269–271Sarris200245Treadgold1997178–180-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELouth2009a108–109Kaldellis2023269–271Sarris200245Treadgold1997178–180_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLouth2009a">Louth 2009a</a>, pp. 108–109; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 269–271; <a href="#CITEREFSarris2002">Sarris 2002</a>, p. 45; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 178–180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESarris200243–45Kaldellis2023271–274Louth2009a114–119-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarris200243–45Kaldellis2023271–274Louth2009a114–119_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSarris2002">Sarris 2002</a>, pp. 43–45; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 271–274; <a href="#CITEREFLouth2009a">Louth 2009a</a>, pp. 114–119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELouth2009a111–114Kaldellis2023274–277Sarris200246-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELouth2009a111–114Kaldellis2023274–277Sarris200246_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLouth2009a">Louth 2009a</a>, pp. 111–114; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 274–277; <a href="#CITEREFSarris2002">Sarris 2002</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESarris200246Kaldellis2023279–283,_287–288,_305–307Moorhead2009202–209-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarris200246Kaldellis2023279–283,_287–288,_305–307Moorhead2009202–209_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSarris2002">Sarris 2002</a>, p. 46; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 279–283, 287–288, 305–307; <a href="#CITEREFMoorhead2009">Moorhead 2009</a>, pp. 202–209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023297Treadgold1997193–194Haldon2008a252–253-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023297Treadgold1997193–194Haldon2008a252–253_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 297; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 193–194; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, pp. 252–253.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESarris200249Kaldellis2023298–301-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarris200249Kaldellis2023298–301_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSarris2002">Sarris 2002</a>, p. 49; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 298–301.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997196–207Kaldellis2023298–299,_305–306Moorhead2009207–208-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997196–207Kaldellis2023298–299,_305–306Moorhead2009207–208_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 196–207; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 298–299, 305–306; <a href="#CITEREFMoorhead2009">Moorhead 2009</a>, pp. 207–208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997210–211,_214Louth2009a117–118Haldon2008a253-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997210–211,_214Louth2009a117–118Haldon2008a253_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 210–211, 214; <a href="#CITEREFLouth2009a">Louth 2009a</a>, pp. 117–118; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, p. 253.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023318–319Treadgold1997217Sarris200251-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023318–319Treadgold1997217Sarris200251_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 318–319; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, p. 217; <a href="#CITEREFSarris2002">Sarris 2002</a>, p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESarris200251Haldon2008a254Treadgold1997220–222-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarris200251Haldon2008a254Treadgold1997220–222_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSarris2002">Sarris 2002</a>, p. 51; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, p. 254; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 220–222.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELouth2009a124–127Haldon2008a254Sarris200251-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELouth2009a124–127Haldon2008a254Sarris200251_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLouth2009a">Louth 2009a</a>, pp. 124–127; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, p. 254; <a href="#CITEREFSarris2002">Sarris 2002</a>, p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023336–338Treadgold1997232–235Haldon2008a254-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023336–338Treadgold1997232–235Haldon2008a254_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 336–338; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 232–235; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, p. 254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023347–350Haldon2008a254Louth2009b226–227Treadgold1997241-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023347–350Haldon2008a254Louth2009b226–227Treadgold1997241_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 347–350; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, p. 254; <a href="#CITEREFLouth2009b">Louth 2009b</a>, pp. 226–227; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, p. 241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a254–255Treadgold1997287–293Kaldellis2023351–355-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a254–255Treadgold1997287–293Kaldellis2023351–355_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, pp. 254–255; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 287–293; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 351–355.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESarris200256–58Haldon2008a255Kaldellis2023364–367,_369,_372Louth2009b227–229Treadgold1997397–400-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarris200256–58Haldon2008a255Kaldellis2023364–367,_369,_372Louth2009b227–229Treadgold1997397–400_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSarris2002">Sarris 2002</a>, pp. 56–58; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, p. 255; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 364–367, 369, 372; <a href="#CITEREFLouth2009b">Louth 2009b</a>, pp. 227–229; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 397–400.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023375Haldon2008a256Louth2009b229–230-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023375Haldon2008a256Louth2009b229–230_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 375; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, p. 256; <a href="#CITEREFLouth2009b">Louth 2009b</a>, pp. 229–230.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023387Haldon2008a256Treadgold2002129-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023387Haldon2008a256Treadgold2002129_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 387; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, p. 256; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold2002">Treadgold 2002</a>, p. 129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023387-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023387_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 387.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a257Kaldellis2023387-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a257Kaldellis2023387_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, p. 257; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 387.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023389Louth2009b230–231-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023389Louth2009b230–231_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 389; <a href="#CITEREFLouth2009b">Louth 2009b</a>, pp. 230–231.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997315–316Louth2009b239–240-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997315–316Louth2009b239–240_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 315–316; <a href="#CITEREFLouth2009b">Louth 2009b</a>, pp. 239–240.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997323–327Haldon2008a257Louth2009b232–233-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997323–327Haldon2008a257Louth2009b232–233_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 323–327; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, p. 257; <a href="#CITEREFLouth2009b">Louth 2009b</a>, pp. 232–233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023403Haldon2008a257–258Treadgold2002134–135-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023403Haldon2008a257–258Treadgold2002134–135_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 403; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, pp. 257–258; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold2002">Treadgold 2002</a>, pp. 134–135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023403Treadgold2002135-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023403Treadgold2002135_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 403; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold2002">Treadgold 2002</a>, p. 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold2002136–138Haldon2008a257Kaldellis2023438–440-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold2002136–138Haldon2008a257Kaldellis2023438–440_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreadgold2002">Treadgold 2002</a>, pp. 136–138; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, p. 257; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 438–440.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold2002137–138Haldon2008a257Auzépy2009265-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold2002137–138Haldon2008a257Auzépy2009265_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreadgold2002">Treadgold 2002</a>, pp. 137–138; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, p. 257; <a href="#CITEREFAuzépy2009">Auzépy 2009</a>, p. 265.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a258–259Kaldellis2023443,_451–452Auzépy2009255–260-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a258–259Kaldellis2023443,_451–452Auzépy2009255–260_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, pp. 258–259; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 443, 451–452; <a href="#CITEREFAuzépy2009">Auzépy 2009</a>, pp. 255–260.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023444–445Auzépy2009275–276-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023444–445Auzépy2009275–276_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 444–445; <a href="#CITEREFAuzépy2009">Auzépy 2009</a>, pp. 275–276.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAuzépy2009265–273Kaegi2009385–385Kaldellis2023450-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAuzépy2009265–273Kaegi2009385–385Kaldellis2023450_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAuzépy2009">Auzépy 2009</a>, pp. 265–273; <a href="#CITEREFKaegi2009">Kaegi 2009</a>, pp. 385–385; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 450.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a260Kaldellis2023450–454Treadgold2002140–141-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a260Kaldellis2023450–454Treadgold2002140–141_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, p. 260; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 450–454; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold2002">Treadgold 2002</a>, pp. 140–141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023443,_447–449,_454–459Haldon2008a258–261Auzépy2009253–254-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023443,_447–449,_454–459Haldon2008a258–261Auzépy2009253–254_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 443, 447–449, 454–459; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, pp. 258–261; <a href="#CITEREFAuzépy2009">Auzépy 2009</a>, pp. 253–254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold2002140–141Kaldellis2023459–561Auzépy2009284–287-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold2002140–141Kaldellis2023459–561Auzépy2009284–287_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreadgold2002">Treadgold 2002</a>, pp. 140–141; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 459–561; <a href="#CITEREFAuzépy2009">Auzépy 2009</a>, pp. 284–287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a261Treadgold2002141–142Magdalino2002170-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a261Treadgold2002141–142Magdalino2002170_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, p. 261; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold2002">Treadgold 2002</a>, pp. 141–142; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2002">Magdalino 2002</a>, p. 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a261Kaldellis2023464–469-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008a261Kaldellis2023464–469_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, p. 261; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 464–469.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023470–473Magdalino2002169–171Haldon2008a261-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023470–473Magdalino2002169–171Haldon2008a261_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 470–473; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2002">Magdalino 2002</a>, pp. 169–171; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008a">Haldon 2008a</a>, p. 261.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023473–474,_478–481-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023473–474,_478–481_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 473–474, 478–481.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008265Auzépy2009257,_259,_289Kaldellis2023482–483,_485–491-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008265Auzépy2009257,_259,_289Kaldellis2023482–483,_485–491_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 265; <a href="#CITEREFAuzépy2009">Auzépy 2009</a>, pp. 257, 259, 289; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 482–483, 485–491.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023491–495Holmes2008265Auzépy2009273–274-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023491–495Holmes2008265Auzépy2009273–274_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 491–495; <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 265; <a href="#CITEREFAuzépy2009">Auzépy 2009</a>, pp. 273–274.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023498–501Holmes2008266-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023498–501Holmes2008266_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 498–501; <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 266.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008265–266Kaldellis2023504–505Auzépy2009254Tougher2009292–293,_296-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008265–266Kaldellis2023504–505Auzépy2009254Tougher2009292–293,_296_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, pp. 265–266; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 504–505; <a href="#CITEREFAuzépy2009">Auzépy 2009</a>, p. 254; <a href="#CITEREFTougher2009">Tougher 2009</a>, pp. 292–293, 296.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETougher2009292,_296Holmes2008266-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETougher2009292,_296Holmes2008266_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTougher2009">Tougher 2009</a>, pp. 292, 296; <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 266.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008266Kaldellis2023522–524Treadgold1997455–458-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008266Kaldellis2023522–524Treadgold1997455–458_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 266; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 522–524; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997">Treadgold 1997</a>, pp. 455–458.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETougher2009296Kaldellis2023526-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETougher2009296Kaldellis2023526_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTougher2009">Tougher 2009</a>, p. 296; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 526.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b493,_496–498Kaldellis2023429–433Holmes2008267-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b493,_496–498Kaldellis2023429–433Holmes2008267_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShepard2009b">Shepard 2009b</a>, pp. 493, 496–498; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 429–433; <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 267.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008267Kaldellis2023534–535-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008267Kaldellis2023534–535_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 267; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 534–535.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023537–539Holmes2008267Shepard2009b503-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023537–539Holmes2008267Shepard2009b503_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 537–539; <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 267; <a href="#CITEREFShepard2009b">Shepard 2009b</a>, p. 503.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b505Kaldellis2023540–543Holmes2008267-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b505Kaldellis2023540–543Holmes2008267_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShepard2009b">Shepard 2009b</a>, p. 505; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 540–543; <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 267.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023543–544Shepard2009b505–507-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023543–544Shepard2009b505–507_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 543–544; <a href="#CITEREFShepard2009b">Shepard 2009b</a>, pp. 505–507.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b508–509Kaldellis2023546–552Holmes2008268-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b508–509Kaldellis2023546–552Holmes2008268_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShepard2009b">Shepard 2009b</a>, pp. 508–509; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 546–552; <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023553–555Holmes2008268-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023553–555Holmes2008268_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 553–555; <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023563–573Holmes2008268–269Magdalino2002176-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023563–573Holmes2008268–269Magdalino2002176_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 563–573; <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, pp. 268–269; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2002">Magdalino 2002</a>, p. 176.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008268-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008268_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b522–526Magdalino2002202Kaldellis2023573–578-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b522–526Magdalino2002202Kaldellis2023573–578_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShepard2009b">Shepard 2009b</a>, pp. 522–526; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2002">Magdalino 2002</a>, p. 202; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 573–578.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b526,_531Kaldellis2023578–579Holmes2008269-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b526,_531Kaldellis2023578–579Holmes2008269_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShepard2009b">Shepard 2009b</a>, pp. 526, 531; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 578–579; <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008269Shepard2009b526–29Kaldellis2023579–582-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008269Shepard2009b526–29Kaldellis2023579–582_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 269; <a href="#CITEREFShepard2009b">Shepard 2009b</a>, pp. 526–29; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 579–582.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b529Holmes2008271-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b529Holmes2008271_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShepard2009b">Shepard 2009b</a>, p. 529; <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 271.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023584Holmes2008270–271Magdalino2002180-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023584Holmes2008270–271Magdalino2002180_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 584; <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, pp. 270–271; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2002">Magdalino 2002</a>, p. 180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b531–536Holmes2008271-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShepard2009b531–536Holmes2008271_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShepard2009b">Shepard 2009b</a>, pp. 531–536; <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 271.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2002202–203Holmes2008271–272Angold2009587–588Kaldellis2023588–589-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2002202–203Holmes2008271–272Angold2009587–588Kaldellis2023588–589_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2002">Magdalino 2002</a>, pp. 202–203; <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, pp. 271–272; <a href="#CITEREFAngold2009">Angold 2009</a>, pp. 587–588; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 588–589.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023590,_593Magdalino2002181–182Angold2009587–598-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023590,_593Magdalino2002181–182Angold2009587–598_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 590, 593; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2002">Magdalino 2002</a>, pp. 181–182; <a href="#CITEREFAngold2009">Angold 2009</a>, pp. 587–598.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023602-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023602_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 602.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008272–273Magdalino2002182Kaldellis2023636-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008272–273Magdalino2002182Kaldellis2023636_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, pp. 272–273; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2002">Magdalino 2002</a>, p. 182; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 636.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008273Magdalino2002184–185,_189-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008273Magdalino2002184–185,_189_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 273; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2002">Magdalino 2002</a>, pp. 184–185, 189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023629–637Angold2009609–610-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023629–637Angold2009609–610_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 629–637; <a href="#CITEREFAngold2009">Angold 2009</a>, pp. 609–610.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008273–274Angold2009611-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008273–274Angold2009611_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, pp. 273–274; <a href="#CITEREFAngold2009">Angold 2009</a>, p. 611.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023639–642Holmes2008275Magdalino2002190-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023639–642Holmes2008275Magdalino2002190_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 639–642; <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 275; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2002">Magdalino 2002</a>, p. 190.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023642–644Holmes2008275Angold2009611–612-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023642–644Holmes2008275Angold2009611–612_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 642–644; <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 275; <a href="#CITEREFAngold2009">Angold 2009</a>, pp. 611–612.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008275Magdalino2002190Angold2009621–623-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008275Magdalino2002190Angold2009621–623_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 275; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2002">Magdalino 2002</a>, p. 190; <a href="#CITEREFAngold2009">Angold 2009</a>, pp. 621–623.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008274–275Angold2009612–613,_619–621,_623–625Kaldellis2023645–647,_659–663-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008274–275Angold2009612–613,_619–621,_623–625Kaldellis2023645–647,_659–663_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, pp. 274–275; <a href="#CITEREFAngold2009">Angold 2009</a>, pp. 612–613, 619–621, 623–625; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 645–647, 659–663.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008274Magdalino2009629–630-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008274Magdalino2009629–630_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 274; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2009">Magdalino 2009</a>, pp. 629–630.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008275Magdalino2009631–633Kaldellis2023664–670-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008275Magdalino2009631–633Kaldellis2023664–670_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 275; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2009">Magdalino 2009</a>, pp. 631–633; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 664–670.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023669Holmes2008275-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023669Holmes2008275_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 669; <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 275.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023670,_676–677Magdalino2009644–646-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023670,_676–677Magdalino2009644–646_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 670, 676–677; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2009">Magdalino 2009</a>, pp. 644–646.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023678,_683–688Holmes2008275–276-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023678,_683–688Holmes2008275–276_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 678, 683–688; <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, pp. 275–276.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023679–681Magdalino2009637–638-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023679–681Magdalino2009637–638_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 679–681; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2009">Magdalino 2009</a>, pp. 637–638.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023682–683Magdalino2002194Magdalino2009638–641-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023682–683Magdalino2002194Magdalino2009638–641_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 682–683; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2002">Magdalino 2002</a>, p. 194; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2009">Magdalino 2009</a>, pp. 638–641.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2009643–644Kaldellis2023692–693-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2009643–644Kaldellis2023692–693_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2009">Magdalino 2009</a>, pp. 643–644; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 692–693.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023695-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023695_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 695.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2002194Holmes2008276-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2002194Holmes2008276_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2002">Magdalino 2002</a>, p. 194; <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 276.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008276Magdalino2002194–195Magdalino2009655-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008276Magdalino2002194–195Magdalino2009655_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 276; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2002">Magdalino 2002</a>, pp. 194–195; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2009">Magdalino 2009</a>, p. 655.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2002195–196Magdalino2009648–651Kaldellis2023706–710-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2002195–196Magdalino2009648–651Kaldellis2023706–710_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2002">Magdalino 2002</a>, pp. 195–196; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2009">Magdalino 2009</a>, pp. 648–651; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 706–710.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008276-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmes2008276_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolmes2008">Holmes 2008</a>, p. 276.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023718–720Magdalino2009651–652-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023718–720Magdalino2009651–652_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 718–720; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2009">Magdalino 2009</a>, pp. 651–652.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023720–724Magdalino2009652–653-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023720–724Magdalino2009652–653_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 720–724; <a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2009">Magdalino 2009</a>, pp. 652–653.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2008280Kaldellis2023733–734Reinert2002250–253Angold2009b731-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2008280Kaldellis2023733–734Reinert2002250–253Angold2009b731_136-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2008280Kaldellis2023733–734Reinert2002250–253Angold2009b731_136-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaiou2008">Laiou 2008</a>, p. 280; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 733–734; <a href="#CITEREFReinert2002">Reinert 2002</a>, pp. 250–253; <a href="#CITEREFAngold2009b">Angold 2009b</a>, p. 731.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023755–758Angold2009b737-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023755–758Angold2009b737_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 755–758; <a href="#CITEREFAngold2009b">Angold 2009b</a>, p. 737.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2008283Reinert2002254Angold2009b737–738Kaldellis2023766–770-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2008283Reinert2002254Angold2009b737–738Kaldellis2023766–770_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaiou2008">Laiou 2008</a>, p. 283; <a href="#CITEREFReinert2002">Reinert 2002</a>, p. 254; <a href="#CITEREFAngold2009b">Angold 2009b</a>, pp. 737–738; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 766–770.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinert2002253Kaldellis2023760–762-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinert2002253Kaldellis2023760–762_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReinert2002">Reinert 2002</a>, p. 253; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 760–762.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023771Laiou2008282–283-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023771Laiou2008282–283_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 771; <a href="#CITEREFLaiou2008">Laiou 2008</a>, pp. 282–283.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAngold2009b740Laiou2008282–283Kaldellis2023772-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAngold2009b740Laiou2008282–283Kaldellis2023772_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAngold2009b">Angold 2009b</a>, p. 740; <a href="#CITEREFLaiou2008">Laiou 2008</a>, pp. 282–283; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 772.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023774–781Reinert2002254-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023774–781Reinert2002254_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 774–781; <a href="#CITEREFReinert2002">Reinert 2002</a>, p. 254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2008283Reinert2002254-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2008283Reinert2002254_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaiou2008">Laiou 2008</a>, p. 283; <a href="#CITEREFReinert2002">Reinert 2002</a>, p. 254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinert2002256–257Laiou2008286-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinert2002256–257Laiou2008286_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReinert2002">Reinert 2002</a>, pp. 256–257; <a href="#CITEREFLaiou2008">Laiou 2008</a>, p. 286.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinert2002257–258Laiou2009803–804-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinert2002257–258Laiou2009803–804_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReinert2002">Reinert 2002</a>, pp. 257–258; <a href="#CITEREFLaiou2009">Laiou 2009</a>, pp. 803–804.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinert2002258Laiou2008287-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinert2002258Laiou2008287_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReinert2002">Reinert 2002</a>, pp. 258; <a href="#CITEREFLaiou2008">Laiou 2008</a>, p. 287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2008287–288Reinert2002260–263Kaldellis2023847-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2008287–288Reinert2002260–263Kaldellis2023847_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaiou2008">Laiou 2008</a>, pp. 287–288; <a href="#CITEREFReinert2002">Reinert 2002</a>, pp. 260–263; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 847.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2008289–290Reinert2002265–268-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2008289–290Reinert2002265–268_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaiou2008">Laiou 2008</a>, pp. 289–290; <a href="#CITEREFReinert2002">Reinert 2002</a>, pp. 265–268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2008291-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2008291_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaiou2008">Laiou 2008</a>, p. 291.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2008291Reinert2002268–269-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2008291Reinert2002268–269_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaiou2008">Laiou 2008</a>, p. 291; <a href="#CITEREFReinert2002">Reinert 2002</a>, pp. 268–269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2009829-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2009829_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaiou2009">Laiou 2009</a>, p. 829.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinert2002273–274Laiou2009831–832Kaldellis2023887–889-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinert2002273–274Laiou2009831–832Kaldellis2023887–889_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReinert2002">Reinert 2002</a>, pp. 273–274; <a href="#CITEREFLaiou2009">Laiou 2009</a>, pp. 831–832; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 887–889.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinert2002274–276Laiou2008292Kaldellis2023892–894-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinert2002274–276Laiou2008292Kaldellis2023892–894_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReinert2002">Reinert 2002</a>, pp. 274–276; <a href="#CITEREFLaiou2008">Laiou 2008</a>, p. 292; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 892–894.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinert2002276-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinert2002276_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReinert2002">Reinert 2002</a>, p. 276.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinert2002278–279Kaldellis2023903–908-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinert2002278–279Kaldellis2023903–908_155-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReinert2002">Reinert 2002</a>, pp. 278–279; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 903–908.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReinert2002280–283Laiou2008292–293Kaldellis2023910–914-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReinert2002280–283Laiou2008292–293Kaldellis2023910–914_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReinert2002">Reinert 2002</a>, pp. 280–283; <a href="#CITEREFLaiou2008">Laiou 2008</a>, pp. 292–293; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 910–914.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELouth2005306–308Treadgold1997b82–83-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELouth2005306–308Treadgold1997b82–83_157-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLouth2005">Louth 2005</a>, pp. 306–308; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997b">Treadgold 1997b</a>, pp. 82–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning199298Stewart202210–11-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning199298Stewart202210–11_158-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowning1992">Browning 1992</a>, p. 98; <a href="#CITEREFStewart2022">Stewart 2022</a>, pp. 10–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202335Howard-Johnston20248Browning199298-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202335Howard-Johnston20248Browning199298_159-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 35; <a href="#CITEREFHoward-Johnston2024">Howard-Johnston 2024</a>, p. 8; <a href="#CITEREFBrowning1992">Browning 1992</a>, p. 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning199298Kaldellis2023185-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning199298Kaldellis2023185_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowning1992">Browning 1992</a>, p. 98; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning199298Howard-Johnston202467Kaldellis2023397,_407–409-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning199298Howard-Johnston202467Kaldellis2023397,_407–409_161-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowning1992">Browning 1992</a>, p. 98; <a href="#CITEREFHoward-Johnston2024">Howard-Johnston 2024</a>, p. 67; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 397, 407–409.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELouth2005303Treadgold1997b430–431Kaldellis2023418,_421-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELouth2005303Treadgold1997b430–431Kaldellis2023418,_421_162-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLouth2005">Louth 2005</a>, p. 303; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997b">Treadgold 1997b</a>, pp. 430–431; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 418, 421.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023168Stein199914,_16,_28Kaiser2015120-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023168Stein199914,_16,_28Kaiser2015120_163-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 168; <a href="#CITEREFStein1999">Stein 1999</a>, pp. 14, 16, 28; <a href="#CITEREFKaiser2015">Kaiser 2015</a>, p. 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregory2010135Stein199933–35Dingledy20192–14Kaiser2015123–126-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGregory2010135Stein199933–35Dingledy20192–14Kaiser2015123–126_164-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGregory2010">Gregory 2010</a>, p. 135; <a href="#CITEREFStein1999">Stein 1999</a>, pp. 33–35; <a href="#CITEREFDingledy2019">Dingledy 2019</a>, pp. 2–14; <a href="#CITEREFKaiser2015">Kaiser 2015</a>, pp. 123–126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein19998MerrymanPérez-Perdomo200721-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein19998MerrymanPérez-Perdomo200721_165-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStein1999">Stein 1999</a>, p. 8; <a href="#CITEREFMerrymanPérez-Perdomo2007">Merryman & Pérez-Perdomo 2007</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStolte2015356,_370Stolte2018231–232-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStolte2015356,_370Stolte2018231–232_166-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStolte2015">Stolte 2015</a>, pp. 356, 370; <a href="#CITEREFStolte2018">Stolte 2018</a>, pp. 231–232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChitwood201723-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChitwood201723_167-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChitwood2017">Chitwood 2017</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChitwood2017185-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChitwood2017185_168-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChitwood2017">Chitwood 2017</a>, p. 185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChitwood2017185Nicol19886523–24-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChitwood2017185Nicol19886523–24_169-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChitwood2017">Chitwood 2017</a>, p. 185; <a href="#CITEREFNicol1988">Nicol 1988</a>, p. 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChitwood201723,_132,_364-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChitwood201723,_132,_364_170-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChitwood2017">Chitwood 2017</a>, pp. 23, 132, 364.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning199297Kaldellis2023529Chitwood201725–32,_44-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning199297Kaldellis2023529Chitwood201725–32,_44_171-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowning1992">Browning 1992</a>, p. 97; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 529; <a href="#CITEREFChitwood2017">Chitwood 2017</a>, pp. 25–32, 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning199297–98Chitwood201732–35Kaldellis2023529-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning199297–98Chitwood201732–35Kaldellis2023529_172-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowning1992">Browning 1992</a>, pp. 97–98; <a href="#CITEREFChitwood2017">Chitwood 2017</a>, pp. 32–35; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 529.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein199935-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein199935_173-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStein1999">Stein 1999</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapaconstantinou2016xxxiiCameron201631Cameron2006b544–551Drake2007418,_422Greatrex2008236-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapaconstantinou2016xxxiiCameron201631Cameron2006b544–551Drake2007418,_422Greatrex2008236_174-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPapaconstantinou2016">Papaconstantinou 2016</a>, p. xxxii; <a href="#CITEREFCameron2016">Cameron 2016</a>, p. 31; <a href="#CITEREFCameron2006b">Cameron 2006b</a>, pp. 544–551; <a href="#CITEREFDrake2007">Drake 2007</a>, pp. 418, 422; <a href="#CITEREFGreatrex2008">Greatrex 2008</a>, p. 236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023141,_186,_342-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023141,_186,_342_175-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 141, 186, 342.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown19768Löhr20079-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown19768Löhr20079_176-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrown1976">Brown 1976</a>, p. 8; <a href="#CITEREFLöhr2007">Löhr 2007</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023390Cameron2017A_United_Church,_chapter_1-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023390Cameron2017A_United_Church,_chapter_1_177-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 390; <a href="#CITEREFCameron2017">Cameron 2017</a>, A United Church, chapter 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerndtSteinacher20141–2,_8–19Löhr200714-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerndtSteinacher20141–2,_8–19Löhr200714_178-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBerndtSteinacher2014">Berndt & Steinacher 2014</a>, pp. 1–2, 8–19; <a href="#CITEREFLöhr2007">Löhr 2007</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESabo2018vi,_9Löhr200714–23-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESabo2018vi,_9Löhr200714–23_179-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSabo2018">Sabo 2018</a>, pp. vi, 9; <a href="#CITEREFLöhr2007">Löhr 2007</a>, pp. 14–23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams2021366Micheau2006373,_375-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdams2021366Micheau2006373,_375_181-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams2021">Adams 2021</a>, p. 366; <a href="#CITEREFMicheau2006">Micheau 2006</a>, pp. 373, 375.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMicheau2006373–374,_376-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMicheau2006373–374,_376_182-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMicheau2006">Micheau 2006</a>, pp. 373–374, 376.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholson196054,_60CasidayNorris2007a3-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicholson196054,_60CasidayNorris2007a3_183-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNicholson1960">Nicholson 1960</a>, pp. 54, 60; <a href="#CITEREFCasidayNorris2007a">Casiday & Norris 2007a</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELouth200847Kolbaba2008214–215-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELouth200847Kolbaba2008214–215_184-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLouth2008">Louth 2008</a>, p. 47; <a href="#CITEREFKolbaba2008">Kolbaba 2008</a>, pp. 214–215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolbaba2008213–215,_218–221-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKolbaba2008213–215,_218–221_185-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKolbaba2008">Kolbaba 2008</a>, pp. 213–215, 218–221.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyendorff197995,_97_101Kolbaba2008223-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyendorff197995,_97_101Kolbaba2008223_186-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeyendorff1979">Meyendorff 1979</a>, pp. 95, 97 101; <a href="#CITEREFKolbaba2008">Kolbaba 2008</a>, p. 223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown200813Kolbaba2008223-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown200813Kolbaba2008223_187-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrown2008">Brown 2008</a>, p. 13; <a href="#CITEREFKolbaba2008">Kolbaba 2008</a>, p. 223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold199563–64,_206Haldon199967-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold199563–64,_206Haldon199967_188-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1995">Treadgold 1995</a>, pp. 63–64, 206; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon1999">Haldon 1999</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold199563,_204Haldon199967Decker201371-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold199563,_204Haldon199967Decker201371_189-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1995">Treadgold 1995</a>, pp. 63, 204; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon1999">Haldon 1999</a>, p. 67; <a href="#CITEREFDecker2013">Decker 2013</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon199968-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon199968_190-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon1999">Haldon 1999</a>, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold199563–64Haldon199968–69Haldon2008b554-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold199563–64Haldon199968–69Haldon2008b554_191-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1995">Treadgold 1995</a>, pp. 63–64; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon1999">Haldon 1999</a>, pp. 68–69; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008b">Haldon 2008b</a>, p. 554.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon199974Decker201374-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon199974Decker201374_192-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon1999">Haldon 1999</a>, p. 74; <a href="#CITEREFDecker2013">Decker 2013</a>, p. 74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold199523Haldon2008b554–555-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold199523Haldon2008b554–555_193-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1995">Treadgold 1995</a>, p. 23; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008b">Haldon 2008b</a>, pp. 554–555.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b555–556Kaldellis2021a463-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b555–556Kaldellis2021a463_194-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008b">Haldon 2008b</a>, pp. 555–556; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2021a">Kaldellis 2021a</a>, p. 463.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon199974Haldon2008b559-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon199974Haldon2008b559_195-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon1999">Haldon 1999</a>, p. 74; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008b">Haldon 2008b</a>, p. 559.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDecker2013207–208,_222–224Kaldellis2021a463Howard-Johnston2008947-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDecker2013207–208,_222–224Kaldellis2021a463Howard-Johnston2008947_196-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDecker2013">Decker 2013</a>, pp. 207–208, 222–224; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2021a">Kaldellis 2021a</a>, p. 463; <a href="#CITEREFHoward-Johnston2008">Howard-Johnston 2008</a>, p. 947.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2021a463Treadgold199525,_209Decker201377–78-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2021a463Treadgold199525,_209Decker201377–78_197-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2021a">Kaldellis 2021a</a>, p. 463; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1995">Treadgold 1995</a>, pp. 25, 209; <a href="#CITEREFDecker2013">Decker 2013</a>, pp. 77–78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon199992Decker201378–82-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon199992Decker201378–82_198-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon1999">Haldon 1999</a>, p. 92; <a href="#CITEREFDecker2013">Decker 2013</a>, pp. 78–82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b556-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b556_199-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008b">Haldon 2008b</a>, p. 556.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold199567Kaldellis2021a463Kaldellis2023562-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold199567Kaldellis2021a463Kaldellis2023562_200-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1995">Treadgold 1995</a>, p. 67; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2021a">Kaldellis 2021a</a>, p. 463; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 562.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b557Treadgold1995214–218-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b557Treadgold1995214–218_201-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008b">Haldon 2008b</a>, p. 557; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1995">Treadgold 1995</a>, pp. 214–218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b560-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b560_202-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008b">Haldon 2008b</a>, p. 560.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b557Kaldellis2021a464Bartusis19975–6-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b557Kaldellis2021a464Bartusis19975–6_203-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008b">Haldon 2008b</a>, p. 557; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2021a">Kaldellis 2021a</a>, p. 464; <a href="#CITEREFBartusis1997">Bartusis 1997</a>, pp. 5–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b557Bartusis19975–7Decker201382-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b557Bartusis19975–7Decker201382_204-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008b">Haldon 2008b</a>, p. 557; <a href="#CITEREFBartusis1997">Bartusis 1997</a>, pp. 5–7; <a href="#CITEREFDecker2013">Decker 2013</a>, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b557–558Decker201382–83-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b557–558Decker201382–83_205-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008b">Haldon 2008b</a>, pp. 557–558; <a href="#CITEREFDecker2013">Decker 2013</a>, pp. 82–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b558–560Kaldellis2023812,_860–861-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2008b558–560Kaldellis2023812,_860–861_206-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008b">Haldon 2008b</a>, pp. 558–560; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 812, 860–861.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDecker201340Haldon2008b559-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDecker201340Haldon2008b559_207-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDecker2013">Decker 2013</a>, p. 40; <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2008b">Haldon 2008b</a>, p. 559.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2008940Kaldellis2021a463-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2008940Kaldellis2021a463_208-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward-Johnston2008">Howard-Johnston 2008</a>, p. 940; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2021a">Kaldellis 2021a</a>, p. 463.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon1999278Decker2013130Kaldellis2021a465-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon1999278Decker2013130Kaldellis2021a465_209-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon1999">Haldon 1999</a>, p. 278; <a href="#CITEREFDecker2013">Decker 2013</a>, p. 130; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2021a">Kaldellis 2021a</a>, p. 465.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDecker2013130,_135–137Kazhdan199015–17-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDecker2013130,_135–137Kazhdan199015–17_210-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDecker2013">Decker 2013</a>, p. 130, 135–137; <a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1990">Kazhdan 1990</a>, pp. 15–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan199010–11Decker2013129-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan199010–11Decker2013129_211-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1990">Kazhdan 1990</a>, pp. 10–11; <a href="#CITEREFDecker2013">Decker 2013</a>, p. 129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan199011–15,_18–21-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan199011–15,_18–21_212-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1990">Kazhdan 1990</a>, pp. 11–15, 18–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2008945Kazhdan199020–21Bartusis1997348Kaldellis2021a466-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston2008945Kazhdan199020–21Bartusis1997348Kaldellis2021a466_213-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoward-Johnston2008">Howard-Johnston 2008</a>, p. 945; <a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1990">Kazhdan 1990</a>, pp. 20–21; <a href="#CITEREFBartusis1997">Bartusis 1997</a>, p. 348; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2021a">Kaldellis 2021a</a>, p. 466.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart20222–7,_10Muthesius202281,_96Kaldellis2022b248,_258Pohl201820Stouraitis2018125–127-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart20222–7,_10Muthesius202281,_96Kaldellis2022b248,_258Pohl201820Stouraitis2018125–127_214-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStewart2022">Stewart 2022</a>, pp. 2–7, 10; <a href="#CITEREFMuthesius2022">Muthesius 2022</a>, pp. 81, 96; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2022b">Kaldellis 2022b</a>, pp. 248, 258; <a href="#CITEREFPohl2018">Pohl 2018</a>, p. 20; <a href="#CITEREFStouraitis2018">Stouraitis 2018</a>, pp. 125–127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997b197,_384–385Kaldellis202321–22Stathakopoulos2008310-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold1997b197,_384–385Kaldellis202321–22Stathakopoulos2008310_215-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997b">Treadgold 1997b</a>, pp. 197, 384–385; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 21–22; <a href="#CITEREFStathakopoulos2008">Stathakopoulos 2008</a>, p. 310.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStathakopoulos2008312Treadgold1997b931–932-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStathakopoulos2008312Treadgold1997b931–932_216-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStathakopoulos2008">Stathakopoulos 2008</a>, p. 312; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997b">Treadgold 1997b</a>, pp. 931–932.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStathakopoulos2008313Treadgold1997b1112-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStathakopoulos2008313Treadgold1997b1112_217-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStathakopoulos2008">Stathakopoulos 2008</a>, p. 313; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997b">Treadgold 1997b</a>, p. 1112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStathakopoulos2008310,_314Stathakopoulos202331Kaldellis202321-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStathakopoulos2008310,_314Stathakopoulos202331Kaldellis202321_218-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStathakopoulos2008">Stathakopoulos 2008</a>, pp. 310, 314; <a href="#CITEREFStathakopoulos2023">Stathakopoulos 2023</a>, p. 31; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkopoulos2008786Jeffreys2008798-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarkopoulos2008786Jeffreys2008798_219-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarkopoulos2008">Markopoulos 2008</a>, p. 786; <a href="#CITEREFJeffreys2008">Jeffreys 2008</a>, p. 798.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkopoulos2008789-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarkopoulos2008789_220-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarkopoulos2008">Markopoulos 2008</a>, p. 789.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConstantelos1998p._19:_"The_fifth_century_marked_a_definite_turning_point_in_Byzantine_higher_education._Theodosios_ΙΙ_founded_in_425_a_major_university_with_31_chairs_for_law,_philosophy,_medicine,_arithmetic,_geometry,_astronomy,_music,_rhetoric_and_other_subjects._Fifteen_chairs_were_assigned_to_Latin_and_16_to_Greek._The_university_was_reorganised_by_Michael_III_(842–867)_and_flourished_down_to_the_fourteenth_century."-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConstantelos1998p._19:_"The_fifth_century_marked_a_definite_turning_point_in_Byzantine_higher_education._Theodosios_ΙΙ_founded_in_425_a_major_university_with_31_chairs_for_law,_philosophy,_medicine,_arithmetic,_geometry,_astronomy,_music,_rhetoric_and_other_subjects._Fifteen_chairs_were_assigned_to_Latin_and_16_to_Greek._The_university_was_reorganised_by_Michael_III_(842–867)_and_flourished_down_to_the_fourteenth_century."_221-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFConstantelos1998">Constantelos 1998</a>, p. 19: "The fifth century marked a definite turning point in Byzantine higher education. Theodosios ΙΙ founded in 425 a major university with 31 chairs for law, philosophy, medicine, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music, rhetoric and other subjects. Fifteen chairs were assigned to Latin and 16 to Greek. The university was reorganised by Michael III (842–867) and flourished down to the fourteenth century.".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdanWharton1990122-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdanWharton1990122_222-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKazhdanWharton1990">Kazhdan & Wharton 1990</a>, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERosser2011xxx-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosser2011xxx_223-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRosser2011">Rosser 2011</a>, p. xxx.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Rotman202232Lavan201616,_19-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Rotman202232Lavan201616,_19_224-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 40; <a href="#CITEREFRotman2022">Rotman 2022</a>, p. 32; <a href="#CITEREFLavan2016">Lavan 2016</a>, pp. 16, 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERotman200918,_179Rotman202259-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERotman200918,_179Rotman202259_225-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRotman2009">Rotman 2009</a>, pp. 18, 179; <a href="#CITEREFRotman2022">Rotman 2022</a>, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202339Lenski2021473–474-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202339Lenski2021473–474_226-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 39; <a href="#CITEREFLenski2021">Lenski 2021</a>, pp. 473–474.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERotman200930–31Kaldellis2023425Rotman202242Lenski2021470Rotman2010-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERotman200930–31Kaldellis2023425Rotman202242Lenski2021470Rotman2010_227-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRotman2009">Rotman 2009</a>, pp. 30–31; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 425; <a href="#CITEREFRotman2022">Rotman 2022</a>, p. 42; <a href="#CITEREFLenski2021">Lenski 2021</a>, p. 470; <a href="#CITEREFRotman2010">Rotman 2010</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023140Rotman2009Chapter_2Rotman202237–38,_53Lenski2021461–462-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023140Rotman2009Chapter_2Rotman202237–38,_53Lenski2021461–462_228-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 140; <a href="#CITEREFRotman2009">Rotman 2009</a>, Chapter 2; <a href="#CITEREFRotman2022">Rotman 2022</a>, pp. 37–38, 53; <a href="#CITEREFLenski2021">Lenski 2021</a>, pp. 461–462.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2010237-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarper2010237_229-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarper2010">Harper 2010</a>, p. 237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Rotman202253Lenski2021467–468-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Rotman202253Lenski2021467–468_230-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 40; <a href="#CITEREFRotman2022">Rotman 2022</a>, p. 53; <a href="#CITEREFLenski2021">Lenski 2021</a>, pp. 467–468.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202338Brandes2008563-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202338Brandes2008563_231-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 38; <a href="#CITEREFBrandes2008">Brandes 2008</a>, p. 563.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202339Harvey2008329-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202339Harvey2008329_232-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 39; <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2008">Harvey 2008</a>, p. 329.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202339Harvey2008331-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202339Harvey2008331_233-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 39; <a href="#CITEREFHarvey2008">Harvey 2008</a>, p. 331.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023444Rotman202285Lenski2021464–465-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023444Rotman202285Lenski2021464–465_234-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 444; <a href="#CITEREFRotman2022">Rotman 2022</a>, p. 85; <a href="#CITEREFLenski2021">Lenski 2021</a>, pp. 464–465.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbot1997121Kazhdan1990a132-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbot1997121Kazhdan1990a132_235-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTalbot1997">Talbot 1997</a>, p. 121; <a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1990a">Kazhdan 1990a</a>, p. 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERotman202283Talbot1997121Kaldellis202341Stathakopoulos2008309,_313-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERotman202283Talbot1997121Kaldellis202341Stathakopoulos2008309,_313_236-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRotman2022">Rotman 2022</a>, p. 83; <a href="#CITEREFTalbot1997">Talbot 1997</a>, p. 121; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 41; <a href="#CITEREFStathakopoulos2008">Stathakopoulos 2008</a>, pp. 309, 313.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202388,_321,_444,_529,_588,_769Talbot1997119,_122,_128-237"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202388,_321,_444,_529,_588,_769Talbot1997119,_122,_128_237-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 88, 321, 444, 529, 588, 769; <a href="#CITEREFTalbot1997">Talbot 1997</a>, pp. 119, 122, 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris201713Kaldellis202341Garland2006xiv-238"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris201713Kaldellis202341Garland2006xiv_238-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris2017">Harris 2017</a>, p. 13; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 41; <a href="#CITEREFGarland2006">Garland 2006</a>, p. xiv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340-239"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340_239-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340,_592Stephenson201066-240"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340,_592Stephenson201066_240-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 40, 592; <a href="#CITEREFStephenson2010">Stephenson 2010</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340,_592Talbot1997129Garland2006xvi-241"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340,_592Talbot1997129Garland2006xvi_241-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 40, 592; <a href="#CITEREFTalbot1997">Talbot 1997</a>, p. 129; <a href="#CITEREFGarland2006">Garland 2006</a>, p. xvi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Talbot1997118–119-242"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Talbot1997118–119_242-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 40; <a href="#CITEREFTalbot1997">Talbot 1997</a>, pp. 118–119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Talbot1997126–127Karras2004309–314-243"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Talbot1997126–127Karras2004309–314_243-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 40; <a href="#CITEREFTalbot1997">Talbot 1997</a>, pp. 126–127; <a href="#CITEREFKarras2004">Karras 2004</a>, pp. 309–314.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbot1997130–131Harris2017133Garland2006xivKaldellis202340–41-244"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbot1997130–131Harris2017133Garland2006xivKaldellis202340–41_244-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTalbot1997">Talbot 1997</a>, pp. 130–131; <a href="#CITEREFHarris2017">Harris 2017</a>, p. 133; <a href="#CITEREFGarland2006">Garland 2006</a>, p. xiv; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 40–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbot1997131Kazhdan1990a136-245"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbot1997131Kazhdan1990a136_245-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTalbot1997">Talbot 1997</a>, p. 131; <a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1990a">Kazhdan 1990a</a>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrosdidier_de_Matons196723–25Garland199911–39-246"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrosdidier_de_Matons196723–25Garland199911–39_246-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrosdidier_de_Matons1967">Grosdidier de Matons 1967</a>, pp. 23–25; <a href="#CITEREFGarland1999">Garland 1999</a>, pp. 11–39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Karras2004310-247"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis202340Karras2004310_247-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 40; <a href="#CITEREFKarras2004">Karras 2004</a>, p. 310.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023529Harris2017133-248"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023529Harris2017133_248-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 529; <a href="#CITEREFHarris2017">Harris 2017</a>, p. 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2008778-249"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2008778_249-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHorrocks2008">Horrocks 2008</a>, p. 778.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2010208Rochette2023282–283-250"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2010208Rochette2023282–283_250-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHorrocks2010">Horrocks 2010</a>, p. 208; <a href="#CITEREFRochette2023">Rochette 2023</a>, pp. 282–283.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2008778Rochette2023283–284-251"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2008778Rochette2023283–284_251-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHorrocks2008">Horrocks 2008</a>, p. 778; <a href="#CITEREFRochette2023">Rochette 2023</a>, pp. 283–284.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2010208–209-252"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2010208–209_252-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHorrocks2010">Horrocks 2010</a>, pp. 208–209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2008778–779Horrocks2010207–210-253"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2008778–779Horrocks2010207–210_253-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHorrocks2008">Horrocks 2008</a>, pp. 778–779; <a href="#CITEREFHorrocks2010">Horrocks 2010</a>, pp. 207–210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreadgold2002142-254"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreadgold2002142_254-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreadgold2002">Treadgold 2002</a>, p. 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning198251-255"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning198251_255-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowning1982">Browning 1982</a>, p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning198251Horrocks2008781–782-256"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning198251Horrocks2008781–782_256-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowning1982">Browning 1982</a>, p. 51; <a href="#CITEREFHorrocks2008">Horrocks 2008</a>, pp. 781–782.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2008783Horrocks2010216–218JeffreysMango2002298–300-257"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorrocks2008783Horrocks2010216–218JeffreysMango2002298–300_257-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHorrocks2008">Horrocks 2008</a>, p. 783; <a href="#CITEREFHorrocks2010">Horrocks 2010</a>, pp. 216–218; <a href="#CITEREFJeffreysMango2002">Jeffreys & Mango 2002</a>, pp. 298–300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning198251–52JeffreysMango2002299-258"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning198251–52JeffreysMango2002299_258-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowning1982">Browning 1982</a>, pp. 51–52; <a href="#CITEREFJeffreysMango2002">Jeffreys & Mango 2002</a>, p. 299.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009473LaiouMorrisson200713-259"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009473LaiouMorrisson200713_259-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittow2009">Whittow 2009</a>, p. 473; <a href="#CITEREFLaiouMorrisson2007">Laiou & Morrisson 2007</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiouMorrisson200724-260"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiouMorrisson200724_260-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaiouMorrisson2007">Laiou & Morrisson 2007</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009467LaiouMorrisson2007246-261"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009467LaiouMorrisson2007246_261-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittow2009">Whittow 2009</a>, p. 467; <a href="#CITEREFLaiouMorrisson2007">Laiou & Morrisson 2007</a>, p. 246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009472,_474,_479Laiou2002c698LaiouMorrisson200724-262"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009472,_474,_479Laiou2002c698LaiouMorrisson200724_262-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittow2009">Whittow 2009</a>, pp. 472, 474, 479; <a href="#CITEREFLaiou2002c">Laiou 2002c</a>, p. 698; <a href="#CITEREFLaiouMorrisson2007">Laiou & Morrisson 2007</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2002a177LaiouMorrisson200725–26-263"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2002a177LaiouMorrisson200725–26_263-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaiou2002a">Laiou 2002a</a>, p. 177; <a href="#CITEREFLaiouMorrisson2007">Laiou & Morrisson 2007</a>, pp. 25–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009465,_471LaiouMorrisson200725–26,_232-264"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009465,_471LaiouMorrisson200725–26,_232_264-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittow2009">Whittow 2009</a>, p. 465, 471; <a href="#CITEREFLaiouMorrisson2007">Laiou & Morrisson 2007</a>, pp. 25–26, 232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiouMorrisson200744–46-265"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiouMorrisson200744–46_265-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaiouMorrisson2007">Laiou & Morrisson 2007</a>, pp. 44–46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009473–474Laiou2002a269–270-266"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009473–474Laiou2002a269–270_266-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittow2009">Whittow 2009</a>, pp. 473–474; <a href="#CITEREFLaiou2002a">Laiou 2002a</a>, pp. 269–270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiouMorrisson200719–22,_24-267"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiouMorrisson200719–22,_24_267-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaiouMorrisson2007">Laiou & Morrisson 2007</a>, pp. 19–22, 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009476LaiouMorrisson200790–92-268"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009476LaiouMorrisson200790–92_268-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittow2009">Whittow 2009</a>, p. 476; <a href="#CITEREFLaiouMorrisson2007">Laiou & Morrisson 2007</a>, pp. 90–92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009473–476Laiou2002a25,_402-269"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009473–476Laiou2002a25,_402_269-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittow2009">Whittow 2009</a>, pp. 473–476; <a href="#CITEREFLaiou2002a">Laiou 2002a</a>, pp. 25, 402.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2002a23Laiou2002b1164LaiouMorrisson2007233-270"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2002a23Laiou2002b1164LaiouMorrisson2007233_270-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaiou2002a">Laiou 2002a</a>, p. 23; <a href="#CITEREFLaiou2002b">Laiou 2002b</a>, p. 1164; <a href="#CITEREFLaiouMorrisson2007">Laiou & Morrisson 2007</a>, p. 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2002b535-271"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagdalino2002b535_271-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMagdalino2002b">Magdalino 2002b</a>, p. 535.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023739LaiouMorrisson2007167–168-272"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023739LaiouMorrisson2007167–168_272-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 739; <a href="#CITEREFLaiouMorrisson2007">Laiou & Morrisson 2007</a>, pp. 167–168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatschke2002805–806-273"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatschke2002805–806_273-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMatschke2002">Matschke 2002</a>, pp. 805–806.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009477Matschke2002771–772LaiouMorrisson2007203-274"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009477Matschke2002771–772LaiouMorrisson2007203_274-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittow2009">Whittow 2009</a>, p. 477; <a href="#CITEREFMatschke2002">Matschke 2002</a>, pp. 771–772; <a href="#CITEREFLaiouMorrisson2007">Laiou & Morrisson 2007</a>, p. 203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatschke2002779LaiouMorrisson2007168-275"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatschke2002779LaiouMorrisson2007168_275-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMatschke2002">Matschke 2002</a>, p. 779; <a href="#CITEREFLaiouMorrisson2007">Laiou & Morrisson 2007</a>, p. 168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaiou2002c754-276"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaiou2002c754_276-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaiou2002c">Laiou 2002c</a>, p. 754.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009471LaiouMorrisson2007232–235-277"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittow2009471LaiouMorrisson2007232–235_277-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittow2009">Whittow 2009</a>, p. 471; <a href="#CITEREFLaiouMorrisson2007">Laiou & Morrisson 2007</a>, pp. 232–235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard200969Ball20054Dawson200641,_43-278"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShepard200969Ball20054Dawson200641,_43_278-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShepard2009">Shepard 2009</a>, p. 69; <a href="#CITEREFBall2005">Ball 2005</a>, p. 4; <a href="#CITEREFDawson2006">Dawson 2006</a>, pp. 41, 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall200557,_75–76,_118–119-279"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall200557,_75–76,_118–119_279-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBall2005">Ball 2005</a>, pp. 57, 75–76, 118–119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall200535,_177-280"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall200535,_177_280-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBall2005">Ball 2005</a>, pp. 35, 177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall200512,_29-281"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall200512,_29_281-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBall2005">Ball 2005</a>, pp. 12, 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall200524,_30,_32,_34Dawson200643-282"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall200524,_30,_32,_34Dawson200643_282-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBall2005">Ball 2005</a>, pp. 24, 30, 32, 34; <a href="#CITEREFDawson2006">Dawson 2006</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall20059-283"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall20059_283-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBall2005">Ball 2005</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBall20056-284"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBall20056_284-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBall2005">Ball 2005</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryer2008673-285"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryer2008673_285-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBryer2008">Bryer 2008</a>, p. 673.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsh1995244–245-286"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsh1995244–245_286-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAsh1995">Ash 1995</a>, pp. 244–245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsh1995244Decker2008496-287"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsh1995244Decker2008496_287-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAsh1995">Ash 1995</a>, p. 244; <a href="#CITEREFDecker2008">Decker 2008</a>, p. 496.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaas2005184–185Bryer2008671Ash1995233Vryonis1971482-288"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaas2005184–185Bryer2008671Ash1995233Vryonis1971482_288-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaas2005">Faas 2005</a>, pp. 184–185; <a href="#CITEREFBryer2008">Bryer 2008</a>, p. 671; <a href="#CITEREFAsh1995">Ash 1995</a>, p. 233; <a href="#CITEREFVryonis1971">Vryonis 1971</a>, p. 482.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson2014123-289"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson2014123_289-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavidson2014">Davidson 2014</a>, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsh1995244Davidson2014123Bryer2008671Salaman1986184-290"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsh1995244Davidson2014123Bryer2008671Salaman1986184_290-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAsh1995">Ash 1995</a>, p. 244; <a href="#CITEREFDavidson2014">Davidson 2014</a>, p. 123; <a href="#CITEREFBryer2008">Bryer 2008</a>, p. 671; <a href="#CITEREFSalaman1986">Salaman 1986</a>, p. 184.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryer2008672–673Unwin2010185-291"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryer2008672–673Unwin2010185_291-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBryer2008">Bryer 2008</a>, pp. 672–673; <a href="#CITEREFUnwin2010">Unwin 2010</a>, p. 185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHornSchädler2019-292"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHornSchädler2019_292-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHornSchädler2019">Horn & Schädler 2019</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2008a681–682Kaldellis202313,_138-293"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2008a681–682Kaldellis202313,_138_293-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJeffreys2008a">Jeffreys 2008a</a>, pp. 681–682; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 13, 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2008a680-294"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2008a680_294-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJeffreys2008a">Jeffreys 2008a</a>, p. 680.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2008a678–683Kaldellis2023187,_233-295"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2008a678–683Kaldellis2023187,_233_295-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJeffreys2008a">Jeffreys 2008a</a>, pp. 678–683; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 187, 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991a2137,_"Tzykanisterion"Kazanaki-Lappa2002643Jeffreys2008a683Kaldellis2023672,_844-296"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991a2137,_"Tzykanisterion"Kazanaki-Lappa2002643Jeffreys2008a683Kaldellis2023672,_844_296-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1991a">Kazhdan 1991a</a>, p. 2137, "Tzykanisterion"; <a href="#CITEREFKazanaki-Lappa2002">Kazanaki-Lappa 2002</a>, p. 643; <a href="#CITEREFJeffreys2008a">Jeffreys 2008a</a>, p. 683; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 672, 844.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2008a683-297"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2008a683_297-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJeffreys2008a">Jeffreys 2008a</a>, p. 683.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECormack201839-298"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECormack201839_298-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCormack2018">Cormack 2018</a>, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._3-299"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._3_299-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._3_299-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._3_299-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJames2003">James 2003</a>, § para. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_paras._2_and_13-300"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_paras._2_and_13_300-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJames2003">James 2003</a>, § paras. 2 and 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERodley19942Cormack201811–12-301"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodley19942Cormack201811–12_301-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRodley1994">Rodley 1994</a>, p. 2; <a href="#CITEREFCormack2018">Cormack 2018</a>, pp. 11–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERodley199412–14-302"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodley199412–14_302-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRodley1994">Rodley 1994</a>, pp. 12–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERodley199434James2003§_paras._3–4-303"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodley199434James2003§_paras._3–4_303-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRodley1994">Rodley 1994</a>, p. 34; <a href="#CITEREFJames2003">James 2003</a>, § paras. 3–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERodley199432–33,_56–57Cormack201814-304"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodley199432–33,_56–57Cormack201814_304-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRodley1994">Rodley 1994</a>, pp. 32–33, 56–57; <a href="#CITEREFCormack2018">Cormack 2018</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._10Cormack201833–40CurlWilson2021§_paras._3_and_5-305"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._10Cormack201833–40CurlWilson2021§_paras._3_and_5_305-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJames2003">James 2003</a>, § para. 10; <a href="#CITEREFCormack2018">Cormack 2018</a>, pp. 33–40; <a href="#CITEREFCurlWilson2021">Curl & Wilson 2021</a>, § paras. 3 and 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERodley199467-306"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodley199467_306-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRodley1994">Rodley 1994</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._7-307"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._7_307-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJames2003">James 2003</a>, § para. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._4Cormack201839-308"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._4Cormack201839_308-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJames2003">James 2003</a>, § para. 4; <a href="#CITEREFCormack2018">Cormack 2018</a>, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_paras._4–5-309"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_paras._4–5_309-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJames2003">James 2003</a>, § paras. 4–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERodley1994101–102Cormack20182-310"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodley1994101–102Cormack20182_310-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRodley1994">Rodley 1994</a>, pp. 101–102; <a href="#CITEREFCormack2018">Cormack 2018</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELowden1997147–148-311"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELowden1997147–148_311-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLowden1997">Lowden 1997</a>, pp. 147–148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1997185-312"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1997185_312-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMatthewsPlatt1997">Matthews & Platt 1997</a>, p. 185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERodley1994115–116Lowden1997147–151-313"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodley1994115–116Lowden1997147–151_313-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRodley1994">Rodley 1994</a>, pp. 115–116; <a href="#CITEREFLowden1997">Lowden 1997</a>, pp. 147–151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERodley1994132Lowden1997187–188-314"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodley1994132Lowden1997187–188_314-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRodley1994">Rodley 1994</a>, p. 132; <a href="#CITEREFLowden1997">Lowden 1997</a>, pp. 187–188.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._3Cormack2018146–147-315"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames2003§_para._3Cormack2018146–147_315-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJames2003">James 2003</a>, § para. 3; <a href="#CITEREFCormack2018">Cormack 2018</a>, pp. 146–147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECurlWilson2021§_para._7-316"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurlWilson2021§_para._7_316-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCurlWilson2021">Curl & Wilson 2021</a>, § para. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERodley1994166Cormack2018159,_186Andronikou20222–4-317"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodley1994166Cormack2018159,_186Andronikou20222–4_317-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRodley1994">Rodley 1994</a>, p. 166; <a href="#CITEREFCormack2018">Cormack 2018</a>, pp. 159, 186; <a href="#CITEREFAndronikou2022">Andronikou 2022</a>, pp. 2–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning2022§_para._1-318"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning2022§_para._1_318-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning2022§_para._1_318-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning2022§_para._1_318-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowning2022">Browning 2022</a>, § para. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapaioannou2021a1–2,_5–7-319"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapaioannou2021a1–2,_5–7_319-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPapaioannou2021a">Papaioannou 2021a</a>, pp. 1–2, 5–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning1991a-320"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning1991a_320-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowning1991a">Browning 1991a</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapaioannou2021a10-321"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPapaioannou2021a10_321-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPapaioannou2021a">Papaioannou 2021a</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan19991van_Dieten1980101–105-322"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan19991van_Dieten1980101–105_322-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1999">Kazhdan 1999</a>, p. 1; <a href="#CITEREFvan_Dieten1980">van Dieten 1980</a>, pp. 101–105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowning2022§_paras._1–2Kaldellis2021162–163-323"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowning2022§_paras._1–2Kaldellis2021162–163_323-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrowning2022">Browning 2022</a>, § paras. 1–2; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2021">Kaldellis 2021</a>, pp. 162–163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236-324"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236_324-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236_324-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236_324-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236_324-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236_324-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236_324-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1991b">Kazhdan 1991b</a>, p. 1236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartín2021685-325"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartín2021685_325-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMartín2021">Martín 2021</a>, p. 685.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236–1237-326"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1236–1237_326-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1991b">Kazhdan 1991b</a>, pp. 1236–1237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1237-327"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1237_327-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991b1237_327-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1991b">Kazhdan 1991b</a>, p. 1237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERing1994318-328"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERing1994318_328-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRing1994">Ring 1994</a>, p. 318.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199028–29Conomos19911426-329"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199028–29Conomos19911426_329-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVelimirović1990">Velimirović 1990</a>, pp. 28–29; <a href="#CITEREFConomos1991">Conomos 1991</a>, p. 1426.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConomos19911424–1426LevyTroelsgård2016§_Introduction-330"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConomos19911424–1426LevyTroelsgård2016§_Introduction_330-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFConomos1991">Conomos 1991</a>, pp. 1424–1426; <a href="#CITEREFLevyTroelsgård2016">Levy & Troelsgård 2016</a>, § Introduction.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199026–27,_29-331"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199026–27,_29_331-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVelimirović1990">Velimirović 1990</a>, pp. 26–27, 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199045–46Conomos19911425LevyTroelsgård2016§5_"System_of_eight_modes_('oktōēchos')",_§7_"Formulaic_chants"-332"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199045–46Conomos19911425LevyTroelsgård2016§5_"System_of_eight_modes_('oktōēchos')",_§7_"Formulaic_chants"_332-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVelimirović1990">Velimirović 1990</a>, pp. 45–46; <a href="#CITEREFConomos1991">Conomos 1991</a>, p. 1425; <a href="#CITEREFLevyTroelsgård2016">Levy & Troelsgård 2016</a>, §5 "System of eight modes ('oktōēchos')", §7 "Formulaic chants".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199029LevyTroelsgård2016§7_"Formulaic_chants"-333"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199029LevyTroelsgård2016§7_"Formulaic_chants"_333-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVelimirović1990">Velimirović 1990</a>, p. 29; <a href="#CITEREFLevyTroelsgård2016">Levy & Troelsgård 2016</a>, §7 "Formulaic chants".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199026–27-334"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVelimirović199026–27_334-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVelimirović1990">Velimirović 1990</a>, pp. 26–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevyTroelsgård2016§10_"Syllabic_hymn_settings"-335"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevyTroelsgård2016§10_"Syllabic_hymn_settings"_335-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLevyTroelsgård2016">Levy & Troelsgård 2016</a>, §10 "Syllabic hymn settings".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVelimirović1990LevyTroelsgård2016§3_"Melodic_notation"-336"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVelimirović1990LevyTroelsgård2016§3_"Melodic_notation"_336-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVelimirović1990">Velimirović 1990</a>; <a href="#CITEREFLevyTroelsgård2016">Levy & Troelsgård 2016</a>, §3 "Melodic notation".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConomos19911425LevyTroelsgård2016§3_"Melodic_notation"Mellas20202-337"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConomos19911425LevyTroelsgård2016§3_"Melodic_notation"Mellas20202_337-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFConomos1991">Conomos 1991</a>, p. 1425; <a href="#CITEREFLevyTroelsgård2016">Levy & Troelsgård 2016</a>, §3 "Melodic notation"; <a href="#CITEREFMellas2020">Mellas 2020</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConomos19911425–1426-338"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConomos19911425–1426_338-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFConomos1991">Conomos 1991</a>, pp. 1425–1426.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETouliatos2001§_Introduction-339"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETouliatos2001§_Introduction_339-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTouliatos2001">Touliatos 2001</a>, § Introduction.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETouliatos2001§_"Sources"-340"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETouliatos2001§_"Sources"_340-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTouliatos2001">Touliatos 2001</a>, § "Sources".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConomosKazhdan19911426-341"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConomosKazhdan19911426_341-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFConomosKazhdan1991">Conomos & Kazhdan 1991</a>, p. 1426.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConomosKazhdan19911426Touliatos2001§2_"Instruments_and_performing_practice"-342"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConomosKazhdan19911426Touliatos2001§2_"Instruments_and_performing_practice"_342-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConomosKazhdan19911426Touliatos2001§2_"Instruments_and_performing_practice"_342-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFConomosKazhdan1991">Conomos & Kazhdan 1991</a>, p. 1426; <a href="#CITEREFTouliatos2001">Touliatos 2001</a>, §2 "Instruments and performing practice".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETouliatos2001§3_"Genres_and_composers"-343"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETouliatos2001§3_"Genres_and_composers"_343-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTouliatos2001">Touliatos 2001</a>, §3 "Genres and composers".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobins19938–9Lazaris2020a17Telelis2020186-344"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobins19938–9Lazaris2020a17Telelis2020186_344-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobins1993">Robins 1993</a>, pp. 8–9; <a href="#CITEREFLazaris2020a">Lazaris 2020a</a>, p. 17; <a href="#CITEREFTelelis2020">Telelis 2020</a>, p. 186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELazaris2020a3,_11Inglebert202027TatakesMoutafakis2003180-345"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazaris2020a3,_11Inglebert202027TatakesMoutafakis2003180_345-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLazaris2020a">Lazaris 2020a</a>, pp. 3, 11; <a href="#CITEREFInglebert2020">Inglebert 2020</a>, p. 27; <a href="#CITEREFTatakesMoutafakis2003">Tatakes & Moutafakis 2003</a>, p. 180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManolova202066-346"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManolova202066_346-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFManolova2020">Manolova 2020</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEManolova202066Jones2005520-521-347"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManolova202066Jones2005520-521_347-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFManolova2020">Manolova 2020</a>, p. 66; <a href="#CITEREFJones2005">Jones 2005</a>, p. 520-521.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWildberg2018Lindberg1992162-348"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWildberg2018Lindberg1992162_348-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWildberg2018">Wildberg 2018</a>; <a href="#CITEREFLindberg1992">Lindberg 1992</a>, p. 162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELazaris2020a16Salmon2020445–446Partington199913-349"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazaris2020a16Salmon2020445–446Partington199913_349-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLazaris2020a">Lazaris 2020a</a>, p. 16; <a href="#CITEREFSalmon2020">Salmon 2020</a>, pp. 445–446; <a href="#CITEREFPartington1999">Partington 1999</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELindberg1992349Nutton19849Miller1997ix,_3–4Bennett20167–14-350"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELindberg1992349Nutton19849Miller1997ix,_3–4Bennett20167–14_350-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLindberg1992">Lindberg 1992</a>, p. 349; <a href="#CITEREFNutton1984">Nutton 1984</a>, p. 9; <a href="#CITEREFMiller1997">Miller 1997</a>, pp. ix, 3–4; <a href="#CITEREFBennett2016">Bennett 2016</a>, pp. 7–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023914Nicol1993407–408Bryer2009856-351"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023914Nicol1993407–408Bryer2009856_351-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 914; <a href="#CITEREFNicol1993">Nicol 1993</a>, pp. 407–408; <a href="#CITEREFBryer2009">Bryer 2009</a>, p. 856.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023914–915Bryer2009869Papademetriou201552-352"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023914–915Bryer2009869Papademetriou201552_352-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 914–915; <a href="#CITEREFBryer2009">Bryer 2009</a>, p. 869; <a href="#CITEREFPapademetriou2015">Papademetriou 2015</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeton-Watson196731Kaldellis2023901Mango2008960–961-353"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeton-Watson196731Kaldellis2023901Mango2008960–961_353-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeton-Watson1967">Seton-Watson 1967</a>, p. 31; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 901; <a href="#CITEREFMango2008">Mango 2008</a>, pp. 960–961.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2000215-354"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark2000215_354-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClark2000">Clark 2000</a>, p. 215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023915Treadgold1997b1125-355"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis2023915Treadgold1997b1125_355-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, p. 915; <a href="#CITEREFTreadgold1997b">Treadgold 1997b</a>, p. 1125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241240Kaldellis2022b360-356"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241240Kaldellis2022b360_356-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIvanovaAnderson2024">Ivanova & Anderson 2024</a>, p. 1240; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2022b">Kaldellis 2022b</a>, p. 360.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241233,_1235,_1248AschenbrennerRansohoff2022b372Kaldellis2022b352-357"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241233,_1235,_1248AschenbrennerRansohoff2022b372Kaldellis2022b352_357-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIvanovaAnderson2024">Ivanova & Anderson 2024</a>, pp. 1233, 1235, 1248; <a href="#CITEREFAschenbrennerRansohoff2022b">Aschenbrenner & Ransohoff 2022b</a>, p. 372; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2022b">Kaldellis 2022b</a>, p. 352.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241229–41,_1234,_1238Haarer201018–19-358"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241229–41,_1234,_1238Haarer201018–19_358-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIvanovaAnderson2024">Ivanova & Anderson 2024</a>, pp. 1229–41, 1234, 1238; <a href="#CITEREFHaarer2010">Haarer 2010</a>, pp. 18–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241248Haarer201010–12Goldwyn2022325-359"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241248Haarer201010–12Goldwyn2022325_359-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIvanovaAnderson2024">Ivanova & Anderson 2024</a>, p. 1248; <a href="#CITEREFHaarer2010">Haarer 2010</a>, pp. 10–12; <a href="#CITEREFGoldwyn2022">Goldwyn 2022</a>, p. 325.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241248Haarer201018-19Stewart20223Kaldellis20232–3Cameron2010177–178-360"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIvanovaAnderson20241248Haarer201018-19Stewart20223Kaldellis20232–3Cameron2010177–178_360-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIvanovaAnderson2024">Ivanova & Anderson 2024</a>, p. 1248; <a href="#CITEREFHaarer2010">Haarer 2010</a>, p. 18-19; <a href="#CITEREFStewart2022">Stewart 2022</a>, p. 3; <a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 2–3; <a href="#CITEREFCameron2010">Cameron 2010</a>, pp. 177–178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis20233–4Cameron2010175-361"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaldellis20233–4Cameron2010175_361-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaldellis2023">Kaldellis 2023</a>, pp. 3–4; <a href="#CITEREFCameron2010">Cameron 2010</a>, p. 175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMango2008958–959Obolensky19943-362"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMango2008958–959Obolensky19943_362-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMango2008">Mango 2008</a>, pp. 958–959; <a href="#CITEREFObolensky1994">Obolensky 1994</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStolte201510–11MerrymanPérez-Perdomo2007367–368Stein199936-363"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStolte201510–11MerrymanPérez-Perdomo2007367–368Stein199936_363-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStolte2015">Stolte 2015</a>, pp. 10–11; <a href="#CITEREFMerrymanPérez-Perdomo2007">Merryman & Pérez-Perdomo 2007</a>, pp. 367–368; <a href="#CITEREFStein1999">Stein 1999</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalogubovaZenkov2018-364"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalogubovaZenkov2018_364-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalogubovaZenkov2018">Salogubova & Zenkov 2018</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2010165Mango2008960-365"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECameron2010165Mango2008960_365-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCameron2010">Cameron 2010</a>, p. 165; <a href="#CITEREFMango2008">Mango 2008</a>, p. 960.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoppe199125Cameron2010261Mango2008358-366"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoppe199125Cameron2010261Mango2008358_366-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPoppe1991">Poppe 1991</a>, p. 25; <a href="#CITEREFCameron2010">Cameron 2010</a>, p. 261; <a href="#CITEREFMango2008">Mango 2008</a>, p. 358.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoppe199125Ivanič2016127Mango2008959,_961-367"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoppe199125Ivanič2016127Mango2008959,_961_367-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPoppe1991">Poppe 1991</a>, p. 25; <a href="#CITEREFIvanič2016">Ivanič 2016</a>, p. 127; <a href="#CITEREFMango2008">Mango 2008</a>, pp. 959, 961.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoppe199125Ivanič2016127Cameron2010165Shepard20067–8-368"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoppe199125Ivanič2016127Cameron2010165Shepard20067–8_368-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPoppe1991">Poppe 1991</a>, p. 25; <a href="#CITEREFIvanič2016">Ivanič 2016</a>, p. 127; <a href="#CITEREFCameron2010">Cameron 2010</a>, p. 165; <a href="#CITEREFShepard2006">Shepard 2006</a>, pp. 7–8.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAndronikou2022" class="citation book cs1">Andronikou, Anthi (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vkeEEAAAQBAJ"><i>Italy, Cyprus, and Artistic Exchange in the Medieval Mediterranean</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-51092-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-316-51092-6"><bdi>978-1-316-51092-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Italy%2C+Cyprus%2C+and+Artistic+Exchange+in+the+Medieval+Mediterranean&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-316-51092-6&rft.aulast=Andronikou&rft.aufirst=Anthi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvkeEEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAsh1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Ash_(writer)" title="John Ash (writer)">Ash, John</a> (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/byzantinejourney00ashj"><i>A Byzantine Journey</i></a></span>. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-307-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-307-0"><bdi>978-1-84511-307-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Byzantine+Journey&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-84511-307-0&rft.aulast=Ash&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbyzantinejourney00ashj&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBall2005" class="citation book cs1">Ball, Jennifer (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/ocm60402087"><i>Byzantine Dress: Representations of Secular Dress in Eighth- to Twelfth-Century Painting</i></a>. The New Middle Ages (1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6700-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6700-8"><bdi>978-1-4039-6700-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantine+Dress%3A+Representations+of+Secular+Dress+in+Eighth-+to+Twelfth-Century+Painting&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=The+New+Middle+Ages&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-6700-8&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Focm60402087&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBartusis1997" class="citation book cs1">Bartusis, Mark (1997). <i>The late Byzantine army: arms and society, 1204-1453</i>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1620-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1620-2"><bdi>978-0-8122-1620-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+late+Byzantine+army%3A+arms+and+society%2C+1204-1453&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-1620-2&rft.aulast=Bartusis&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBerndtSteinacher2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guido_M._Berndt" class="extiw" title="de:Guido M. Berndt">Berndt, Guido M.</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in German]</span>; <a href="/wiki/Roland_Steinacher" title="Roland Steinacher">Steinacher, Roland</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8RsGDAAAQBAJ"><i>Arianism: Roman Heresy and Barbarian Creed</i></a> (1st ed.). London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-4659-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-4659-0"><bdi>978-1-4094-4659-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arianism%3A+Roman+Heresy+and+Barbarian+Creed&rft.place=London&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4094-4659-0&rft.aulast=Berndt&rft.aufirst=Guido+M.&rft.au=Steinacher%2C+Roland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8RsGDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBennett2016" class="citation book cs1">Bennett, David (2016). <i>Medicine and Pharmacy in Byzantine Hospitals: A Study of the Extant Formularies</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3678-7908-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3678-7908-2"><bdi>978-0-3678-7908-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medicine+and+Pharmacy+in+Byzantine+Hospitals%3A+A+Study+of+the+Extant+Formularies&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-3678-7908-2&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrowning1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Browning_(Byzantinist)" title="Robert Browning (Byzantinist)">Browning, Robert</a> (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/byzantineempire/"><i>The Byzantine Empire</i></a></span>. Washington DC: The Catholic University of America Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8132-0754-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8132-0754-4"><bdi>978-0-8132-0754-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Byzantine+Empire&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pub=The+Catholic+University+of+America+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8132-0754-4&rft.aulast=Browning&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbyzantineempire%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCameron2010" class="citation book cs1">Cameron, Averil (2010). <i>The Byzantines</i>. The Peoples of Europe. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9833-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9833-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-9833-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Byzantines&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=The+Peoples+of+Europe&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-9833-2&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=Averil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCameron2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Averil_Cameron" title="Averil Cameron">Cameron, Averil</a> (2017). <i>Byzantine Christianity: A Very Brief History</i>. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780281076147" title="Special:BookSources/9780281076147"><bdi>9780281076147</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantine+Christianity%3A+A+Very+Brief+History&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Society+for+Promoting+Christian+Knowledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780281076147&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=Averil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChitwood2017" class="citation book cs1">Chitwood, Zachary (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/byzantine-legal-culture-and-the-roman-legal-tradition-8671056/EDF3AD1A74C4461805235605257DF9D6"><i>Byzantine Legal Culture and the Roman Legal Tradition, 867–1056</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-18256-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-18256-1"><bdi>978-1-107-18256-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantine+Legal+Culture+and+the+Roman+Legal+Tradition%2C+867%E2%80%931056&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-107-18256-1&rft.aulast=Chitwood&rft.aufirst=Zachary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fbyzantine-legal-culture-and-the-roman-legal-tradition-8671056%2FEDF3AD1A74C4461805235605257DF9D6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFClark2000" class="citation book cs1">Clark, Victoria (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_o2c0"><i>Why Angels Fall: A Journey through Orthodox Europe from Byzantium to Kosovo</i></a>. London: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-23396-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-23396-9"><bdi>978-0-312-23396-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+Angels+Fall%3A+A+Journey+through+Orthodox+Europe+from+Byzantium+to+Kosovo&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-312-23396-9&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Victoria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funset0000unse_o2c0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFConstantelos1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Demetrios_Constantelos" title="Demetrios Constantelos">Constantelos, Demetrios</a> (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/christianhelleni0000cons/mode/2up"><i>Christian Hellenism: Essays and Studies in Continuity and Change</i></a></span>. Studies in the Social & Religious History of the Medieval Greek World. Vol. 3. New Rochelle: Aristides D. Caratzas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89241-588-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89241-588-5"><bdi>978-0-89241-588-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Hellenism%3A+Essays+and+Studies+in+Continuity+and+Change&rft.place=New+Rochelle&rft.series=Studies+in+the+Social+%26+Religious+History+of+the+Medieval+Greek+World&rft.pub=Aristides+D.+Caratzas&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-89241-588-5&rft.aulast=Constantelos&rft.aufirst=Demetrios&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchristianhelleni0000cons%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCormack2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robin_Cormack" title="Robin Cormack">Cormack, Robin</a> (2018) [2000]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JnlQDwAAQBAJ"><i>Byzantine Art</i></a> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-877879-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-877879-0"><bdi>978-0-19-877879-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantine+Art&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-19-877879-0&rft.aulast=Cormack&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJnlQDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDavidson2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Davidson_(food_writer)" title="Alan Davidson (food writer)">Davidson, Alan</a> (2014). <a href="/wiki/Tom_Jaine" title="Tom Jaine">Jaine, Tom</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ"><i>The Oxford Companion to Food</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967733-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967733-7"><bdi>978-0-19-967733-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160514144822/https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Food&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-967733-7&rft.aulast=Davidson&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRL6LAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDecker2013" class="citation book cs1">Decker, Michael (2013). <i>The Byzantine Art of War</i>. <a href="/wiki/Yardley,_Pennsylvania" title="Yardley, Pennsylvania">Yardley</a>: Westholme Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5941-6168-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5941-6168-1"><bdi>978-1-5941-6168-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Byzantine+Art+of+War&rft.place=Yardley&rft.pub=Westholme+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-5941-6168-1&rft.aulast=Decker&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFaas2005" class="citation book cs1">Faas, Patrick (2005) [1994]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YXGlAr17oekC"><i>Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome</i></a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-23347-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-23347-5"><bdi>978-0-226-23347-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160730151401/https://books.google.com/books?id=YXGlAr17oekC">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Around+the+Roman+Table%3A+Food+and+Feasting+in+Ancient+Rome&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-226-23347-5&rft.aulast=Faas&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYXGlAr17oekC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGarland1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lynda_Garland" title="Lynda Garland">Garland, Lynda</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a5GFAgAAQBAJ"><i>Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204</i></a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-14688-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-14688-3"><bdi>978-0-415-14688-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210116221034/https://books.google.com/books?id=a5GFAgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantine+Empresses%3A+Women+and+Power+in+Byzantium%2C+AD+527%E2%80%931204&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-415-14688-3&rft.aulast=Garland&rft.aufirst=Lynda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da5GFAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGregory2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Timothy_E._Gregory" title="Timothy E. Gregory">Gregory, Timothy E.</a> (2010). <i>A History of Byzantium</i>. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8471-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8471-7"><bdi>978-1-4051-8471-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Byzantium&rft.place=Malden&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-8471-7&rft.aulast=Gregory&rft.aufirst=Timothy+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHaldon1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Haldon" title="John Haldon">Haldon, John</a> (1999). <i>Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/UCL_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="UCL Press">UCL Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8572-8495-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8572-8495-9"><bdi>978-1-8572-8495-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare%2C+State+and+Society+in+the+Byzantine+World&rft.place=London&rft.pub=UCL+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-8572-8495-9&rft.aulast=Haldon&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHarris2017" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Jonathan (2017). <i>Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium</i> (Second ed.). London: Bloomsbury Academic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4742-5466-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4742-5466-3"><bdi>978-1-4742-5466-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constantinople%3A+Capital+of+Byzantium&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-4742-5466-3&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHorrocks2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Horrocks_(philologist)" title="Geoffrey Horrocks (philologist)">Horrocks, Geoffrey</a> (2010). <i>Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers</i> (2nd ed.). Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3415-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3415-6"><bdi>978-1-4051-3415-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek%3A+A+History+of+the+Language+and+its+Speakers&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-3415-6&rft.aulast=Horrocks&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoward-Johnston2024" class="citation book cs1">Howard-Johnston, James (2024). <i>Byzantium: Economy, Society, Institutions 600–1100</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198897880" title="Special:BookSources/9780198897880"><bdi>9780198897880</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium%3A+Economy%2C+Society%2C+Institutions+600%E2%80%931100&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=9780198897880&rft.aulast=Howard-Johnston&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKaldellis2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kaldellis" title="Anthony Kaldellis">Kaldellis, Anthony</a> (2007). <i>Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformations of Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical Tradition</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87688-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87688-9"><bdi>978-0-521-87688-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hellenism+in+Byzantium%3A+The+Transformations+of+Greek+Identity+and+the+Reception+of+the+Classical+Tradition&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-87688-9&rft.aulast=Kaldellis&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKaldellis2023" class="citation book cs1">——— (2023). <i>The New Roman Empire: A History of Byzantium</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0197549322" title="Special:BookSources/978-0197549322"><bdi>978-0197549322</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Roman+Empire%3A+A+History+of+Byzantium&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0197549322&rft.aulast=Kaldellis&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKazhdanWharton1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kazhdan" title="Alexander Kazhdan">Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich</a>; <a href="/wiki/Annabel_Jane_Wharton" class="mw-redirect" title="Annabel Jane Wharton">Wharton, Annabel Jane</a> (1990). <i>Change in Byzantine Culture in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries</i>. Transformation of the Classical Heritage. Vol. 7. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520069626" title="Special:BookSources/9780520069626"><bdi>9780520069626</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Change+in+Byzantine+Culture+in+the+Eleventh+and+Twelfth+Centuries&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.series=Transformation+of+the+Classical+Heritage&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780520069626&rft.aulast=Kazhdan&rft.aufirst=Alexander+Petrovich&rft.au=Wharton%2C+Annabel+Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKazhdan1999" class="citation book cs1">——— (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Kazhdan1999ByzLit01/mode/2up"><i>A History of Byzantine Literature (650–850)</i></a></span>. Athens: Institute for Byzantine Research. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-960-371-010-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-960-371-010-3"><bdi>978-960-371-010-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Byzantine+Literature+%28650%E2%80%93850%29&rft.place=Athens&rft.pub=Institute+for+Byzantine+Research&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-960-371-010-3&rft.aulast=Kazhdan&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FKazhdan1999ByzLit01%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLaiouMorrisson2007" class="citation book cs1">Laiou, Angeliki E.; Morrisson, Cécile (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/byzantine-economy/59786C4CA132FDEAA9F7F31472FAC2CB"><i>The Byzantine Economy</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84978-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84978-4"><bdi>978-0-521-84978-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Byzantine+Economy&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84978-4&rft.aulast=Laiou&rft.aufirst=Angeliki+E.&rft.au=Morrisson%2C+C%C3%A9cile&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fbyzantine-economy%2F59786C4CA132FDEAA9F7F31472FAC2CB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLindberg1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">Lindberg, David</a> (1992). <a href="/wiki/The_Beginnings_of_Western_Science" title="The Beginnings of Western Science"><i>The Beginnings of Western Science</i></a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226482057" title="Special:BookSources/9780226482057"><bdi>9780226482057</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Beginnings+of+Western+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780226482057&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLowden1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Lowden" title="John Lowden">Lowden, John</a> (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_2900714831687"><i>Early Christian & Byzantine Art</i></a></span>. London: Phaidon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-3168-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-3168-8"><bdi>978-0-7148-3168-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Christian+%26+Byzantine+Art&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Phaidon+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7148-3168-8&rft.aulast=Lowden&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_2900714831687&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMatthewsPlatt1997" class="citation book cs1">Matthews, Roy T.; Platt, F. DeWitt (1997). <i>The Western Humanities</i>. East Lansing: Michigan State University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781559344333" title="Special:BookSources/9781559344333"><bdi>9781559344333</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Western+Humanities&rft.place=East+Lansing&rft.pub=Michigan+State+University&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9781559344333&rft.aulast=Matthews&rft.aufirst=Roy+T.&rft.au=Platt%2C+F.+DeWitt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMellas2020" class="citation book cs1">Mellas, Andrew (2020). <i>Liturgy and the Emotions in Byzantium: Compunction and Hymnody</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-76736-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-76736-1"><bdi>978-1-108-76736-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Liturgy+and+the+Emotions+in+Byzantium%3A+Compunction+and+Hymnody&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-108-76736-1&rft.aulast=Mellas&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMerrymanPérez-Perdomo2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Merryman" title="John Henry Merryman">Merryman, John Henry</a>; Pérez-Perdomo, Rogelio (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/ocm81252739"><i>The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Europe and Latin America</i></a> (3rd ed.). Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5568-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5568-9"><bdi>978-0-8047-5568-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civil+Law+Tradition%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Legal+Systems+of+Europe+and+Latin+America&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-5568-9&rft.aulast=Merryman&rft.aufirst=John+Henry&rft.au=P%C3%A9rez-Perdomo%2C+Rogelio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Focm81252739&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMeyendorff1979" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84,_%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" class="extiw" title="ru:Мейендорф, Иван Феофилович">Meyendorff, John</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in Russian]</span> (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thetbs.org/study-materials/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Byzantine-Theology-Historical-Trends-and-Doctrinal-Themes-by-John-Meyendorff-z-lib.org_.epub_.pdf"><i>Byzantine Theology: Historical Trends and Doctrinal Themes</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). New York: Fordham University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-0967-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-0967-5"><bdi>978-0-8232-0967-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240823182542/https://www.thetbs.org/study-materials/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Byzantine-Theology-Historical-Trends-and-Doctrinal-Themes-by-John-Meyendorff-z-lib.org_.epub_.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 23 August 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantine+Theology%3A+Historical+Trends+and+Doctrinal+Themes&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint%2C+revised&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-8232-0967-5&rft.aulast=Meyendorff&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetbs.org%2Fstudy-materials%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2023%2F02%2FByzantine-Theology-Historical-Trends-and-Doctrinal-Themes-by-John-Meyendorff-z-lib.org_.epub_.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMillar2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fergus_Millar" title="Fergus Millar">Millar, Fergus</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greekromanempire00ferg"><i>A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408–450)</i></a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24703-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24703-1"><bdi>978-0-520-24703-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Greek+Roman+Empire%3A+Power+and+Belief+under+Theodosius+II+%28408%E2%80%93450%29&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-520-24703-1&rft.aulast=Millar&rft.aufirst=Fergus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreekromanempire00ferg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMiller1997" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Timothy S. (1997). <i>The Birth of the Hospital in the Byzantine Empire</i>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5657-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5657-0"><bdi>978-0-8018-5657-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Birth+of+the+Hospital+in+the+Byzantine+Empire&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-5657-0&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Timothy+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNicol1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Nicol" title="Donald Nicol">Nicol, Donald M.</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y2d6OHLqwEsC"><i>The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453</i></a> (2nd ed.). London: Rupert Hart-Davis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521439916" title="Special:BookSources/9780521439916"><bdi>9780521439916</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230709030914/https://books.google.com/books?id=y2d6OHLqwEsC">Archived</a> from the original on 9 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Centuries+of+Byzantium%2C+1261%E2%80%931453&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Rupert+Hart-Davis&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780521439916&rft.aulast=Nicol&rft.aufirst=Donald+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy2d6OHLqwEsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFObolensky1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dimitri_Obolensky" title="Dimitri Obolensky">Obolensky, Dimitri</a> (1994). <i>Byzantium and the Slavs</i>. Yonkers: St Vladimir's Seminary Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88141-008-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88141-008-2"><bdi>978-0-88141-008-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+and+the+Slavs&rft.place=Yonkers&rft.pub=St+Vladimir%27s+Seminary+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-88141-008-2&rft.aulast=Obolensky&rft.aufirst=Dimitri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPartington1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._R._Partington" title="J. R. Partington">Partington, J. R.</a> (1999). <i>A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder</i>. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801859540" title="Special:BookSources/9780801859540"><bdi>9780801859540</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Greek+Fire+and+Gunpowder&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780801859540&rft.aulast=Partington&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRing1994" class="citation book cs1">Ring, Trudy (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC"><i>International Dictionary of Historic Places: Middle East and Africa</i></a>. Vol. 4. London: Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-03-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-03-9"><bdi>978-1-884964-03-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190609091417/https://books.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC">Archived</a> from the original on 9 June 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Dictionary+of+Historic+Places%3A+Middle+East+and+Africa&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-884964-03-9&rft.aulast=Ring&rft.aufirst=Trudy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR44VRnNCzAYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRobins1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/R._H._Robins" title="R. H. Robins">Robins, Robert Henry</a> (1993). <i>The Byzantine Grammarians: Their Place in History</i>. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-013574-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-013574-9"><bdi>978-3-11-013574-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Byzantine+Grammarians%3A+Their+Place+in+History&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-3-11-013574-9&rft.aulast=Robins&rft.aufirst=Robert+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRodley1994" class="citation book cs1">Rodley, Lyn (1994). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/byzantineartarch0000rodl/page/n3/mode/2up"><i>Byzantine Art and Architecture: An Introduction</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-35724-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-35724-1"><bdi>978-0-521-35724-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantine+Art+and+Architecture%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-35724-1&rft.aulast=Rodley&rft.aufirst=Lyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbyzantineartarch0000rodl%2Fpage%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRosser2011" class="citation book cs1">Rosser, John H. (2011). <i>Historical Dictionary of Byzantium</i>. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810874770" title="Special:BookSources/9780810874770"><bdi>9780810874770</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Byzantium&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780810874770&rft.aulast=Rosser&rft.aufirst=John+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRotman2009" class="citation book cs1">Rotman, Youval (2009). <i>Byzantine Slavery and the Mediterranean World</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03611-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03611-6"><bdi>978-0-674-03611-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantine+Slavery+and+the+Mediterranean+World&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03611-6&rft.aulast=Rotman&rft.aufirst=Youval&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRotman2022" class="citation book cs1">——— (2022). <i>Slaveries of the First Millennium</i>. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-64189-172-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-64189-172-1"><bdi>978-1-64189-172-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv2175h0p">j.ctv2175h0p</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slaveries+of+the+First+Millennium&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=Amsterdam+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctv2175h0p%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-64189-172-1&rft.aulast=Rotman&rft.aufirst=Youval&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSabo2018" class="citation book cs1">Sabo, Theodore (2018). <i>From Monophysitism to Nestorianism: AD 431–681</i>. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5275-0959-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5275-0959-7"><bdi>978-1-5275-0959-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Monophysitism+to+Nestorianism%3A+AD+431%E2%80%93681&rft.place=Newcastle+upon+Tyne&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-5275-0959-7&rft.aulast=Sabo&rft.aufirst=Theodore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSeton-Watson1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Seton-Watson" title="Hugh Seton-Watson">Seton-Watson, Hugh</a> (1967). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russianempire1800000seto/mode/2up"><i>The Russian Empire, 1801–1917</i></a></span>. London: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-2152-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-2152-4"><bdi>978-0-1982-2152-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Empire%2C+1801%E2%80%931917&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-0-1982-2152-4&rft.aulast=Seton-Watson&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frussianempire1800000seto%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStathakopoulos2023" class="citation book cs1">Stathakopoulos, Dionysios Ch. (2023). <i>A Short History of the Byzantine Empire</i>. Short Histories. London: Bloomsbury Academic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-350-23340-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-350-23340-9"><bdi>978-1-350-23340-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+the+Byzantine+Empire&rft.place=London&rft.series=Short+Histories&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-350-23340-9&rft.aulast=Stathakopoulos&rft.aufirst=Dionysios+Ch.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStein1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Stein_(legal_scholar)" title="Peter Stein (legal scholar)">Stein, Peter</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511814723"><i>Roman Law in European History</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64372-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64372-6"><bdi>978-0-521-64372-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Law+in+European+History&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-64372-6&rft.aulast=Stein&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511814723&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStephenson2010" class="citation book cs1">Stephenson, Paul, ed. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781136727870"><i>The Byzantine World</i></a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-72787-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-72787-0"><bdi>978-1-136-72787-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Byzantine+World&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-136-72787-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fbooks%2F9781136727870&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTatakesMoutafakis2003" class="citation book cs1">Tatakes, Vasileios N.; Moutafakis, Nicholas J. (2003). <i>Byzantine Philosophy</i>. Indianapolis: Hackett. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8722-0563-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8722-0563-5"><bdi>978-0-8722-0563-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantine+Philosophy&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.pub=Hackett&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8722-0563-5&rft.aulast=Tatakes&rft.aufirst=Vasileios+N.&rft.au=Moutafakis%2C+Nicholas+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTreadgold1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Warren_Treadgold" title="Warren Treadgold">Treadgold, Warren T.</a> (1995). <i>Byzantium and its Army: 284–1081</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3163-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3163-8"><bdi>978-0-8047-3163-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+and+its+Army%3A+284%E2%80%931081&rft.place=Stanford&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-3163-8&rft.aulast=Treadgold&rft.aufirst=Warren+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTreadgold1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Warren_Treadgold" title="Warren Treadgold">Treadgold, Warren</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nYbnr5XVbzUC"><i>A History of the Byzantine State and Society</i></a>. Stanford, California: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-2630-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-2630-2"><bdi>0-8047-2630-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Byzantine+State+and+Society&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-8047-2630-2&rft.aulast=Treadgold&rft.aufirst=Warren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnYbnr5XVbzUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTreadgold1997b" class="citation book cs1">Treadgold, Warren T. (1997b). <i>A History of the Byzantine State and Society</i>. Redwood City: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-7937-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-7937-1"><bdi>978-0-8047-7937-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Byzantine+State+and+Society&rft.place=Redwood+City&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-7937-1&rft.aulast=Treadgold&rft.aufirst=Warren+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUnwin2010" class="citation book cs1">Unwin, P. T. H. (2010). <i>Wine and the Vine: An Historical Geography of Viticulture and the Wine Trade</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-14416-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-14416-2"><bdi>978-0-415-14416-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wine+and+the+Vine%3A+An+Historical+Geography+of+Viticulture+and+the+Wine+Trade&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-415-14416-2&rft.aulast=Unwin&rft.aufirst=P.+T.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVryonis1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Speros_Vryonis" title="Speros Vryonis">Vryonis, Speros</a> (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wBpIAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century</i></a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-01597-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-01597-5"><bdi>978-0-520-01597-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200626102729/https://books.google.com/books?id=wBpIAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 June</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Decline+of+Medieval+Hellenism+in+Asia+Minor+and+the+Process+of+Islamization+from+the+Eleventh+through+the+Fifteenth+Century&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-520-01597-5&rft.aulast=Vryonis&rft.aufirst=Speros&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwBpIAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Journals">Journals</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAdams2021" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Adams, Robert Merrihew</a> (2021). "Nestorius and Nestorianism". <i>The Monist</i>. <b>104</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">366–</span>375. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmonist%2Fonab005">10.1093/monist/onab005</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Monist&rft.atitle=Nestorius+and+Nestorianism&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E366-%3C%2Fspan%3E375&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmonist%2Fonab005&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Robert+Merrihew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrown1976" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Brown_(historian)" title="Peter Brown (historian)">Brown, Peter</a> (1976). "Eastern and Western Christendom in Late Antiquity: A Parting of the Way". <i>Studies in Church History</i>. <b>13</b>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0424208400006574">10.1017/S0424208400006574</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Church+History&rft.atitle=Eastern+and+Western+Christendom+in+Late+Antiquity%3A+A+Parting+of+the+Way&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0424208400006574&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrowning1982" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Browning_(Byzantinist)" title="Robert Browning (Byzantinist)">Browning, Robert</a> (1982). "Greek diglossia yesterday and today". <i><a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_the_Sociology_of_Language" title="International Journal of the Sociology of Language">International Journal of the Sociology of Language</a></i> (35): <span class="nowrap">49–</span>68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fijsl.1982.35.49">10.1515/ijsl.1982.35.49</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+the+Sociology+of+Language&rft.atitle=Greek+diglossia+yesterday+and+today&rft.issue=35&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E49-%3C%2Fspan%3E68&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fijsl.1982.35.49&rft.aulast=Browning&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCameron2016" class="citation journal cs1">Cameron, Averil (2016). "Late Antiquity and Byzantium: An Identity Problem". <i><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_and_Modern_Greek_Studies" title="Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies">Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies</a></i>. <b>40</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">27–</span>37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fbyz.2015.4">10.1017/byz.2015.4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Byzantine+and+Modern+Greek+Studies&rft.atitle=Late+Antiquity+and+Byzantium%3A+An+Identity+Problem&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E27-%3C%2Fspan%3E37&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fbyz.2015.4&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=Averil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFvan_Dieten1980" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">van Dieten, Jan Louis (1980). "Die Byzantinische Literatur – Eine Literatur Ohne Geschichte?" [Byzantine Literature – A Literature Without History?]. <i><a href="/wiki/Historische_Zeitschrift" title="Historische Zeitschrift">Historische Zeitschrift</a></i> (in German). <b>231</b> (H 1): <span class="nowrap">101–</span>109. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1524%2Fhzhz.1980.231.jg.101">10.1524/hzhz.1980.231.jg.101</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27621785">27621785</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historische+Zeitschrift&rft.atitle=Die+Byzantinische+Literatur+%E2%80%93+Eine+Literatur+Ohne+Geschichte%3F&rft.volume=231&rft.issue=H+1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E101-%3C%2Fspan%3E109&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1524%2Fhzhz.1980.231.jg.101&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27621785%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=van+Dieten&rft.aufirst=Jan+Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDingledy2019" class="citation conference cs1">Dingledy, Frederick (2 May 2019). <i>The Corpus Juris Civilis: A Guide to Its History and Use</i>. <i>Legal Reference Services Quarterly</i>. Vol. 35, no. 4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31228%2Fosf.io%2Fmeq6c">10.31228/osf.io/meq6c</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=conference&rft.jtitle=Legal+Reference+Services+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Corpus+Juris+Civilis%3A+A+Guide+to+Its+History+and+Use&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2019-05-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31228%2Fosf.io%2Fmeq6c&rft.aulast=Dingledy&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHarper2010" class="citation journal cs1">Harper, Kyle (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27809564">"Slave Prices in Late Antiquity (and in the Very Long Term)"</a>. <i>Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte</i>. <b>59</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">206–</span>238. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.25162%2Fhistoria-2010-0013">10.25162/historia-2010-0013</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2311">0018-2311</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27809564">27809564</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:160720781">160720781</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia%3A+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Alte+Geschichte&rft.atitle=Slave+Prices+in+Late+Antiquity+%28and+in+the+Very+Long+Term%29&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E206-%3C%2Fspan%3E238&rft.date=2010&rft.issn=0018-2311&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A160720781%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27809564%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.25162%2Fhistoria-2010-0013&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Kyle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27809564&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHornSchädler2019" class="citation conference cs1">Horn, Fred; Schädler, Ulrich (31 May 2019). "3.4 Forensic Game Reconstruction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336574703"><i>Foundations of Digital Archæoludology</i></a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">9–</span>10. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1905.13516">1905.13516</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=3.4+Forensic+Game+Reconstruction&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Digital+Arch%C3%A6oludology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E9-%3C%2Fspan%3E10&rft.date=2019-05-31&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1905.13516&rft.aulast=Horn&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft.au=Sch%C3%A4dler%2C+Ulrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F336574703&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFIvanič2016" class="citation journal cs1">Ivanič, Peter (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/70908086">"The Origins of Christianity in the Territory of Czech and Slovak Republics Within the Contexts of Written Sources"</a>. <i>European Journal of Science and Theology</i>. <b>12</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">123–</span>130. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230606030707/https://www.academia.edu/70908086">Archived</a> from the original on 6 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Science+and+Theology&rft.atitle=The+Origins+of+Christianity+in+the+Territory+of+Czech+and+Slovak+Republics+Within+the+Contexts+of+Written+Sources&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E123-%3C%2Fspan%3E130&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Ivani%C4%8D&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F70908086&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFIvanovaAnderson2024" class="citation journal cs1">Ivanova, Mirela; Anderson, Benjamin (1 October 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/ehr/article/139/600/1230/7742107">"The Politics of Byzantine Studies: Between Nations and Empires"</a>. <i>The English Historical Review</i>. <b>139</b> (600): <span class="nowrap">1230–</span>1249. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2Fceae159">10.1093/ehr/ceae159</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-8266">0013-8266</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+English+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Politics+of+Byzantine+Studies%3A+Between+Nations+and+Empires&rft.volume=139&rft.issue=600&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1230-%3C%2Fspan%3E1249&rft.date=2024-10-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fehr%2Fceae159&rft.issn=0013-8266&rft.aulast=Ivanova&rft.aufirst=Mirela&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fehr%2Farticle%2F139%2F600%2F1230%2F7742107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJones2005" class="citation journal cs1">Jones, Alexander (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ams.org/notices/200505/rev-jones.pdf">"The Works of Archimedes: Translation and Commentary. Volume 1: The Two Books On the Sphere and the Cylinder"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Notices of the AMS</i>. <b>52</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">520–</span>525. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220302190047/https://www.ams.org/notices/200505/rev-jones.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Notices+of+the+AMS&rft.atitle=The+Works+of+Archimedes%3A+Translation+and+Commentary.+Volume+1%3A+The+Two+Books+On+the+Sphere+and+the+Cylinder&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E520-%3C%2Fspan%3E525&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ams.org%2Fnotices%2F200505%2Frev-jones.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKarras2004" class="citation journal cs1">Karras, Valerie A. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4146526">"Female Deacons in the Byzantine Church"</a>. <i>Church History</i>. <b>73</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">272–</span>316. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS000964070010928X">10.1017/S000964070010928X</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0009-6407">0009-6407</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4146526">4146526</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161817885">161817885</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305131943/http://www.jstor.org/stable/4146526">Archived</a> from the original on 5 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Church+History&rft.atitle=Female+Deacons+in+the+Byzantine+Church&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E272-%3C%2Fspan%3E316&rft.date=2004&rft.issn=0009-6407&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161817885%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4146526%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS000964070010928X&rft.aulast=Karras&rft.aufirst=Valerie+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4146526&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKazhdan1990a" class="citation journal cs1">Kazhdan, Alexander (1990a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1291623">"Byzantine Hagiography and Sex in the Fifth to Twelfth Centuries"</a>. <i>Dumbarton Oaks Papers</i>. <b>44</b>: <span class="nowrap">131–</span>143. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1291623">10.2307/1291623</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0070-7546">0070-7546</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1291623">1291623</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dumbarton+Oaks+Papers&rft.atitle=Byzantine+Hagiography+and+Sex+in+the+Fifth+to+Twelfth+Centuries&rft.volume=44&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E131-%3C%2Fspan%3E143&rft.date=1990&rft.issn=0070-7546&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1291623%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1291623&rft.aulast=Kazhdan&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1291623&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLavan2016" class="citation journal cs1">Lavan, Myles (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/past/article-abstract/230/1/3/2460651?redirectedFrom=fulltext">"The Spread of Roman Citizenship, 14–212 ce: Quantification in the Face of High Uncertainty"</a>. <i>Past & Present</i> (230): <span class="nowrap">3–</span>46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgtv043">10.1093/pastj/gtv043</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10023%2F12646">10023/12646</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-2746">0031-2746</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=The+Spread+of+Roman+Citizenship%2C+14%E2%80%93212+ce%3A+Quantification+in+the+Face+of+High+Uncertainty&rft.issue=230&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E46&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10023%2F12646&rft.issn=0031-2746&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgtv043&rft.aulast=Lavan&rft.aufirst=Myles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fpast%2Farticle-abstract%2F230%2F1%2F3%2F2460651%3FredirectedFrom%3Dfulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNicholson1960" class="citation journal cs1">Nicholson, Graham (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.medievalists.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/Understanding-of-Papal-Supremacy.pdf">"The Understanding of Papal Supremacy as Revealed in the Letters of Pope Gregory the Great"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Theological Studies</i>. <b>11</b>: <span class="nowrap">25–</span>51. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231107095542/https://www.medievalists.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/Understanding-of-Papal-Supremacy.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 7 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theological+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Understanding+of+Papal+Supremacy+as+Revealed+in+the+Letters+of+Pope+Gregory+the+Great&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E51&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Nicholson&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.medievalists.net%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2009%2F04%2FUnderstanding-of-Papal-Supremacy.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPoppe1991" class="citation journal cs1">Poppe, Andrzej (1991). "Christianity and Ideological change in Kievan Rus': The First Hundred Years". <i>Canadian-American Slavic Studies</i>. <b>25</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>4): <span class="nowrap">3–</span>26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F221023991X00038">10.1163/221023991X00038</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian-American+Slavic+Studies&rft.atitle=Christianity+and+Ideological+change+in+Kievan+Rus%27%3A+The+First+Hundred+Years&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E26&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F221023991X00038&rft.aulast=Poppe&rft.aufirst=Andrzej&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRotman2010" class="citation journal cs1">Rotman, Youval (2 July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2010/2010.07.02">"Review of: Response: Rotman on Lenski on Youval Rotman, Byzantine Slavery and the Mediterranean World"</a>. <i>Bryn Mawr Classical Review</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1055-7660">1055-7660</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240109104527/https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2010/2010.07.02">Archived</a> from the original on 9 January 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bryn+Mawr+Classical+Review&rft.atitle=Review+of%3A+Response%3A+Rotman+on+Lenski+on+Youval+Rotman%2C+Byzantine+Slavery+and+the+Mediterranean+World&rft.date=2010-07-02&rft.issn=1055-7660&rft.aulast=Rotman&rft.aufirst=Youval&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbmcr.brynmawr.edu%2F2010%2F2010.07.02&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSalogubovaZenkov2018" class="citation journal cs1">Salogubova, Elena; Zenkov, Alan (15 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/234045831.pdf">"Roman Law's Influence on Russian Civil Law and Procedure"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Russian Law Journal</i>. <b>6</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">118–</span>133. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2312-3605">2312-3605</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20250110105849/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/234045831.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 10 January 2025.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russian+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Roman+Law%27s+Influence+on+Russian+Civil+Law+and+Procedure&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E118-%3C%2Fspan%3E133&rft.date=2018-06-15&rft.issn=2312-3605&rft.aulast=Salogubova&rft.aufirst=Elena&rft.au=Zenkov%2C+Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F234045831.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_chapters_and_encyclopaedias">Book chapters and encyclopaedias</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAngold2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Angold" title="Michael Angold">Angold, Michael</a>, ed. (2006). <i>The Cambridge History of Christianity</i>. Vol. 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139054089" title="Special:BookSources/9781139054089"><bdi>9781139054089</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781139054089&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFMicheau2006" class="citation">Micheau, Françoise. "Eastern Christianities (Eleventh to Fourteenth Century): Copts, Melkites, Nestorians and Jacobites". In <a href="#CITEREFAngold2006">Angold (2006)</a>, pp. 371–403.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFShepard2006" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Shepard" title="Jonathan Shepard">Shepard, Jonathan</a>. "The Byzantine Commonwealth 1000–1550". In <a href="#CITEREFAngold2006">Angold (2006)</a>, pp. 1–52.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAschenbrennerRansohoff2022" class="citation book cs1">Aschenbrenner, Nathanael; Ransohoff, Jake (2022). <i>The Invention of Byzantium in Early Modern Europe</i>. Washington DC: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88402-484-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88402-484-2"><bdi>978-0-88402-484-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Invention+of+Byzantium+in+Early+Modern+Europe&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-88402-484-2&rft.aulast=Aschenbrenner&rft.aufirst=Nathanael&rft.au=Ransohoff%2C+Jake&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFAschenbrennerRansohoff2022a" class="citation">Aschenbrenner, Nathanael; Ransohoff, Jake (2022a). Introduction. In <a href="#CITEREFAschenbrennerRansohoff2022">Aschenbrenner & Ransohoff (2022)</a>, pp. 1–23.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFKaldellis2022a" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kaldellis" title="Anthony Kaldellis">Kaldellis, Anthony</a> (2022a). "From "Empire of the Greeks" to "Byzantium"". In <a href="#CITEREFAschenbrennerRansohoff2022">Aschenbrenner & Ransohoff (2022)</a>, pp. 349–367.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFAschenbrennerRansohoff2022b" class="citation">Aschenbrenner, Nathanael; Ransohoff, Jake (2022b). "Conclusion". In <a href="#CITEREFAschenbrennerRansohoff2022">Aschenbrenner & Ransohoff (2022)</a>, pp. 369–382.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrowning2022" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Browning, Robert (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Greek-literature/Byzantine-literature#ref299806">"Greek Literature: Byzantine Literature"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/D._W._Lucas" title="D. W. Lucas">Lucas, Donald William</a>; <a href="/wiki/Peter_Mackridge" title="Peter Mackridge">Mackridge, Peter A.</a> (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Greek+Literature%3A+Byzantine+Literature&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Browning&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fart%2FGreek-literature%2FByzantine-literature%23ref299806&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCameron2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Averil_Cameron" title="Averil Cameron">Cameron, Averil</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/11134386">"The 'Long' Late Antiquity: A Twentieth-Century Model"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/T._P._Wiseman" title="T. P. Wiseman">Wiseman, T. P.</a> (ed.). <i>Classics in Progress: Essays on Ancient Greece and Rome</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">165–</span>191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780197263235" title="Special:BookSources/9780197263235"><bdi>9780197263235</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240209191020/https://www.academia.edu/11134386">Archived</a> from the original on 9 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+%27Long%27+Late+Antiquity%3A+A+Twentieth-Century+Model&rft.btitle=Classics+in+Progress%3A+Essays+on+Ancient+Greece+and+Rome&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E165-%3C%2Fspan%3E191&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780197263235&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=Averil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F11134386&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCasidayNorris2007" class="citation book cs1">Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W., eds. (2007). <i>The Cambridge History of Christianity</i>. Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139054133" title="Special:BookSources/9781139054133"><bdi>9781139054133</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781139054133&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFCasidayNorris2007a" class="citation">Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (2007a). Introduction. In <a href="#CITEREFCasidayNorris2007">Casiday & Norris (2007)</a>, pp. 1–5.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFDrake2007" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Harold_A._Drake" title="Harold A. Drake">Drake, Harold A.</a> "The Church, Society and Political Power". In <a href="#CITEREFCasidayNorris2007">Casiday & Norris (2007)</a>, pp. 403–428.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFLöhr2007" class="citation">Löhr, Winrich. "Western Christianities". In <a href="#CITEREFCasidayNorris2007">Casiday & Norris (2007)</a>, pp. 7–51.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robin_Cormack" title="Robin Cormack">Cormack, Robin</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Haldon" title="John Haldon">Haldon, John F.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Jeffreys" title="Elizabeth Jeffreys">Jeffreys, Elizabeth</a>, eds. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/the-oxford-handbook-of-byzantine-studies-oxford-handbooks-jeffreys-elizabeth-hal/mode/2up"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1917-4352-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1917-4352-8"><bdi>978-0-1917-4352-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Byzantine+Studies&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-1917-4352-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthe-oxford-handbook-of-byzantine-studies-oxford-handbooks-jeffreys-elizabeth-hal%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFBrandes2008" class="citation">Brandes, Wolfram. "Revenues and Expenditure". In <a href="#CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008">Cormack, Haldon & Jeffreys (2008)</a>, pp. 562–570.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFBryer2008" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Bryer" title="Anthony Bryer">Bryer, Anthony</a>. "Food, Wine, and Feasting". In <a href="#CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008">Cormack, Haldon & Jeffreys (2008)</a>, pp. 669–676.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFDecker2008" class="citation">Decker, Michael. "Everyday Technologies". In <a href="#CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008">Cormack, Haldon & Jeffreys (2008)</a>, pp. 492–502.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFGreatrex2008" class="citation">Greatrex, Geoffrey. "Political-Historical Survey, c. 250–518". In <a href="#CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008">Cormack, Haldon & Jeffreys (2008)</a>, pp. 233–248.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFHaldon2008a" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/John_Haldon" title="John Haldon">Haldon, John F.</a> (2008a). "Political-Historical Survey, c. 518–800". In <a href="#CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008">Cormack, Haldon & Jeffreys (2008)</a>, pp. 249–263.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFHaldon2008b" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/John_Haldon" title="John Haldon">Haldon, John F.</a> (2008b). "The Army". In <a href="#CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008">Cormack, Haldon & Jeffreys (2008)</a>, pp. 554–561.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFHarvey2008" class="citation">Harvey, Alan. "The Village". In <a href="#CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008">Cormack, Haldon & Jeffreys (2008)</a>, pp. 328–334.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFHolmes2008" class="citation">Holmes, Catherine. "Political-Historical Survey, 800–1204". In <a href="#CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008">Cormack, Haldon & Jeffreys (2008)</a>, pp. 264–279.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFHorrocks2008" class="citation">Horrocks, Geoffrey. "Language". In <a href="#CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008">Cormack, Haldon & Jeffreys (2008)</a>, pp. 777–784.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFHoward-Johnston2008" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/James_Howard-Johnston" title="James Howard-Johnston">Howard-Johnston, James F</a>. "Byzantium and Its Neighbours". In <a href="#CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008">Cormack, Haldon & Jeffreys (2008)</a>, pp. 939–956.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFJeffreys2008a" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Jeffreys" title="Elizabeth Jeffreys">Jeffreys, Elizabeth</a> (2008a). "Entertainments, Theatre, And Hippodrome". In <a href="#CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008">Cormack, Haldon & Jeffreys (2008)</a>, pp. 677–684.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFJeffreys2008" class="citation">Jeffreys, Michael. "Literacy". In <a href="#CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008">Cormack, Haldon & Jeffreys (2008)</a>, pp. 796–802.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFLaiou2008" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Angeliki_Laiou" title="Angeliki Laiou">Laiou, Angeliki</a>. "Political-Historical Survey, 1204–1453". In <a href="#CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008">Cormack, Haldon & Jeffreys (2008)</a>, pp. 280–294.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFMarkopoulos2008" class="citation">Markopoulos, Athanasios. "Education". In <a href="#CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008">Cormack, Haldon & Jeffreys (2008)</a>, pp. 785–795.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFMango2008" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Mango" title="Cyril Mango">Mango, Cyril</a>. "Byzantium's Role in World History". In <a href="#CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008">Cormack, Haldon & Jeffreys (2008)</a>, pp. 957–961.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFStathakopoulos2008" class="citation">Stathakopoulos, Dionysios Ch. "Population, Demography, and Disease". In <a href="#CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008">Cormack, Haldon & Jeffreys (2008)</a>, pp. 309–316.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCurlWilson2021" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Stevens_Curl" title="James Stevens Curl">Curl, James Stevens</a>; Wilson, Susan (2021). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191918742.001.0001/acref-9780191918742-e-755">"Byzantine Architecture"</a></span>. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Architecture</i> (3rd Edition Revised ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-191874-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-191874-2"><bdi>978-0-19-191874-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Byzantine+Architecture&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Architecture&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=3rd+Edition+Revised&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-191874-2&rft.aulast=Curl&rft.aufirst=James+Stevens&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780191918742.001.0001%2Facref-9780191918742-e-755&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGarland2006" class="citation book cs1">Garland, Lynda (2006). <i>Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience, 800–1200</i>. Publications for the Centre for Hellenic Studies, King's College, London. Aldershot, Burlington: Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5737-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5737-8"><bdi>978-0-7546-5737-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantine+Women%3A+Varieties+of+Experience%2C+800%E2%80%931200&rft.place=Aldershot%2C+Burlington&rft.series=Publications+for+the+Centre+for+Hellenic+Studies%2C+King%27s+College%2C+London&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-5737-8&rft.aulast=Garland&rft.aufirst=Lynda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFDawson2006" class="citation">Dawson, Timothy. "Propriety, Practicality, Pleasure: The Parameters of Women's Dress in Byzantium, A.D. 1000-1200". In <a href="#CITEREFGarland2006">Garland (2006)</a>, pp. 41–76.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrosdidier_de_Matons1967" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Grosdidier de Matons, Jean (1967). "La Femme dans l'Empire Byzantin" [Women in the Byzantine Empire]. In <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Grimal" title="Pierre Grimal">Grimal, Pierre</a> (ed.). <i>Histoire Mondiale de la Femme: Préhistoire et antiquité</i> [<i>World History of Women: Prehistory and Antinquity</i>] (in French). Vol. I. Paris: Nouvelle librairie de France. pp. <span class="nowrap">11–</span>43. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/490034792">490034792</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=La+Femme+dans+l%27Empire+Byzantin&rft.btitle=Histoire+Mondiale+de+la+Femme%3A+Pr%C3%A9histoire+et+antiquit%C3%A9&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11-%3C%2Fspan%3E43&rft.pub=Nouvelle+librairie+de+France&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F490034792&rft.aulast=Grosdidier+de+Matons&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHaarer2010" class="citation book cs1">Haarer, F. K. (2010). "Writing Histories of Byzantium: The Historiography of Byzantine History". In <a href="/wiki/Liz_James" title="Liz James">James, Liz</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781444320015.ch2"><i>A Companion to Byzantium</i></a>. London: John Wiley & Sons. pp. <span class="nowrap">9–</span>21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444320015.ch2">10.1002/9781444320015.ch2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-2001-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-2001-5"><bdi>978-1-4443-2001-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Writing+Histories+of+Byzantium%3A+The+Historiography+of+Byzantine+History&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Byzantium&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E9-%3C%2Fspan%3E21&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781444320015.ch2&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-2001-5&rft.aulast=Haarer&rft.aufirst=F.+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2F9781444320015.ch2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJames2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Liz_James" title="Liz James">James, Liz</a> (2003) [2001]. <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662037.001.0001/acref-9780198662037-e-423">"Byzantine Art"</a></span>. In Brigstocke, Hugh (ed.). <i>The Oxford Companion to Western Art</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866203-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866203-7"><bdi>978-0-19-866203-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Byzantine+Art&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Western+Art&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-866203-7&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Liz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662037.001.0001%2Facref-9780198662037-e-423&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2015" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald, ed. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KEYSDAAAQBAJ"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-027753-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-027753-6"><bdi>978-0-19-027753-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-027753-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKEYSDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFKaiser2015" class="citation">Kaiser, Wolfgang. "Justinian and the Corpus Iuris Civilis". In <a href="#CITEREFJohnson2015">Johnson (2015)</a>, pp. 119–148.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFStolte2015" class="citation">Stolte, Bernard H. "The Law of New Rome: Byzantine Law". In <a href="#CITEREFJohnson2015">Johnson (2015)</a>, pp. 355–373.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKaldellis2015" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kaldellis" title="Anthony Kaldellis">Kaldellis, Anthony</a> (18 September 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://themarginaliareview.com/late-antiquity-dissolves-by-anthony-kaldellis/">"Late Antiquity Dissolves"</a>. <i>Marginalia: Forum on Late Antiquity and the Humanities</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231213011114/https://themarginaliareview.com/late-antiquity-dissolves-by-anthony-kaldellis/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 December 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Marginalia%3A+Forum+on+Late+Antiquity+and+the+Humanities&rft.atitle=Late+Antiquity+Dissolves&rft.date=2015-09-18&rft.aulast=Kaldellis&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthemarginaliareview.com%2Flate-antiquity-dissolves-by-anthony-kaldellis%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKaldellis2021a" class="citation book cs1">——— (2021a). "The Byzantine Empire (641–1453 CE)". In <a href="/wiki/Peter_Fibiger_Bang" title="Peter Fibiger Bang">Fibiger Bang, Peter</a>; <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Bayly" title="Christopher Bayly">Bayly, C. A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scheidel" title="Walter Scheidel">Scheidel, Walter</a> (eds.). <i>The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume Two: The History of Empires</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">450–</span>467. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780197532768" title="Special:BookSources/9780197532768"><bdi>9780197532768</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Byzantine+Empire+%28641%E2%80%931453+CE%29&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+World+History+of+Empire%3A+Volume+Two%3A+The+History+of+Empires&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E450-%3C%2Fspan%3E467&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9780197532768&rft.aulast=Kaldellis&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKazhdan1991a" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kazhdan" title="Alexander Kazhdan">Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich</a>, ed. (1991a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/the-oxfrod-dictionary-of-byzantium-vol.-1-oup-1991/The%20Oxfrod%20Dictionary%20of%20Byzantium_Vol.%202_OUP_1991/mode/2up"><i>Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium</i></a>. Vol. 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504652-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504652-6"><bdi>978-0-19-504652-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+Byzantium&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-19-504652-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthe-oxfrod-dictionary-of-byzantium-vol.-1-oup-1991%2FThe%2520Oxfrod%2520Dictionary%2520of%2520Byzantium_Vol.%25202_OUP_1991%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFBrowning1991a" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Browning_(Byzantinist)" title="Robert Browning (Byzantinist)">Browning, Robert</a>. "<span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195046526.001.0001/acref-9780195046526-e-3001">Language</a></span>". In <a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1991a">Kazhdan (1991a)</a>, pp. 1175–1177.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFConomos1991" class="citation">Conomos, Dimitri E. (1991). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/the-oxfrod-dictionary-of-byzantium-vol.-1-oup-1991/The%20Oxfrod%20Dictionary%20of%20Byzantium_Vol.%202_OUP_1991/page/1419/mode/2up">Music</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1991a">Kazhdan (1991a)</a>, pp. 1424–1426.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFConomosKazhdan1991" class="citation">Conomos, Dimitri E.; Kazhdan, Alexander (1991). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/the-oxfrod-dictionary-of-byzantium-vol.-1-oup-1991/The%20Oxfrod%20Dictionary%20of%20Byzantium_Vol.%202_OUP_1991/page/1421/mode/2up">Musical Instruments</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1991a">Kazhdan (1991a)</a>, pp. 1426–1427.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFKazhdan1991b" class="citation">Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich (1991b). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/the-oxfrod-dictionary-of-byzantium-vol.-1-oup-1991/The%20Oxfrod%20Dictionary%20of%20Byzantium_Vol.%202_OUP_1991/page/1228/mode/2up">Literature</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1991a">Kazhdan (1991a)</a>, pp. 1234–1237.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLaiou2002a" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Angeliki_Laiou" title="Angeliki Laiou">Laiou, Angeliki E.</a>, ed. (2002a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/economicbizant/mode/2up"><i>The Economic History of Byzantium. From the Seventh Through the Fifteenth Century</i></a>. Vol. 1. Washington DC: Dumbarton Oaks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780884022886" title="Special:BookSources/9780884022886"><bdi>9780884022886</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economic+History+of+Byzantium.+From+the+Seventh+Through+the+Fifteenth+Century&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780884022886&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feconomicbizant%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLaiou2002b" class="citation book cs1">Laiou, Angeliki E., ed. (2002b). <i>The Economic History of Byzantium. From the Seventh Through the Fifteenth Century</i>. Vol. 2. Washington DC: Dumbarton Oaks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0884022886" title="Special:BookSources/978-0884022886"><bdi>978-0884022886</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economic+History+of+Byzantium.+From+the+Seventh+Through+the+Fifteenth+Century&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0884022886&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFKazanaki-Lappa2002" class="citation">Kazanaki-Lappa, Maria (2002). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120218231247/http://www.doaks.org/publications/doaks_online_publications/EconHist/EHB29.pdf">Medieval Athens</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFLaiou2002b">Laiou (2002b)</a>, pp. 625–632.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFLaiou2002c" class="citation">Laiou, Angeliki E. (2002c). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130930114425/http://www.doaks.org/resources/publications/doaks-online-publications/byzantine-studies/the-economic-history-of-byzantium/ehb36-trade">Exchange and Trade, Seventh-Twelfth Centuries</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFLaiou2002b">Laiou (2002b)</a>, pp. 681–754.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFMagdalino2002b" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Magdalino" title="Paul Magdalino">Magdalino, Paul</a> (2002b). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130930114407/http://www.doaks.org/resources/publications/doaks-online-publications/byzantine-studies/the-economic-history-of-byzantium/ehb20-cp">Medieval Constantinople: Built Environment and Urban Development</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFLaiou2002b">Laiou (2002b)</a>, pp. 519–527.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFMatschke2002" class="citation">Matschke, Klaus-Peter (2002). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130930114138/http://www.doaks.org/resources/publications/doaks-online-publications/byzantine-studies/the-economic-history-of-byzantium/ehb37-trade-late">Commerce, Trade, Markets, and Money: Thirteenth-Fifteenth Centuries</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFLaiou2002b">Laiou (2002b)</a>, pp. 771–806.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLazaris2020" class="citation book cs1">Lazaris, Stavros (2020). <i>A Companion to Byzantine Science</i>. Brill's Companions to the Byzantine World. Vol. 6. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004414617">10.1163/9789004414617</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41461-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41461-7"><bdi>978-90-04-41461-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Byzantine+Science&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Brill%27s+Companions+to+the+Byzantine+World&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004414617&rft.isbn=978-90-04-41461-7&rft.aulast=Lazaris&rft.aufirst=Stavros&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFLazaris2020a" class="citation">Lazaris, Stavros (2020a). Introduction. In <a href="#CITEREFLazaris2020">Lazaris (2020)</a>, pp. 1–26.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFInglebert2020" class="citation">Inglebert, Herv. "1. ‘Inner’ and ‘Outer’ Knowledge: the Debate between Faith and Reason in Late Antiquity". In <a href="#CITEREFLazaris2020">Lazaris (2020)</a>, pp. 27–52.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFManolova2020" class="citation">Manolova, Divna. "2. Science Teaching and Learning Methods in Byzantium". In <a href="#CITEREFLazaris2020">Lazaris (2020)</a>, pp. 53–104.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFTelelis2020" class="citation">Telelis, Ioannis. "5. Meteorology and Physics in Byzantium". In <a href="#CITEREFLazaris2020">Lazaris (2020)</a>, pp. 177–201.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFSalmon2020" class="citation">Salmon, Thomas. "12. The Byzantine Science of Warfare: from Treatises to Battlefield". In <a href="#CITEREFLazaris2020">Lazaris (2020)</a>, pp. 429–463.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLenski2021" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Lenski, Noel (12 August 2021). "Slavery in the Byzantine Empire". In Perry, Craig; Eltis, David; <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Engerman" title="Stanley Engerman">Engerman, Stanley L.</a>; Richardson, David (eds.). <i>The Cambridge World History of Slavery</i>. Vol. 2: AD 500–AD 1420. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">453–</span>481. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781139024723.019">10.1017/9781139024723.019</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-02472-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-02472-3"><bdi>978-1-139-02472-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+the+Byzantine+Empire&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+World+History+of+Slavery&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E453-%3C%2Fspan%3E481&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021-08-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781139024723.019&rft.isbn=978-1-139-02472-3&rft.aulast=Lenski&rft.aufirst=Noel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLevyTroelsgård2016" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Levy" title="Kenneth Levy">Levy, Kenneth</a> (2016) [2001]. <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000004494">"Byzantine Chant"</a></span>. In Troelsgård, Christian (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Grove_Music_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Grove Music Online">Grove Music Online</a></i>. Revised by Christian Troelsgård. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.04494">10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.04494</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0"><bdi>978-1-56159-263-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Byzantine+Chant&rft.btitle=Grove+Music+Online&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.04494&rft.isbn=978-1-56159-263-0&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordmusiconline.com%2Fgrovemusic%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.001.0001%2Fomo-9781561592630-e-0000004494&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikipedialibrary.wmflabs.org/partners/90/">Wikilibrary</a> access, or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/page/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLouth2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Louth" title="Andrew Louth">Louth, Andrew</a> (2005). "The Byzantine Empire in the Seventh Century". In <a href="/wiki/Paul_Fouracre" title="Paul Fouracre">Fouracre, Paul</a> (ed.). <i>New Cambridge Medieval History</i>. Vol. 1: c. 500 – c. 700. pp. <span class="nowrap">289–</span>316. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139053938" title="Special:BookSources/9781139053938"><bdi>9781139053938</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Byzantine+Empire+in+the+Seventh+Century&rft.btitle=New+Cambridge+Medieval+History&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E289-%3C%2Fspan%3E316&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781139053938&rft.aulast=Louth&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMango2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Mango" title="Cyril Mango">Mango, Cyril A.</a>, ed. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/ocm50270189"><i>The Oxford History of Byzantium</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814098-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814098-6"><bdi>978-0-19-814098-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Byzantium&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-814098-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Focm50270189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFJeffreysMango2002" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Jeffreys" title="Elizabeth Jeffreys">Jeffreys, Elizabeth</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cyril_Mango" title="Cyril Mango">Mango, Cyril</a>. "Towards a Franco-Greek Culture". In <a href="#CITEREFMango2002">Mango (2002)</a>, pp. 294–305.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFMagdalino2002" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Magdalino" title="Paul Magdalino">Magdalino, Paul</a>. "The Medieval Empire (780–1204)". In <a href="#CITEREFMango2002">Mango (2002)</a>, pp. 169–213.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFReinert2002" class="citation">Reinert, Stephen W. "Fragmentation (1204–1453)". In <a href="#CITEREFMango2002">Mango (2002)</a>, pp. 248–283.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFSarris2002" class="citation">Sarris, Peter. "The Eastern Roman Empire from Constantine to Heraclius (306–641)". In <a href="#CITEREFMango2002">Mango (2002)</a>, pp. 19–70.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFTreadgold2002" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Warren_Treadgold" title="Warren Treadgold">Treadgold, Warren</a>. "The Struggle for Survival (641–780)". In <a href="#CITEREFMango2002">Mango (2002)</a>, pp. 129–152.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMitchellYoung2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Margaret_M._Mitchell" title="Margaret M. Mitchell">Mitchell, Margaret M.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Frances_Young" title="Frances Young">Young, Frances</a>, eds. (2006). <i>The Cambridge History of Christianity</i>. Vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05483-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05483-6"><bdi>978-1-139-05483-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05483-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFCameron2006b" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Averil_Cameron" title="Averil Cameron">Cameron, Averil</a> (2006b). "Constantine and the 'Peace of the Church'". In <a href="#CITEREFMitchellYoung2006">Mitchell & Young (2006)</a>, pp. 538–551.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNicol1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Nicol" title="Donald Nicol">Nicol, Donald M.</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jEa8Iv5wJ0IC&pg=PA51">"Byzantine Political Thought"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/J._H._Burns" title="J. H. Burns">Burns, J. H.</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_History_of_Political_Thought" title="The Cambridge History of Political Thought"><i>The Cambridge History of Medieval Political Thought, c. 350–c. 1450</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">51–</span>79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-52-142388-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-52-142388-5"><bdi>978-0-52-142388-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Byzantine+Political+Thought&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Medieval+Political+Thought%2C+c.+350%E2%80%93c.+1450&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E51-%3C%2Fspan%3E79&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-52-142388-5&rft.aulast=Nicol&rft.aufirst=Donald+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjEa8Iv5wJ0IC%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNobleSmith2008" class="citation book cs1">Noble, Thomas F. X.; <a href="/wiki/Julia_M._H._Smith" title="Julia M. H. Smith">Smith, Julia M. H.</a>, eds. (2008). <i>The Cambridge History of Christianity</i>. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05422-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05422-5"><bdi>978-1-139-05422-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05422-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFBrown2008" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Brown_(historian)" title="Peter Brown (historian)">Brown, Peter</a>. "Introduction: Christendom, c. 600". In <a href="#CITEREFNobleSmith2008">Noble & Smith (2008)</a>, pp. 1–18.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFKolbaba2008" class="citation">Kolbaba, Tia M. "Latin and Greek Christians". In <a href="#CITEREFNobleSmith2008">Noble & Smith (2008)</a>, pp. 213–229.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFLouth2008" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Louth" title="Andrew Louth">Louth, Andrew</a>. "The Emergence of Byzantine Orthodoxy, 600–1095". In <a href="#CITEREFNobleSmith2008">Noble & Smith (2008)</a>, pp. 46–64.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNutton1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Nutton" title="Vivian Nutton">Nutton, Vivian</a> (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/DOP38_02_Nutton/mode/2up">"From Galen to Alexander, Aspects of Medicine and Medical Practice in Late Antiquity"</a>. In Scarborough, John (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.doaks.org/resources/publications/series/dopapers/for-readers/past-issues/volume-38"><i>Symposium on Byzantine Medicine</i></a>. Dumbarton Oaks Papers. Vol. 38. Washington DC: Dumbarton Oaks. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1291489">10.2307/1291489</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780884021391" title="Special:BookSources/9780884021391"><bdi>9780884021391</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1291489">1291489</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Galen+to+Alexander%2C+Aspects+of+Medicine+and+Medical+Practice+in+Late+Antiquity&rft.btitle=Symposium+on+Byzantine+Medicine&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.series=Dumbarton+Oaks+Papers&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E14&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks&rft.date=1984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1291489%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1291489&rft.isbn=9780884021391&rft.aulast=Nutton&rft.aufirst=Vivian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FDOP38_02_Nutton%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPapaconstantinou2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arietta_Papaconstantinou" title="Arietta Papaconstantinou">Papaconstantinou, Arietta</a> (2016). "Introduction". <i>Conversion in Late Antiquity: Christianity, Islam, and Beyond</i>. London: Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">xv–</span>xxxvii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-5738-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-5738-1"><bdi>978-1-4094-5738-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Conversion+in+Late+Antiquity%3A+Christianity%2C+Islam%2C+and+Beyond&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3Exv-%3C%2Fspan%3Exxxvii&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4094-5738-1&rft.aulast=Papaconstantinou&rft.aufirst=Arietta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPapaioannou2021" class="citation book cs1">Papaioannou, Stratis, ed. (2021). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Literature</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-935176-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-935176-3"><bdi>978-0-19-935176-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Byzantine+Literature&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-935176-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFKaldellis2021" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kaldellis" title="Anthony Kaldellis">Kaldellis, Anthony</a>. "The Reception of Classical Literature and Ancient Myth". In <a href="#CITEREFPapaioannou2021">Papaioannou (2021)</a>, pp. 162–179.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFMartín2021" class="citation">Martín, Inmaculada Pérez. "Modes of Manuscript Transmission (Ninth–Fifteenth Centuries)". In <a href="#CITEREFPapaioannou2021">Papaioannou (2021)</a>, pp. 682–706.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFPapaioannou2021a" class="citation">Papaioannou, Stratis (2021a). "What Is Byzantine Literature? An Introduction". In <a href="#CITEREFPapaioannou2021">Papaioannou (2021)</a>, pp. 1–18.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPapademetriou2015" class="citation book cs1">Papademetriou, Tom (1 February 2015). "The Millet System Revisited". <i>Render unto the Sultan</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">19–</span>62. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198717898.003.0002">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198717898.003.0002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-871789-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-871789-8"><bdi>978-0-19-871789-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Millet+System+Revisited&rft.btitle=Render+unto+the+Sultan&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E19-%3C%2Fspan%3E62&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015-02-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198717898.003.0002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-871789-8&rft.aulast=Papademetriou&rft.aufirst=Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPohlGantnerGrifoniPollheimer-Mohaupt2018" class="citation book cs1">Pohl, Walter; Gantner, Clemens; Grifoni, Cinzia; Pollheimer-Mohaupt, Marianne, eds. (25 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110598384/html"><i>Transformations of Romanness: Early Medieval Regions and Identities</i></a>. De Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-059838-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-059838-4"><bdi>978-3-11-059838-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transformations+of+Romanness%3A+Early+Medieval+Regions+and+Identities&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2018-06-25&rft.isbn=978-3-11-059838-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110598384%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFPohl2018" class="citation">Pohl, Walter. "1 Introduction: Early medieval Romanness – a multiple identity". In <a href="#CITEREFPohl2018">Pohl (2018)</a>, pp. 3-39.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFStouraitis2018" class="citation">Stouraitis, Ioannis. "Byzantine Romanness: From geopolitical to ethnic conceptions". In <a href="#CITEREFPohl2018">Pohl (2018)</a>, pp. 123-39.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRochette2023" class="citation book cs1">——— (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/book/55330/chapter/428805545">"The Attitude of the Roman Emperors towards Language Practices"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Alex_Mullen_(academic)" title="Alex Mullen (academic)">Mullen, Alex</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/book/55330"><i>Social Factors in the Latinization of the Roman West</i></a> (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-888729-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-888729-4"><bdi>978-0-19-888729-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Attitude+of+the+Roman+Emperors+towards+Language+Practices&rft.btitle=Social+Factors+in+the+Latinization+of+the+Roman+West&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-19-888729-4&rft.aulast=Rochette&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fbook%2F55330%2Fchapter%2F428805545&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSalaman1986" class="citation book cs1">Salaman, Rena (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jYa3J6xrjt4C">"The Case of the Missing Fish, or <i>Dolmathon</i> Prolegomena"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Tom_Jaine" title="Tom Jaine">Jaine, Tom</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_rbDzAYGcUa8C/page/184"><i>Oxford Symposium on Food & Cookery 1984 & 1985: Cookery: Science, Lore & Books: Proceedings (Introduction by Alan Davidson)</i></a>. London: Prospect Books. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_rbDzAYGcUa8C/page/184">184–187</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-907325-16-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-907325-16-1"><bdi>978-0-907325-16-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Case+of+the+Missing+Fish%2C+or+Dolmathon+Prolegomena&rft.btitle=Oxford+Symposium+on+Food+%26+Cookery+1984+%26+1985%3A+Cookery%3A+Science%2C+Lore+%26+Books%3A+Proceedings+%28Introduction+by+Alan+Davidson%29&rft.place=London&rft.pages=184-187&rft.pub=Prospect+Books&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-907325-16-1&rft.aulast=Salaman&rft.aufirst=Rena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjYa3J6xrjt4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKazhdan1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kazhdan" title="Alexander Kazhdan">Kazhdan, Alexander</a> (1990). "The Notion of Byzantine Diplomacy". In <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Shepard" title="Jonathan Shepard">Shepard, Jonathan</a> (ed.). <i>Byzantine Diplomacy: Papers of the Twenty-fourth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies</i>. Cambridge: Variorum. pp. <span class="nowrap">3–</span>24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780860783381" title="Special:BookSources/9780860783381"><bdi>9780860783381</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Notion+of+Byzantine+Diplomacy&rft.btitle=Byzantine+Diplomacy%3A+Papers+of+the+Twenty-fourth+Spring+Symposium+of+Byzantine+Studies&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft.pub=Variorum&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780860783381&rft.aulast=Kazhdan&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShepard2009" class="citation book cs1">Shepard, Jonathan, ed. (2009). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_History_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire">The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire c. 500–1492</a></i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5117-5670-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5117-5670-2"><bdi>978-0-5117-5670-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+the+Byzantine+Empire+c.+500%E2%80%931492&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-5117-5670-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFAngold2009" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Angold" title="Michael Angold">Angold, Michael</a>. "Belle Époque or Crisis? (1025–1118)". In <a href="#CITEREFShepard2009">Shepard (2009)</a>, pp. 583–626.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFAngold2009b" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Angold" title="Michael Angold">Angold, Michael</a> (2009b). "After the Fourth Crusade: the Greek Rump States and the Recovery of Byzantium". In <a href="#CITEREFShepard2009">Shepard (2009)</a>, pp. 731–758.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFAuzépy2009" class="citation">Auzépy, Marie-France. "State of Emergency (700–850)". In <a href="#CITEREFShepard2009">Shepard (2009)</a>, pp. 251–291.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFBryer2009" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Bryer" title="Anthony Bryer">Bryer, Anthony</a>. "The Roman Orthodox World (1393–1492)". In <a href="#CITEREFShepard2009">Shepard (2009)</a>, pp. 465–492.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFKaegi2009" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaegi" title="Walter Kaegi">Kaegi, Walter Emil</a>. "Confronting Islam: Emperors Versus Caliphs (641 – c. 850)". In <a href="#CITEREFShepard2009">Shepard (2009)</a>, pp. 365–394.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFLaiou2009" class="citation">Laiou, Angeliki. "The Palaiologoi And The World Around Them (1261–1400)". In <a href="#CITEREFShepard2009">Shepard (2009)</a>, pp. 803–833.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFLouth2009a" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Louth" title="Andrew Louth">Louth, Andrew</a> (2009a). "Justinian and his legacy (500–600)". In <a href="#CITEREFShepard2009">Shepard (2009)</a>, pp. 97–129.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFLouth2009b" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Louth" title="Andrew Louth">Louth, Andrew</a> (2009b). "Byzantium Transforming (600–700)". In <a href="#CITEREFShepard2009">Shepard (2009)</a>, pp. 221–248.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFMagdalino2009" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Magdalino" title="Paul Magdalino">Magdalino, Paul</a>. "The Empire of the Komnenoi (1118–1204)". In <a href="#CITEREFShepard2009">Shepard (2009)</a>, pp. 627–663.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFMoorhead2009" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/John_Moorhead" title="John Moorhead">Moorhead, John</a>. "Western Approaches (500–600)". In <a href="#CITEREFShepard2009">Shepard (2009)</a>.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFShepard2009b" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Shepard" title="Jonathan Shepard">Shepard, Jonathan</a> (2009b). "Equilibrium to Expansion (886–1025)". In <a href="#CITEREFShepard2009">Shepard (2009)</a>, pp. 493–536.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFTougher2009" class="citation">Tougher, Shaun. "After Iconoclasm (850–886)". In <a href="#CITEREFShepard2009">Shepard (2009)</a>, pp. 292–304.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFWhittow2009" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Whittow" title="Mark Whittow">Whittow, Mark</a>. "The Middle Byzantine Economy (600–1204)". In <a href="#CITEREFShepard2009">Shepard (2009)</a>, pp. 465–492.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStewartParnellWhately2022" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, Michael Edward; Parnell, David Alan; Whately, Conor, eds. (2022). <i>The Routledge Handbook on Identity in Byzantium</i>. The Routledge History Handbooks. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-14341-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-367-14341-1"><bdi>978-0-367-14341-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Handbook+on+Identity+in+Byzantium&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=The+Routledge+History+Handbooks&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-367-14341-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFStewart2022" class="citation">Stewart, Michael. "Finding Byzantium". In <a href="#CITEREFStewartParnellWhately2022">Stewart, Parnell & Whately (2022)</a>, pp. 1–15.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFMuthesius2022" class="citation">Muthesius, Anna. "Imperial identity: Byzantine silks, art, autocracy, theocracy, and the image of the Basileia". In <a href="#CITEREFStewartParnellWhately2022">Stewart, Parnell & Whately (2022)</a>, pp. 81-103.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFKaldellis2022b" class="citation">Kaldellis, Anthony (2022b). "Provincial identities in Byzantium". In <a href="#CITEREFStewartParnellWhately2022">Stewart, Parnell & Whately (2022)</a>, pp. 248-261.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFGoldwyn2022" class="citation">Goldwyn, Adam J. "Byzantium in the American Alt-Right Imagination: Paradigms of the Medieval Greek Past Among Men's Rights Activists and White Supremacists". In <a href="#CITEREFStewartParnellWhately2022">Stewart, Parnell & Whately (2022)</a>, pp. 424–436.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStolte2018" class="citation book cs1">Stolte, Bernard (2018). "Byzantine Law: The Law of the New Rome". In Pihlajamäki, Heikki; Dubber, Markus D.; Godfrey, Mark (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/27972/chapter/211607076"><i>The Oxford Handbook of European Legal History</i></a>. Vol. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">230–</span>249. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780198785521.013.10">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198785521.013.10</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191827426" title="Special:BookSources/9780191827426"><bdi>9780191827426</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Byzantine+Law%3A+The+Law+of+the+New+Rome&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+European+Legal+History&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E230-%3C%2Fspan%3E249&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780198785521.013.10&rft.isbn=9780191827426&rft.aulast=Stolte&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fedited-volume%2F27972%2Fchapter%2F211607076&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStouraitis2022" class="citation book cs1">Stouraitis, Yannis, ed. (31 October 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/edinburgh-scholarship-online/book/51597"><i>Identities and Ideologies in the Medieval East Roman World</i></a> (1 ed.). Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3366%2Fedinburgh%2F9781474493628.001.0001">10.3366/edinburgh/9781474493628.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-9362-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-9362-8"><bdi>978-1-4744-9362-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Identities+and+Ideologies+in+the+Medieval+East+Roman+World&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2022-10-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3366%2Fedinburgh%2F9781474493628.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-1-4744-9362-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fedinburgh-scholarship-online%2Fbook%2F51597&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><span id="CITEREFStouraitis2022b" class="citation">Stouraitis, Yannis (2022b). "1 Is Byzantinism an Orientalism? Reflections on Byzantium's Constructed Identities and Debated Ideologies". In <a href="#CITEREFStouraitis2022">Stouraitis (2022)</a>, pp. 19-47.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTalbot1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alice-Mary_Talbot" title="Alice-Mary Talbot">Talbot, Alice-Mary</a> (1997). "Chapter 5: Women". In <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Cavallo" title="Guglielmo Cavallo">Cavallo, Guglielmo</a> (ed.). <i>The Byzantines</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">117–</span>143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-09791-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-09791-6"><bdi>978-0-226-09791-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+5%3A+Women&rft.btitle=The+Byzantines&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E117-%3C%2Fspan%3E143&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-226-09791-6&rft.aulast=Talbot&rft.aufirst=Alice-Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTouliatos2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Touliatos, Diane (2001). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000048192">"Byzantine Secular Music"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Grove_Music_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Grove Music Online">Grove Music Online</a></i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.48192">10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.48192</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0"><bdi>978-1-56159-263-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Byzantine+Secular+Music&rft.btitle=Grove+Music+Online&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.48192&rft.isbn=978-1-56159-263-0&rft.aulast=Touliatos&rft.aufirst=Diane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordmusiconline.com%2Fgrovemusic%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.001.0001%2Fomo-9781561592630-e-0000048192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikipedialibrary.wmflabs.org/partners/90/">Wikilibrary</a> access, or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/page/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVelimirović1990" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Velimirovi%C4%87" title="Miloš Velimirović">Velimirović, Miloš</a> (1990). "Byzantine Chant". In Crocker, Richard; <a href="/wiki/David_Hiley" title="David Hiley">Hiley, David</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/new-oxford-history-of-music/New%20Oxford%20History%20of%20Music%202a%20The%20Early%20Middle%20Ages%20to%201300%20II/mode/2up"><i>The New Oxford History of Music</i></a>. Vol. II: The Early Middle Ages To 1300 (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">26–</span>68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-316329-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-316329-4"><bdi>978-0-19-316329-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Byzantine+Chant&rft.btitle=The+New+Oxford+History+of+Music&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E26-%3C%2Fspan%3E68&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-19-316329-4&rft.aulast=Velimirovi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Milo%C5%A1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnew-oxford-history-of-music%2FNew%2520Oxford%2520History%2520of%2520Music%25202a%2520The%2520Early%2520Middle%2520Ages%2520to%25201300%2520II%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWildberg2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wildberg" title="Christian Wildberg">Wildberg, Christian</a> (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/philoponus/">"John Philoponus"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Winter 2021 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=John+Philoponus&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Winter+2021&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Wildberg&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fwin2021%2Fentries%2Fphiloponus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AByzantine+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Byzantine Empire</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Byzantine+Empire&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Byzantine+Empire">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Byzantine+Empire&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00547j9">Byzantine Empire</a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)"><i>In Our Time</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anders.com/lectures/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers/">12 Byzantine Rulers</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160718092221/http://www.anders.com/lectures/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers/">Archived</a> 18 July 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Lars Brownworth of <a href="/wiki/The_Stony_Brook_School" title="The Stony Brook School">The Stony Brook School</a>; audio lectures.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cit.gu.edu.au/~s285238/Roman/RomanEmpire.html">18 centuries of Roman Empire by Howard Wiseman</a> (Maps of the Roman/Byzantine Empire throughout its lifetime).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080410123427/http://www.doaks.org/Byzantine.html">Byzantine studies homepage</a> at <a href="/wiki/Dumbarton_Oaks" title="Dumbarton Oaks">Dumbarton Oaks</a>. Includes links to numerous electronic texts.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/">Byzantium: Byzantine studies on the Internet</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141008060507/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/">Archived</a> 8 October 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Links to various online resources.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111107172532/http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans.html">Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c. 700–1204</a>. Online sourcebook.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deremilitari.org/">De Re Militari</a>. Resources for medieval history, including numerous translated sources on the Byzantine wars.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1c.html">Medieval Sourcebook: Byzantium</a>, hosted by <a href="/wiki/Fordham_University" title="Fordham University">Fordham University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140814170022/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1c.html">Archived</a> 14 August 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Numerous primary sources on Byzantine history.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.univie.ac.at/byzantine/">Bibliography on Byzantine Material Culture and Daily Life</a>. Hosted by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Vienna" title="University of Vienna">University of Vienna</a>; in English.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/greek-resources-constantinople.asp">Constantinople Home Page</a>. Links to texts, images and videos on Byzantium.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160816053828/http://graal.org.ua/en/theodoro-principality">Byzantium in Crimea: Political History, Art and Culture</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oeaw.ac.at/byzanz/">Institute for Byzantine Studies of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (with further resources and a repository with papers on various aspects of the Byzantine Empire)</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Byzantine_Empire_topics337" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks plainlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Byzantine_Empire_topics" title="Template:Byzantine Empire topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Byzantine_Empire_topics" title="Template talk:Byzantine Empire topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Byzantine_Empire_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Byzantine Empire topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Byzantine_Empire_topics337" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Byzantine Empire</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History337" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Byzantine Empire">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;"><b>Preceding</b></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;"><b>Early</b> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(330–717)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Constantinian_and_Valentinianic_dynasties" title="Byzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties">Constantinian–Valentinianic era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_dynasty" title="Constantinian dynasty">Constantinian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentinianic_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Valentinianic dynasty">Valentinianic dynasty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Theodosian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Theodosian dynasty">Theodosian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Leonid_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Leonid dynasty">Leonid era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Justinian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Heraclian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty">Heraclian era</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Dark_Ages" title="Byzantine Dark Ages">Byzantine Dark Ages</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty_Years%27_Anarchy" title="Twenty Years' Anarchy">Twenty Years' Anarchy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;"><b>Middle</b> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(717–1204)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Isaurian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty">Isaurian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Nikephorian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty">Nikephorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Amorian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Amorian dynasty">Amorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Macedonian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty">Macedonian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Doukas_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty">Doukid era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Komnenos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty">Komnenian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Angelos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty">Angelid era</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;"><b>Late</b> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1204–1453)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Constantinople" title="Sack of Constantinople">Sack of Constantinople</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankokratia" title="Frankokratia">Frankokratia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li>Byzantine successor states (<a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a> / <a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a>–<a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a> / <a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a>–<a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Theodoro" title="Principality of Theodoro">Theodoro</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Palaiologos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty">Palaiologan era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">Decline of the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;">By modern region<br />or territory</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Anatolia" title="Byzantine Anatolia">Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Armenia" title="Byzantine Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Corsica" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Corsica">Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Crete" title="Byzantine Crete">Crete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Dalmatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greece" title="Byzantine Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Italy" title="Byzantine Italy">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Sardinia" title="Byzantine Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Sicily">Sicily</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Maghreb" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Maghreb">Maghreb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Malta" title="Byzantine Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Spain">Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands)</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Thrace" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Thrace">Thrace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Governance337" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Governance</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em">Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="List of Byzantine emperors">Emperors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_the_Byzantine_emperor" title="Coronation of the Byzantine emperor">Coronation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="Family tree of Byzantine emperors">Family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_bureaucracy_and_aristocracy" title="Byzantine bureaucracy and aristocracy">Imperial bureaucracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek" title="Medieval Greek">Medieval Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Senate">Senate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture" title="Praetorian prefecture">Praetorian prefects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_officiorum" title="Magister officiorum">Magister officiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comes_sacrarum_largitionum" title="Comes sacrarum largitionum">Comes sacrarum largitionum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comes_rerum_privatarum" title="Comes rerum privatarum">Comes rerum privatarum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor_sacri_palatii" title="Quaestor sacri palatii">Quaestor sacri palatii</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logothetes_tou_dromou" title="Logothetes tou dromou">Logothetes tou dromou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakellarios" title="Sakellarios">Sakellarios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logothetes_tou_genikou" title="Logothetes tou genikou">Logothetes tou genikou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logothetes_tou_stratiotikou" title="Logothetes tou stratiotikou">Logothetes tou stratiotikou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakellarios" title="Sakellarios">Chartoularios tou sakelliou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestiarion" title="Vestiarion">Chartoularios tou vestiariou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epi_tou_eidikou" title="Epi tou eidikou">Epi tou eidikou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protasekretis" title="Protasekretis">Protasekretis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epi_ton_deeseon" title="Epi ton deeseon">Epi ton deeseon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megas_logothetes" title="Megas logothetes">Megas logothetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesazon" title="Mesazon">Mesazon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Subdivisions of the Byzantine Empire">Provincial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture" title="Praetorian prefecture">Praetorian prefectures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_diocese" title="Roman diocese">Dioceses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province#List_of_Late_Roman_provinces" title="Roman province">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestura_exercitus" title="Quaestura exercitus">Quaestura exercitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" title="Exarchate of Ravenna">Exarchate of Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Exarchate of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">Themata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleisoura_(Byzantine_district)" title="Kleisoura (Byzantine district)">Kleisourai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandon_(Byzantine_Empire)" title="Bandon (Byzantine Empire)">Bandon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katepano" title="Katepano">Catepanates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kephale_(Byzantine_Empire)" title="Kephale (Byzantine Empire)">Kephale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despot_(court_title)" title="Despot (court title)">Despotates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign relations of the Byzantine Empire">Foreign relations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Treaties_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Treaties of the Byzantine Empire">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_diplomats" title="Category:Byzantine diplomats">Diplomats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_diplomacy" title="Byzantine diplomacy">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_wars" title="List of Byzantine wars">Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Military337" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Army55" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army" title="Byzantine army">Army</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_battle_tactics" title="Byzantine battle tactics">Battle tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_battles" title="List of Byzantine battles">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_beacon_system" title="Byzantine beacon system">Beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_generals" title="Category:Byzantine generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_mercenaries" title="Category:Byzantine mercenaries">Mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_military_manuals" title="Byzantine military manuals">Military manuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_units_and_formations_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Military units and formations of the Byzantine Empire">Military units</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_revolts_and_civil_wars" title="List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars">Revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_army" title="Late Roman army">Late Roman army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Roman_army" class="mw-redirect" title="East Roman army">East Roman army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">Foederati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucellarii" title="Bucellarii">Bucellarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholae_Palatinae" title="Scholae Palatinae">Scholae Palatinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excubitors" title="Excubitors">Excubitors</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">Themata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleisoura_(Byzantine_district)" title="Kleisoura (Byzantine district)">Kleisourai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourma" class="mw-redirect" title="Tourma">Tourma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droungos" title="Droungos">Droungos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandon_(Byzantine_Empire)" title="Bandon (Byzantine Empire)">Bandon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagma_(military)" title="Tagma (military)">Tagmata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_of_the_Schools" title="Domestic of the Schools">Domestic of the Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetaireia" title="Hetaireia">Hetaireia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akritai" title="Akritai">Akritai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varangian_Guard" title="Varangian Guard">Varangian Guard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army_(Komnenian_era)" title="Byzantine army (Komnenian era)">Komnenian army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pronoia" title="Pronoia">Pronoia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestiaritai" title="Vestiaritai">Vestiaritai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army_(Palaiologan_era)" title="Byzantine army (Palaiologan era)">Palaiologan army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allagion" title="Allagion">Allagion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramonai" title="Paramonai">Paramonai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_domestic" title="Grand domestic">Grand domestic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_navy" title="Byzantine navy">Navy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karabisianoi" title="Karabisianoi">Karabisianoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">Maritime themata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cibyrrhaeot_Theme" title="Cibyrrhaeot Theme">Cibyrrhaeot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea_(theme)" title="Aegean Sea (theme)">Aegean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samos_(theme)" title="Samos (theme)">Samos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dromon" title="Dromon">Dromon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droungarios_of_the_Fleet" title="Droungarios of the Fleet">Droungarios of the Fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megas_doux" title="Megas doux">Megas doux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_admirals" title="Category:Byzantine admirals">Admirals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naval_battles_involving_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Naval battles involving the Byzantine Empire">Naval battles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em">Conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Serbian_wars" title="Byzantine–Serbian wars">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Lombard_wars" title="Byzantine–Lombard wars">Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Bulgarian_wars" title="Byzantine–Bulgarian wars">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rus%27%E2%80%93Byzantine_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Rus'–Byzantine War">Rus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Norman_wars" title="Byzantine–Norman wars">Norman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Georgian_wars" title="Byzantine–Georgian wars">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Seljuk_wars" title="Byzantine–Seljuk wars">Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Ottoman_wars" title="Byzantine–Ottoman wars">Ottoman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religion_and_law337" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Religion and law</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Religion_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Religion in the Byzantine Empire">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Rite" title="Byzantine Rite">Byzantine Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesychasm" title="Hesychasm">Hesychasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayhurum" title="Hayhurum">Hayhurum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarchate_of_Constantinople" title="Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople">Patriarchate of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_saints" title="Category:Byzantine saints">Saints</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_Rite" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandrian Rite">Alexandrian Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Rite" title="Armenian Rite">Armenian Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Syriac_Rite" title="West Syriac Rite">West Syriac Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miaphysitism" title="Miaphysitism">Miaphysitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_council" title="Ecumenical council">Ecumenical councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monophysitism" title="Monophysitism">Monophysitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paulicianism" title="Paulicianism">Paulicianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogomilism" title="Bogomilism">Bogomilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Athos" title="Mount Athos">Mount Athos</a></li> <li>Missionary activity <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Moravia" title="Christianization of Moravia">Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Serbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianization of the Serbs">Serbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">Jews</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Codex_Theodosianus" title="Codex Theodosianus">Codex Theodosianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Justinian" title="Code of Justinian">Code of Justinian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecloga" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecloga">Ecloga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilika" title="Basilika">Basilika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_Harmenopoulos" title="Constantine Harmenopoulos">Hexabiblos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_mutilation_in_Byzantine_culture" title="Political mutilation in Byzantine culture">Mutilation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Culture_and_society337" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Culture and society</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_secular_architecture" title="Category:Byzantine secular architecture">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_sacred_architecture" title="Category:Byzantine sacred architecture">Sacred</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-in-square" title="Cross-in-square">Cross-in-square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_Cistern" title="Basilica Cistern">Basilica Cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Zeuxippus" title="Baths of Zeuxippus">Baths of Zeuxippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Blachernae" title="Palace of Blachernae">Blachernae Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chora_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Chora Church">Chora Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople" title="Walls of Constantinople">City Walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Palace_of_Constantinople" title="Great Palace of Constantinople">Great Palace of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagia_Irene" title="Hagia Irene">Hagia Irene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippodrome_of_Constantinople" title="Hippodrome of Constantinople">Hippodrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pammakaristos_Church" title="Pammakaristos Church">Pammakaristos Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_of_Anemas" title="Prison of Anemas">Prison of Anemas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessalonica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Galerius_and_Rotunda" title="Arch of Galerius and Rotunda">Arch of Galerius and Rotunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Bath_(Thessaloniki)" title="Byzantine Bath (Thessaloniki)">Byzantine Bath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia,_Thessaloniki" title="Hagia Sophia, Thessaloniki">Hagia Sophia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagios_Demetrios" title="Hagios Demetrios">Hagios Demetrios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Panagia_Chalkeon" title="Church of Panagia Chalkeon">Panagia Chalkeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Thessaloniki" title="Walls of Thessaloniki">Walls of Thessaloniki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale" title="Basilica of San Vitale">San Vitale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Sant%27Apollinare_in_Classe" title="Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe">Sant'Apollinare in Classe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Sant%27Apollinare_Nuovo" title="Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo">Sant'Apollinare Nuovo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Other locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daphni_Monastery" title="Daphni Monastery">Daphni Monastery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosios_Loukas" title="Hosios Loukas">Hosios Loukas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nea_Moni_of_Chios" title="Nea Moni of Chios">Nea Moni of Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Metropolis" title="Little Metropolis">Panagia Gorgoepikoos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Catherine%27s_Monastery" title="Saint Catherine's Monastery">Saint Catherine's Monastery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mystras" title="Mystras">Mystras</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">Icons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_enamel" title="Byzantine enamel">Enamel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_glass" title="Byzantine glass">Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic#Byzantine_mosaics" title="Mosaic">Mosaics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Byzantine_mosaics_in_the_Middle_East" title="Early Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East">Early Byzantine mosaics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_painters" title="Category:Byzantine painters">Painters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_art_(Byzantine)" title="Macedonian art (Byzantine)">Macedonian period art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_civilisation_in_the_12th_century" title="Byzantine civilisation in the 12th century">Komnenian renaissance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_economy" title="Byzantine economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_coinage" title="Byzantine coinage">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_mints" title="Byzantine mints">Mints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine trade">Trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_silk" title="Byzantine silk">silk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_route_from_the_Varangians_to_the_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks">Varangians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynatoi" title="Dynatoi">Dynatoi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_literature" title="Byzantine literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine novel">Novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acritic_songs" title="Acritic songs">Acritic songs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digenes_Akritas" title="Digenes Akritas">Digenes Akritas</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Romance" title="Alexander Romance">Alexander Romance</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_historians" title="Category:Byzantine historians">Historians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em">Everyday life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_calendar" title="Byzantine calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cities_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Cities in the Byzantine Empire">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_cuisine" title="Byzantine cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_dance" title="Byzantine dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_dress" title="Byzantine dress">Dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_flags_and_insignia" title="Byzantine flags and insignia">Flags and insignia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_gardens" title="Byzantine gardens">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_music" title="Byzantine music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_lyra" title="Byzantine lyra">Lyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octoechos" title="Octoechos">Octoechos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_people" title="Category:Byzantine people">People</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks" title="Byzantine Greeks">Byzantine Greeks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Women in the Byzantine Empire">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Death in the Byzantine Empire">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_units_of_measurement" title="Byzantine units of measurement">Units of measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Science</a></li><li>Learning</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_Greek_encyclopedias" title="Category:Byzantine Greek encyclopedias">Encyclopedias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Library_of_Constantinople" title="Imperial Library of Constantinople">Imperial Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_medicine" title="Byzantine medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_philosophy" title="Byzantine philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_rhetoric" title="Byzantine rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_scholars" title="List of Byzantine scholars">Scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_university" title="Byzantine university">University</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Constantinople" title="University of Constantinople">University of Constantinople</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Impact337" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Impact</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_commonwealth" title="Byzantine commonwealth">Byzantine commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_studies" title="Byzantine studies">Byzantine studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_museums" title="Category:Byzantine museums">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantinism" title="Byzantinism">Byzantinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Revival_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Revival architecture">Neo-Byzantine architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars in the Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Succession of the Roman Empire">Third Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megali_Idea" title="Megali Idea">Megali Idea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Byzantine_Empire%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of Byzantine Empire–related articles">Index</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Outline of the Byzantine Empire">Outline</a></li><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Byzantine_Empire" title="Portal:Byzantine Empire">Portal</a></li></ul></div></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles92" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles92" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires160" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires160" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li>Magadha <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_kingdom" title="Pagan kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial28" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_attempts_by_Poland" title="Colonization attempts by Poland">attempts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_imperialism" title="Academic imperialism">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_imperialism" title="Ecological imperialism">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_imperialism" title="Green imperialism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_imperialism" title="Media imperialism">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Imperialists" title="Liberal Imperialists">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_imperialism" title="Linguistic imperialism">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_imperialism" title="Social imperialism">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_imperialism" title="Theories of imperialism">Theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. imperialism">U.S.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Anatolia23" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Turkey_timeline" title="Template:History of Turkey timeline"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Turkey_timeline" title="Template talk:History of Turkey timeline"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Turkey_timeline" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Turkey timeline"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Anatolia23" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anatolia" title="History of Anatolia">History of Anatolia</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_1o82fhjc3wbovqwhy2kcjq20p6jp4tz"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Modern_Europe" coords="722,372,831,393" title="Modern Europe" alt="Modern Europe" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Europe" coords="673,360,815,381" title="Early Modern Europe" alt="Early Modern Europe" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Crusades" coords="606,372,687,393" title="Crusades" alt="Crusades" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Islamic_conquest" coords="528,372,653,393" title="Islamic conquest" alt="Islamic conquest" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" coords="487,382,573,403" title="Byzantine Empire" alt="Byzantine Empire" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" coords="415,372,479,393" title="Ancient Rome" alt="Ancient Rome" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece" coords="367,382,464,403" title="Hellenistic Greece" alt="Hellenistic Greece" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Babylonian" coords="322,372,414,393" title="Babylonian" alt="Babylonian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Iron_Age" coords="219,372,299,393" title="Iron Age" alt="Iron Age" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" coords="80,372,171,393" title="Bronze Age" alt="Bronze Age" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Neo%2DHittite_period" coords="225,360,361,381" title="Neo-Hittite period" alt="Neo-Hittite period" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" coords="501,360,598,381" title="Middle Ages" alt="Middle Ages" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Trebizond_Empire" coords="543,182,668,203" title="Trebizond Empire" alt="Trebizond Empire" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Lazica" coords="442,182,511,203" title="Lazica" alt="Lazica" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Colchis" coords="160,182,235,203" title="Colchis" alt="Colchis" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrkiye" coords="744,165,824,185" title="Türkiye" alt="Türkiye" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" coords="652,165,765,185" title="Ottoman Empire" alt="Ottoman Empire" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" coords="602,165,671,185" title="Empire of Nicaea" alt="Empire of Nicaea" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Tao%2DKlarjeti" coords="538,165,640,185" title="Tao-Klarjeti" alt="Tao-Klarjeti" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Bagrationi_dynasty" coords="427,165,591,185" title="Bagrationi dynasty" alt="Bagrationi dynasty" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Bithynia" coords="334,165,414,185" title="Bithynia" alt="Bithynia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Urartu" coords="246,165,315,185" title="Urartu" alt="Urartu" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Luvians" coords="1,165,76,185" title="Luvians" alt="Luvians" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Cilicia" coords="708,147,800,168" title="Cilicia" alt="Cilicia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ramadanids" coords="648,147,740,168" title="Ramadanids" alt="Ramadanids" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_R%C3%BCm" coords="528,147,653,168" title="Sultanate of Rüm" alt="Sultanate of Rüm" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iberia" coords="388,147,518,168" title="Kingdom of Iberia" alt="Kingdom of Iberia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Lydia" coords="330,147,394,168" title="Lydia" alt="Lydia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Mitanni" coords="136,147,211,168" title="Mitanni" alt="Mitanni" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Neo%2DHittites" coords="230,147,333,168" title="Neo-Hittites" alt="Neo-Hittites" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Anatolian_Beyliks" coords="694,130,825,151" title="Anatolian Beyliks" alt="Anatolian Beyliks" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests" coords="502,130,627,151" title="Muslim conquests" alt="Muslim conquests" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Galatia" coords="411,130,486,151" title="Galatia" alt="Galatia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Assyria" coords="127,130,430,151" title="Assyria" alt="Assyria" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" coords="1,130,121,151" title="Akkadian Empire" alt="Akkadian Empire" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Karamanids" coords="672,113,764,133" title="Karamanids" alt="Karamanids" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Artuqids" coords="568,113,649,133" title="Artuqids" alt="Artuqids" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" coords="432,113,562,133" title="Kingdom of Pontus" alt="Kingdom of Pontus" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Caria" coords="202,113,266,133" title="Caria" alt="Caria" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kizzuwatna" coords="90,113,181,133" title="Kizzuwatna" alt="Kizzuwatna" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Dulkadirids" coords="678,96,776,116" title="Dulkadirids" alt="Dulkadirids" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Eshrefids" coords="636,96,689,116" title="Eshrefids" alt="Eshrefids" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ayyubids" coords="622,96,669,116" title="Ayyubids" alt="Ayyubids" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Inalids" coords="577,96,652,116" title="Inalids" alt="Inalids" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Commagene" coords="433,96,580,116" title="Kingdom of Commagene" alt="Kingdom of Commagene" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ionia" coords="230,96,294,116" title="Ionia" alt="Ionia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Assuwa" coords="166,96,235,116" title="Assuwa" alt="Assuwa" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kadi_Burhan_al%2DDin" coords="687,78,829,99" title="Kadi Burhan al-Din" alt="Kadi Burhan al-Din" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Eretnids" coords="645,78,725,99" title="Eretnids" alt="Eretnids" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Chobanids_(beylik)" coords="622,78,686,99" title="Chobanids (beylik)" alt="Chobanids (beylik)" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Danishmends" coords="540,78,637,99" title="Danishmends" alt="Danishmends" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" coords="314,78,400,99" title="Alexander the Great" alt="Alexander the Great" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pergamon" coords="399,78,541,99" title="Kingdom of Pergamon" alt="Kingdom of Pergamon" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Phrygia" coords="227,78,302,99" title="Phrygia" alt="Phrygia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Arzawa" coords="166,78,235,99" title="Arzawa" alt="Arzawa" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Hattians" coords="1,78,82,99" title="Hattians" alt="Hattians" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kara_Koyunlu" coords="669,61,772,82" title="Kara Koyunlu" alt="Kara Koyunlu" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" coords="589,61,675,82" title="Ilkhanate" alt="Ilkhanate" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Mongols" coords="537,61,623,82" title="Mongols" alt="Mongols" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Sassanian_Empire" coords="473,61,559,82" title="Sassanian Empire" alt="Sassanian Empire" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Seleucids" coords="367,61,453,82" title="Seleucids" alt="Seleucids" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Lycia" coords="152,61,216,82" title="Lycia" alt="Lycia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ak_Koyunlu" coords="676,44,768,64" title="Ak Koyunlu" alt="Ak Koyunlu" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" coords="605,44,691,64" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia" alt="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" coords="523,44,648,64" title="Bagratid Armenia" alt="Bagratid Armenia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" coords="387,44,528,64" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)" alt="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Achaemenids" coords="317,44,414,64" title="Achaemenids" alt="Achaemenids" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Troy_VII" coords="196,44,276,64" title="Troy VII" alt="Troy VII" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Troy" coords="1,44,60,64" title="Troy" alt="Troy" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Armenia" coords="684,26,820,47" title="Democratic Republic of Armenia" alt="Democratic Republic of Armenia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" coords="529,26,654,47" title="Byzantine Empire" alt="Byzantine Empire" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Asia_Province" coords="412,26,504,47" title="Asia Province" alt="Asia Province" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" coords="350,26,436,47" title="Hellenistic period" alt="Hellenistic period" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Medes" coords="306,26,370,47" title="Medes" alt="Medes" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Tuwanuwa" coords="252,26,333,47" title="Tuwanuwa" alt="Tuwanuwa" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Hittite_New_Kingdom" coords="180,26,277,47" title="Hittite New Kingdom" alt="Hittite New Kingdom" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Hittite_Old_Kingdom" coords="118,26,226,47" title="Hittite Old Kingdom" alt="Hittite Old Kingdom" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" coords="338,268,546,289" title="Argead dynasty" alt="Argead dynasty" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Rise_of_Nationalism_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" coords="736,256,833,277" title="Rise of Nationalism under the Ottoman Empire" alt="Rise of Nationalism under the Ottoman Empire" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Constantinople" coords="481,239,595,259" title="Constantinople" alt="Constantinople" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Cimmerian" coords="307,222,393,242" title="Cimmerian" alt="Cimmerian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Timurids" coords="660,320,740,341" title="Timurids" alt="Timurids" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ankara" coords="662,308,787,329" title="Battle of Ankara" alt="Battle of Ankara" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert" coords="606,291,748,311" title="Battle of Manzikert" alt="Battle of Manzikert" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Battle_of_Syllaeum" coords="540,273,676,294" title="Battle of Syllaeum" alt="Battle of Syllaeum" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" coords="370,256,489,277" title="Battle of Issus" alt="Battle of Issus" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pteria" coords="334,239,459,259" title="Battle of Pteria" alt="Battle of Pteria" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kadesh" coords="211,222,336,242" title="Battle of Kadesh" alt="Battle of Kadesh" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" coords="670,222,829,242" title="Fall of Constantinople" alt="Fall of Constantinople" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods" coords="312,345,497,369" title="List of archaeological periods" alt="List of archaeological periods" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/History_of_Anatolia" coords="282,12,527,36" title="History of Anatolia" alt="History of Anatolia" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_1o82fhjc3wbovqwhy2kcjq20p6jp4tz" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/1o82fhjc3wbovqwhy2kcjq20p6jp4tz.png" /></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="List_of_historic_states_of_Italy257" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Former_monarchies_Italian_peninsula" title="Template:Former monarchies Italian peninsula"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Former_monarchies_Italian_peninsula" title="Template talk:Former monarchies Italian peninsula"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Former_monarchies_Italian_peninsula" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Former monarchies Italian peninsula"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="List_of_historic_states_of_Italy257" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historic states of Italy">List of historic states of Italy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Pre-Roman period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan civilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etruria" title="Etruria">Etruria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnites" title="Samnites">Samnites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osci" title="Osci">Osci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Cisalpine Gaul</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Veneti" title="Adriatic Veneti">Veneti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligures" title="Ligures">Ligures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbri" title="Umbri">Umbri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iapygians" title="Iapygians">Iapygians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picentes" title="Picentes">Picentes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a> (753 BC–509 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> (509 BC–27 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> (27 BC–395 AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> (395–476 AD)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Medieval<br />and<br />Early Modern<br />states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Barbarian kingdoms<br />(476–774)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(476%E2%80%93493)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Italy (476–493)">Odoacer's rule</a> (476–493)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic rule</a> (493–553)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandal rule</a> (435–534)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombard rule</a> (568–774) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Benevento" title="Duchy of Benevento">Duchy of Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Friuli" title="Duchy of Friuli">Duchy of Friuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Ivrea" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Ivrea">Duchy of Ivrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Spoleto" title="Duchy of Spoleto">Duchy of Spoleto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Tridentum" title="Duchy of Tridentum">Duchy of Tridentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Tuscia" title="Duchy of Tuscia">Duchy of Tuscia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Byzantine Empire</a> (584–751)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" title="Exarchate of Ravenna">Exarchate of Ravenna</a> (584–751) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Rome" title="Duchy of Rome">Duchy of Rome</a> (533–751)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Perugia" title="Duchy of Perugia">Duchy of Perugia</a> (554–752)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_the_Pentapolis" title="Duchy of the Pentapolis">Duchy of the Pentapolis</a> (554–752)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Exarchate of Africa</a> (585–698)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a><br />(754–1870)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrimony_of_Saint_Peter" title="Patrimony of Saint Peter">Patrimony of Saint Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campagna_e_Marittima_Province" title="Campagna e Marittima Province">Campagna e Marittima Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commune_of_Rome" title="Commune of Rome">Commune of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Castro" title="Duchy of Castro">Duchy of Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Ferrara" title="Duchy of Ferrara">Duchy of Ferrara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma_and_Piacenza" title="Duchy of Parma and Piacenza">Duchy of Parma and Piacenza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Urbino" title="Duchy of Urbino">Duchy of Urbino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a><br />and other<br />independent<br />states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Brixen" title="Prince-Bishopric of Brixen">Bishopric of Bressanone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corsican_Republic" title="Corsican Republic">Corsican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_separatum_(Fiume)" title="Corpus separatum (Fiume)">City of Fiume and its District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Gorizia" title="County of Gorizia">County of Gorizia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_County_of_Gorizia_and_Gradisca" title="Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca">Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Guastalla" title="County of Guastalla">County of Guastalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Santa_Fiora" title="County of Santa Fiora">County of Santa Fiora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Guastalla" title="Duchy of Guastalla">Duchy of Guastalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">Kingdom of Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Ancona" title="March of Ancona">Ancona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Ceva" title="Marquisate of Ceva">Ceva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Finale" title="Marquisate of Finale">Finale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Friuli" title="March of Friuli">March of Friuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patria_del_Friuli" title="Patria del Friuli">Patria del Friuli (Patriarchate of Aquileia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Ivrea" title="March of Ivrea">Ivrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Istria" title="March of Istria">Istria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margraviate_of_Mantua" class="mw-redirect" title="Margraviate of Mantua">Mantua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Milan" title="Lordship of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Montferrat" title="March of Montferrat">March of Montferrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Montferrat" title="Duchy of Montferrat">Duchy of Montferrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Free_City_of_Trieste" title="Imperial Free City of Trieste">Trieste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Turin" title="March of Turin">Turin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Tuscany" title="March of Tuscany">Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Verona" title="March of Verona">Verona</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Ivrea" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Ivrea">Duchy of Ivrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Duchy of Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Mantua" title="Duchy of Mantua">Duchy of Mantua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Massa_and_Carrara" title="Duchy of Massa and Carrara">Duchy of Massa and Carrara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Merania" title="Duchy of Merania">Duchy of Merania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Mirandola" title="Duchy of Mirandola">Duchy of Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Modena_and_Reggio" title="Duchy of Modena and Reggio">Duchy of Modena and Reggio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Novellara_and_Bagnolo" title="County of Novellara and Bagnolo">County of Novellara and Bagnolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Piombino" title="Principality of Piombino">Principality of Piombino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Reggio" title="Duchy of Reggio">Duchy of Reggio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Saluzzo" title="Marquisate of Saluzzo">Marquisate of Saluzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Spoleto" title="Duchy of Spoleto">Duchy of Spoleto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Diocese_of_Tarentaise" title="Ancient Diocese of Tarentaise">Bishopric of Tarantasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Trent" title="Prince-Bishopric of Trent">Prince-Bishopric of Trento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savoyard_state" title="Savoyard state">Savoyard state</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Savoy" title="County of Savoy">County of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Piedmont" title="Prince of Piedmont">Piedmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Aosta" title="Duchy of Aosta">Duchy of Aosta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Nice" title="County of Nice">County of Nice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tende" title="Tende">County of Tenda</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a><br />(697–1797)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dogado" title="Dogado">Dogado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domini_di_Terraferma" title="Domini di Terraferma">Domini di Terraferma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stato_da_M%C3%A0r" title="Stato da Màr">Stato da Màr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other Republics<br />(c. 1000–1797)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Cospaia" title="Republic of Cospaia">Republic of Cospaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Lucca" title="Republic of Lucca">Republic of Lucca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Massa" title="Republic of Massa">Republic of Massa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Siena" title="Republic of Siena">Republic of Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Noli" title="Republic of Noli">Republic of Noli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Republic of Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ancona" title="Republic of Ancona">Republic of Ancona</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_south_Italian_principalities" title="List of south Italian principalities">Southern Italy</a><br />(774–1139)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Byzantine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Duchy of Amalfi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Gaeta" title="Duchy of Gaeta">Duchy of Gaeta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catepanate_of_Italy" title="Catepanate of Italy">Catepanate of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longobardia" title="Longobardia">Longobardia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucania_(theme)" title="Lucania (theme)">Theme of Lucania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Naples" title="Duchy of Naples">Duchy of Naples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicily_(theme)" title="Sicily (theme)">Theme of Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Sicily">Byzantine Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Sorrento" title="Duchy of Sorrento">Duchy of Sorrento</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Arab</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Bari" title="Emirate of Bari">Emirate of Bari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Sicily" title="Muslim Sicily">Muslim Sicily</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Lombard</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Benevento" title="Duchy of Benevento">Principality of Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Salerno" title="Principality of Salerno">Principality of Salerno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Capua" title="Principality of Capua">Principality of Capua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Norman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Apulia_and_Calabria" title="County of Apulia and Calabria">County of Apulia and Calabria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Aversa" class="mw-redirect" title="County of Aversa">County of Aversa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Sicily" title="County of Sicily">County of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Taranto" title="Principality of Taranto">Principality of Taranto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a> <br />(from the 9th century)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_medieval_kingdoms" title="Sardinian medieval kingdoms">Judicates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agugliastra" title="Agugliastra">Agugliastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Arborea" title="Judicate of Arborea">Arborea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Cagliari" title="Judicate of Cagliari">Cagliari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Gallura" title="Judicate of Gallura">Gallura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Logudoro" title="Judicate of Logudoro">Logudoro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Oristano" title="Marquisate of Oristano">Oristano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Sassari" title="Republic of Sassari">Republic of Sassari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1324%E2%80%931720)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1324–1720)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> (1324–1861)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a><br />(1130–1816) and<br /><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a><br />(1282–1816)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Presidi" title="State of the Presidi">State of the Presidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duke_of_San_Donato" title="Duke of San Donato">Duke of San Donato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Sora" title="Duchy of Sora">Duchy of Sora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Bari" title="Duchy of Bari">Duchy of Bari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Lecce" title="County of Lecce">County of Lecce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Taranto" title="Principality of Taranto">Principality of Taranto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Sancti_Benedicti" title="Terra Sancti Benedicti">Terra Sancti Benedicti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_Republic_(1647%E2%80%931648)" title="Neapolitan Republic (1647–1648)">Neapolitan Republic</a> (1647–1648)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospitaller_Malta" title="Hospitaller Malta">Hospitaller Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gozo_(1798%E2%80%931800)" title="Gozo (1798–1800)">Gozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malta_Protectorate" title="Malta Protectorate">Malta Protectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Malta" title="Crown Colony of Malta">Crown Colony of Malta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French Revolutionary</a><br /> and <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">Napoleonic</a> eras<br />(1792–1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Republics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Republic" title="Cisalpine Republic">Cisalpinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cispadane_Republic" title="Cispadane Republic">Cispadania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Republic_(Napoleonic)" title="Italian Republic (Napoleonic)">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligurian_Republic" title="Ligurian Republic">Liguria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Lucca" title="Republic of Lucca">Lucca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthenopean_Republic" title="Parthenopean Republic">Parthenopea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piedmontese_Republic" title="Piedmontese Republic">Piedmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(1798%E2%80%931799)" title="Roman Republic (1798–1799)">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subalpine_Republic" title="Subalpine Republic">Subalpinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpadane_Republic" title="Transpadane Republic">Transpadania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Monarchies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Benevento" title="Duchy of Benevento">Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Etruria" title="Kingdom of Etruria">Etruria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Guastalla" title="Duchy of Guastalla">Guastalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Lucca_and_Piombino" title="Principality of Lucca and Piombino">Lucca and Piombino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Massa_and_Carrara" title="Duchy of Massa and Carrara">Massa and Carrara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Naples (Napoleonic)">Naples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Pontecorvo" title="Principality of Pontecorvo">Pontecorvo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Benevento_(Napoleonic_era)" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Benevento (Napoleonic era)">Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Elba" title="Principality of Elba">Elba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Corsican_Kingdom" title="Anglo-Corsican Kingdom">Corsica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Post-Napoleonic<br />states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Genoa" title="Duchy of Genoa">Duchy of Genoa</a> (1815–1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Lucca" title="Duchy of Lucca">Duchy of Lucca</a> (1815–1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Massa_and_Carrara" title="Duchy of Massa and Carrara">Duchy of Massa and Carrara</a> (1814–1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Modena_and_Reggio" title="Duchy of Modena and Reggio">Duchy of Modena and Reggio</a> (1814–1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma_and_Piacenza" title="Duchy of Parma and Piacenza">Duchy of Parma and Piacenza</a> (1814–1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a> (1815–1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_United_Provinces" title="Italian United Provinces">Italian United Provinces</a> (1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Days_of_Milan" title="Five Days of Milan">Provisional Government of Milan</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marco" title="Republic of San Marco">Republic of San Marco</a> (1848–1849)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(1849%E2%80%931850)" title="Roman Republic (1849–1850)">Roman Republic</a> (1849–1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Central_Italy" title="United Provinces of Central Italy">United Provinces of Central Italy</a> (1859–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> (1814–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a> (1816–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia</a> (1815–1866)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States#Italian_unification" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> (1814–1870)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Post-unification41" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-<a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">unification</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> (1861–1946) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian Empire</a> (1882–1960)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Fiume" title="Free State of Fiume">Free State of Fiume</a> (1920–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a> (1943–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Territory_of_Trieste" title="Free Territory of Trieste">Free Territory of Trieste</a> (1947–1954)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Timeline_of_Mesopotamia95" style="display:table;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Template:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Template talk:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Timeline_of_Mesopotamia95" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Timeline of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-width:0;"><div style="padding:0"> <table style="width:100%"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;"> </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:white"><b>Northwestern Mesopotamia</b> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:white"><b>Northern Mesopotamia</b> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:white"><b>Southern Mesopotamia</b> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 3500–2350 BCE </th> <td colspan="6" style="background:white">Late Chalcolithic 4-5 / Early Jezirah 1-3 </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFD380"><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a> / <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic period</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2350–2200 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#FFB080"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2200–2100 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#F8F3C6"><i><a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutians</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2100–2000 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#FFA380"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2000–1800 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFD0BD"><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> <i>and other <a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite</a> city-states</i> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFFF80"><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyrian period</a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:palegoldenrod"><a href="/wiki/Isin" title="Isin">Isin</a>/<a href="/wiki/Larsa" title="Larsa">Larsa</a> <i>and other <a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite</a> city-states</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1800–1600 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#F7C1F7"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Old Hittite Kingdom</a> </td> <td colspan="7" style="background:#B2CAF6"><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian Empire</a> (<i>Southern Akkadians</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1600–1400 BCE </th> <td colspan="6" style="background:#E6C29F"><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Hurrians" title="Hurrians">Hurrians</a></i>) </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="3" style="background:#88D0CC"><a href="/wiki/Kardunia%C5%A1" title="Karduniaš">Karduniaš</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></i>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1400–1200 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FFB4DA"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite Empire</a> </td> <td style="background:#FFEB80"> </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#FFEB80"><a href="/wiki/Assyria#Middle_Assyrian_Empire_—_Assyrian_resurgence" title="Assyria">Middle Assyria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1200–1150 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FF8080"><i><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age Collapse">Bronze Age Collapse</a></i> (<i>"<a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a>"</i>) </td> <td style="background:moccasin"><i><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1150–911 BCE </th> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#C590C5"><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#FF8CB9"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Neo-Hittite</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">city-states</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:peachpuff"><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Damascus</a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:moccasin"><i><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a></i> </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="background:#A0B4F0"><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Middle Babylonia</a> </td> <td rowspan="3" style="background:lightblue"><i><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chal-</a></i><br /><i><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">de-</a></i><br /><i><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">ans</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">911–729 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#F6DB88"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">729–609 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#F6DB88"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#F6DB88"> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">626–539 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#8EC8FF"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldeans</a></i>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">539–331 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:mediumspringgreen"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">336–301 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#BEFD80"><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">Ancient Greeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonians</a></i>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">311–129 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#99E699"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">129–63 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#99E699"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> </td> <td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="background:#80C0C0"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">63 BCE–224 CE </th> <td colspan="3" rowspan="4" style="background:#D29595"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> - <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Byzantine Empire</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Syria</a></i>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">224–mid 7C </th> <td colspan="6" rowspan="3" style="background:#90D9D5"><a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Sassanid Empire</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Rome_topics565" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics565" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe117" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe117" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/40px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/60px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century%2C_square.svg/20px-Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century%2C_square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century%2C_square.svg/40px-Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century%2C_square.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="700" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Byzantine_Empire" title="Portal:Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/40px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/60px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/40px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/60px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Greece" title="Portal:Greece">Greece</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG/20px-The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG/40px-The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG 1.5x" data-file-width="267" data-file-height="267" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Middle_Ages" title="Portal:Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>Byzantine Empire</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/20px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Byzantine" class="extiw" title="wikt:Byzantine">Definitions</a></b> from Wiktionary</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" class="extiw" title="c:Byzantine Empire">Media</a></b> from Commons</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" class="extiw" title="q:Byzantine Empire">Quotations</a></b> from Wikiquote</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/20px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Byzantine_Empire" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Byzantine Empire">Texts</a></b> from Wikisource</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/20px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" class="extiw" title="voy:Byzantine Empire">Travel guides</a></b> from Wikivoyage</span></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12544#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata4478" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12544#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata4478" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12544#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/144245245">VIAF</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/1542156133226658430004">2</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/542159474181727661476">3</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/7308152140001911100006">4</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/2170158792840839040006">5</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/246502786">6</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1209292/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJcRddCkkYk46G3qDhbGHC">WorldCat</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PCjF4fFB4cPmbWfypTf3Rcd">2</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4009256-2">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Byzantine Empire"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80085269">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Empire romain d'Orient"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb121394475">France</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Empire byzantin"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119505844">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Empire romain d'Orient"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb121394475">BnF data</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Empire byzantin"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119505844">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="ビザンチン帝国"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00560706">Japan</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Byzanc"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge131496&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX451042">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/2090940">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=2652">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810612067005606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=497/5728">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007552498905171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058620445706706">Catalonia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA01210417?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Empire romain d'Orient"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/029855381">IdRef</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Empire byzantin"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027472906">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/029476">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages\B\Y\ByzantineEmpire">Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://auth.wikimedia.org/loginwiki/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empire&oldid=1283511836">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empire&oldid=1283511836</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:330s_establishments" title="Category:330s establishments">330s establishments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1453_disestablishments_in_Europe" title="Category:1453 disestablishments in Europe">1453 disestablishments in Europe</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1453_disestablishments_in_Asia" title="Category:1453 disestablishments in Asia">1453 disestablishments in Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Christendom" title="Category:Christendom">Christendom</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_established_in_the_390s" title="Category:States and territories established in the 390s">States and territories established in the 390s</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_disestablished_in_1453" title="Category:States and territories disestablished in 1453">States and territories disestablished in 1453</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Christian_states" title="Category:Christian states">Christian states</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_countries_in_Africa" title="Category:Former countries in Africa">Former countries in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_countries_in_the_Balkans" title="Category:Former countries in the Balkans">Former countries in the Balkans</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_countries_in_Europe" title="Category:Former countries in Europe">Former countries in Europe</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_countries_in_West_Asia" title="Category:Former countries in West Asia">Former countries in West Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tributary_states_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Category:Tributary states of the Ottoman Empire">Tributary states of the Ottoman Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historical_transcontinental_empires" title="Category:Historical transcontinental empires">Historical transcontinental empires</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_empires" title="Category:Former empires">Former empires</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_non-numeric_formatnum_arguments" title="Category:Pages with non-numeric formatnum arguments">Pages with non-numeric formatnum arguments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Medieval_Greek-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Medieval Greek-language text">Articles containing Medieval Greek-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_no-target_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn no-target errors">Harv and Sfn no-target errors</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_the_EasyTimeline_extension" title="Category:Pages using the EasyTimeline extension">Pages using the EasyTimeline extension</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_semi-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Featured_articles" title="Category:Featured articles">Featured articles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_October_2023" title="Category:Use dmy dates from October 2023">Use dmy dates from October 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:EngvarB_from_July_2019" title="Category:EngvarB from July 2019">EngvarB from July 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek_(to_1453)-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text">Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_multiple_image_with_auto_scaled_images" title="Category:Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images">Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_February_2025" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from February 2025">Articles needing additional references from February 2025</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_interwiki-linked_names" title="Category:CS1 interwiki-linked names">CS1 interwiki-linked names</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_German-language_sources_(de)" title="Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)">CS1 German-language sources (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 1 April 2025, at 23:40<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empire&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://www.wikimedia.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia.svg" width="25" height="25" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" lang="en" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Byzantine Empire</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>168 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-7ccc697c5f-vh8x4","wgBackendResponseTime":384,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.732","walltime":"3.261","ppvisitednodes":{"value":35494,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":822022,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":125605,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":77,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":770626,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2517.704 1 -total"," 16.43% 413.675 90 Template:Cite_book"," 15.59% 392.440 274 Template:Sfnm"," 11.46% 288.534 1 Template:Infobox_former_country"," 10.91% 274.673 105 Template:Sfn"," 4.83% 121.584 2 Template:Infobox_country/multirow"," 4.74% 119.370 2 Template:Infobox"," 4.65% 116.952 21 Template:Navbox"," 4.59% 115.682 3 Template:Efn"," 4.51% 113.634 1 Template:Byzantine_Empire_topics"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.573","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":25059801,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREF\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdams2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndronikou2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAngold2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAngold2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAngold2009b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAschenbrennerRansohoff2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAschenbrennerRansohoff2022a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAschenbrennerRansohoff2022b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAsh1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAuzépy2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBall2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBartusis1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBennett2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerndtSteinacher2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrandes2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrowning1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrowning1991a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrowning1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrowning2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryer2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryer2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameron2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameron2006b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameron2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameron2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameron2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasidayNorris2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasidayNorris2007a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChitwood2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClark2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConomos1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConomosKazhdan1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConstantelos1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCormack2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCormackHaldonJeffreys2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurlWilson2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavidson2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDawson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDecker2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDecker2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDingledy2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrake2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaas2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarland1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarland2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldwyn2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreatrex2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGregory2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrosdidier_de_Matons1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaarer2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaldon1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaldon2008a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaldon2008b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarper2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarvey2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolmes2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHornSchädler2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorrocks2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorrocks2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoward-Johnston2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoward-Johnston2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInglebert2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIvanič2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIvanovaAnderson2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeffreys2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeffreys2008a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeffreysMango2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaegi2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaiser2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaldellis2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaldellis2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaldellis2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaldellis2021a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaldellis2022a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaldellis2022b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaldellis2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarras2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKazanaki-Lappa2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKazhdan1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKazhdan1990a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKazhdan1991a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKazhdan1991b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKazhdan1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKazhdanWharton1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKolbaba2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaiou2002a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaiou2002b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaiou2002c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaiou2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaiou2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaiouMorrisson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLavan2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLazaris2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLazaris2020a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLenski2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevyTroelsgård2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindberg1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLouth2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLouth2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLouth2009a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLouth2009b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLowden1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLöhr2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagdalino2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagdalino2002b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagdalino2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMango2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMango2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManolova2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarkopoulos2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartín2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatschke2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthewsPlatt1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMellas2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerrymanPérez-Perdomo2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyendorff1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMicheau2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillar2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchellYoung2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoorhead2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuthesius2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicholson1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicol1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicol1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNobleSmith2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNutton1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFObolensky1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPapaconstantinou2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPapademetriou2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPapaioannou2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPapaioannou2021a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPartington1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPohl2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPohlGantnerGrifoniPollheimer-Mohaupt2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoppe1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReinert2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRing1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobins1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRochette2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodley1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosser2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRotman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRotman2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRotman2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSabo2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalaman1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalmon2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalogubovaZenkov2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSarris2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeton-Watson1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShepard2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShepard2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShepard2009b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStathakopoulos2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStathakopoulos2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStein1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStephenson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewart2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewartParnellWhately2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStolte2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStolte2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStouraitis2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStouraitis2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStouraitis2022b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTalbot1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTatakesMoutafakis2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTelelis2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTougher2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTouliatos2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTreadgold1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTreadgold1997b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTreadgold2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnwin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVelimirović1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVryonis1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhittow2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWildberg2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Dieten1980\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"A History of the Byzantine State and Society\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient Rome topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Byzantine Empire topics\"] = 1,\n [\"CSS image crop\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 17,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 89,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 16,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 1,\n [\"Clear\"] = 2,\n [\"Efn\"] = 3,\n [\"Empires\"] = 1,\n [\"End plainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"EngvarB\"] = 1,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"Former monarchies Italian peninsula\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 12,\n [\"Google books\"] = 2,\n [\"Grove Music subscription\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvc\"] = 72,\n [\"History of Europe\"] = 1,\n [\"History of Turkey timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"In Our Time\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox former country\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 5,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend\"] = 2,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Lit.\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 14,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 4,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 1,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 3,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nwr\"] = 2,\n [\"One source\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Protection padlock\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 3,\n [\"Refend\"] = 3,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Reign\"] = 36,\n [\"See\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 5,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 105,\n [\"SfnRef\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfnm\"] = 274,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Subject bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 4,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 3,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\nno target: CITEREFGreatrex2008Kaldellis2023\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","320","20.8"],["?","300","19.5"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","200","13.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","100","6.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","80","5.2"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","80","5.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","60","3.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getFileInfo","40","2.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpensiveData","40","2.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::preprocess","40","2.6"],["[others]","280","18.2"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-7ccc697c5f-9q288","timestamp":"20250401234134","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Byzantine Empire","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Byzantine_Empire","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q12544","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q12544","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-10-04T12:59:58Z","dateModified":"2025-04-01T23:40:53Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/9b\/Justinian555AD.png","headline":"Roman Empire during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages"}</script> </body> </html>