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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Literacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Employment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Employment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Employment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Employment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Innumeracy_and_dyscalculia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Innumeracy_and_dyscalculia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Innumeracy and dyscalculia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Innumeracy_and_dyscalculia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> 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class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Innumeracy and risk perception in health decision-making</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Innumeracy_and_risk_perception_in_health_decision-making-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_numeracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_numeracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Evolution of numeracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_numeracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%96%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="সংখ্যাজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সংখ্যাজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerismo" title="Numerismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Numerismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Num%C3%A9ratie" title="Numératie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Numératie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BB%8Cn%E1%BB%A5_%E1%BB%8Dg%E1%BB%A5g%E1%BB%A5" title="Ọnụ ọgụgụ – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ọnụ ọgụgụ" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far_di_conto" title="Far di conto – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Far di conto" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gecijferdheid" title="Gecijferdheid – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gecijferdheid" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tallforst%C3%A5else" title="Tallforståelse – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tallforståelse" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeracia" title="Numeracia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Numeracia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Числовая грамотность – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Числовая грамотность" data-language-autonym="Русский" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ability to apply numerical concepts</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the ability to apply numerical concepts. For the academic journal, see <a href="/wiki/Numeracy_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Numeracy (journal)">Numeracy (journal)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Innumeracy" redirects here. For the book, see <a href="/wiki/Innumeracy_(book)" title="Innumeracy (book)">Innumeracy (book)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Math_games_-_Big_Brother_Mouse_activity_day.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Math_games_-_Big_Brother_Mouse_activity_day.jpg/220px-Math_games_-_Big_Brother_Mouse_activity_day.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Math_games_-_Big_Brother_Mouse_activity_day.jpg/330px-Math_games_-_Big_Brother_Mouse_activity_day.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Math_games_-_Big_Brother_Mouse_activity_day.jpg/440px-Math_games_-_Big_Brother_Mouse_activity_day.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="855" /></a><figcaption>Children in <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a> have fun as they improve numeracy with "Number Bingo". They roll three dice, construct an equation from the numbers to produce a new number, then cover that number on the board, trying to get <a href="/wiki/Connect_Four" title="Connect Four">four in a row</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Number_bingo_improves_math_skills_LPB_Laos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Number_bingo_improves_math_skills_LPB_Laos.jpg/220px-Number_bingo_improves_math_skills_LPB_Laos.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Number_bingo_improves_math_skills_LPB_Laos.jpg/330px-Number_bingo_improves_math_skills_LPB_Laos.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Number_bingo_improves_math_skills_LPB_Laos.jpg/440px-Number_bingo_improves_math_skills_LPB_Laos.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1895" data-file-height="1641" /></a><figcaption>Number bingo improves math skills. LPB Laos.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Numeracy</b> is the ability to understand, <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> with, and apply simple numerical concepts; it is the numerical counterpart of <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The charity <a href="/wiki/National_Numeracy" title="National Numeracy">National Numeracy</a> states: "Numeracy means understanding how mathematics is used in the real world and being able to apply it to make the best possible decisions...It's as much about thinking and reasoning as about 'doing sums'". Basic numeracy skills consist of comprehending fundamental <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetical</a> operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. For example, if one can understand simple mathematical equations such as 2 + 2 = 4, then one would be considered to possess at least basic numeric knowledge. Substantial aspects of numeracy also include <a href="/wiki/Number_sense" title="Number sense">number sense</a>, operation sense, computation, <a href="/wiki/Measurement" title="Measurement">measurement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A numerically <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literate</a> person can manage and respond to the mathematical demands of life.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PetersBook_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PetersBook-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By contrast, <b>innumeracy</b> (the lack of numeracy) can have a negative impact. Numeracy has an influence on healthy behaviors, financial literacy, and career decisions. Therefore, innumeracy may negatively affect economic choices, financial outcomes, health outcomes, and life satisfaction.<sup id="cite_ref-PetersBook_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PetersBook-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gerardi2012_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gerardi2012-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Banks2010_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Banks2010-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also may distort risk perception in health decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-Reyna2009_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reyna2009-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Greater numeracy has been associated with reduced susceptibility to <a href="/wiki/Framing_effect_(psychology)" title="Framing effect (psychology)">framing effects</a>, less influence of nonnumerical information such as mood states, and greater sensitivity to different levels of numerical risk.<sup id="cite_ref-Peters2012_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peters2012-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ellen_Peters_(professor)" title="Ellen Peters (professor)">Ellen Peters</a> and her colleagues argue that achieving the benefits of numeric literacy, however, may depend on one's numeric <a href="/wiki/Self-efficacy" title="Self-efficacy">self-efficacy</a> or confidence in one's skills.<sup id="cite_ref-peterstompkins_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-peterstompkins-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Representation_of_numbers">Representation of numbers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numeracy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Representation of numbers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Humans have evolved to mentally represent numbers in two major ways from observation (not formal math).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid15242690_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15242690-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These representations are often thought to be innate<sup id="cite_ref-Izard2008_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Izard2008-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (see <a href="/wiki/Numerical_cognition" title="Numerical cognition">Numerical cognition</a>), to be shared across human cultures,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid18511690_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18511690-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to be common to multiple species,<sup id="cite_ref-Nieder2005_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nieder2005-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and not to be the result of individual learning or cultural transmission. They are: </p> <ol><li>Approximate representation of numerical magnitude, and</li> <li>Precise representation of the quantity of individual items.</li></ol> <p>Approximate representations of numerical magnitude imply that one can relatively estimate and comprehend an amount if the number is large (see <a href="/wiki/Approximate_number_system" title="Approximate number system">Approximate number system</a>). For example, one experiment showed children and adults arrays of many dots.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid18511690_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18511690-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After briefly observing them, both groups could accurately estimate the approximate number of dots. However, distinguishing differences between large numbers of dots proved to be more challenging.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid18511690_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18511690-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Precise representations of distinct items demonstrate that people are more accurate in estimating amounts and distinguishing differences when the numbers are relatively small (see <a href="/wiki/Subitizing" title="Subitizing">Subitizing</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid18511690_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18511690-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in one experiment, an experimenter presented an infant with two piles of crackers, one with two crackers the other with three. The experimenter then covered each pile with a cup. When allowed to choose a cup, the infant always chose the cup with more crackers because the infant could distinguish the difference.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid18511690_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18511690-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both systems—approximate representation of magnitude and precise representation quantity of individual items—have limited power. For example, neither allows representations of <a href="/wiki/Fractions" class="mw-redirect" title="Fractions">fractions</a> or <a href="/wiki/Negative_number" title="Negative number">negative numbers</a>. More complex representations require education. However, achievement in school mathematics correlates with an individual's unlearned approximate <a href="/wiki/Number_sense" title="Number sense">number sense</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions_and_assessment">Definitions and assessment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numeracy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Definitions and assessment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fundamental (or rudimentary) numeracy skills include understanding of the real number line, time, measurement, and estimation.<sup id="cite_ref-Reyna2009_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reyna2009-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fundamental skills include basic skills (the ability to identify and understand numbers) and computational skills (the ability to perform simple arithmetical operations and compare numerical magnitudes). </p><p>More sophisticated numeracy skills include understanding of ratio concepts (notably fractions, proportions, percentages, and probabilities), and knowing when and how to perform multistep operations.<sup id="cite_ref-Reyna2009_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reyna2009-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two categories of skills are included at the higher levels: the analytical skills (the ability to understand numerical information, such as required to interpret graphs and charts) and the statistical skills (the ability to apply higher probabilistic and statistical computation, such as conditional probabilities). </p><p>A variety of tests have been developed for assessing numeracy and health numeracy.<sup id="cite_ref-Reyna2009_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reyna2009-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peters2012_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peters2012-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz1997_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz1997-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lipkus2001_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lipkus2001-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cokely2012_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cokely2012-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Different tests have been developed to evaluate health numeracy. Two of these tests that have been found to be "reliable and valid" are the GHNT-21 and GHNT-6.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Childhood_influences">Childhood influences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numeracy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Childhood influences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first couple of years of childhood are considered to be a vital part of life for the development of numeracy and literacy.<sup id="cite_ref-CiampaOsborn2010_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CiampaOsborn2010-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many components that play key roles in the development of numeracy at a young age, such as Socioeconomic Status (SES), parenting, Home Learning Environment (HLE), and age.<sup id="cite_ref-CiampaOsborn2010_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CiampaOsborn2010-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Socioeconomic_status">Socioeconomic status</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numeracy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Socioeconomic status"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Children who are brought up in families with high SES tend to be more engaged in developmentally enhancing activities.<sup id="cite_ref-CiampaOsborn2010_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CiampaOsborn2010-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These children are more likely to develop the necessary abilities to learn and to become more motivated to learn.<sup id="cite_ref-CiampaOsborn2010_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CiampaOsborn2010-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More specifically, a mother's education level is considered to have an effect on the child's ability to achieve in numeracy. That is, mothers with a high level of education will tend to have children who succeed more in numeracy.<sup id="cite_ref-CiampaOsborn2010_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CiampaOsborn2010-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A number of studies have, moreover, proved that the education level of the mother is strongly <a href="/wiki/Correlated" class="mw-redirect" title="Correlated">correlated</a> with the average age of getting married. More precisely, females who entered the marriage later, tend to have greater <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a>, chances for skills premium and level of education (i.e. numeracy). Hence, they were more likely to share this experience with children.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parenting">Parenting</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numeracy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Parenting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Parents are advised to collaborate with their child in simple learning exercises, such as reading a book, painting, drawing, and playing with numbers. On a more expressive note<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2020)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, the act of using complex language, being more responsive towards the child, and establishing warm interactions are recommended to parents with the confirmation of positive numeracy outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-CiampaOsborn2010_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CiampaOsborn2010-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When discussing beneficial parenting behaviors, a feedback loop is formed because pleased parents are more willing to interact with their child, which in essence promotes better development in the child.<sup id="cite_ref-CiampaOsborn2010_20-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CiampaOsborn2010-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Home-learning_environment">Home-learning environment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numeracy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Home-learning environment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Along with parenting and SES, a strong <a href="/wiki/Homeschooling" title="Homeschooling">home-learning</a> environment increases the likelihood of the child being prepared for comprehending complex mathematical schooling.<sup id="cite_ref-MelhuishPhan2008_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MelhuishPhan2008-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, if a child is influenced by many learning activities in the household, such as puzzles, coloring books, mazes, or books with picture riddles, then they will be more prepared to face school activities.<sup id="cite_ref-MelhuishPhan2008_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MelhuishPhan2008-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Age">Age</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numeracy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Age is accounted for when discussing the development of numeracy in children.<sup id="cite_ref-MelhuishPhan2008_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MelhuishPhan2008-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Children under the age of 5 have the best opportunity to absorb basic numeracy skills.<sup id="cite_ref-MelhuishPhan2008_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MelhuishPhan2008-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the age of seven, achievement of basic numeracy skills become less influential.<sup id="cite_ref-MelhuishPhan2008_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MelhuishPhan2008-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a study was conducted to compare the reading and mathematical abilities between children of ages five and seven, each in three different mental capacity groups (underachieving, average, and overachieving). The differences in the amount of knowledge retained were greater between the three different groups aged five than between the groups aged seven. This reveals that those of younger ages have an opportunity to retain more information, like numeracy. According to Gelman and Gallistel in The Child's Understanding of Number, 'children as young as 2 years can accurately judge numerosity provided that the numerosity is not larger than two or three'. Children as young as three have been found to understand elementary mathematical concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kilpatrick and his colleagues state 'most preschoolers show that they can understand and perform simple addition and subtraction by at least 3 years of age'.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lastly, it has been observed that pre-school children benefit from their basic understanding of 'counting, reading and writing of numbers, understanding of simple addition and subtraction, numerical reasoning, classifying of objects and shapes, estimating, measuring, [and the] reproduction of number patterns'.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literacy">Literacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numeracy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Literacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There seems to be a relationship between <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a> and numeracy,<sup id="cite_ref-Bullock1994_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bullock1994-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Steen2001_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steen2001-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which can be seen in young children. Depending on the level of literacy or numeracy at a young age, one can predict the growth of literacy and/ or numeracy skills in future development.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is some evidence that humans may have an inborn sense of number. In one study for example, five-month-old <a href="/wiki/Infant" title="Infant">infants</a> were shown two dolls, which were then hidden with a screen. The babies saw the experimenter pull one doll from behind the screen. Without the child's knowledge, a second experimenter could remove, or add dolls, unseen behind the screen. When the screen was removed, the infants showed more surprise at an unexpected number (for example, if there were still two dolls). Some researchers have concluded that the babies were able to count, although others doubt this and claim the infants noticed surface area rather than number.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Employment">Employment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numeracy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Employment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Numeracy has a huge impact on employment.<sup id="cite_ref-Brooks_2010_257–265_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brooks_2010_257–265-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a work environment, numeracy can be a controlling factor affecting career achievements and failures.<sup id="cite_ref-Brooks_2010_257–265_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brooks_2010_257–265-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many professions require individuals to have well-developed numerical skills: for example, <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accountant" title="Accountant">accountant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Actuary" title="Actuary">actuary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Financial_analyst" title="Financial analyst">financial analyst</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">engineer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Architect" title="Architect">architect</a>. This is why a major target of the UN's <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_4" title="Sustainable Development Goal 4">Sustainable Development Goal 4</a> is to substantially increase the number of youths who have relevant skills for decent work and employment<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because, even outside these specialized areas, the lack of numeracy skills can reduce employment opportunities and promotions, resulting in unskilled manual careers, low-paying jobs, and even unemployment.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, carpenters and interior designers need to be able to measure, use fractions, and handle budgets.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example of numeracy influencing employment was demonstrated at the <a href="/wiki/Poynter_Institute" title="Poynter Institute">Poynter Institute</a>. The Poynter Institute has recently included numeracy as one of the skills required by competent <a href="/wiki/Journalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Journalists">journalists</a>. <a href="/wiki/Max_Frankel" title="Max Frankel">Max Frankel</a>, former executive editor of <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, argues that "deploying numbers skillfully is as important to communication as deploying <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verbs</a>". Unfortunately, it is evident that journalists often show poor numeracy skills. In a study by the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Professional_Journalists" title="Society of Professional Journalists">Society of Professional Journalists</a>, 58% of job applicants interviewed by broadcast news directors lacked an adequate understanding of statistical materials.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To assess job applicants, <a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">psychometric</a> numerical reasoning tests have been created by <a href="/wiki/Occupational_psychologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupational psychologist">occupational psychologists</a>, who are involved in the study of numeracy. These tests are used to assess ability to comprehend and apply numbers. They are sometimes administered with a time limit, so that the test-taker must think quickly and concisely. Research has shown that these tests are very useful in evaluating potential applicants because they do not allow the applicants to prepare for the test, unlike interview questions. This suggests that an applicant's results are reliable and accurate<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>These tests first became prevalent during the 1980s, following the pioneering work of psychologists, such as P. Kline, who published a book in 1986 entitled <i>A handbook of test construction: Introduction to psychometric design</i>, which explained that psychometric testing could provide reliable and objective results, which could be used to assess a candidate's numerical abilities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Innumeracy_and_dyscalculia">Innumeracy and dyscalculia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numeracy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Innumeracy and dyscalculia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>innumeracy</i> is a <a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologism</a>, coined by analogy with <a href="/wiki/Illiteracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Illiteracy">illiteracy</a>. <i>Innumeracy</i> refers to a lack of ability to reason with numbers. The term was coined by cognitive scientist <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Hofstadter" title="Douglas Hofstadter">Douglas Hofstadter</a>; however, it was popularized in 1989 by mathematician <a href="/wiki/John_Allen_Paulos" title="John Allen Paulos">John Allen Paulos</a> in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Innumeracy_(book)" title="Innumeracy (book)">Innumeracy: Mathematical Illiteracy and its Consequences</a></i>. </p><p>Developmental <a href="/wiki/Dyscalculia" title="Dyscalculia">dyscalculia</a> refers to a persistent and specific impairment of basic numerical-arithmetical skills learning in the context of normal intelligence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Patterns_and_differences">Patterns and differences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numeracy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Patterns and differences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The root causes of innumeracy vary. Innumeracy has been seen in those suffering from poor education and childhood deprivation of numeracy.<sup id="cite_ref-Lefevre2000_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lefevre2000-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Innumeracy is apparent in children during the transition between numerical skills obtained before schooling and the new skills taught in the education departments because of their memory capacity to comprehend the material.<sup id="cite_ref-Lefevre2000_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lefevre2000-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Patterns of innumeracy have also been observed depending on age, gender, and race.<sup id="cite_ref-Donelle2007_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donelle2007-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Older adults have been associated with lower numeracy skills than younger adults.<sup id="cite_ref-Donelle2007_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donelle2007-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Men have been identified to have higher numeracy skills than women.<sup id="cite_ref-Brooks_2010_257–265_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brooks_2010_257–265-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some studies seem to indicate young people of African heritage tend to have lower numeracy skills.<sup id="cite_ref-Donelle2007_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donelle2007-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) in which children at fourth-grade (average 10 to 11 years) and eighth-grade (average 14 to 15 years) from 49 countries were tested on mathematical comprehension. The assessment included tests for number, algebra (also called patterns and relationships at fourth grade), measurement, geometry, and data. The latest study, in 2003, found that children from <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> at both grade levels had the highest performance. Countries like Hong Kong SAR, Japan, and Taiwan also shared high levels of numeracy. The lowest scores were found in countries like<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2020)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> South Africa, Ghana, and Saudi Arabia. Another finding showed a noticeable difference between boys and girls, with some exceptions. For example, girls performed significantly better in Singapore, and boys performed significantly better in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid18511690_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18511690-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory">Theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numeracy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is a theory that innumeracy is more common than illiteracy when dividing cognitive abilities into two separate categories. David C. Geary, a notable cognitive developmental and evolutionary psychologist from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Missouri" title="University of Missouri">University of Missouri</a>, created the terms "biological primary abilities" and "biological secondary abilities".<sup id="cite_ref-Lefevre2000_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lefevre2000-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biological primary abilities evolve over time and are necessary for survival. Such abilities include speaking a common language or knowledge of simple mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-Lefevre2000_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lefevre2000-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biological secondary abilities are attained through personal experiences and cultural customs, such as reading or high level mathematics learned through schooling.<sup id="cite_ref-Lefevre2000_35-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lefevre2000-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Literacy and numeracy are similar in the sense that they are both important skills used in life. However, they differ in the sorts of mental demands each makes. Literacy consists of acquiring vocabulary and grammatical sophistication, which seem to be more closely related to memorization, whereas numeracy involves manipulating concepts, such as in <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, and builds from basic numeracy skills.<sup id="cite_ref-Lefevre2000_35-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lefevre2000-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This could be a potential explanation of the challenge of being numerate.<sup id="cite_ref-Lefevre2000_35-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lefevre2000-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Innumeracy_and_risk_perception_in_health_decision-making">Innumeracy and risk perception in health decision-making</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numeracy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Innumeracy and risk perception in health decision-making"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Health numeracy has been defined as "the degree to which individuals have the capacity to access, process, interpret, communicate, and act on numerical, quantitative, graphical, biostatistical, and probabilistic health information needed to make effective health decisions".<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of health numeracy is a component of the concept of <a href="/wiki/Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">health literacy</a>. Health numeracy and health literacy can be thought of as the combination of skills needed for understanding risk and making good choices in health-related behavior. </p><p>Health numeracy requires basic numeracy but also more advanced analytical and statistical skills. For instance, health numeracy also requires the ability to understand probabilities or relative frequencies in various numerical and graphical formats, and to engage in <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_inference" title="Bayesian inference">Bayesian inference</a>, while avoiding errors sometimes associated with Bayesian reasoning (see <a href="/wiki/Base_rate_fallacy" title="Base rate fallacy">Base rate fallacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conservatism_(Bayesian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservatism (Bayesian)">Conservatism (Bayesian)</a>). Health numeracy also requires understanding terms with definitions that are specific to the medical context. For instance, although 'survival' and 'mortality' are complementary in common usage, these terms are not complementary in medicine (see <a href="/wiki/Five-year_survival_rate" title="Five-year survival rate">five-year survival rate</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Welch2000_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Welch2000-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gigerenzer2007_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gigerenzer2007-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Innumeracy is also a very common problem when dealing with risk perception in health-related behavior; it is associated with patients, physicians, journalists and policymakers.<sup id="cite_ref-Donelle2007_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donelle2007-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gigerenzer2007_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gigerenzer2007-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those who lack or have limited health numeracy skills run the risk of making poor health-related decisions because of an inaccurate perception of information.<sup id="cite_ref-CiampaOsborn2010_20-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CiampaOsborn2010-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LagBauger_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LagBauger-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, if a patient has been diagnosed with breast cancer, being innumerate may hinder her ability to comprehend her physician's recommendations, or even the severity of the health concern or even the likelihood of treatment benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-Lipkus2010_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lipkus2010-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study found that people tended to overestimate their chances of survival or even to choose lower-quality hospitals.<sup id="cite_ref-Brooks_2010_257–265_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brooks_2010_257–265-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Innumeracy also makes it difficult or impossible for some patients to read medical graphs correctly.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some authors have distinguished graph literacy from numeracy.<sup id="cite_ref-Galesic2011_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galesic2011-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, many doctors exhibit innumeracy when attempting to explain a graph or statistics to a patient. A misunderstanding between a doctor and patient, due to either the doctor, patient, or both being unable to comprehend numbers effectively, could result in serious harm to health. </p><p>Different presentation formats of numerical information, for instance natural frequency icon arrays, have been evaluated to assist both low-numeracy and high-numeracy individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-Donelle2007_36-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donelle2007-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ancker2006_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ancker2006-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GarciaRetamero2012_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GarciaRetamero2012-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hoffrage2000_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoffrage2000-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Galesic2009_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galesic2009-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other data formats provide more assistance to low-numeracy people.<sup id="cite_ref-PetersBook_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PetersBook-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PetersDieckmannDixon_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PetersDieckmannDixon-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PetersDieckmannVastfjall_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PetersDieckmannVastfjall-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution_of_numeracy">Evolution of numeracy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numeracy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Evolution of numeracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the field of <a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic history</a>, numeracy is often used to assess <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a> at times when there was no data on schooling or other educational measures. Using a method called <a href="/wiki/Whipple%27s_index" title="Whipple's index">age-heaping</a>, researchers like Professor <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_Baten" title="Jörg Baten">Jörg Baten</a> study the development and inequalities of numeracy over time and throughout regions. For example, Baten<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Hippe find a numeracy gap between regions in western and central Europe and the rest of Europe for the period 1790–1880. At the same time, their <a href="/wiki/Data_analysis" title="Data analysis">data analysis</a> reveals that these differences as well as within country inequality decreased over time. Taking a similar approach, Baten and Fourie<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> find overall high levels of numeracy for people in the Cape Colony (late 17th to early 19th century). </p><p>In contrast to these studies comparing numeracy over countries or regions, it is also possible to analyze numeracy within countries. For example, Baten, Crayen and Voth<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> look at the effects of war on numeracy in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, and Baten and Priwitzer<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> find a "military bias" in what is today western <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>: people opting for a military career had - on average - better numeracy indicators (1 BCE to 3<a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numeracy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acalculia" title="Acalculia">Acalculia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Approximate_number_system" title="Approximate number system">Approximate number system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_inference" title="Bayesian inference">Bayesian inference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyscalculia" title="Dyscalculia">Dyscalculia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphicacy" title="Graphicacy">Graphicacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">Health literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">Literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Numeracy_Network" title="National Numeracy Network">National Numeracy Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Number_sense" title="Number sense">Number sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numeracy_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Numeracy bias">Numeracy bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_cognition" title="Numerical cognition">Numerical cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerosity_adaptation_effect" title="Numerosity adaptation effect">Numerosity adaptation effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracy" title="Oracy">Oracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subitizing" title="Subitizing">Subitizing</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numeracy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBrooksPui2010" class="citation journal cs1">Brooks, M.; Pui (2010). "Are individual differences in numeracy unique from general mental ability? 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scandinavian+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=Social+and+intertemporal+differences+of+basic+numeracy+in+Pannonia+%28first+century+BCE+to+third+century+CE%29&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E110-%3C%2Fspan%3E134&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03585522.2015.1032339&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A51962193%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Baten&rft.aufirst=J%C3%B6rg&rft.au=Priwitzer%2C+Stefan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANumeracy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Numeracy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.riskliteracy.org">The Berlin Numeracy Test</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/healthliteracy/training/page5756.html">CDC Health Literacy Resources</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ahrq.gov/professionals/quality-patient-safety/quality-resources/tools/literacy/index.html">Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality Health Literacy Measurement tools</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://haberlah.edublogs.org/2017/07/17/importance-of-being-numerate/">Australian blog post reviewing the increasing importance of teaching numeracy skills</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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