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</a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Muslim_persecution_of_Christians&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim persecution of Christians">Muslim persecution of Christians</a>)</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the religious persecution of Christians. For the belief that Christianity is being oppressed in the Western world, see <a href="/wiki/Christian_persecution_complex" title="Christian persecution complex">Christian persecution complex</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248332772">.mw-parser-output .multiple-issues-text{width:95%;margin:0.2em 0}.mw-parser-output .multiple-issues-text>.mw-collapsible-content{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox{border:none;border-collapse:collapse;background-color:transparent;margin:0 0 0 1.6em!important;padding:0!important;width:auto;display:block}body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox.mbox-small-left{font-size:100%;width:auto;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-text{padding:0!important;margin:0!important}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-text-span{display:list-item;line-height:1.5em;list-style-type:disc}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .multiple-issues-text>.mw-collapsible-toggle,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-image,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-imageright,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-empty-cell,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .hide-when-compact{display:none}</style><table class="box-Multiple_issues plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-multiple_issues compact-ambox" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible">This article has multiple issues. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Special:EditPage/Persecution of Christians">improve it</a> or discuss these issues on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Persecution_of_Christians" title="Talk:Persecution of Christians">talk page</a>. (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove these messages</a>) <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject. You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit">improve this article</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Persecution_of_Christians" title="Talk:Persecution of Christians">talk page</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_wizard" title="Wikipedia:Article wizard">create a new article</a>, as appropriate. (February 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Very_long plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-very_long" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article may be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_size" title="Wikipedia:Article size">too long</a> to read and navigate comfortably. When this tag was added, its <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:SIZERULE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:SIZERULE">readable prose size</a> was 22,000 words. Consider <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">splitting</a> content into sub-articles, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">condensing</a> it, or adding <a href="/wiki/Help:Section#Subsections" title="Help:Section">subheadings</a>. Please discuss this issue on the article's <a href="/wiki/Talk:Persecution_of_Christians" title="Talk:Persecution of Christians">talk page</a>. (February 2023)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The persecution of Christians can be <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">historically</a> traced from the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">first century</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian era">Christian era</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">present day</a>. <a href="/wiki/Christian_missionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian missionaries">Christian missionaries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Christianity" title="Conversion to Christianity">converts to Christianity</a> have both been targeted for persecution, sometimes to the point of being <a href="/wiki/Martyrdom_in_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Martyrdom in Christianity">martyred for their faith</a>, ever since the emergence of Christianity. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kharput_Christian_refugees_-_C.D.Morris_-_National_Geographic,_Nov._1925.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Kharput_Christian_refugees_-_C.D.Morris_-_National_Geographic%2C_Nov._1925.jpg/280px-Kharput_Christian_refugees_-_C.D.Morris_-_National_Geographic%2C_Nov._1925.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Kharput_Christian_refugees_-_C.D.Morris_-_National_Geographic%2C_Nov._1925.jpg/420px-Kharput_Christian_refugees_-_C.D.Morris_-_National_Geographic%2C_Nov._1925.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Kharput_Christian_refugees_-_C.D.Morris_-_National_Geographic%2C_Nov._1925.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="334"></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Christians</a> in 1922, fleeing from their homes in <a href="/wiki/Elaz%C4%B1%C4%9F" title="Elazığ">Kharput</a> and moving to <a href="/wiki/Trabzon" title="Trabzon">Trebizond</a>. In the 1910s and 1920s, the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greek</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Seyfo" class="mw-redirect" title="Seyfo">Assyrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history#Ottoman_Empire/Turkey" title="Genocides in history">genocides</a> were perpetrated by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and its successor state, the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Turkey">Republic of Turkey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"> <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christians</a> were persecuted at the hands of both <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians by the Jews">Jews</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Split_of_early_Christianity_and_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Split of early Christianity and Judaism">whose religion Christianity arose</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Romans</a> who controlled many of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_early_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="History of early Christianity">early centers of Christianity</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. Since the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Christian_state" title="Christian state">Christian states</a> in <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a>, Christians have also been persecuted by other Christians due to differences in <a href="/wiki/Doctrine" title="Doctrine">doctrine</a> which have been declared <a href="/wiki/Heresy_in_Christianity" title="Heresy in Christianity">heretical</a>. <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">Early in the fourth century</a>, the empire's official persecutions were ended by the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Serdica" title="Edict of Serdica">Edict of Serdica</a> in 311 and the practice of Christianity legalized by the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</a> in 312. By the year 380, Christians had begun to persecute each other. The <a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">schisms</a> of <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> – including the <a href="/wiki/Rome%E2%80%93Constantinople_schism_of_1054" class="mw-redirect" title="Rome–Constantinople schism of 1054">Rome–Constantinople schisms</a> and the many <a href="/wiki/Christological_controversies" class="mw-redirect" title="Christological controversies">Christological controversies</a> – together with the later <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> provoked <a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">severe conflicts</a> between <a href="/wiki/Christian_denominations" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian denominations">Christian denominations</a>. During these conflicts, members of the various denominations frequently persecuted each other and engaged in <a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence_among_Christians" title="Sectarian violence among Christians">sectarian violence</a>. In the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century" title="Christianity in the 20th century">Christian populations</a> were persecuted, sometimes, they were persecuted to the point of <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>, by various states, including the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and its successor state <a href="/wiki/Turkish_National_Movement" title="Turkish National Movement">Turkey</a>, which committed the <a href="/wiki/Hamidian_massacres" title="Hamidian massacres">Hamidian massacres</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sayfo" title="Sayfo">Assyrian genocide</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greek genocide</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/1915_genocide_in_Diyarbekir" title="1915 genocide in Diyarbekir">Diyarbekir genocide</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Atheist_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist states">atheist states</a> such as those of the <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc">former Eastern Bloc</a>. The persecution of Christians has <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">continued to occur during the 21st century</a>. Christianity is the largest <a href="/wiki/World_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="World religion">world religion</a> and its adherents live across the globe. Approximately 10% of the world's Christians are members of minority groups which live in non-Christian-majority states.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The contemporary persecution of Christians includes the official state persecution mostly occurring in countries which are located in Africa and Asia because they have <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religions</a> or because their governments and societies practice religious favoritism. Such favoritism is frequently accompanied by <a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">religious discrimination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">religious persecution</a>. According to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Commission_on_International_Religious_Freedom" title="United States Commission on International Religious Freedom">United States Commission on International Religious Freedom</a>'s 2020 report, Christians in <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Myanmar" title="Christianity in Myanmar">Burma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China" title="Christianity in China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Eritrea" title="Christianity in Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_India" title="Christianity in India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iran" title="Christianity in Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Nigeria" title="Christianity in Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_North_Korea" title="Persecution of Christians in North Korea">North Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Pakistan" title="Christianity in Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Russia" title="Christianity in Russia">Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Christianity in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Syria" title="Christianity in Syria">Syria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Vietnam" title="Christianity in Vietnam">Vietnam</a> are persecuted; these countries are labelled "countries of particular concern" by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">United States Department of State</a>, because of their governments' engagement in, or toleration of, "severe violations of religious freedom".<a href="#cite_note-USCIRF-11">[11]</a>: 2 The same report recommends that <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Afghanistan" title="Christianity in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Algeria" title="Christianity in Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Azerbaijan" title="Christianity in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Bahrain" title="Christianity in Bahrain">Bahrain</a>, the Central African Republic, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Cuba" title="Christianity in Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Egypt" title="Christianity in Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Indonesia" title="Christianity in Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iraq" title="Christianity in Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Kazakhstan" title="Christianity in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Malaysia" title="Christianity in Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Sudan" title="Christianity in Sudan">Sudan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Turkey" title="Christianity in Turkey">Turkey</a> constitute the US State Department's "special watchlist" of countries in which the government allows or engages in "severe violations of <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">religious freedom</a>".<a href="#cite_note-USCIRF-11">[11]</a>: 2 Much of the persecution of Christians in recent times is perpetrated by <a href="/wiki/Non-state_actors" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-state actors">non-state actors</a> which are labelled "entities of particular concern" by the US State Department, including the <a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamist</a> groups <a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram" title="Boko Haram">Boko Haram</a> in <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Nigeria" title="Christianity in Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Houthi_movement" title="Houthi movement">Houthi movement</a> in <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Yemen" title="Christianity in Yemen">Yemen</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant_%E2%80%93_Khorasan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant – Khorasan Province">Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant – Khorasan Province</a> in <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Pakistan" title="Christianity in Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Shabaab_(militant_group)" title="Al-Shabaab (militant group)">al-Shabaab</a> in <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Somalia" title="Christianity in Somalia">Somalia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a> in <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Afghanistan" title="Christianity in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State" title="Islamic State">Islamic State</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/United_Wa_State_Army" title="United Wa State Army">United Wa State Army</a> and participants in the <a href="/wiki/Kachin_conflict" title="Kachin conflict">Kachin conflict</a> in <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Myanmar" title="Christianity in Myanmar">Myanmar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-USCIRF-11">[11]</a>: 2 <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Antiquity">1 Antiquity</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#New_Testament">1.1 New Testament</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Early_Judeo-Christian">1.2 Early Judeo-Christian</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Roman_Empire">1.3 Roman Empire</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Neronian_persecution">1.3.1 Neronian persecution</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#From_Nero_to_Decius">1.3.2 From Nero to Decius</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-7"><a href="#Voluntary_martyrdom">1.3.2.1 Voluntary martyrdom</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Decian_persecution">1.3.3 Decian persecution</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Valerianic_persecution">1.3.4 Valerianic persecution</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Late_antiquity">2 Late antiquity</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Roman_Empire_2">2.1 Roman Empire</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#The_Great_Persecution">2.1.1 The Great Persecution</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Constantinian_period">2.1.2 Constantinian period</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#Valentinianic%E2%80%93Theodosian_period">2.1.3 Valentinianic–Theodosian period</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#Heraclian_period">2.1.4 Heraclian period</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Sassanian_Empire">2.2 Sassanian Empire</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="#During_the_Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628">2.2.1 During the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Pre-Islamic_Arabia">2.3 Pre-Islamic Arabia</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Early_Middle_Ages">3 Early Middle Ages</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Rashidun_Caliphate">3.1 Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Umayyad_Caliphate">3.2 Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Almoravid_Caliphate">3.3 Almoravid Caliphate</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Byzantine_Empire">3.4 Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Abbasid_Caliphate">3.5 Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#High_Middle_Ages_(1000%E2%80%931200)">4 High Middle Ages (1000–1200)</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Fatimid_Caliphate">4.1 Fatimid Caliphate</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Seljuk_Empire">4.2 Seljuk Empire</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Crusades">4.3 Crusades</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-29"><a href="#Albigensian_Crusade">4.3.1 Albigensian Crusade</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-30"><a href="#Northern_(Baltic)_crusades">4.3.2 Northern (Baltic) crusades</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Ilkhanate">4.4 Ilkhanate</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#Late_Middle_Ages">5 Late Middle Ages</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Western_Europe">5.1 Western Europe</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Mamluk_Sultanate">5.2 Mamluk Sultanate</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Timurid_Empire">5.3 Timurid Empire</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="#Early_modern_period">6 Early modern period</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><a href="#Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation">6.1 Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-38"><a href="#China">6.2 China</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-39"><a href="#French_Revolution">6.3 French Revolution</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><a href="#Japan">6.4 Japan</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-41"><a href="#Kingdom_of_Mysore">6.5 Kingdom of Mysore</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-42"><a href="#Ottoman_Empire">6.6 Ottoman Empire</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-43"><a href="#Ottoman_Albania_and_Kosovo">6.6.1 Ottoman Albania and Kosovo</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-44"><a href="#Modern_era_(1815_to_1989)">7 Modern era (1815 to 1989)</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-45"><a href="#Communist_Albania">7.1 Communist Albania</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-46"><a href="#Iraq">7.2 Iraq</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-47"><a href="#Madagascar">7.3 Madagascar</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-48"><a href="#Nazi_Germany">7.4 Nazi Germany</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-49"><a href="#Ottoman_Empire_2">7.5 Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-50"><a href="#Soviet_Union">7.6 Soviet Union</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-51"><a href="#Spain">7.7 Spain</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-52"><a href="#United_States">7.8 United States</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-53"><a href="#Warsaw_Pact">7.9 Warsaw Pact</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-54"><a href="#Current_situation_(1989_to_the_present)">8 Current situation (1989 to the present)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-55"><a href="#See_also">9 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-56"><a href="#Notes">10 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-57"><a href="#References">11 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-58"><a href="#Sources">12 Sources</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-59"><a href="#Further_reading">13 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-60"><a href="#External_links">14 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Antiquity" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Death_of_Stephen_by_Gustave_Dor%C3%A9.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/The_Death_of_Stephen_by_Gustave_Dor%C3%A9.jpg/220px-The_Death_of_Stephen_by_Gustave_Dor%C3%A9.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="642"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 276px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/The_Death_of_Stephen_by_Gustave_Dor%C3%A9.jpg/220px-The_Death_of_Stephen_by_Gustave_Dor%C3%A9.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="276" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/The_Death_of_Stephen_by_Gustave_Dor%C3%A9.jpg/330px-The_Death_of_Stephen_by_Gustave_Dor%C3%A9.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/The_Death_of_Stephen_by_Gustave_Dor%C3%A9.jpg/440px-The_Death_of_Stephen_by_Gustave_Dor%C3%A9.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Death of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Stephen" title="Saint Stephen">Saint Stephen</a>, "the Protomartyr", recounted in <a href="/wiki/Acts_7" title="Acts 7">Acts 7</a>, depicted in an engraving by <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9" title="Gustave Doré">Gustave Doré</a> (published 1866)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crucifixion_of_Saint_Peter-Caravaggio_(c.1600).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Crucifixion_of_Saint_Peter-Caravaggio_%28c.1600%29.jpg/220px-Crucifixion_of_Saint_Peter-Caravaggio_%28c.1600%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="8180" data-file-height="10537"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 283px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Crucifixion_of_Saint_Peter-Caravaggio_%28c.1600%29.jpg/220px-Crucifixion_of_Saint_Peter-Caravaggio_%28c.1600%29.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="220" data-height="283" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Crucifixion_of_Saint_Peter-Caravaggio_%28c.1600%29.jpg/330px-Crucifixion_of_Saint_Peter-Caravaggio_%28c.1600%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Crucifixion_of_Saint_Peter-Caravaggio_%28c.1600%29.jpg/440px-Crucifixion_of_Saint_Peter-Caravaggio_%28c.1600%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Saint_Peter_(Caravaggio)" title="Crucifixion of Saint Peter (Caravaggio)">Crucifixion of Saint Peter</a> by <a href="/wiki/Caravaggio" title="Caravaggio">Caravaggio</a> (1600, <a href="/wiki/Cerasi_Chapel" title="Cerasi Chapel">Cerasi Chapel</a>)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Testament">New Testament</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: New Testament" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_New_Testament" title="Persecution of Christians in the New Testament">Persecution of Christians in the New Testament</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> began as a sect among <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Jews</a>. Inter-communal dissension began almost immediately.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWand199013-12">[12]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> account, Saul of Tarsus prior to <a href="/wiki/Conversion_of_Paul_the_Apostle" title="Conversion of Paul the Apostle">his conversion to Christianity</a> persecuted early <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian" title="Judeo-Christian">Judeo-Christians</a>. According to the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts of the Apostles</a>, a year after the Roman <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion of Jesus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Stephen" title="Saint Stephen">Stephen</a> was <a href="/wiki/Stoning" title="Stoning">stoned</a> for his transgressions of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish law">Jewish law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Characteristics_of_the_Early_Church-13">[13]</a> And <a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Tarsus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul of Tarsus">Saul</a> (also known as Paul) acquiesced, looking on and witnessing Steven's death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWand199013-12">[12]</a> Later, Paul begins a listing of his own sufferings after conversion in 2 Corinthians 11: "Five times I received from the Jews the forty lashes minus one. Three times I was beaten with rods, once I was stoned ..."<a href="#cite_note-Kar_Yong_Lim-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Judeo-Christian">Early Judeo-Christian</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early Judeo-Christian" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In 41 AD, <a href="/wiki/Herod_Agrippa" title="Herod Agrippa">Herod Agrippa</a>, who already possessed the territory of <a href="/wiki/Herod_Antipas" title="Herod Antipas">Herod Antipas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Tetrarch" title="Philip the Tetrarch">Philip</a> (his former colleagues in the <a href="/wiki/Herodian_Tetrarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Herodian Tetrarchy">Herodian Tetrarchy</a>), obtained the title of King of the Jews, and in a sense, re-formed the <a href="/wiki/Herodian_Kingdom_of_Judea" class="mw-redirect" title="Herodian Kingdom of Judea">Kingdom of Judea</a> of <a href="/wiki/Herod_the_Great" title="Herod the Great">Herod the Great</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 37–4 BC). Herod Agrippa was reportedly eager to endear himself to his Jewish subjects and continued the persecution in which <a href="/wiki/James_the_Great" title="James the Great">James the Great</a> lost his life, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Saint Peter</a> narrowly escaped and the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">apostles</a> took flight.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWand199013-12">[12]</a> After Agrippa's death in 44, the Roman procuratorship began (before 41 they were <a href="/wiki/Prefects" class="mw-redirect" title="Prefects">Prefects</a> in Iudaea Province) and those leaders maintained a neutral peace, until the procurator <a href="/wiki/Porcius_Festus" title="Porcius Festus">Porcius Festus</a> died in 62 and the high priest <a href="/wiki/Ananus_ben_Ananus" title="Ananus ben Ananus">Ananus ben Ananus</a> took advantage of the power vacuum to attack the Church and execute <a href="/wiki/James_the_Just" class="mw-redirect" title="James the Just">James the Just</a>, then leader of <a href="/wiki/First_Christian_church" class="mw-redirect" title="First Christian church">Jerusalem's Christians</a>. The New Testament states that Paul was himself imprisoned on several occasions by the Roman authorities, stoned by the Pharisees and left for dead on one occasion, and was eventually taken to Rome as a prisoner. Peter and other early Christians were also imprisoned, beaten and harassed. The <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="First Jewish Rebellion">First Jewish Rebellion</a>, spurred by the Roman killing of 3,000 Jews, led to the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70_CE)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)">destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD</a>, the end of <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a> (and the subsequent slow rise of <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWand199013-12">[12]</a> Claudia Setzer asserts that, "Jews did not see Christians as clearly separate from their own community until at least the middle of the second century" but most scholars place the "parting of the ways" much earlier, with theological separation occurring immediately.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Second Temple Judaism had allowed more than one way to be Jewish. After the fall of the Temple, one way led to rabbinic Judaism, while another way became Christianity; but Christianity was "molded around the conviction that the Jew, Jesus of Nazareth, was not only the Messiah promised to the Jews, but God's son, offering access to God, and God's blessing to non-Jew as much as, and perhaps eventually more than, to Jews".<a href="#cite_note-lieu_2003-16">[16]</a>: 189 While Messianic eschatology had deep roots in Judaism, and the idea of the suffering servant, known as Messiah Ephraim, had been an aspect since the time of Isaiah (7th century BCE), in the first century, this idea was seen as being usurped by the Christians. It was then suppressed, and did not make its way back into rabbinic teaching till the seventh century writings of Pesiqta Rabati.<a href="#cite_note-Peter_Sch%C3%A4fer-17">[17]</a> The traditional view of the separation of Judaism and Christianity has Jewish-Christians fleeing, en masse, to Pella (shortly before the fall of the Temple in 70 AD) as a result of Jewish persecution and hatred.<a href="#cite_note-Adolf_von_Harnack-18">[18]</a> Steven D. Katz says "there can be no doubt that the post-70 situation witnessed a change in the relations of Jews and Christians".<a href="#cite_note-Steven_T._Katz-19">[19]</a> Judaism sought to reconstitute itself after the disaster which included determining the proper response to Jewish Christianity. The exact shape of this is not directly known but is traditionally alleged to have taken four forms: the circulation of official anti-Christian pronouncements, the issuing of an official ban against Christians attending synagogue, a prohibition against reading Christian writings, and the spreading of the curse against Christian heretics: the <a href="/wiki/Birkat_haMinim" title="Birkat haMinim">Birkat haMinim</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Steven_T._Katz-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_Empire">Roman Empire</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Roman Empire" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution_in_the_Roman_Empire#Christianity" title="Religious persecution in the Roman Empire">Religious persecution in the Roman Empire § Christianity</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Neronian_persecution">Neronian persecution</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Neronian persecution" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siemiradzki_Christian_Dirce.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Siemiradzki_Christian_Dirce.jpg/280px-Siemiradzki_Christian_Dirce.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="136" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2273" data-file-height="1100"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 280px;height: 136px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Siemiradzki_Christian_Dirce.jpg/280px-Siemiradzki_Christian_Dirce.jpg" data-width="280" data-height="136" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Siemiradzki_Christian_Dirce.jpg/420px-Siemiradzki_Christian_Dirce.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Siemiradzki_Christian_Dirce.jpg/560px-Siemiradzki_Christian_Dirce.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A Christian Dirce, by <a href="/wiki/Henryk_Siemiradzki" title="Henryk Siemiradzki">Henryk Siemiradzki</a> (1897, <a href="/wiki/National_Museum,_Warsaw" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museum, Warsaw">National Museum, Warsaw</a>) A Christian woman is martyred under <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> in this re-enactment of the myth of <a href="/wiki/Dirce" title="Dirce">Dirce</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neronian_persecution" class="mw-redirect" title="Neronian persecution">Neronian persecution</a></div> The first documented case of imperially supervised persecution of Christians in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> begins with <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> (54–68). In the Annals, <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> states that Nero blamed Christians for the <a href="/wiki/Great_Fire_of_Rome" title="Great Fire of Rome">Great Fire of Rome</a>, and while it is generally believed to be authentic and reliable, some modern scholars have cast doubt on this view, largely because there is no further reference to Nero's blaming of Christians for the fire until the late 4th century.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-carrier-21">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a> mentions punishments inflicted on Christians, defined as men following a new and malefic superstition, but does not specify the reasons for the punishment; he simply lists the fact together with other abuses put down by Nero.<a href="#cite_note-carrier-21">[21]</a>: 269 It is widely agreed on that the <a href="/wiki/Number_of_the_beast" title="Number of the beast">Number of the beast</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a>, adding up to 666, is derived from a <a href="/wiki/Gematria" title="Gematria">gematria</a> of the name of Nero Caesar, indicating that Nero was viewed as an exceptionally evil figure.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Several Christian sources report that <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Saint Peter</a> both died during the Neronian persecution.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="From_Nero_to_Decius">From Nero to Decius</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: From Nero to Decius" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_The_Christian_Martyrs%27_Last_Prayer_-_Walters_37113.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_The_Christian_Martyrs%27_Last_Prayer_-_Walters_37113.jpg/220px-Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_The_Christian_Martyrs%27_Last_Prayer_-_Walters_37113.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1050"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 128px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_The_Christian_Martyrs%27_Last_Prayer_-_Walters_37113.jpg/220px-Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_The_Christian_Martyrs%27_Last_Prayer_-_Walters_37113.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="128" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_The_Christian_Martyrs%27_Last_Prayer_-_Walters_37113.jpg/330px-Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_The_Christian_Martyrs%27_Last_Prayer_-_Walters_37113.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_The_Christian_Martyrs%27_Last_Prayer_-_Walters_37113.jpg/440px-Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_The_Christian_Martyrs%27_Last_Prayer_-_Walters_37113.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Christian Martyrs' Last Prayer by <a href="/wiki/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me" title="Jean-Léon Gérôme">Jean-Léon Gérôme</a> (1863–1883, <a href="/wiki/Walters_Art_Museum" title="Walters Art Museum">Walters Art Museum</a>). A fanciful scene of <a href="/wiki/Damnatio_ad_bestias" title="Damnatio ad bestias">damnatio ad bestias</a> in ancient Rome's <a href="/wiki/Circus_Maximus" title="Circus Maximus">Circus Maximus</a> beneath the <a href="/wiki/Palatine_Hill" title="Palatine Hill">Palatine Hill</a>.</figcaption></figure> In the first two centuries Christianity was a relatively small sect which was not a significant concern of the Emperor. <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Stark" title="Rodney Stark">Rodney Stark</a> estimates there were fewer than 10,000 Christians in the year 100. Christianity grew to about 200,000 by the year 200, which works out to about 0.36% of the population of the empire, and then to almost 2 million by 250, still making up less than 2% of the empire's overall population.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> According to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Guy_Laurie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guy Laurie (page does not exist)">Guy Laurie</a>, the Church was not in a struggle for its existence during its first centuries.<a href="#cite_note-earlychristianity-28">[28]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Green" title="Bernard Green">Bernard Green</a> says that, although early persecutions of Christians were generally sporadic, local, and under the direction of regional governors, not emperors, Christians "were always subject to oppression and at risk of open persecution."<a href="#cite_note-Bernard_Green-29">[29]</a> <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>'s policy towards Christians was no different from the treatment of other sects; that is, they would only be punished if they refused to worship the emperor and the gods, but they were not to be sought out.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGonz%C3%A1lez201097-30">[30]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ignatius_of_Antioch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Ignatius_of_Antioch.jpg/220px-Ignatius_of_Antioch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1949" data-file-height="1341"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 151px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Ignatius_of_Antioch.jpg/220px-Ignatius_of_Antioch.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="151" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Ignatius_of_Antioch.jpg/330px-Ignatius_of_Antioch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Ignatius_of_Antioch.jpg/440px-Ignatius_of_Antioch.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Execution of <a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius of Antioch</a>, reputed to have been killed in Rome under the emperor <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>, depicted in the <a href="/wiki/Menologion_of_Basil_II" title="Menologion of Basil II">Menologion of Basil II</a>, an illuminated manuscript prepared for the emperor <a href="/wiki/Basil_II" title="Basil II">Basil II</a> in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1000</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/James_L._Papandrea" title="James L. Papandrea">James L. Papandrea</a> says there are ten emperors generally accepted to have sponsored state-sanctioned persecution of Christians,<a href="#cite_note-Papandrea-31">[31]</a> though the first empire-wide government-sponsored persecution was not until Decius in 249.<a href="#cite_note-Scarre170-32">[32]</a> One early account of a mass killing is the <a href="/wiki/Persecution_in_Lyon" title="Persecution in Lyon">persecution in Lyon</a> in which Christians were purportedly mass-slaughtered by being thrown to wild beasts under the decree of Roman officials for reportedly refusing to renounce their faith according to <a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> In the 3rd century, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a>'s household contained many Christians, but his successor, <a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Thrax" title="Maximinus Thrax">Maximinus Thrax</a>, hating this household, ordered that the leaders of the churches should be put to death.<a href="#cite_note-Eusebius-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> According to Eusebius, this persecution sent <a href="/wiki/Hippolytus_of_Rome" title="Hippolytus of Rome">Hippolytus of Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pontian" title="Pope Pontian">Pope Pontian</a> into exile, but other evidence suggests that the persecutions were local to the provinces where they occurred rather than happening under the direction of the Emperor.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> According to two different Christian traditions, <a href="/wiki/Simon_bar_Kokhba" title="Simon bar Kokhba">Simon bar Kokhba</a>, the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">second Jewish revolt against Rome</a> (132–136 AD), who was proclaimed Messiah, persecuted the Christians: Justin Martyr claims that Christians were punished if they did not deny and blaspheme Jesus Christ, while Eusebius asserts that Bar Kokhba harassed them because they refused to join his revolt against the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Voluntary_martyrdom">Voluntary martyrdom</h5> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Voluntary martyrdom" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martyrdom_and_persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Romans._Woodc_Wellcome_V0033591.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Martyrdom_and_persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Romans._Woodc_Wellcome_V0033591.jpg/220px-Martyrdom_and_persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Romans._Woodc_Wellcome_V0033591.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3288" data-file-height="2156"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 144px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Martyrdom_and_persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Romans._Woodc_Wellcome_V0033591.jpg/220px-Martyrdom_and_persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Romans._Woodc_Wellcome_V0033591.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="144" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Martyrdom_and_persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Romans._Woodc_Wellcome_V0033591.jpg/330px-Martyrdom_and_persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Romans._Woodc_Wellcome_V0033591.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Martyrdom_and_persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Romans._Woodc_Wellcome_V0033591.jpg/440px-Martyrdom_and_persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Romans._Woodc_Wellcome_V0033591.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Woodcut illustration for the 1570 edition of <a href="/wiki/John_Foxe" title="John Foxe">John Foxe</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Foxe%27s_Book_of_Martyrs" title="Foxe's Book of Martyrs">Book of Martyrs</a> showing the "persecutions of the primitive Church under the heathen tyrants of Rome" and depicting the "sundry kinds of torments devised against the Christians"</figcaption></figure> Some early Christians sought out and welcomed martyrdom.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> According to Droge and Tabor, "in 185 the proconsul of Asia, Arrius Antoninus, was approached by a group of Christians demanding to be executed. The proconsul obliged some of them and then sent the rest away, saying that if they wanted to kill themselves there was plenty of rope available or cliffs they could jump off."<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Such enthusiasm for death is found in the letters of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Ignatius_of_Antioch" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Ignatius of Antioch">Saint Ignatius of Antioch</a>, who was arrested and condemned as a criminal before writing his letters while on the way to execution. Ignatius casts his own martyrdom as a voluntary eucharistic sacrifice to be embraced.<a href="#cite_note-Candida_Moss-42">[42]</a>: 55 "Many martyr acts present martyrdom as a sharp choice that cut to the core of Christian identity – life or death, salvation or damnation, Christ or apostacy..."<a href="#cite_note-Candida_Moss-42">[42]</a>: 145 Subsequently, the martyr literature has drawn distinctions between those who were enthusiastically pro-voluntary-martyrdom (the <a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatists</a>), those who occupied a neutral, moderate position (the orthodox), and those who were anti-martyrdom (the <a href="/wiki/Gnostic_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnostic Christianity">Gnostics</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Candida_Moss-42">[42]</a>: 145 The category of voluntary martyr began to emerge only in the third century in the context of efforts to justify flight from persecution.<a href="#cite_note-Moss_journal-43">[43]</a> The condemnation of voluntary martyrdom is used to justify Clement fleeing the Severan persecution in Alexandria in 202 AD, and the Martyrdom of Polycarp justifies Polycarp's flight on the same grounds. "Voluntary martyrdom is parsed as passionate foolishness" whereas "flight from persecution is patience" and the result a true martyrdom.<a href="#cite_note-Candida_Moss-42">[42]</a>: 155 <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Boyarin" title="Daniel Boyarin">Daniel Boyarin</a> rejects use of the term "voluntary martyrdom", saying, "if martyrdom is not voluntary, it is not martyrdom".<a href="#cite_note-Daniel_Boyarin-44">[44]</a> <a href="/wiki/G._E._M._de_Ste._Croix" title="G. E. M. de Ste. Croix">G. E. M. de Ste. Croix</a> adds a category of "quasi-voluntary martyrdom": "martyrs who were not directly responsible for their own arrest but who, after being arrested, behaved with" a stubborn refusal to obey or comply with authority.<a href="#cite_note-Candida_Moss-42">[42]</a>: 153 <a href="/wiki/Candida_Moss" title="Candida Moss">Candida Moss</a> asserts that De Ste. Croix's judgment of what values are worth dying for is modern, and does not represent classical values. According to her there was no such concept as "quasi-volunteer martyrdom" in ancient times.<a href="#cite_note-Candida_Moss-42">[42]</a>: 153 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decian_persecution">Decian persecution</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Decian persecution" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Decian_persecution" title="Decian persecution">Decian persecution</a></div> In the reign of the emperor <a href="/wiki/Decius" title="Decius">Decius</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 249–251), a decree was issued requiring that all residents of the empire should perform sacrifices, to be enforced by the issuing of each person with a <a href="/wiki/Libellus" title="Libellus">libellus</a> certifying that they had performed the necessary ritual.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> It is not known what motivated Decius's decree, or whether it was intended to target Christians, though it is possible the emperor was seeking divine favors in the forthcoming wars with the <a href="/wiki/Carpi_(people)" title="Carpi (people)">Carpi</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> Christians that refused to publicly offer sacrifices or burn incense to Roman gods were accused of impiety and punished by arrest, imprisonment, torture or execution.<a href="#cite_note-Scarre170-32">[32]</a> According to Eusebius, bishops <a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Jerusalem" title="Alexander of Jerusalem">Alexander of Jerusalem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babylas_of_Antioch" title="Babylas of Antioch">Babylas of Antioch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pope_Fabian" title="Pope Fabian">Fabian of Rome</a> were all imprisoned and killed.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> The patriarch <a href="/wiki/Pope_Dionysius_of_Alexandria" title="Pope Dionysius of Alexandria">Dionysius of Alexandria</a> escaped captivity, while the bishop <a href="/wiki/Cyprian_of_Carthage" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyprian of Carthage">Cyprian of Carthage</a> fled his <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_see" title="Episcopal see">episcopal see</a> to the countryside.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> The Christian church, despite no indication in the surviving texts that the edict targeted any specific group, never forgot the reign of Decius whom they labelled as that "fierce tyrant".<a href="#cite_note-Scarre170-32">[32]</a> After Decius died, <a href="/wiki/Trebonianus_Gallus" title="Trebonianus Gallus">Trebonianus Gallus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 251–253) succeeded him and continued the Decian persecution for the duration of his reign.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Valerianic_persecution">Valerianic persecution</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Valerianic persecution" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The accession of Trebonianus Gallus's successor <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 253–260) ended the Decian persecution.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> In 257 however, Valerian began to enforce public religion. Cyprian of Carthage was exiled and executed the following year, while <a href="/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_II" title="Pope Sixtus II">Pope Sixtus II</a> was also put to death.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> Dionysius of Alexandria was tried, urged to recognize "the natural gods" in the hope his congregation would imitate him, and exiled when he refused.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> Valerian was defeated by the Persians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Battle of Edessa</a> and himself taken prisoner in 260. According to Eusebius, Valerian's son, co-augustus, and successor <a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 253–268) allowed Christian communities to use again their cemeteries and made restitution of their confiscated buildings.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> Eusebius wrote that Gallienus allowed the Christians "freedom of action".<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Late_antiquity">Late antiquity</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Late antiquity" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_Empire_2">Roman Empire</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Roman Empire" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barbara_of_Nicomedia_(Menologion_of_Basil_II).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Barbara_of_Nicomedia_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg/220px-Barbara_of_Nicomedia_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1092" data-file-height="743"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 150px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Barbara_of_Nicomedia_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg/220px-Barbara_of_Nicomedia_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="150" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Barbara_of_Nicomedia_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg/330px-Barbara_of_Nicomedia_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Barbara_of_Nicomedia_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg/440px-Barbara_of_Nicomedia_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Execution of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Barbara" title="Saint Barbara">Saint Barbara</a>, reputed to have been killed under the emperor <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>, depicted in the <a href="/wiki/Menologion_of_Basil_II" title="Menologion of Basil II">Menologion of Basil II</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Great_Persecution">The Great Persecution</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The Great Persecution" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Diocletianic_Persecution" title="Diocletianic Persecution">Diocletianic Persecution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire</a></div> The Great Persecution, or Diocletianic Persecution, was begun by the senior <a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)#Imperial_honorific" title="Augustus (title)">augustus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 284–305) on 23 February 303.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> In the eastern Roman empire, the official persecution lasted intermittently until 313, while in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Roman empire">western Roman empire</a> the persecution went unenforced from 306.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a>'s De mortibus persecutorum ("on the deaths of the persecutors"), Diocletian's junior emperor, the <a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">caesar</a> <a href="/wiki/Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 293–311) pressured the augustus to begin persecuting Christians.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eusebius_of_Caesarea" class="mw-redirect" title="Eusebius of Caesarea">Eusebius of Caesarea</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Church_History_(Eusebius)" class="mw-redirect" title="Church History (Eusebius)">Church History</a> reports that <a href="/wiki/Imperial_edict" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial edict">imperial edicts</a> were promulgated to destroy churches and confiscate scriptures, and to remove Christian occupants of government positions, while Christian priests were to be imprisoned and required to perform <a href="/wiki/Sacrifice_in_ancient_Roman_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacrifice in ancient Roman religion">sacrifice in ancient Roman religion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> In the account of Eusebius, an unnamed Christian man (named by later hagiographers as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Euethius_of_Nicomedia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Euethius of Nicomedia (page does not exist)">Euethius of Nicomedia</a> and venerated on 27 February) tore down a public notice of an imperial edict while the emperors Diocletian and Galerius were in <a href="/wiki/Nicomedia" title="Nicomedia">Nicomedia</a> (<a href="/wiki/%C4%B0zmit" title="İzmit">İzmit</a>), one of Diocletian's capitals; according to Lactantius, he was tortured and burned alive.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> According to Lactantius, the church at <a href="/wiki/Nicomedia" title="Nicomedia">Nicomedia</a> (<a href="/wiki/%C4%B0zmit" title="İzmit">İzmit</a>) was destroyed, while the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Optatan_Appendix&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Optatan Appendix (page does not exist)">Optatan Appendix</a> has an account from the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Africa" title="Praetorian prefecture of Africa">praetorian prefecture of Africa</a> involving the confiscation of written materials which led to the <a href="/wiki/Donatist_schism" class="mw-redirect" title="Donatist schism">Donatist schism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> According to Eusebius's <a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_Palestine" title="Martyrs of Palestine">Martyrs of Palestine</a> and Lactantius's De mortibus persecutorum, a fourth edict in 304 demanded that everyone perform sacrifices, though in the western empire this was not enforced.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> An "unusually philosophical" dialogue is recorded in the trial proceedings of <a href="/wiki/Phileas_of_Thmuis" class="mw-redirect" title="Phileas of Thmuis">Phileas of Thmuis</a>, bishop of <a href="/wiki/Thmuis" title="Thmuis">Thmuis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Egypt</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a>, which survive on Greek <a href="/wiki/Papyri" class="mw-redirect" title="Papyri">papyri</a> from the 4th century among the <a href="/wiki/Bodmer_Papyri" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodmer Papyri">Bodmer Papyri</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chester_Beatty_Papyri" title="Chester Beatty Papyri">Chester Beatty Papyri</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Bodmer_Library" title="Bodmer Library">Bodmer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chester_Beatty_Library" title="Chester Beatty Library">Chester Beatty</a> libraries and in manuscripts in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethiopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopic">Ethiopic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a> languages from later centuries, a body of <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">hagiography</a> known as the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Acts_of_Phileas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acts of Phileas (page does not exist)">Acts of Phileas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> Phileas was condemned at his fifth trial at <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> under <a href="/w/index.php?title=Clodius_Culcianus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clodius Culcianus (page does not exist)">Clodius Culcianus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Praefectus_Aegypti" class="mw-redirect" title="Praefectus Aegypti">praefectus Aegypti</a> on 4 February 305 (the 10th day of <a href="/wiki/Meshir" title="Meshir">Mecheir</a>). In the western empire, the Diocletianic Persecution ceased with the usurpation by two emperors' sons in 306: that of Constantine, who was <a href="/wiki/Acclamatio" title="Acclamatio">acclaimed</a> augustus by the army after his father <a href="/wiki/Constantius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantius I">Constantius I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 293–306) died, and that of <a href="/wiki/Maxentius" title="Maxentius">Maxentius</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 306–312) who was elevated to augustus by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a> after the grudging retirement of his father <a href="/wiki/Maximian" title="Maximian">Maximian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 285–305) and his co-augustus Diocletian in May 305.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> Of Maxentius, who controlled Italy with his now un-retired father, and Constantine, who controlled <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Gaul</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Iberia">Iberia</a>, neither was inclined to continue the persecution.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> In the eastern empire however, Galerius, now augustus, continued Diocletian's policy.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> Eusebius's Church History and Martyrs of Palestine both give accounts of martyrdom and persecution of Christians, including Eusebius's own mentor <a href="/wiki/Pamphilus_of_Caesarea" title="Pamphilus of Caesarea">Pamphilus of Caesarea</a>, with whom he was imprisoned during the persecution.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peter_the_Archbishop_of_Alexandria_(Menologion_of_Basil_II).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Peter_the_Archbishop_of_Alexandria_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg/220px-Peter_the_Archbishop_of_Alexandria_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1088" data-file-height="755"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 153px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Peter_the_Archbishop_of_Alexandria_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg/220px-Peter_the_Archbishop_of_Alexandria_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="153" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Peter_the_Archbishop_of_Alexandria_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg/330px-Peter_the_Archbishop_of_Alexandria_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Peter_the_Archbishop_of_Alexandria_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg/440px-Peter_the_Archbishop_of_Alexandria_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The execution of the patriarch <a href="/wiki/Peter_I_of_Alexandria" title="Peter I of Alexandria">Peter of Alexandria</a> under the emperor <a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Daia" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximinus Daia">Maximinus Daia</a>, depicted in the <a href="/wiki/Menologion_of_Basil_II" title="Menologion of Basil II">Menologion of Basil II</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martyrs_Silvanus_the_Bishop_of_Emesa,_Luke_the_deacon,_and_Mocius_(Mucius)_the_reader_(Menologion_of_Basil_II).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Martyrs_Silvanus_the_Bishop_of_Emesa%2C_Luke_the_deacon%2C_and_Mocius_%28Mucius%29_the_reader_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg/220px-Martyrs_Silvanus_the_Bishop_of_Emesa%2C_Luke_the_deacon%2C_and_Mocius_%28Mucius%29_the_reader_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1772" data-file-height="1163"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 144px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Martyrs_Silvanus_the_Bishop_of_Emesa%2C_Luke_the_deacon%2C_and_Mocius_%28Mucius%29_the_reader_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg/220px-Martyrs_Silvanus_the_Bishop_of_Emesa%2C_Luke_the_deacon%2C_and_Mocius_%28Mucius%29_the_reader_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="144" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Martyrs_Silvanus_the_Bishop_of_Emesa%2C_Luke_the_deacon%2C_and_Mocius_%28Mucius%29_the_reader_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg/330px-Martyrs_Silvanus_the_Bishop_of_Emesa%2C_Luke_the_deacon%2C_and_Mocius_%28Mucius%29_the_reader_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Martyrs_Silvanus_the_Bishop_of_Emesa%2C_Luke_the_deacon%2C_and_Mocius_%28Mucius%29_the_reader_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg/440px-Martyrs_Silvanus_the_Bishop_of_Emesa%2C_Luke_the_deacon%2C_and_Mocius_%28Mucius%29_the_reader_%28Menologion_of_Basil_II%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The execution of the martyrs <a href="/w/index.php?title=Luke_the_Deacon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Luke the Deacon (page does not exist)">Luke the Deacon</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mocius_the_Reader&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mocius the Reader (page does not exist)">Mocius the Reader</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Silvanus_of_Emesa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Silvanus of Emesa (page does not exist)">Silvanus</a>, bishop of <a href="/wiki/Emesa" class="mw-redirect" title="Emesa">Emesa</a>, reputed to have been killed under the emperor <a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Daia" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximinus Daia">Maximinus Daia</a>, depicted in the <a href="/wiki/Menologion_of_Basil_II" title="Menologion of Basil II">Menologion of Basil II</a></figcaption></figure> When Galerius died in May 311, he is reported by Lactantius and Eusebius to have composed a deathbed edict – the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Serdica" title="Edict of Serdica">Edict of Serdica</a> – allowing the assembly of Christians in <a href="/wiki/Conventicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Conventicles">conventicles</a> and explaining the motives for the prior persecution.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> Eusebius wrote that Easter was celebrated openly.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> By autumn however, Galerius's nephew, former caesar, and co-augustus <a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Daia" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximinus Daia">Maximinus Daia</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 310–313) was enforcing Diocletian's persecution in his territories in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_the_East" title="Diocese of the East">Diocese of the East</a> in response to petitions from numerous cities and provinces, including <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pisidia" title="Pisidia">Pisidia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> Maximinus was also encouraged to act by an <a href="/wiki/Oracle" title="Oracle">oracular</a> pronouncement made by a statue of Zeus Philios set up in Antioch by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Theotecnus_of_Antioch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theotecnus of Antioch (page does not exist)">Theotecnus of Antioch</a>, who also organized an anti-Christian petition to be sent from the Antiochenes to Maximinus, requesting that the Christians there be expelled.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> Among the Christians known to have died in this phase of the persecution are the <a href="/wiki/Presbyter" title="Presbyter">presbyter</a> <a href="/wiki/Lucian_of_Antioch" title="Lucian of Antioch">Lucian of Antioch</a>, the bishop <a href="/wiki/Methodius_of_Olympus" title="Methodius of Olympus">Methodius</a> of <a href="/wiki/Olympus_(Lycia)" title="Olympus (Lycia)">Olympus in Lycia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peter_I_of_Alexandria" title="Peter I of Alexandria">Peter</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Alexandria" title="Patriarch of Alexandria">patriarch of Alexandria</a>. Defeated in a civil war by the augustus <a href="/wiki/Licinius" title="Licinius">Licinius</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 308–324), Maximinus died in 313, ending the systematic persecution of Christianity as a whole in the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> Only one martyr is known by name from the reign of Licinius, who issued the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</a> jointly with his ally, co-augustus, and brother-in-law Constantine, which had the effect of resuming the toleration of before the persecution and returning confiscated property to Christian owners.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> The <a href="/wiki/New_Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="New Catholic Encyclopedia">New Catholic Encyclopedia</a> states that "Ancient, medieval and early modern hagiographers were inclined to exaggerate the number of martyrs. Since the title of martyr is the highest title to which a Christian can aspire, this tendency is natural".<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Attempts at estimating the numbers involved are inevitably based on inadequate sources.<a href="#cite_note-Frend-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Constantinian_period">Constantinian period</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Constantinian period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Religious_policies_of_Constantine_the_Great" title="Religious policies of Constantine the Great">Religious policies of Constantine the Great</a></div> The Christian church marked the conversion of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> as the final fulfillment of its heavenly victory over the "false gods".<a href="#cite_note-Brown2-49">[49]</a>: xxxii The Roman state had always seen itself as divinely directed, now it saw the first great age of persecution, in which the <a href="/wiki/Devil_in_Christianity" title="Devil in Christianity">Devil</a> was considered to have used open violence to dissuade the growth of Christianity, at an end.<a href="#cite_note-:2-50">[50]</a> The orthodox catholic Christians close to the Roman state represented imperial persecution as an historical phenomenon, rather than a contemporary one.<a href="#cite_note-:2-50">[50]</a> According to MacMullan, the Christian histories are colored by this "triumphalism".<a href="#cite_note-MacMullen1986p4-51">[51]</a>: 4 <a href="/wiki/Peter_Leithart" title="Peter Leithart">Peter Leithart</a> says that, "[Constantine] did not punish pagans for being pagans, or Jews for being Jews, and did not adopt a policy of forced conversion".<a href="#cite_note-Leithart2010-52">[52]</a>: 61 Pagans remained in important positions at his court.<a href="#cite_note-Leithart2010-52">[52]</a>: 302 He outlawed the gladiatorial shows, destroyed some temples and plundered more, and used forceful rhetoric against non-Christians, but he never engaged in a purge.<a href="#cite_note-Leithart2010-52">[52]</a>: 302 Maxentius' supporters were not slaughtered when Constantine took the capital; Licinius' family and court were not killed.<a href="#cite_note-Leithart2010-52">[52]</a>: 304 However, followers of doctrines which were seen as heretical or causing <a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">schism</a> were persecuted during the reign of Constantine, the first Christian Roman emperor, and they would be persecuted again later in the 4th century.<a href="#cite_note-Tilley1996-53">[53]</a> The consequence of Christian doctrinal disputes was generally mutual excommunication, but once Roman government became involved in ecclesiastical politics, rival factions could find themselves subject to "repression, expulsion, imprisonment or exile" carried out by the Roman army.<a href="#cite_note-John_F._Shean-54">[54]</a>: 317 In 312, the Christian sect called <a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatists</a> appealed to Constantine to solve a dispute. He convened a synod of bishops to hear the case, but the synod sided against them. The Donatists refused to accept the ruling, so a second gathering of 200 at Arles, in 314, was called, but they also ruled against them. The Donatists again refused to accept the ruling, and proceeded to act accordingly by establishing their own bishop, building their own churches, and refusing cooperation.<a href="#cite_note-John_F._Shean-54">[54]</a>: 317 <a href="#cite_note-Tilley1996-53">[53]</a>: xv This was a defiance of imperial authority, and it produced the same response Rome had taken in the past against such refusals. For a Roman emperor, "religion could be tolerated only as long as it contributed to the stability of the state".<a href="#cite_note-Earle_E._Cairns-55">[55]</a>: 87 Constantine used the army in an effort to compel Donatist' obedience, burning churches and martyring some from 317 – 321.<a href="#cite_note-Tilley1996-53">[53]</a>: ix, xv Constantine failed in reaching his goal and ultimately conceded defeat. The schism remained and Donatism continued.<a href="#cite_note-John_F._Shean-54">[54]</a>: 318 After Constantine, his youngest son <a href="/wiki/Constans" title="Constans">Flavius Julius Constans</a>, initiated the <a href="/wiki/Macarius_(imperial_legate)" title="Macarius (imperial legate)">Macarian campaign</a> against the Donatists from 346 – 348 which only succeeded in renewing sectarian strife and creating more martyrs. Donatism continued.<a href="#cite_note-Tilley1996-53">[53]</a>: xvii The fourth century was dominated by its many conflicts defining orthodoxy versus heterodoxy and heresy. In the Eastern Roman empire, known as Byzantium, the <a href="/wiki/Arian_controversy" title="Arian controversy">Arian controversy</a> began with its debate of Trinitarian formulas which lasted 56 years.<a href="#cite_note-Olson-56">[56]</a>: 141 As it moved into the West, the center of the controversy was the "champion of orthodoxy", <a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius</a>. In 355 Constantius, who supported Arianism, ordered the suppression and exile of Athanasius, expelled the orthodox <a href="/wiki/Pope_Liberius" title="Pope Liberius">Pope Liberius</a> from Rome, and exiled bishops who refused to assent to Athanasius's exile.<a href="#cite_note-:4-57">[57]</a> In 355, <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_(bishop_of_Milan)" title="Dionysius (bishop of Milan)">Dionysius</a>, bishop of <a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>) was expelled from his episcopal see and replaced by the Arian Christian <a href="/wiki/Auxentius_of_Milan" title="Auxentius of Milan">Auxentius of Milan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> When Constantius returned to Rome in 357, he consented to allow the return of Liberius to the papacy; the Arian <a href="/wiki/Pope_Felix_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Pope Felix II">Pope Felix II</a>, who had replaced him, was then driven out along with his followers.<a href="#cite_note-:4-57">[57]</a> The last emperor of the <a href="/wiki/Constantinian_dynasty" title="Constantinian dynasty">Constantinian dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Constantius" title="Julius Constantius">Constantine's half-brother</a>'s son <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 361–363) opposed Christianity and sought to restore traditional religion, though he did not arrange a general or official persecution.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Valentinianic–Theodosian_period">Valentinianic–Theodosian period</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Valentinianic–Theodosian period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> According to the <a href="/wiki/Collectio_Avellana" title="Collectio Avellana">Collectio Avellana</a>, on the death of Pope Liberius in 366, Damasus, assisted by hired gangs of "charioteers" and men "from the arena", broke into the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_Julia" title="Basilica Julia">Basilica Julia</a> to violently prevent the election of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Ursicinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pope Ursicinus">Pope Ursicinus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-57">[57]</a> The battle lasted three days, "with great slaughter of the faithful" and a week later Damasus seized the <a href="/wiki/Lateran_Basilica" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateran Basilica">Lateran Basilica</a>, had himself ordained as <a href="/wiki/Pope_Damasus_I" title="Pope Damasus I">Pope Damasus I</a>, and compelled the <a href="/wiki/Praefectus_urbi" title="Praefectus urbi">praefectus urbi</a> <a href="/wiki/Viventius" title="Viventius">Viventius</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Praefectus_annonae" title="Praefectus annonae">praefectus annonae</a> to exile Ursicinus.<a href="#cite_note-:4-57">[57]</a> Damasus then had seven Christian priests arrested and awaiting banishment, but they escaped and "gravediggers" and minor clergy joined another mob of hippodrome and amphitheatre men assembled by the pope to attack the <a href="/wiki/Liberian_Basilica" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberian Basilica">Liberian Basilica</a>, where Ursacinus's loyalists had taken refuge.<a href="#cite_note-:4-57">[57]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, on 26 October, the pope's mob killed 137 people in the church in just one day, and many more died subsequently.<a href="#cite_note-:4-57">[57]</a> The Roman public frequently enjoined the emperor <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Valentinian the Great">Valentinian the Great</a> to remove Damasus from the throne of Saint Peter, calling him a murderer for having waged a "filthy war" against the Christians.<a href="#cite_note-:4-57">[57]</a> In the 4th century, the <a href="/wiki/Thervings" class="mw-redirect" title="Thervings">Terving</a> king <a href="/wiki/Athanaric" title="Athanaric">Athanaric</a> in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 375 ordered the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_persecution_of_Christians" title="Gothic persecution of Christians">Gothic persecution of Christians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Athanaric was perturbed by the spread of <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Christianity" title="Gothic Christianity">Gothic Christianity</a> among his followers, and feared for the displacement of <a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic paganism</a>. It was not until the later 4th century reigns of the augusti <a href="/wiki/Gratian" title="Gratian">Gratian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 367–383), <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_II" title="Valentinian II">Valentinian II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 375–392), and <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 379–395) that Christianity would become the official religion of the empire with the joint promulgation of the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Thessalonica" title="Edict of Thessalonica">Edict of Thessalonica</a>, establishing <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Nicene Christianity</a> as the <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a> and as the <a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">state church of the Roman Empire</a> on 27 February 380. After this began state persecution of non-Nicene Christians, including <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism" title="Nontrinitarianism">Nontrinitarian</a> devotees.<a href="#cite_note-MacMullen'sordinaryday-60">[60]</a>: 267 When <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a> became coadjutor Bishop of Hippo in 395, both Donatist and Catholic parties had, for decades, existed side-by-side, with a double line of bishops for the same cities, all competing for the loyalty of the people.<a href="#cite_note-Tilley1996-53">[53]</a>: xv <a href="#cite_note-62">[a]</a>: 334 Augustine was distressed by the ongoing schism, but he held the view that belief cannot be compelled, so he appealed to the Donatists using popular propaganda, debate, personal appeal, General Councils, appeals to the emperor and political pressure, but all attempts failed.<a href="#cite_note-Frend1-63">[62]</a>: 242, 254 The Donatists fomented protests and street violence, accosted travelers, attacked random Catholics without warning, often doing serious and unprovoked bodily harm such as beating people with clubs, cutting off their hands and feet, and gouging out eyes while also inviting their own martyrdom.<a href="#cite_note-Markus-64">[63]</a>: 120–121 By 408, Augustine supported the state's use of force against them.<a href="#cite_note-Brown1964-61">[61]</a>: 107–116 Historian Frederick Russell says that Augustine did not believe this would "make the Donatists more virtuous" but he did believe it would make them "less vicious".<a href="#cite_note-Russell2-65">[64]</a>: 128 Augustine wrote that there had, in the past, been ten Christian persecutions, beginning with the Neronian persecution, and alleging persecutions by the emperors <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>, "Antoninus" (<a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>), "Severus" (<a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Thrax" title="Maximinus Thrax">Maximinus</a> (Thrax), as well as Decian and Valerianic persecutions, and then another by <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> as well as by Diocletian and Maximian.<a href="#cite_note-:2-50">[50]</a> These ten persecutions Augustine compared with the <a href="/wiki/10_Plagues_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="10 Plagues of Egypt">10 Plagues of Egypt</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Book of Exodus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[note 1]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> Augustine did not see these early persecutions in the same light as that of fourth century heretics. In Augustine's view, when the purpose of persecution is to "lovingly correct and instruct", then it becomes discipline and is just.<a href="#cite_note-Marcos-68">[66]</a>: 2 Augustine wrote that "coercion cannot transmit the truth to the heretic, but it can prepare them to hear and receive the truth".<a href="#cite_note-Brown1964-61">[61]</a>: 107–116 He said the church would discipline its people out of a loving desire to heal them, and that, "once compelled to come in, heretics would gradually give their voluntary assent to the truth of Christian orthodoxy."<a href="#cite_note-Russell2-65">[64]</a>: 115 He opposed the severity of Rome and the execution of heretics.<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a>: 768 It is his teaching on coercion that has literature on Augustine frequently referring to him as le prince et patriarche de persecuteurs (the prince and patriarch of persecutors).<a href="#cite_note-Markus-64">[63]</a>: 116 <a href="#cite_note-Brown1964-61">[61]</a>: 107 Russell says Augustine's theory of coercion "was not crafted from dogma, but in response to a unique historical situation" and is therefore context dependent, while others see it as inconsistent with his other teachings.<a href="#cite_note-Russell2-65">[64]</a>: 125 His authority on the question of coercion was undisputed for over a millennium in <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a>, and according to Brown "it provided the theological foundation for the justification of medieval persecution."<a href="#cite_note-Brown1964-61">[61]</a>: 107–116 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Heraclian_period">Heraclian period</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Heraclian period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Callinicus_I_of_Constantinople" title="Callinicus I of Constantinople">Callinicus I</a>, initially a priest and skeuophylax in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Church_of_the_Theotokos_of_Blachernae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Church of the Theotokos of Blachernae (page does not exist)">Church of the Theotokos of Blachernae</a>, became patriarch of Constantinople in 693 or 694.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 58–59 Having refused to consent to the demolition of a chapel in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Palace_of_Constantinople" title="Great Palace of Constantinople">Great Palace</a>, the Theotokos ton Metropolitou, and having possibly been involved in the deposition and exile of <a href="/wiki/Justinian_II" title="Justinian II">Justinian II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 685–695, 705–711), an allegation denied by the Synaxarion of Constantinople, he was himself exiled to Rome on the return of Justinian to power in 705.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 58–59 The emperor had Callinicus <a href="/wiki/Immured" class="mw-redirect" title="Immured">immured</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 58–59 He is said to have survived forty days when the wall was opened to check his condition, though he died four days later.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 58–59 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sassanian_Empire">Sassanian Empire</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sassanian Empire" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Violent persecutions of Christians began in earnest in the long reign of <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 309–379).<a href="#cite_note-:3-71">[69]</a> A persecution of Christians at <a href="/wiki/Kirkuk" title="Kirkuk">Kirkuk</a> is recorded in Shapur's first decade, though most persecution happened after 341.<a href="#cite_note-:3-71">[69]</a> At war with the Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 337–361), Shapur imposed a tax to cover the war expenditure, and <a href="/wiki/Shemon_Bar_Sabbae" class="mw-redirect" title="Shemon Bar Sabbae">Shemon Bar Sabbae</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Seleucia-Ctesiphon" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon">Bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon</a>, refused to collect it.<a href="#cite_note-:3-71">[69]</a> Often citing collaboration with the Romans, the Persians began persecuting and executing Christians.<a href="#cite_note-:3-71">[69]</a> Passio narratives describe the fate of some Christians venerated as martyrs; they are of varying historical reliability, some being contemporary records by eyewitnesses, others were reliant on popular tradition at some remove from the events.<a href="#cite_note-:3-71">[69]</a> An appendix to the Syriac Martyrology of 411 lists the Christian <a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_Persia_under_Shapur_II" title="Martyrs of Persia under Shapur II">martyrs of Persia</a>, but other accounts of martyrs' trials contain important historical details on the workings of the Sassanian Empire's historical geography and judicial and administrative practices.<a href="#cite_note-:3-71">[69]</a> Some were translated into <a href="/wiki/Sogdian_language" title="Sogdian language">Sogdian</a> and discovered at <a href="/wiki/Turpan" title="Turpan">Turpan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-71">[69]</a> Under <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_I" title="Yazdegerd I">Yazdegerd I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 399–420) there were occasional persecutions, including an instance of persecution in reprisal for the burning of a Zoroastrian <a href="/wiki/Fire_temple" title="Fire temple">fire temple</a> by a Christian priest, and further persecutions occurred in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Bahram_V" title="Bahram V">Bahram V</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 420–438).<a href="#cite_note-:3-71">[69]</a> Under <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_II" title="Yazdegerd II">Yazdegerd II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 438–457) an instance of persecution in 446 is recorded in the Syriac martyrology <a href="/w/index.php?title=Acts_of_%C4%80dur-hormizd_and_of_An%C4%81h%C4%ABd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acts of Ādur-hormizd and of Anāhīd (page does not exist)">Acts of Ādur-hormizd and of Anāhīd</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-71">[69]</a> Some individual martyrdoms are recorded from the reign of <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 531–579), but there were likely no mass persecutions.<a href="#cite_note-:3-71">[69]</a> While according to a peace treaty of 562 between Khosrow and his Roman counterpart <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 527–565), Persia's Christians were granted the freedom of religion; <a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">proselytism</a> was, however, a capital crime.<a href="#cite_note-:3-71">[69]</a> By this time the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a> and its head, the <a href="/wiki/Catholicose_of_the_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicose of the East">Catholicose of the East</a>, were integrated into the administration of the empire and mass persecution was rare.<a href="#cite_note-:3-71">[69]</a> The Sassanian policy shifted from tolerance of other religions under <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> to intolerance under <a href="/wiki/Bahram_I" title="Bahram I">Bahram I</a> and apparently a return to the policy of Shapur until the reign of <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a>. The persecution at that time was initiated by <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a>'s conversion to Christianity which followed that of Armenian king <a href="/wiki/Tiridates_III_of_Armenia" title="Tiridates III of Armenia">Tiridates</a> in about 301. The Christians were thus viewed with suspicions of secretly being partisans of the Roman Empire. This did not change until the fifth century when the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a> broke off from the <a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">Church of the West</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a> Zoroastrian elites continued viewing the Christians with enmity and distrust throughout the fifth century with threat of persecution remaining significant, especially during war against the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-Qardagh-73">[71]</a> Zoroastrian high priest <a href="/wiki/Kartir" title="Kartir">Kartir</a>, refers in his inscription dated about 280 on the <a href="/wiki/Ka%27ba-ye_Zartosht" title="Ka'ba-ye Zartosht">Ka'ba-ye Zartosht</a> monument in the <a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rostam" title="Naqsh-e Rostam">Naqsh-e Rostam</a> necropolis near <a href="/wiki/Zangiabad,_Fars" title="Zangiabad, Fars">Zangiabad, Fars</a>, to persecution (zatan – "to beat, kill") of Christians ("Nazareans n'zl'y and Christians klstyd'n"). Kartir took Christianity as a serious opponent. The use of the double expression may be indicative of the Greek-speaking Christians deported by <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> from <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> and other cities during his war against the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a> <a href="/wiki/Constantine_The_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine The Great">Constantine</a>'s efforts to protect the Persian Christians made them a target of accusations of disloyalty to Sasanians. With the resumption of Roman-Sasanian conflict under <a href="/wiki/Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a>, the Christian position became untenable. Zoroastrian priests targeted clergy and ascetics of local Christians to eliminate the leaders of the church. A <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> manuscript in <a href="/wiki/Edessa" title="Edessa">Edessa</a> in 411 documents dozens executed in various parts of western Sasanian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-Qardagh-73">[71]</a> In 341, <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a> ordered the persecution of all Christians.<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a> In response to their subversive attitude and support of Romans, Shapur II doubled the tax on Christians. <a href="/wiki/Shemon_Bar_Sabbae" class="mw-redirect" title="Shemon Bar Sabbae">Shemon Bar Sabbae</a> informed him that he could not pay the taxes demanded from him and his community. He was martyred and a forty-year-long period of persecution of Christians began. The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Seleucia-Ctesiphon" title="Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon">Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon</a> gave up choosing bishops since it would result in death. The local <a href="/wiki/Mobads" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobads">mobads</a> – Zoroastrian clerics – with the help of <a href="/wiki/Satraps" class="mw-redirect" title="Satraps">satraps</a> organized slaughters of Christians in <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beth_Garmai" title="Beth Garmai">Beth Garmae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khuzistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khuzistan">Khuzistan</a> and many other provinces.<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_I" title="Yazdegerd I">Yazdegerd I</a> showed tolerance towards Jews and Christians for much of his rule. He allowed Christians to practice their religion freely, demolished monasteries and churches were rebuilt and missionaries were allowed to operate freely. He reversed his policies during the later part of his reign however, suppressing missionary activities.<a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_V" title="Bahram V">Bahram V</a> continued and intensified their persecution, resulting in many of them fleeing to the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman empire">eastern Roman empire</a>. Bahram demanded their return, beginning the <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_421%E2%80%93422" title="Roman–Sasanian War of 421–422">Roman–Sasanian War of 421–422</a>. The war ended with an agreement of freedom of religion for Christians in Iran with that of Mazdaism in Rome. Meanwhile, Christians suffered destruction of churches, renounced the faith, had their private property confiscated and many were expelled.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_II" title="Yazdegerd II">Yazdegerd II</a> had ordered all his subjects to embrace <a href="/wiki/Mazdeism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazdeism">Mazdeism</a> in an attempt to unite his empire ideologically. The <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> rebelled to defend Christianity which had become integrated in their local culture, with Armenian aristocrats turning to the Romans for help. The rebels were however defeated in a <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Avarayr" title="Battle of Avarayr">battle</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Avarayr_Plain" title="Avarayr Plain">Avarayr Plain</a>. <a href="/wiki/Yeghishe" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeghishe">Yeghishe</a> in his The History of Vardan and the Armenian War, pays a tribute to the battles waged to defend Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a> Another revolt was waged from 481 to 483 which was suppressed. However, the Armenians succeeded in gaining freedom of religion among other improvements.<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> Accounts of executions for apostasy of Zoroastrians who converted to Christianity during Sasanian rule proliferated from the fifth to early seventh century, and continued to be produced even after collapse of Sasanians. The punishment of apostates increased under <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_I" title="Yazdegerd I">Yazdegerd I</a> and continued under successive kings. It was normative for apostates who were brought to the notice of authorities to be executed, although the prosecution of apostasy depended on political circumstances and Zoroastrian jurisprudence. Per Richard E. Payne, the executions were meant to create a mutually recognised boundary between interactions of the people of the two religions and preventing one religion challenging another's viability. Although the violence on Christians was selective and especially carried out on elites, it served to keep Christian communities in a subordinate and yet viable position in relation to Zoroastrianism. Christians were allowed to build religious buildings and serve in the government as long as they did not expand their institutions and population at the expense of Zoroastrianism.<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a> was generally regarded as tolerant of Christians and interested in the philosophical and theological disputes during his reign. <a href="/wiki/Sebeos" title="Sebeos">Sebeos</a> claimed he had converted to Christianity on his deathbed. <a href="/wiki/John_of_Ephesus" title="John of Ephesus">John of Ephesus</a> describes an Armenian revolt where he claims that Khusrow had attempted to impose Zoroastrianism in Armenia. The account, however, is very similar to the one of Armenian revolt of 451. In addition, Sebeos does not mention any religious persecution in his account of the revolt of 571.<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a> A story about <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a>'s tolerance is preserved by the historian <a href="/wiki/Al-Tabari" title="Al-Tabari">al-Tabari</a>. Upon being asked why he tolerated Christians, he replied, "Just as our royal throne cannot stand upon its front legs without its two back ones, our kingdom cannot stand or endure firmly if we cause the Christians and adherents of other faiths, who differ in belief from ourselves, to become hostile to us."<a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="During_the_Byzantine–Sasanian_War_of_602–628">During the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: During the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_conquest_and_occupation_of_Jerusalem" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanian conquest and occupation of Jerusalem">Sasanian conquest and occupation of Jerusalem</a></div> Several months after the Persian conquest in AD 614, a riot occurred in Jerusalem, and the Jewish governor of Jerusalem Nehemiah was killed by a band of young Christians along with his "council of the righteous" while he was making plans for the building of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Temple" title="Third Temple">Third Temple</a>. At this time the Christians had allied themselves with the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>. Shortly afterward, the events escalated into a full-scale Christian rebellion, resulting in a battle against the Jews and Christians who were living in Jerusalem. In the battle's aftermath, many Jews were killed and the survivors fled to Caesarea, which was still being held by the Persian army. The Judeo-Persian reaction was ruthless – Persian Sasanian general Xorheam assembled Judeo-Persian troops and went and encamped around Jerusalem and besieged it for 19 days.<a href="#cite_note-abrahamson-85">[83]</a> Eventually, digging beneath the foundations of the Jerusalem, they destroyed the wall and on the 19th day of the siege, the Judeo-Persian forces took Jerusalem.<a href="#cite_note-abrahamson-85">[83]</a> According to the account of the Armenian ecclesiastic and historian <a href="/wiki/Sebeos" title="Sebeos">Sebeos</a>, the siege resulted in a total Christian death toll of 17,000, the earliest and thus most commonly accepted figure.<a href="#cite_note-james-86">[84]</a>: 207 Per <a href="/wiki/Strategius" title="Strategius">Strategius</a>, 4,518 prisoners alone were massacred near <a href="/wiki/Mamilla_Pool" title="Mamilla Pool">Mamilla reservoir</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bibleinterp.com-87">[85]</a> A cave containing hundreds of skeletons near the <a href="/wiki/Jaffa_Gate" title="Jaffa Gate">Jaffa Gate</a>, 200 metres east of the large Roman-era pool in Mamilla, correlates with the massacre of Christians at hands of the Persians mentioned in the writings of Strategius. While reinforcing the evidence of massacre of Christians, the archaeological evidence seem less conclusive on the destruction of Christian churches and monasteries in Jerusalem.<a href="#cite_note-bibleinterp.com-87">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-Phoenicia-88">[86]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] According to the later account of Strategius, whose perspective appears to be that of a Byzantine Greek and shows an antipathy towards the Jews,<a href="#cite_note-Kohen-89">[87]</a> thousands of Christians were massacred during the conquest of the city. Estimates based on varying copies of Strategos's manuscripts range from 4,518 to 66,509 killed.<a href="#cite_note-bibleinterp.com-87">[85]</a> Strategos wrote that the Jews offered to help them escape death if they "become Jews and deny Christ", and the Christian captives refused. In anger the Jews allegedly purchased Christians to kill them.<a href="#cite_note-Antiochus-90">[88]</a> In 1989, a mass burial grave at <a href="/wiki/Mamilla" title="Mamilla">Mamilla</a> cave was discovered in by Israeli archeologist Ronny Reich, near the site where Strategius recorded the massacre took place. The human remains were in poor condition containing a minimum of 526 individuals.<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> From the many excavations carried out in the <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>, it is clear that all churches had been destroyed during the period between the Persian invasion and the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(636%E2%80%93637)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (636–637)">Arab conquest in 637</a>. The church at <a href="/wiki/Shavei_Tzion" title="Shavei Tzion">Shave Ziyyon</a> was destroyed and burnt in 614. Similar fate befell churches at <a href="/wiki/Evron,_Israel" title="Evron, Israel">Evron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nahariya" title="Nahariya">Nahariya</a>, 'Arabe and monastery of <a href="/wiki/Shlomi,_Israel" title="Shlomi, Israel">Shelomi</a>. The monastery at <a href="/wiki/Kursi,_Sea_of_Galilee" title="Kursi, Sea of Galilee">Kursi</a> was damaged in the invasion.<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-Islamic_Arabia">Pre-Islamic Arabia</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Pre-Islamic Arabia" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia</a></div> In AD 516, tribal unrest broke out in Yemen and several tribal elites fought for power. One of those elites was Joseph <a href="/wiki/Dhu_Nuwas" title="Dhu Nuwas">Dhu Nuwas</a> or "Yūsuf Asʾar Yathʾar", a Jewish king of the <a href="/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite Kingdom">Himyarite Kingdom</a> who is mentioned in ancient south Arabian inscriptions. <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Greek">Byzantine Greek</a> sources claim that he fought his war because Christians in Yemen refused to renounce Christianity. In 2009, a documentary that aired on the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> defended the claim that the villagers had been offered the choice between conversion to Judaism or death and 20,000 Christians were then massacred by stating that "The production team spoke to many historians over a period of 18 months, among them <a href="/wiki/Nigel_Groom" title="Nigel Groom">Nigel Groom</a>, who was our consultant, and Professor <a href="/wiki/Abdulrahman_al-Ansary" title="Abdulrahman al-Ansary">Abdul Rahman Al-Ansary</a>, a former professor of archaeology at the <a href="/wiki/King_Saud_University" title="King Saud University">King Saud University</a> in Riyadh."<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> Inscriptions documented by Yousef himself show the great pride that he expressed after killing more than 22,000 Christians in Zafar and <a href="/wiki/Najran" title="Najran">Najran</a>.<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Glen_Bowersock" title="Glen Bowersock">Glen Bowersock</a> described this <a href="/wiki/Massacre" title="Massacre">massacre</a> as a "savage <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogrom</a> that the Jewish king of the Arabs launched against the Christians in the city of Najran. The king himself reported in excruciating detail to his Arab and Persian allies about the massacres that he had inflicted on all Christians who refused to convert to Judaism."<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Early_Middle_Ages">Early Middle Ages</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Early Middle Ages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rashidun_Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Rashidun Caliphate" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Since they are considered "<a href="/wiki/People_of_the_Book" title="People of the Book">People of the Book</a>" in the <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic religion</a>, Christians under Muslim rule were subjected to the status of <a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">dhimmi</a> (along with Jews, <a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gnostics" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnostics">Gnostics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandeans">Mandeans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrians" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrians">Zoroastrians</a>), which was inferior to the status of Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-Stillman_1998-96">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-97">[95]</a> Christians and other religious minorities thus faced <a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">religious discrimination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">persecution</a> in that they were banned from <a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">proselytising</a> (for Christians, it was forbidden to <a href="/wiki/Evangelism" title="Evangelism">evangelize or spread Christianity</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">lands invaded by the Arab Muslims</a> on pain of death, they were banned from bearing arms, undertaking certain professions, and were obligated to dress differently in order to distinguish themselves from Arabs.<a href="#cite_note-Stillman_1998-96">[94]</a> Under the <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic law</a> (sharīʿa), Non-Muslims were obligated to pay the <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kharaj" title="Kharaj">kharaj</a> taxes,<a href="#cite_note-Stillman_1998-96">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-97">[95]</a> together with periodic heavy <a href="/wiki/Ransom" title="Ransom">ransom</a> levied upon Christian communities by Muslim rulers in order to fund military campaigns, all of which contributed a significant proportion of income to the Islamic states while conversely reducing many Christians to poverty, and these financial and social hardships <a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion#Islam" title="Forced conversion">forced many Christians to convert to Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stillman_1998-96">[94]</a> Christians unable to pay these taxes were forced to surrender their children to the Muslim rulers as payment who would <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">sell them as slaves</a> to Muslim households where they <a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion#Islam" title="Forced conversion">were forced to convert to Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stillman_1998-96">[94]</a> According to the tradition of the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox_Church" title="Syriac Orthodox Church">Syriac Orthodox Church</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest of the Levant</a> was a relief for Christians oppressed by the Western Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-:5-97">[95]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_the_Syrian" title="Michael the Syrian">Michael the Syrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Antioch" title="Patriarch of Antioch">patriarch of Antioch</a>, wrote later that the Christian God had "raised from the south the <a href="/wiki/Children_of_Ishmael" class="mw-redirect" title="Children of Ishmael">children of Ishmael</a> to deliver us by them from the hands of the Romans".<a href="#cite_note-:5-97">[95]</a> Various Christian communities in the regions of <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a>, Lebanon, and <a href="/wiki/Armenia_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenia (region)">Armenia</a> resented either the governance of the Western Roman Empire or that of the Byzantine Empire, and therefore preferred to live under more favourable economic and political conditions as dhimmi under the Muslim rulers.<a href="#cite_note-:5-97">[95]</a> However, modern historians also recognize that the Christian populations living in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">lands invaded by the Arab Muslim armies</a> between the 7th and 10th centuries AD suffered <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">religious persecution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">religious violence</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Martyrdom_in_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Martyrdom in Christianity">martyrdom</a> multiple times at the hands of Arab Muslim officials and rulers;<a href="#cite_note-:5-97">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sahner_2020-98">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fierro_2008-99">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-Trombley_1996-100">[98]</a> many <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Islam" title="Capital punishment in Islam">were executed under the Islamic death penalty</a> for defending their Christian faith through dramatic acts of resistance such as refusing to convert to Islam, <a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">repudiation of the Islamic religion</a> and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Christianity" title="Conversion to Christianity">reconversion to Christianity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Islam_and_blasphemy" title="Islam and blasphemy">blasphemy towards Muslim beliefs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sahner_2020-98">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fierro_2008-99">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-Trombley_1996-100">[98]</a> When <a href="/wiki/Amr_ibn_al-As" title="Amr ibn al-As">Amr ibn al-As</a> conquered Tripoli in 643, he forced the Jewish and Christian Berbers to give their wives and children as slaves to the Arab army as part of their jizya.<a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a> Around the year 666 C.E <a href="/wiki/Uqba_ibn_Nafi" title="Uqba ibn Nafi">Uqba ibn Nafi</a> “conquered the southern Tunisian cities... slaughtering all the Christians living there."<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> Muslim sources report him waging countless raids, often ending with the complete ransacking and mass enslavement of cities.<a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Archaeological evidence from North Africa in the region of Cyrenaica points to the destruction of churches along the route the Islamic conquerors followed in the late seventh century, and the remarkable artistic treasures buried along the routes leading to the North of Spain by fleeing Visigoths and Hispano-Romans during the early eighth century consist largely of religious and dynastic paraphernalia that the Christian inhabitants obviously wanted to protect from Muslim looting and desecration.<a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Umayyad_Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Umayyad Caliphate" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bartolom%C3%A9_Esteban_Perez_Murillo_009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Bartolom%C3%A9_Esteban_Perez_Murillo_009.jpg/270px-Bartolom%C3%A9_Esteban_Perez_Murillo_009.jpg" decoding="async" width="270" height="451" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1670"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 270px;height: 451px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Bartolom%C3%A9_Esteban_Perez_Murillo_009.jpg/270px-Bartolom%C3%A9_Esteban_Perez_Murillo_009.jpg" data-width="270" data-height="451" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Bartolom%C3%A9_Esteban_Perez_Murillo_009.jpg/405px-Bartolom%C3%A9_Esteban_Perez_Murillo_009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Bartolom%C3%A9_Esteban_Perez_Murillo_009.jpg/540px-Bartolom%C3%A9_Esteban_Perez_Murillo_009.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Saint_Roderick" title="Saint Roderick">Roderick</a> is venerated as one of the <a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Martyrs of Córdoba">Martyrs of Córdoba</a></figcaption></figure> According to the <a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Ḥanafī</a> school of <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic law</a> (sharīʿa), the testimony of a Non-Muslim (such as a Christian or a Jew) was not considered valid against the testimony of a Muslim in legal or civil matters. Historically, in <a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Islamic culture</a> and traditional Islamic law, <a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation_and_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex segregation and Islam">Muslim women have been forbidden from marrying Christian or Jewish men</a>, whereas Muslim men have been permitted to marry Christian or Jewish women<a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a> (see: <a href="/wiki/Interfaith_marriage_in_Islam" title="Interfaith marriage in Islam">Interfaith marriage in Islam</a>). Christians under Islamic rule had the right to convert to Islam or any other religion, while conversely a <a href="/wiki/Murtad" class="mw-redirect" title="Murtad">murtad</a>, or an <a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">apostate from Islam</a>, faced severe penalties or even <a href="/wiki/Hadd" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadd">hadd</a>, which could include the <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Islam" title="Capital punishment in Islam">Islamic death penalty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sahner_2020-98">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fierro_2008-99">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-Trombley_1996-100">[98]</a> In general, Christians subject to Islamic rule were allowed to practice their religion with some notable limitations stemming from the apocryphal <a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Umar" title="Pact of Umar">Pact of Umar</a>. This treaty, supposedly enacted in 717 AD, forbade Christians from publicly displaying the cross on church buildings, from summoning congregants to prayer with a bell, from re-building or repairing churches and monasteries after they had been destroyed or damaged, and imposed other restrictions relating to occupations, clothing, and weapons.<a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a> The Umayyad Caliphate persecuted many <a href="/wiki/Berber_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber Christians">Berber Christians</a> in the 7th and 8th centuries AD, who slowly converted to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Maliki" class="mw-redirect" title="Maliki">Mālikī</a> school of Islamic law was the most prevalent.<a href="#cite_note-Fierro_2008-99">[97]</a> The martyrdoms of forty-eight Christian martyrs that took place in the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Córdoba">Emirate of Córdoba</a> between 850 and 859 AD<a href="#cite_note-Graves_1964-111">[109]</a> are recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">hagiographical treatise</a> written by the Iberian Christian and Latinist scholar <a href="/wiki/Eulogius_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Eulogius of Córdoba">Eulogius of Córdoba</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sahner_2020-98">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fierro_2008-99">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-Trombley_1996-100">[98]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Martyrs of Córdoba">Martyrs of Córdoba</a> were executed under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Rahman II">Abd al-Rahman II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_I_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Muhammad I of Córdoba">Muhammad I</a>, and Eulogius' hagiography describes in detail the executions of the martyrs for capital violations of Islamic law, including <a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">apostasy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islam_and_blasphemy" title="Islam and blasphemy">blasphemy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sahner_2020-98">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fierro_2008-99">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-Trombley_1996-100">[98]</a> After the Arab conquests, a number of Christian Arab tribes suffered enslavement and forced conversion.<a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a> In the early eighth century under the Umayyads, 63 out of a group of 70 Christian pilgrims from <a href="/wiki/Iconium" class="mw-redirect" title="Iconium">Iconium</a> were captured, tortured, and executed under the orders of the Arab Governor of Ceaserea for refusing to convert to Islam (seven were forcibly converted to Islam under torture). Soon afterwards, sixty more Christian pilgrims from <a href="/wiki/Amorium" title="Amorium">Amorium</a> were crucified in Jerusalem.<a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Almoravid_Caliphate">Almoravid Caliphate</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Almoravid Caliphate" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The Almohads wreaked enormous destruction on the Christian population of Iberia. Tens of thousands of the native Christians in Iberia (Hispania) were deported from their ancestral lands to Africa by the Almoravids and Almohads.They suspected that the Christians could pose as a fifth column that could potentially help their coreligionists in the north of Iberia. Many Christians died en route to north Africa during these expulsions.<a href="#cite_note-114">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto1-115">[113]</a> Christians under the Almoravids suffered persecutions and mass expulsions to Africa. In 1099 the Almoravids sacked the great church of the city of Granada. In 1101 Christians fled from the city of Valencia to the Catholic kingdoms. In 1106 the Almoravids deported Christians from Malaga to Africa. In 1126, after a failed Christian rebellion in Granada, the Almoravids expelled the city's entire Christian population to Africa. And in 1138, Ibn Tashufin forcibly took many thousands of Christians with him to Africa.<a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a> The oppressed Mozarabs sent emissaries to the king of Aragon, Alphonso 1st le Batailleur (1104–1134), asking him to come to their rescue and deliver them from the Almoravids. Following the raid the king of Aragon launched in Andalusia in 1125–26 in responding to the pleas of Grenada's Mozarabs, the latter were deported en masse to Morocco in the fall of 1126.<a href="#cite_note-117">[115]</a> Another wave of expulsions to Africa took place 11 years later and as a result very very few Christians were left in Andalusia. Whatever was left of the Christian Catholic population in Granada was exterminated in the aftermath of a revolt against the Almohads in 1164. The Caliph <a href="/wiki/Abu_Yaqub_Yusuf" title="Abu Yaqub Yusuf">Abu Yaqub Yusuf</a> boasted that he had left no church or synagogue standing in al-Andalus.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-115">[113]</a> Muslim clerics in Al Andalus viewed Christians and Jews as unclean and dirty and feared that too much contact with them would contaminate Muslims. In Seville the faqih Ibn Abdun issued these regulations segregating people of the two faiths:<a href="#cite_note-118">[116]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">A Muslim must not massage a Jew or a Christian nor throw away his refuse nor clean his latrines. The Jew and the Christian are better fitted for such trades, since they are the trades of those who are vile. A Muslim should not attend to the animal of a Jew or of a Christian, nor serve him as a muleteer [neither Catholics nor Jews could ride horses; only Muslims could], nor hold his stirrup. If any Muslim is known to do this, he should be denounced.… No … [unconverted] Jew or Christian must be allowed to dress in the costume of people of position, of a jurist, or of a worthy man [this provision echoes the Pact of Umar]. They must on the contrary be abhorred and shunned and should not be greeted with the formula, “Peace be with you,” for the devil has gained mastery over them and has made them forget the name of God. They are the devil's party, “and indeed the devil's party are the losers” (Qur’an 57:22). They must have a distinguishing sign by which they are recognized to their shame [emphasis added].</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantine_Empire">Byzantine Empire</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Byzantine Empire" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> George Limnaiotes, a monk on Mount Olympus known only from the <a href="/wiki/Synaxarion_of_Constantinople" title="Synaxarion of Constantinople">Synaxarion of Constantinople</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Synaxaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Synaxaria">synaxaria</a>, was supposed to have been 95 years old when he was tortured for his <a href="/wiki/Iconodulism" title="Iconodulism">iconodulism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 43 In the reign of <a href="/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo III the Isaurian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 717–741), he was mutilated by <a href="/wiki/Rhinotomy" title="Rhinotomy">rhinotomy</a> and his head burnt.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 43 <a href="/wiki/Germanus_I_of_Constantinople" title="Germanus I of Constantinople">Germanus I of Constantinople</a>, a son of the <a href="/wiki/Patrikios" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrikios">patrikios</a> Justinian, a courtier of the emperor <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 610–641), having been castrated and enrolled in the cathedral clergy of <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a> when his father was executed in 669, was later bishop of <a href="/wiki/Cyzicus" title="Cyzicus">Cyzicus</a> and then patriarch of Constantinople from 715.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 45–46 In 730, in the reign of Leo III (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 717–741), Germanus was deposed and banished, dying in exile at Plantanion (<a href="/wiki/Ak%C3%A7aabat" title="Akçaabat">Akçaabat</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 45–46 Leo III also exiled the monk John the Psichaites, an iconodule, to <a href="/wiki/Chersonesus" title="Chersonesus">Cherson</a>, where he remained until after the emperor's death.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 57 According only to the Synaxarion of Constantinople, the clerics <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypatios_and_Andrew&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hypatios and Andrew (page does not exist)">Hypatios and Andrew</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Thracesian_Theme" title="Thracesian Theme">Thracesian thema</a> were, during the persecution of Leo III, brought to the capital, jailed and tortured.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 49 The Synaxarion claims that they had the embers of burnt <a href="/wiki/Icons" class="mw-redirect" title="Icons">icons</a> applied to their heads, subjected to other torments, and then dragged though the Byzantine streets to their public execution in the area of the city's <a href="/wiki/Seven_hills_of_Istanbul#VIIth" title="Seven hills of Istanbul">VIIth Hill</a>, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Greek language">Medieval Greek</a>: ξηρόλοφος, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Medieval_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Medieval Greek">romanized</a>: Χērólophos, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'dry hill' near the <a href="/wiki/Forum_of_Arcadius" title="Forum of Arcadius">Forum of Arcadius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 49 <a href="/wiki/Andrew_of_Crete_(martyr)" title="Andrew of Crete (martyr)">Andrew of Crete</a> was beaten and imprisoned in Constantinople after having debated with the iconoclast emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_V" title="Constantine V">Constantine V</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 741–775), possibly in 767 or 768, and then abused by the Byzantines as he was dragged through the city, dying of blood loss when a fisherman cut off his foot in the <a href="/wiki/Forum_of_the_Ox" title="Forum of the Ox">Forum of the Ox</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 19 The church of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Andrew_in_Krisei" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Andrew in Krisei">Saint Andrew in Krisei</a> was named after him, though his existence is doubted by scholars.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 19 Having defeated and killed the emperor <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_I" title="Nikephoros I">Nikephoros I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 802–811) at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pliska" title="Battle of Pliska">Battle of Pliska</a> in 811, the <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krum" title="Krum">Krum</a>, also put to death a number of Roman soldiers who refused to renounce Christianity, though these martyrdoms, known only from the Synaxarion of Constantinople, may be entierely legendary.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 66–67 In 813 the Bulgarians invaded the thema of <a href="/wiki/Thrace_(theme)" title="Thrace (theme)">Thrace</a>, led by Krum, and the city of Adrianople (<a href="/wiki/Edirne" title="Edirne">Edirne</a>) was captured.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 66 Krum's successor <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dukum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dukum (page does not exist)">Dukum</a> died shortly after Krum himself, being succeeded by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ditzevg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ditzevg (page does not exist)">Ditzevg</a>, who killed Manuel the archbishop of Adrianople in January 815.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 66 According to the Synaxarion of Constantinople and the <a href="/wiki/Menologion_of_Basil_II" title="Menologion of Basil II">Menologion of Basil II</a>, Ditzevg's own successor <a href="/wiki/Omurtag_of_Bulgaria" title="Omurtag of Bulgaria">Omurtag</a> killed some 380 Christians later that month.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 66 The victims included the archbishop of <a href="/wiki/Develtos" title="Develtos">Develtos</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=George,_archbishop_of_Develtos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="George, archbishop of Develtos (page does not exist)">George</a>, and the bishop of Thracian Nicaea, Leo, as well as two <a href="/wiki/Strategos" title="Strategos">strategoi</a> called John and Leo. Collectively these are known as the <a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_Adrianople" title="Martyrs of Adrianople">Martyrs of Adrianople</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 66 The Byzantine monk Makarios, of the <a href="/wiki/Pelekete_monastery" title="Pelekete monastery">Pelekete monastery</a> in Bithynia, having already refused an enviable position at court offered by the iconoclast emperor <a href="/wiki/Leo_IV_the_Khazar" title="Leo IV the Khazar">Leo IV the Khazar</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 775–780) in return for the repudiation of his iconodulism, was expelled from the monastery by <a href="/wiki/Leo_V_the_Armenian" title="Leo V the Armenian">Leo V the Armenian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 813–820), who also imprisoned and exiled him.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 65 The patriarch <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_I_of_Constantinople" title="Nikephoros I of Constantinople">Nikephoros I of Constantinople</a> dissented from the iconoclast <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constantinople_(815)" title="Council of Constantinople (815)">Council of Constantinople</a> of 815 and was exiled by Leo V as a result.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 74–75 He died in exile in 828.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 74–75 In spring 816, the Constantinopolitan monk <a href="/w/index.php?title=Athanasios_of_Paulopetrion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Athanasios of Paulopetrion (page does not exist)">Athanasios of Paulopetrion</a> was tortured and exiled for his <a href="/wiki/Iconophilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Iconophilism">iconophilism</a> by the emperor Leo V.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 28 In 815, during the reign of Leo V, having been appointed hegoumenos of the Kathara Monastery in Bithynia by the emperor Nikephoros I, John of Kathara was exiled and imprisoned first in Pentadactylon, a stronghold in <a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a>, and then in the fortress of Kriotauros in the <a href="/wiki/Bucellarian_Theme" title="Bucellarian Theme">Bucellarian thema</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 55–56 In the reign of Michael II he was recalled, but exiled again under Theophilos, being banished to Aphousia (<a href="/wiki/Av%C5%9Fa" title="Avşa">Avşa</a>) where he died, probably in 835.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 55–56 Eustratios of Agauros,<a href="#cite_note-119">[117]</a> a monk and <a href="/wiki/Hegumenos" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegumenos">hegumenos</a> of the Agauros Monastery at the foot of Mount Trichalikos, near <a href="/wiki/Prusa_(Bithynia)" title="Prusa (Bithynia)">Prusa</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mysian_Olympus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mysian Olympus">Mount Olympus</a> in Bithynia, was forced into exile by the persecutions of Leo V and <a href="/wiki/Theophilos_(emperor)" title="Theophilos (emperor)">Theophilos</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 829–842).<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 37–38 Leo V and Theophilos also persecuted and exiled <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hilarion_of_Dalmatos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hilarion of Dalmatos (page does not exist)">Hilarion of Dalmatos</a>, the son of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_the_Cappadocian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter the Cappadocian (page does not exist)">Peter the Cappadocian</a>, who had been made hegumenos of the Dalmatos Monastery by the patriarch Nikephoros I.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 48–49 Hilarion was allowed to return to his post only in the regency of <a href="/wiki/Theodora_(wife_of_Theophilos)" title="Theodora (wife of Theophilos)">Theodora</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 48–49 The same emperors also persecuted <a href="/wiki/Michael_Synkellos" title="Michael Synkellos">Michael Synkellos</a>, an Arab monk of the <a href="/wiki/Mar_Saba" title="Mar Saba">Mar Saba</a> monastery in Palestine who, as the <a href="/wiki/Syncellus" class="mw-redirect" title="Syncellus">syncellus</a> of the patriarch of Jerusalem, had travelled to Constantinople on behalf of the patriarch <a href="/wiki/Thomas_I_of_Jerusalem" title="Thomas I of Jerusalem">Thomas I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 70–71 On the Triumph of Orthodoxy, Michael declined the ecumenical patriarchate and became instead the hegumenos of the <a href="/wiki/Chora_Monastery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chora Monastery">Chora Monastery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 70–71 According to <a href="/wiki/Theophanes_Continuatus" title="Theophanes Continuatus">Theophanes Continuatus</a>, the Armenian monk and iconographer of <a href="/wiki/Khazar" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazar">Khazar</a> origin <a href="/wiki/Lazarus_Zographos" title="Lazarus Zographos">Lazarus Zographos</a> refused to cease painting icons in the second official iconoclast period.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 61–62 Theophilos had him tortured and his hands burned with heated irons, though he was released at the intercession of the empress Theodora and hidden at the Monastery of John the Baptist tou Phoberou, where he was able to paint an image of the patron saint.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 61–62 After the death of Theophilos, and the Triumph of Orthodoxy, Lazarus re-painted the representation of Christ on the <a href="/wiki/Chalke_Gate" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalke Gate">Chalke Gate</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Palace_of_Constantinople" title="Great Palace of Constantinople">Great Palace of Constantinople</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 61–62 <a href="/wiki/Symeon_Stylites_of_Lesbos" title="Symeon Stylites of Lesbos">Symeon Stylites of Lesbos</a> was persecuted for his iconodulism in the second period of official iconoclasm. He was imprisoned and exiled, returning to Lesbos only after the vernation of icons was restored in 842.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 32–33 The bishop <a href="/w/index.php?title=George_of_Mytilene&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="George of Mytilene (page does not exist)">George of Mytilene</a>, who may have been Symeon's brother, was exiled from Constantinople in 815 on account of his iconophilia. He spent the last six years of his life in exile on an island, probably one of the <a href="/wiki/Princes%27_Islands" title="Princes' Islands">Princes' Islands</a>, dying in 820 or 821.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 42–43 George's relics were taken to <a href="/wiki/Mytilene" title="Mytilene">Mytilene</a> to be venerated after the restoration of iconodulism to orthodoxy under the patriarch <a href="/wiki/Methodios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Methodios I of Constantinople">Methodios I</a>, during which the hagiography of George was written.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 42–43 <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martyrdom_of_Euthymius_of_Sardeis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Martyrdom_of_Euthymius_of_Sardeis.jpg/250px-Martyrdom_of_Euthymius_of_Sardeis.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="109" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1177" data-file-height="515"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 109px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Martyrdom_of_Euthymius_of_Sardeis.jpg/250px-Martyrdom_of_Euthymius_of_Sardeis.jpg" data-width="250" data-height="109" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Martyrdom_of_Euthymius_of_Sardeis.jpg/375px-Martyrdom_of_Euthymius_of_Sardeis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Martyrdom_of_Euthymius_of_Sardeis.jpg/500px-Martyrdom_of_Euthymius_of_Sardeis.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Miniature depicting the execution of the patriarch <a href="/wiki/Euthymius_of_Sardis" title="Euthymius of Sardis">Euthymius of Sardis</a> under the Byzantine Emperor <a href="/wiki/Michael_II" title="Michael II">Michael II</a>, from an <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illuminated manuscript</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Madrid_Skylitzes" title="Madrid Skylitzes">Madrid Skylitzes</a> (12th century).</figcaption></figure> The bishop <a href="/wiki/Euthymius_of_Sardis" title="Euthymius of Sardis">Euthymius of Sardis</a> was the victim of several iconoclast Christian persecutions. Euthymius had previously been exiled to <a href="/wiki/Pantelleria" title="Pantelleria">Pantelleria</a> by the emperor <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_I" title="Nikephoros I">Nikephoros I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 802–811), recalled in 806, led the iconodule resistance against <a href="/wiki/Leo_V_the_Armenian" title="Leo V the Armenian">Leo V</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 813–820), and exiled again to <a href="/wiki/Thasos" title="Thasos">Thasos</a> in 814.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 38 After his recall to Constantinople in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Michael_II" title="Michael II">Michael II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 820–829), he was again imprisoned and exiled to Saint Andrew's Island, off Cape Akritas (<a href="/wiki/Tuzla,_Istanbul" title="Tuzla, Istanbul">Tuzla</a>, Istanbul).<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 38 According to the hagiography of by the patriarch <a href="/wiki/Methodios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Methodios I of Constantinople">Methodios I of Constantinople</a>, who claimed to have shared Euthymius's exile and been present at his death, <a href="/wiki/Theoktistos" title="Theoktistos">Theoktistos</a> and two other imperial officials personally whipped Euthymius to death on account of his <a href="/wiki/Iconodulism" title="Iconodulism">iconodulism</a>; Theoktistos was active in the persecution of iconodules under the iconoclast emperors, but later championed the iconodule cause.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 38, 68–69 <a href="#cite_note-:16-120">[118]</a>: 218 Theoktistos was later venerated as a saint in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>, listed in the <a href="/wiki/Synaxarion_of_Constantinople" title="Synaxarion of Constantinople">Synaxarion of Constantinople</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:16-120">[118]</a>: 217–218 The last of the iconoclast emperors, <a href="/wiki/Theophilos_(emperor)" title="Theophilos (emperor)">Theophilos</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 829–842), was posthumously rehabilitated by the iconodule Orthodox Church on the intervention of his wife <a href="/wiki/Theodora_(wife_of_Theophilos)" title="Theodora (wife of Theophilos)">Theodora</a>, who claimed he had had a deathbed conversion to iconodulism in the presence of Theoktistos and had given 60 <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_pound" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine pound">Byzantine pounds</a> of gold to each of his victims in his will.<a href="#cite_note-:16-120">[118]</a>: 219 The rehabilitation of the iconoclast emperor was a precondition of his widow for convoking the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constantinople_(843)" title="Council of Constantinople (843)">Council of Constantinople</a> in March 843, at which the veneration of <a href="/wiki/Icons" class="mw-redirect" title="Icons">icons</a> was restored to orthodoxy and which became celebrated as the <a href="/wiki/Triumph_of_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Triumph of Orthodoxy">Triumph of Orthodoxy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:16-120">[118]</a>: 219 Evaristos, a relative of <a href="/wiki/Theoktistos_Bryennios" title="Theoktistos Bryennios">Theoktistos Bryennios</a> and a monk of the <a href="/wiki/Monastery_of_Stoudios" title="Monastery of Stoudios">Monastery of Stoudios</a>, was exiled to the Thracian Chersonese (<a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallipoli peninsula">Gallipoli peninsula</a>) for his support of his hegumenos Nicholas and his patron the patriarch <a href="/wiki/Ignatios_of_Constantinople" title="Ignatios of Constantinople">Ignatios of Constantinople</a> when the latter was deposed by <a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios I</a> in 858.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 41, 72–73 Both Nicholas and Evaristos went into exile.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 41, 72–73 Only after many years was Evaristos allowed to return to Constantinople to found a monastery of his own.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 41, 72–73 The hegumenos Nicholas, who had accompanied Evaristos to the Chersonese, was restored to his post at the Stoudios Monastery.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 72–73 A partisan of Ignatios of Constantinople and a refugee from the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Sicily" title="Muslim conquest of Sicily">Muslim conquest of Sicily</a>, the monk <a href="/wiki/Joseph_the_Hymnographer" title="Joseph the Hymnographer">Joseph the Hymnographer</a> was banished to Cherson from Constantinople on the elevation of Ignatios's rival Photios in 858. Only after the end of Photios's patriarchate was Joseph allowed to return to the capital and become the cathedral <a href="/wiki/Skeuophylax" title="Skeuophylax">skeuophylax</a> of Hagia Sophia.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 57–58 Euthymius, a monk, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Senate">senator</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Synkellos" title="Synkellos">synkellos</a> favored by <a href="/wiki/Leo_VI_the_Wise" title="Leo VI the Wise">Leo VI</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 870–912), was first made a <a href="/wiki/Hegumenos" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegumenos">hegumenos</a> and then in 907 <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch of Constantinople">patriarch of Constantinople</a> by the emperor. When Leo VI died and <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Mystikos" title="Nicholas Mystikos">Nicholas Mystikos</a> was recalled to the patriarchal throne, Euthymius was exiled.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 38–40 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abbasid_Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Abbasid Caliphate" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> was less tolerant of Christianity than had been the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad caliphs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-97">[95]</a> Nonetheless, Christian officials continued to be employed in the government, and the Christians of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a> were often tasked with the translation of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_mathematics" title="Greek mathematics">Greek mathematics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-97">[95]</a> The writings of <a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">al-Jahiz</a> attacked Christians for being too prosperous, and indicates they were able to ignore even those restrictions placed on them by the state.<a href="#cite_note-:5-97">[95]</a> In the late 9th century, the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Patriarch_of_Jerusalem" title="Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem">patriarch of Jerusalem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_of_Jerusalem_(died_879)" title="Theodosius of Jerusalem (died 879)">Theodosius</a>, wrote to his colleague the <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch of Constantinople">patriarch of Constantinople</a> <a href="/wiki/Ignatios_of_Constantinople" title="Ignatios of Constantinople">Ignatios</a> that "they are just and do us no wrong nor show us any violence".<a href="#cite_note-:5-97">[95]</a> <a href="/wiki/Elias_of_Heliopolis" title="Elias of Heliopolis">Elias of Heliopolis</a>, having moved to Damascus from Heliopolis (<a href="/wiki/Ba%27albek" class="mw-redirect" title="Ba'albek">Ba'albek</a>), was accused of apostasy from Christianity after attending a party held by a Muslim Arab, and was forced to flee Damascus for his hometown, returning eight years later, where he was recognized and imprisoned by the "<a href="/wiki/Eparch" class="mw-redirect" title="Eparch">eparch</a>", probably the jurist <a href="/wiki/Al-Layth_ibn_Sa%27d" title="Al-Layth ibn Sa'd">al-Layth ibn Sa'd</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 34 After refusing to convert to Islam under torture, he was brought before the Damascene emir and relative of the caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mahdi" title="Al-Mahdi">al-Mahdi</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 775–785), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Muhammad_ibn-Ibrahim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muhammad ibn-Ibrahim (page does not exist)">Muhammad ibn-Ibrahim</a>, who promised good treatment if Elias would convert.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 34 On his repeated refusal, Elias was tortured and beheaded and his body burnt, cut up, and thrown into the river Chrysorrhoes (the <a href="/wiki/Barada" title="Barada">Barada</a>) in 779 AD.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 34 <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Michael,_Abbot_in_Sebastia_(Armenia)_and_36_fathers_with_him.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Michael%2C_Abbot_in_Sebastia_%28Armenia%29_and_36_fathers_with_him.jpg/250px-Michael%2C_Abbot_in_Sebastia_%28Armenia%29_and_36_fathers_with_him.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="169" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1095" data-file-height="740"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 250px;height: 169px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Michael%2C_Abbot_in_Sebastia_%28Armenia%29_and_36_fathers_with_him.jpg/250px-Michael%2C_Abbot_in_Sebastia_%28Armenia%29_and_36_fathers_with_him.jpg" data-width="250" data-height="169" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Michael%2C_Abbot_in_Sebastia_%28Armenia%29_and_36_fathers_with_him.jpg/375px-Michael%2C_Abbot_in_Sebastia_%28Armenia%29_and_36_fathers_with_him.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Michael%2C_Abbot_in_Sebastia_%28Armenia%29_and_36_fathers_with_him.jpg/500px-Michael%2C_Abbot_in_Sebastia_%28Armenia%29_and_36_fathers_with_him.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Raid on the Monastery of Zobe and the death of hegumenos Michael and his 36 brothers, depicted in the <a href="/wiki/Menologion_of_Basil_II" title="Menologion of Basil II">Menologion of Basil II</a>.</figcaption></figure> According to the Synaxarion of Constantinople, the hegumenos <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_of_Zobe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael of Zobe (page does not exist)">Michael of Zobe</a> and thirty-six of his monks at the Monastery of Zobe near Sebasteia (<a href="/wiki/Sivas" title="Sivas">Sivas</a>) were killed by a raid on the community.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 70 The perpetrator was the "emir of the <a href="/wiki/Hagarenes" title="Hagarenes">Hagarenes</a>", "Alim", probably <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Sulayman_ibn_Ali_al-Hashimi" title="Ali ibn Sulayman ibn Ali al-Hashimi">Ali ibn-Sulayman</a>, an Abbasid governor who raided Roman territory in 785 AD.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 70 Bacchus the Younger was beheaded in Jerusalem in 786–787 AD. Bacchus was Palestinian, whose family, having been Christian, had been converted to Islam by their father.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 29–30 Bacchus however, remained crypto-Christian and undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, upon which he was baptized and entered the monastery of <a href="/wiki/Mar_Saba" title="Mar Saba">Mar Saba</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 29–30 Reunion with his family prompted their reconversion to Christianity and Bacchus's trial and execution for apostasy under the governing emir <a href="/wiki/Harthama_ibn_A%27yan" title="Harthama ibn A'yan">Harthama ibn A'yan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 29–30 After the 838 <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Amorium" title="Sack of Amorium">Sack of Amorium</a>, the hometown of the emperor <a href="/wiki/Theophilos_(emperor)" title="Theophilos (emperor)">Theophilos</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 829–842) and his <a href="/wiki/Amorian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorian dynasty">Amorian dynasty</a>, the caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">al-Mu'tasim</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 833–842) took more than forty Roman prisoners.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 41–42 These were taken to the capital, <a href="/wiki/Samarra" title="Samarra">Samarra</a>, where after seven years of theological debates and repeated refusals to convert to Islam, they were put to death in March 845 under the caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Wathiq" title="Al-Wathiq">al-Wathiq</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 842–847).<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 41–42 Within a generation they were venerated as the <a href="/wiki/42_Martyrs_of_Amorium" title="42 Martyrs of Amorium">42 Martyrs of Amorium</a>. According to their hagiographer Euodius, probably writing within a generation of the events, the defeat at Amorium was to be blamed on Theophilos and his iconoclasm.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 41–42 According to some later hagiographies, including one by one of several Middle Byzantine writers known as Michael the Synkellos, among the forty-two were Kallistos, the <a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">doux</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Koloneia_(theme)" title="Koloneia (theme)">Koloneian thema</a>, and the heroic martyr Theodore Karteros.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 41–42 During the <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars#Early_Abbasids" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">10th-century phase</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Arab–Byzantine wars</a>, the victories of the Romans over the Arabs resulted in mob attacks on Christians, who were believed to sympathize with the Roman state.<a href="#cite_note-:5-97">[95]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Bar_Hebraeus" title="Bar Hebraeus">Bar Hebraeus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Catholicos" title="Catholicos">catholicus</a> of the Church of the East, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_III_(Nestorian_patriarch)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abraham III (Nestorian patriarch)">Abraham III</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 906–937), wrote to the <a href="/wiki/Grand_vizier" title="Grand vizier">grand vizier</a> that "we Nestorians are the friends of the Arabs and pray for their victories".<a href="#cite_note-:5-97">[95]</a> The attitude of the Nestorians "who have no other king but the Arabs", he contrasted with the Greek Orthodox Church, whose emperors he said "had never cease to make war against the Arabs.<a href="#cite_note-:5-97">[95]</a> Between 923 and 924, several Orthodox churches were destroyed in mob violence in <a href="/wiki/Ramla" title="Ramla">Ramla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ascalon" title="Ascalon">Ascalon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea Maritima</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-97">[95]</a> In each instance, according to the Arab <a href="/wiki/Melkite" title="Melkite">Melkite</a> Christian chronicler <a href="/wiki/Eutychius_of_Alexandria" title="Eutychius of Alexandria">Eutychius of Alexandria</a>, the caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtadir" title="Al-Muqtadir">al-Muqtadir</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 908–932) contributed to the rebuilding of ecclesiastical property.<a href="#cite_note-:5-97">[95]</a> During the late 700s in the Abbasid Empire, Muslims destroyed two churches and a monastery near Bethlehem and slaughtered its monks. In 796, Muslims burned another twenty monks to death. In the years 809 and 813 AD, multiple monasteries, convents, and churches were attacked in and around Jerusalem; both male and female Christians were gang raped and massacred. In 929, on Palm Sunday, another wave of atrocities broke out; churches were destroyed and Christians slaughtered. <a href="/wiki/Al-Maqrizi" title="Al-Maqrizi">al-Maqrizi</a> records that in the year 936, “the Muslims in Jerusalem made a rising and burnt down the Church of the Resurrection [the Holy Sepulchre] which they plundered, and destroyed all they could of it".<a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a> According to the Synaxarion of Constantinople, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dounale-Stephen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dounale-Stephen (page does not exist)">Dounale-Stephen</a>, having journeyed to Jerusalem, continued his pilgrimage to Egypt, where he was arrested by the local emir and, refusing to relinquish his beliefs, died in jail <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 950.<a href="#cite_note-:15-70">[68]</a>: 33–34 When Abd Allah ibn Tahir went to besiege Kaisum, the fortress of Nasr: "There had been great oppression in the whole country because the inhabitants [christian dhimmis] were forced to bring provisions to the camp; and in every place it was a time of famine and a dearth of all sorts of things." In order to rotect themselves from their attackers cannons, Nasr ibn Shabath and his Arab troops used a stratagem that had already been tried at the siege of Balis (using Christian women and children as human shields): they forced Christian women and their children to mount the walls so that they were exposed as targets for the Persians. Nasr used the same tactics at the second siege of Kaisum.<a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="High_Middle_Ages_(1000–1200)"> High Middle Ages (1000–1200)</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: High Middle Ages (1000–1200)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_thought_on_persecution_and_tolerance" title="History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance">History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fatimid_Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Fatimid Caliphate" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_the_Church_of_the_Holy_Sepulchre" title="Destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre">Destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre</a></div> The caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakim_bi-Amr_Allah" title="Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah">al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 996–1021) engaged in a persecution of Christians.<a href="#cite_note-:6-123">[121]</a> Al-Hakim was "half-insane", and had perpetrated the only general persecution of Christians by Muslims until the Crusades.<a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a> Al-Hakim's mother was a Christian, and he had been raised mainly by Christians, and even through the persecution al-Hakim employed Christian ministers in his government.<a href="#cite_note-:7-125">[123]</a> Between 1004 and 1014, the caliph produced legislation to confiscate ecclesiastical property and burn crosses; later, he ordered that small mosques be built atop church roofs, and later still decreed that churches were to be burned.<a href="#cite_note-:7-125">[123]</a> The caliph's Jewish and Muslim subjects were subjected to similarly arbitrary treatment.<a href="#cite_note-:7-125">[123]</a> As part of al-Hakim's persecution, thirty thousand churches were reportedly destroyed, and in 1009 the caliph ordered the demolition of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Sepulchre" title="Church of the Holy Sepulchre">Church of the Holy Sepulchre</a> in Jerusalem, on the pretext that the annual <a href="/wiki/Holy_Fire" title="Holy Fire">Holy Fire</a> miracle on Easter was a fake.<a href="#cite_note-:7-125">[123]</a> The persecution of al-Hakim and the demolition of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre prompted <a href="/wiki/Pope_Sergius_IV" title="Pope Sergius IV">Pope Sergius IV</a> to issue a call for soldiers to expel the Muslims from the Holy Land, while European Christians engaged in a retaliatory persecution of Jews, whom they conjectured were in some way responsible for al-Hakim's actions.<a href="#cite_note-DLE_Holt-126">[124]</a> In the second half of the eleventh century, pilgrims brought home news of how the rise of the Turks and their conflict with the Egyptians increased the persecution of Christian pilgrims.<a href="#cite_note-DLE_Holt-126">[124]</a> In 1013, at the intervention of the emperor <a href="/wiki/Basil_II" title="Basil II">Basil II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 960–1025), Christians were given permission to leave Fatimid territory.<a href="#cite_note-:7-125">[123]</a> In 1016 however, the caliph was proclaimed divine, alienating his Muslim subjects by banning the <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">hajj</a> and the fast of <a href="/wiki/Ramadan" title="Ramadan">ramadan</a>, and causing him to again favor the Christians.<a href="#cite_note-:7-125">[123]</a> In 1017, al-Hakim issued an order of toleration regarding Christians and Jews, while the following year confiscated ecclesiastical property was returned to the Church, including the construction materials seized by the authorities from demolished buildings.<a href="#cite_note-:7-125">[123]</a> In 1027, the emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_VIII" title="Constantine VIII">Constantine VIII</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 962–1028) concluded a treaty with <a href="/wiki/Salih_ibn_Mirdas" title="Salih ibn Mirdas">Salih ibn Mirdas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Emir_of_Aleppo" class="mw-redirect" title="Emir of Aleppo">emir of Aleppo</a>, allowing the emperor to repair the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and permitting the Christians forced to convert to Islam under al-Hakim to return to Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-:7-125">[123]</a> Though the treaty was re-confirmed in 1036, actual building on the shrine began only in the later 1040s, under the emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_IX_Monomachos" title="Constantine IX Monomachos">Constantine IX Monomachos</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1042–1055).<a href="#cite_note-:7-125">[123]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Al-Maqdisi" title="Al-Maqdisi">al-Maqdisi</a>, the Christians seemed largely in control of the Holy Land, and the emperor himself was rumored, according to <a href="/wiki/Nasir_Khusraw" title="Nasir Khusraw">Nasir Khusraw</a>, to have been among the many Christian pilgrims that came to the Holy Sepulchre.<a href="#cite_note-:7-125">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seljuk_Empire">Seljuk Empire</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Seljuk Empire" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Sultan Alp Arslan pledged: “I shall consume with the sword all those people who venerate the cross, and all the lands of the Christians shall be enslaved.”<a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a> Alp Arslan ordered the Turks:<a href="#cite_note-128">[126]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Henceforth all of you be like lion cubs and eagle young, racing through the countryside day and night, slaying the Christians and not sparing any mercy on the Roman nation</blockquote> It was said that “the emirs spread like locusts, over the face of the land,”<a href="#cite_note-129">[127]</a> invading every corner of Anatolia, sacking some of ancient Christianity's most important cities, including Ephesus, home of Saint John the Evangelist; Nicaea, where Christendom's creed was formulated in 325; and Antioch, the original see of Saint Peter, and enslaved many.<a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a> According to French historian J. Laurent, hundreds of thousands of the native Anatolian Christians were reported to have been massacred or enslaved during the invasions of Anatolia by the Seljuk Turks.<a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a> Destruction and desecration of Churches became very widespread during the Turkic invasions of Anatolia which caused enormous damage to the ecclesiastical foundations throughout Asia minor:<a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Even before the battle of Manzikert, Turkish raids resulted in the pillaging of the famous churches of St. Basil at caesareia and of the Archangel Michael at Chonae. In the decade following 1071 the destruction of churches and the flight of the clergy became widespread. churches were often pillaged and destroyed. The churches of St. Phocas in Sinope and Nicholas at Myra, both important centers of pilgrimage, were destroyed. The monasteries of Mt. Latrus, Strobilus, and elanoudium on the western coast were sacked and the monks driven out during the early invasions, so that the monastic foundations in this area were completely abandoned until the Byzantine reconquest and the extensive support of successive Byzantine emperors once more reconstituted them. Greeks were forced to surround the church of St. John at Ephesus with walls to protect it from the Turks. The disruption of active religious life in the Cappadocian cave-monastic communies is also indicated for the twelfth century.</blockquote> News of the great tribulation and persecutions of the eastern Christians reached European Christians in the west in the few years after the battle of Manzikert. A Frankish eyewitness says: "Far and wide they [Muslim Turks] ravaged cities and castles together with their settlements. Churches were razed down to the ground. Of the clergyman and monks whom they captured, some were slaughtered while others were with unspeakable wickedness given up, priests and all, to their dire dominion and nuns—alas for the sorrow of it!—were subjected to their lusts."<a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a> In a letter to count Robert of Flanders, Byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I Komnenos</a> writes:<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The holy places are desecrated and destroyed in countless ways. Noble matrons and their daughters, robbed of everything, are violated one after another, like animals. Some [of their attackers] shamelessly place virgins in front of their own mothers and force them to sing wicked and obscene songs until they have finished having their ways with them... men of every age and description, boys, youths, old men, nobles, peasants and what is worse still and yet more distressing, clerics and monks and woe of unprecedented woes, even bishops are defiled with the sin of sodomy and it is now trumpeted abroad that one bishop has succumbed to this abominable sin.</blockquote> In a poem, Malik Danishmend boasts: "I am Al Ghazi Danishmend, the destroyer of churches and towers". Destruction and pillaging of churches figure prominently in his poem. Another part of the poem talks about the simultaneous conversion of 5,000 people to Islam and the murder of 5,000 others.<a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_the_Syrian" title="Michael the Syrian">Michael the Syrian</a> wrote: “As the Turks were ruling the lands of Syria and Palestine, they inflicted injuries on Christians who went to pray in Jerusalem, beat them, pillaged them, and levied the poll tax [jizya]. Every time they saw a caravan of Christians, particularly of those from Rome and the lands of Italy, they made every effort to cause their death in diverse ways".<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a> Such was the fate German pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1064. According to one of the surviving pilgrims:<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Accompanying this journey was a noble abbess of graceful body and of a religious outlook. Setting aside the cares of the sisters committed to her and against the advice of the wise, she undertook this great and dangerous pilgrimage. The pagans captured her, and the sight of all, these shameless men raped her until she breathed her last, to the dishonor of all Christians. Christ's enemies performed such abuses and others like them on the christians.</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crusades">Crusades</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Crusades" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> After the Seljuks invaded Anatolia and the levant, every Anatolian village they controlled along the route to Jerusalem began exacting tolls on Christian pilgrims. In principle the Seljuks allowed Christian pilgrims access to Jerusalem, but they often imposed huge ransoms and condoned local attacks against Christians. many pilgrims were seized and sold into slavery while others were tortured (seemingly for entertainment). Soon only very large, well-armed and wealthy groups would dare attempt a pilgrimage, and even so, many died and many more turned back.The pilgrims that survived these extremely dangerous journeys, “returned to the West weary and impoverished, with a dreadful tale to tell.”<a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a> In the year 1064, 7,000 pilgrims lead by Bishop <a href="/wiki/Gunther_of_Bamberg" title="Gunther of Bamberg">Gunther of Bamberg</a> were ambushed by Muslims near <a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea Maritima</a>, and two-thirds of the pilgrims were slaughtered.<a href="#cite_note-143">[141]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the crusades were promoted as defensive response of Christianity against persecution of Eastern Christianity in the Levant.<a href="#cite_note-DLE_Holt-126">[124]</a> Western Catholic contemporaries believed the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a> was a movement against Muslim attacks on Eastern Christians and Christian sites in the Holy Land.<a href="#cite_note-DLE_Holt-126">[124]</a> In the mid-11th century, relations between the Byzantine Empire and the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a> and between Christians and Muslims were peaceful, and there had not been persecution of Christians since the death of al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.<a href="#cite_note-:6-123">[121]</a> As a result of the migration of <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic peoples</a> into the Levant and the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Empire</a>'s wars with the Fatimid Caliphate in the later 11th century, reports of Christian pilgrims increasingly mentioned persecution of Christians there.<a href="#cite_note-DLE_Holt-126">[124]</a> Similarly, accounts sent to the West of the Byzantines' medieval wars with various Muslim states alleged persecutions of Christians and atrocities against holy places.<a href="#cite_note-Runciman_1965-144">[142]</a> Western soldiers were encouraged to take up soldiering against the empire's Muslim enemies; a recruiting bureau was even established in London.<a href="#cite_note-DLE_Holt-126">[124]</a> After the 1071 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert" title="Battle of Manzikert">Battle of Manzikert</a>, the sense of Byzantine distress increased and <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII" title="Pope Gregory VII">Pope Gregory VII</a> suggested that he himself would ride to the rescue at the head of an army, claiming Christians were being "slaughtered like cattle".<a href="#cite_note-Runciman_1965-144">[142]</a> In the 1090s, the emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I Komnenos</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1081–1118) issued appeals for help against the Seljuks to western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Runciman_1965-144">[142]</a> In 1091 his ambassadors told the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Croatia" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Croatia">king of Croatia</a> Muslims were destroying sacred sites, while his letter to <a href="/wiki/Robert_I,_Count_of_Flanders" title="Robert I, Count of Flanders">Robert I, Count of Flanders</a>, deliberately described emotively the rape and maltreatment of Christians and the sacrilege of the Jerusalem shrines.<a href="#cite_note-Runciman_1965-144">[142]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_II" title="Pope Urban II">Pope Urban II</a>, who convoked the First Crusade at the 1095 <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Clermont" title="Council of Clermont">Council of Clermont</a>, spoke of the defense of his co-religionists in the Levant and the protection of the Christian holy places, while ordinary crusaders are also known to have been motivated by the notion of persecution of Christians by Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-DLE_Holt-126">[124]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Fulcher_of_Chartres" title="Fulcher of Chartres">Fulcher of Chartres</a>, the pope described his holy wars as being contra barbaros, 'against the barbarians', while the pope's own letters indicate that the Muslims were barbarians fanatically persecuting Christians.<a href="#cite_note-:11-145">[143]</a> The same idea, expressed in similar language, was evident in the writings of the bishop <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerald_of_Cahors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gerald of Cahors (page does not exist)">Gerald of Cahors</a>, the abbot <a href="/wiki/Guibert_of_Nogent" title="Guibert of Nogent">Guibert of Nogent</a>, the priest <a href="/wiki/Peter_Tudebode" title="Peter Tudebode">Peter Tudebode</a>, and the monk <a href="/wiki/Robert_of_Reims" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert of Reims">Robert of Reims</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:11-145">[143]</a> Outside the clergy, the <a href="/wiki/Gesta_Francorum" title="Gesta Francorum">Gesta Francorum</a>'s author likewise described the Crusaders' opponents as persecuting barbarians, language not used for non-Muslim non-Christians.<a href="#cite_note-:11-145">[143]</a> These authors, together with <a href="/wiki/Albert_of_Aix" title="Albert of Aix">Albert of Aix</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baldric_of_Dol" title="Baldric of Dol">Baldric of Dol</a>, all referred to the Arabs, Saracens, and Turks as barbarae nationes, 'barbarian races'.<a href="#cite_note-:11-145">[143]</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Venerable" title="Peter the Venerable">Peter the Venerable</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_of_Tyre" title="William of Tyre">William of Tyre</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_Song_of_Roland" class="mw-redirect" title="The Song of Roland">The Song of Roland</a> all took the view that Muslims were barbarians, and in calling for the <a href="/wiki/Third_Crusade" title="Third Crusade">Third Crusade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VIII" title="Pope Gregory VIII">Pope Gregory VIII</a> expounded on the Muslim threat from <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a>, accusing the Muslims of being "barbarians thirsting for the blood of Christians".<a href="#cite_note-:11-145">[143]</a> In numerous instances <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III" title="Pope Innocent III">Pope Innocent III</a> called on the Catholics to defend the Holy Land in a holy war against the impugnes barbariem paganorum, 'attacks of the pagan barbarians'.<a href="#cite_note-:11-145">[143]</a> Crusaders believed that by fighting off the Muslims, the persecution of Christians would abate, in accordance to their god's will, and this ideology – much promoted by the Crusader-era propagandists – was shared at every level of literate medieval western European society.<a href="#cite_note-:11-145">[143]</a> According to Guibert of Nogent, a Catholic writer, the persecution suffered by the Eastern Christians and the attacks on the empire by the Turks were caused by the Christians' own doctrinal errors. He claimed that "Since they deviate from faith in the Trinity, so that hitherto they who are in filth become filthier, gradually they have come to the final degradation of having taken paganism upon themselves as the punishment for the sin proceeding from this, they have lost the soil of their native land to invading foreigners ...".<a href="#cite_note-:14-146">[144]</a> Western Christians considered the Byzantine position in the <a href="/wiki/Filioque_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Filioque controversy">filioque controversy</a> to be heresy and akin to <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a>; Guibert claimed that heresy was an Eastern practice, almost unknown in the Latin West.<a href="#cite_note-:14-146">[144]</a> Further blame was attached to the Eastern Christians by the crusaders for the <a href="/wiki/Crusade_of_1101" title="Crusade of 1101">Crusade of 1101</a>'s defeats in Asia Minor; Alexios Komnenos was accused of having collaborated with the Turks to attack the crusaders.<a href="#cite_note-:14-146">[144]</a> The Norman prince Bohemond, citing the supposed transgressions of the emperor and the Eastern Church, which the pope had declared heretic and whose doctrinal errors Bohemond blamed on Alexios, seized the Muslim-held and formerly Byzantine city of <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> (<a href="/wiki/Antakya" title="Antakya">Antakya</a>) for himself after the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Antioch" title="Siege of Antioch">Siege of Antioch</a> and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antioch_(1098)" title="Battle of Antioch (1098)">Battle of Antioch</a> left <a href="/wiki/Kerbogha" title="Kerbogha">Kerbogha</a> defeated, becoming <a href="/wiki/Bohemond_I_of_Antioch" title="Bohemond I of Antioch">Bohemond I</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:14-146">[144]</a> This contravention of the agreement to return conquered lands to the emperor's control, was justified in the crusaders' letter to <a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_II" title="Pope Urban II">Pope Urban II</a> by the statement that the Greek Christians were heretics.<a href="#cite_note-:14-146">[144]</a> Later, Bohemond took the opportunity of a crusade to attack Dyrrachium (<a href="/wiki/Durr%C3%ABs" title="Durrës">Durrës</a>), justifying his attack on the Christians in a letter to <a href="/wiki/Pope_Paschal_II" title="Pope Paschal II">Pope Paschal II</a> enumerating Alexios's faults and blaming him for the East–West Schism and for having taken the imperial throne by force.<a href="#cite_note-:14-146">[144]</a> Besides Guibert, other crusader writers to accuse Eastern Christians of sabotaging the crusade include <a href="/wiki/Raymond_of_Aguilers" title="Raymond of Aguilers">Raymond of Aguilers</a>, Albert of Aix, Baldric of Dol, and the author of the <a href="/wiki/Gesta_Francorum" title="Gesta Francorum">Gesta Francorum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:14-146">[144]</a> Alexios's departure from the crusade, followed by the departure of his envoy <a href="/wiki/Tatikios" title="Tatikios">Tatikios</a>, was seen as proof of the Eastern Christians' treachery.<a href="#cite_note-:14-146">[144]</a> Though Fulcher of Chartres displayed a positive assessment of Eastern Christianity, he too accused the emperor of attacking Christian pilgrims, and of being a "tyrant".<a href="#cite_note-:14-146">[144]</a> When First Crusade's <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(1099)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (1099)">Siege of Jerusalem</a> ended successfully for the crusaders, the patriarchate of Jerusalem was vacant, and the crusaders elevated a <a href="/wiki/Latin_Patriarch_of_Jerusalem" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem">Latin patriarch</a> without reference to either the Roman Catholic or the Eastern Orthodox churches.<a href="#cite_note-:12-147">[145]</a> An Orthodox candidate for the patriarchate was forced to flee to Constantinople.<a href="#cite_note-:12-147">[145]</a> Only when <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(1187)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (1187)">Siege of Jerusalem</a> was concluded and the city was returned to Muslim control were the Orthodox Christians allowed to practise in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.<a href="#cite_note-:12-147">[145]</a> Crusade scholars continue to debate crusading, its causes, and its effects, so scholarship in this field repeatedly undergoes revision and reconsideration.<a href="#cite_note-Cassidy-Welch-148">[146]</a>: 96 Many early crusade scholars saw the source-histories as simple recitations of how events actually transpired, but by the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, scholarship was increasingly skeptical of that assumption. By 1935, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Erdmann" title="Carl Erdmann">Carl Erdmann</a> published Die Entstehung des Kreuzzugsgedankens (The Origin of the Idea of Crusade), changing the direction of crusader studies more than any other single work by focusing on the ideology of crusade. This ideology indicated the crusades were essentially defensive, which meant that soldiers were there to provide protection for pilgrims and fellow Christians in the East and to reclaim formerly Christian lands lost to Islamic expansion and forced conversion. This ideology remained throughout the Middle Ages despite the failure to finalize these goals.<a href="#cite_note-Laiou-149">[147]</a>: 3 fn 10, 6, 10, 13 Constable adds that those "scholars who see the crusades as the beginning of European colonialism and expansionism would have surprised people at the time. Crusaders would not have denied some selfish aspects... but the predominant emphasis was on the defense and recovery of lands that had once been Christian and on the self-sacrifice rather than the self-seeking of the participants".<a href="#cite_note-Laiou-149">[147]</a>: 15 Historian Robert Irwin points out that “Christians living under Muslim rule suffered during the crusading period. They were suspected of acting as spies or fifth columns for the Franks and later the Mongols as well.” According to Coptic chronicles, Saladin had many Christians in Egypt crucified in revenge against his Crusader enemies.<a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a> In 1951, <a href="/wiki/Steven_Runciman" title="Steven Runciman">Steven Runciman</a>, a Byzantinist who saw the crusades in terms of east–west relations, wrote in the conclusion of his crusade history, that the "Holy War was nothing more than a long act of intolerance".<a href="#cite_note-Laiou-149">[147]</a>: 3, 9–10 <a href="/wiki/Giles_Constable" title="Giles Constable">Giles Constable</a> says it is this view of the crusades that is most common among the populace.<a href="#cite_note-Laiou-149">[147]</a>: 3 The problem with this view, according to political science professor Andrew R. Murphy,<a href="#cite_note-151">[149]</a> is that such concepts as intolerance were not part of eleventh century thinking about relationships for any of the various groups involved in or affected by the crusades, neither the Latins, the Byzantines, the Turks, the <a href="/wiki/Baybars" title="Baybars">Baybars</a>, nor others.<a href="#cite_note-Murphy-152">[150]</a>: xii–xvii Instead, concepts of tolerance began to grow during the crusades from efforts to define legal limits and the nature of co-existence, and these ideas grew among both Christians and Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-Murphy-152">[150]</a>: xii These wars produced multiple massacres perpetrated by both sides. According to Mary Jane Engh's definition of religious persecution, which identifies it as "the repressive action initiated or condoned by authorities against their own people on religious grounds," it is not possible to term these acts of war as religious persecution.<a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a> After the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Acre" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of Acre">Fall of Acre</a>, the last of the Crusaders' possessions in Asia in 1291, one of the main Christian <a href="/wiki/Military_order_(religious_society)" title="Military order (religious society)">military orders</a> was suppressed from 1307 on trumped-up charges by the papacy.<a href="#cite_note-:8-154">[152]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a> were accused of sodomy, heresy, and corruption and the members were persecuted.<a href="#cite_note-:8-154">[152]</a> In the crusades waged against non-Muslims, including Christians described as heretics, Catholic participants were promised the same spiritual rewards as were believed to be received by those who fought against Muslims in the Holy Land.<a href="#cite_note-:9-155">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Albigensian_Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Albigensian Crusade" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III" title="Pope Innocent III">Pope Innocent III</a>, with the king of France, <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">Philip Augustus</a>, began the military campaign known as the <a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a> between 1209 and 1226 against other Christians known as <a href="/wiki/Cathars" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathars">Cathars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:9-155">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kienzle-156">[154]</a>: 46, 47 Scholars disagree, using two distinct lines of reasoning, on whether the war that followed was religious persecution from the Pope or a land grab by King Philip.<a href="#cite_note-Rummel-157">[155]</a>: 50 Historian <a href="/wiki/Laurence_Marvin" title="Laurence Marvin">Laurence W. Marvin</a> says the Pope exercised "little real control over events in Occitania".<a href="#cite_note-Marvin-158">[156]</a>: 258 Four years after the <a href="/wiki/Massacre_at_Beziers" class="mw-redirect" title="Massacre at Beziers">Massacre at Beziers</a> in 1213, the Pope cancelled crusade indulgences and called for an end to the campaign.<a href="#cite_note-Graham-Leigh-159">[157]</a>: 58 The campaign continued anyway. The Pope was not reversed until the Fourth Lateran council re-instituted crusade status two years later in 1215; afterwards, the Pope removed it yet again.<a href="#cite_note-Jones-2009-160">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-Marvin-158">[156]</a>: 229, 235 The campaign continued in what Marvin refers to as "an increasingly murky moral atmosphere" for the next 16 years: there was technically no longer any crusade, no indulgences or dispensational rewards for fighting it, the papal legates exceeded their orders from the Pope, and the army occupied lands of nobles who were in the good graces of the church.<a href="#cite_note-Marvin-158">[156]</a>: 216 The Treaty of Paris that ended the campaign left the Cathars still in existence, but awarded rule of Languedoc to Louis' descendants.<a href="#cite_note-Marvin-158">[156]</a>: 235 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Northern_(Baltic)_crusades">Northern (Baltic) crusades</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Northern (Baltic) crusades" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The Northern (or <a href="/wiki/Baltic_crusades" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic crusades">Baltic crusades</a>), went on intermittently from 1147 to 1316, and the primary trigger for these wars was not religious persecution but instead was the noble's desire for territorial expansion and material wealth in the form of land, furs, amber, slaves, and tribute.<a href="#cite_note-Dragnea2-161">[159]</a>: 5, 6 The princes wanted to subdue these pagan peoples and stop their raiding by conquering and converting them, but ultimately, Iben Fonnesberg-Schmidt says, the princes were motivated by their desire to extend their power and prestige, and conversion was not always an element of their plans.<a href="#cite_note-Iben-162">[160]</a>: 24 When it was, conversion by these princes was almost always as a result of conquest, either by the direct use of force or indirectly when a leader converted and required it of his followers as well.<a href="#cite_note-Iben-162">[160]</a>: 23, 24 "While the theologians maintained that conversion should be voluntary, there was a widespread pragmatic acceptance of conversion obtained through political pressure or military coercion."<a href="#cite_note-Iben-162">[160]</a>: 24 The Church's acceptance of this led some commentators of the time to endorse and approve it, something Christian thought had never done before.<a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a>: 157–158 <a href="#cite_note-Iben-162">[160]</a>: 24 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Ilkhanate" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> During the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a>, massacres were perpetrated by <a href="/wiki/Hulagu_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulagu Khan">Hulagu Khan</a> against the Assyrians, particularly in and around the ancient Assyrian city of Arbela (modern <a href="/wiki/Erbil" title="Erbil">Erbil</a>).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Bar_Hebraeus" title="Bar Hebraeus">Bar Hebraeus</a> provided this contemporary assessment of the Mongols attitudes toward their Christian subjects after their conversion to Islam: “And having seen very much modesty and other habits of this kind among Christian people, certainly the Mongols loved them greatly at the beginning of their kingdom, a time ago somewhat short. But their love hath turned to such intense hatred that they cannot even see them with their eyes approvingly, because they have all alike become Muslims".<a href="#cite_note-164">[162]</a> Things became worse when the khan, Mahmud Ghazan, (who converted to Islam in 1295) yielded to “popular pressure which compelled him to persecute Christians,” and culminated in the following ordinance: “The churches shall be uprooted, and the altars overturned, and the celebrations of the Eucharist shall cease, and the hymns of praise, and the sounds of calls to prayer shall be abolished; and the heads of the Christians, and the heads of the congregations of the Jews, and the great men among them, shall be killed"<a href="#cite_note-165">[163]</a> <a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto2-167">[165]</a> Empowered by this ordinance and believing “that everyone who did not abandon Christianity and deny his faith should be killed,” Muslim mobs ran amok, slaughtering and wreaking havoc among Christian populations. In Armenia, church services were banned and local authorities ordered to tattoo a black mark on the shoulder of every male Christian and to pluck out the beards and inflict other humiliations on every Christian man. “When few Christians defected [to Islam] in response to these measures, the Khan then ordered that all Christian men be castrated and have one eye put out which caused many deaths in this era before antibiotics, but did lead to many conversions” to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto2-167">[165]</a> The consideration which the Mongols bestowed on the Christians (particularly the Nestorians) singled them out for the hatred of the Muslims. In 1261, Muslims of Mosul pillaged and killed all those who did not convert to Islam. Several monks and community leaders and others from the common people recanted. The Kurds then descended from the mountains and attacked the Christians of the region, massacring many of them; they pillaged the convent of Mar Matai, only withdrawing after extorting a heavy ransom from the monks.<a href="#cite_note-169">[167]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Late_Middle_Ages">Late Middle Ages</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Late Middle Ages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_Europe">Western Europe</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Western Europe" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Advocates of lay piety called for church reform and met with persecution from the Popes.<a href="#cite_note-Humanities-170">[168]</a>: 248–250 <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a> (1320–1384) urged the church to give up ownership of property, which produced much of the church's wealth, and to once again embrace poverty and simplicity. He urged the church to stop being subservient to the state and its politics. He denied papal authority. John Wycliff died of a stroke, but his followers, called Lollards, were declared heretics.<a href="#cite_note-Humanities-170">[168]</a>: 249 After the <a href="/wiki/Oldcastle_Revolt" title="Oldcastle Revolt">Oldcastle rebellion</a> many were killed.<a href="#cite_note-171">[169]</a>: 12, 13 <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> (1369–1415) accepted some of Wycliff's views and aligned with the <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reform movement</a> which was also rooted in popular piety. In 1415, Hus was called to the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constance" title="Council of Constance">Council of Constance</a> where his ideas were condemned as heretical and he was handed over to the state and burned at the stake.<a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a>: 130, 135–139 <a href="#cite_note-Humanities-170">[168]</a>: 250 The Fraticelli, who were also known as the "Little Brethren" or "Spiritual Franciscans", were dedicated followers of Saint Francis of Assisi. These Franciscans honored their vow of poverty and saw the wealth of the Church as a contributor to corruption and injustice when so many lived in poverty. They criticized the worldly behavior of many churchmen.<a href="#cite_note-Wakefield-173">[171]</a>: 28, 50, 305 Thus, the Brethren were declared heretical by <a href="/wiki/John_XXII" class="mw-redirect" title="John XXII">John XXII</a> (1316–1334) who was called "the banker of Avignon".<a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a>: 131 The leader of these brethren, <a href="/wiki/Bernard_D%C3%A9licieux" title="Bernard Délicieux">Bernard Délicieux</a> (c. 1260–1270 – 1320) was well known as he had spent much of his life battling the Dominican-run inquisitions. He confessed, after torture and threat of excommunication, to the charge of opposing the inquisitions, and was defrocked and sentenced to life in prison, in chains, in solitary confinement, and to receive nothing but bread and water. The judges attempted to ameliorate the harshness of this sentence due to his age and frailty, but <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXII" title="Pope John XXII">Pope John XXII</a> countermanded them and delivered the friar to Inquisitor <a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Beaune" title="Jean de Beaune">Jean de Beaune</a>. Délicieux died shortly thereafter in early 1320.<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a>: 191, 196–198 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mamluk_Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Mamluk Sultanate" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> when Sultan <a href="/wiki/Baybars" title="Baybars">Baybars</a> took Antioch from the Crusaders he wrote a letter to Christians boasting of the atrocities they would have seen his soldiers commit had they been there:<a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">You would have seen your knights prostrate beneath the horses’ hooves, your houses stormed by pillagers and ransacked by looters, your wealth weighed by the quintal, your women sold four at a time and bought for a dinar of your own money! You would have seen the crosses in your churches smashed, the pages of the false Testaments scattered, the Patriarchs’ tombs overturned. You would have seen your Muslim enemy trampling on the place where you celebrate the Mass, cutting the throats of monks, priests and deacons upon the altars, bringing sudden death to the Patriarchs and slavery to the royal princes. You would have seen fire running through your palaces, your dead burned in this world before going down to the fires of the next, your palace lying unrecognizable, the Church of St. Paul and that of the Cathedral of St. Peter pulled down and destroyed; then you would have said, “Would that I were dust, and that no letter had ever brought me such tidings!”</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timurid_Empire">Timurid Empire</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Timurid Empire" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a> (Tamerlane) instigated large scale massacres of Christians in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> and Syria in the 14th century AD. Most of the victims were indigenous <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a>, members of the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian Church of the East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox Churches</a>, which led to the decimation of the hitherto majority Assyrian population in northern Mesopotamia and the abandonment of the ancient Assyrian city of <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a>.<a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a> Tamerlane virtually exterminated the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a>, which had previously been a major branch of Christianity but afterwards became largely confined to a small area now known as the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Triangle" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Triangle">Assyrian Triangle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nestoriangenocide-178">[176]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Early_modern_period">Early modern period</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Early modern period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation">Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Persecution_of_Christians_with_scenes_of_martyrdom_behind._E_Wellcome_V0033268.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Persecution_of_Christians_with_scenes_of_martyrdom_behind._E_Wellcome_V0033268.jpg/220px-Persecution_of_Christians_with_scenes_of_martyrdom_behind._E_Wellcome_V0033268.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3186" data-file-height="2520"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 174px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Persecution_of_Christians_with_scenes_of_martyrdom_behind._E_Wellcome_V0033268.jpg/220px-Persecution_of_Christians_with_scenes_of_martyrdom_behind._E_Wellcome_V0033268.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="174" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Persecution_of_Christians_with_scenes_of_martyrdom_behind._E_Wellcome_V0033268.jpg/330px-Persecution_of_Christians_with_scenes_of_martyrdom_behind._E_Wellcome_V0033268.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Persecution_of_Christians_with_scenes_of_martyrdom_behind._E_Wellcome_V0033268.jpg/440px-Persecution_of_Christians_with_scenes_of_martyrdom_behind._E_Wellcome_V0033268.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Persecution of the Servants of Christ by <a href="/wiki/Maerten_de_Vos" title="Maerten de Vos">Maerten de Vos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Engraved" class="mw-redirect" title="Engraved">engraved</a> by <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Wierix" title="Hieronymus Wierix">Hieronymus Wierix</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Library" title="Wellcome Library">Wellcome Library</a>). An illustration of the prophecy of persecution made during the <a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a> according to the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Luke" title="Gospel of Luke">Gospel of Luke</a>. "But before all these, they shall lay their hands on you, and persecute you, delivering you up to the synagogues, and into prisons, being brought before kings and rulers for my name's sake."<a href="#cite_note-179">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[note 2]</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> Reformation and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> Counter-Reformation provoked a number of persecutions of Christians by other Christians and the <a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Wars of the Three Kingdoms</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Savoyard%E2%80%93Waldensian_wars" title="Savoyard–Waldensian wars">Savoyard–Waldensian wars</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Toggenburg_War" title="Toggenburg War">Toggenburg War</a>. There were false allegations of <a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">witchcraft</a> and numerous <a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Witch trials in the early modern period">witch trials in the early modern period</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: China" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martyrerp_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Martyrerp_2.jpg/220px-Martyrerp_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1417" data-file-height="978"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 152px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Martyrerp_2.jpg/220px-Martyrerp_2.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="152" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Martyrerp_2.jpg/330px-Martyrerp_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Martyrerp_2.jpg/440px-Martyrerp_2.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>An 1858 illustration from the French newspaper, Le Monde Illustré, of the torture and execution of Father <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Chapdelaine" title="Auguste Chapdelaine">Auguste Chapdelaine</a>, a French missionary in China, by slow slicing (<a href="/wiki/Lingchi" title="Lingchi">lingchi</a>).</figcaption></figure> Beginning in the late 17th century and for at least a century, Christianity was banned in China by the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> after <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_XI" title="Pope Clement XI">Pope Clement XI</a> forbade <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_China" title="Catholic Church in China">Chinese Catholics</a> from <a href="/wiki/Veneration" title="Veneration">venerating</a> their relatives, <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a> or <a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ye_Xiaowen-181">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[179]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion#Massacre_of_missionaries_and_Chinese_Christians" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer rebellion</a> targeted foreign and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Christians">Chinese Christians</a>. Beginning in 1899, Boxers spread violence across <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a> and the <a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North China Plain</a>, attacking or murdering Christian missionaries and Chinese Christians. They decided the "primary devils" were the Christian missionaries, and the "secondary devils" were the Chinese converts to Christianity. Both had to recant or be driven out or killed.<a href="#cite_note-183">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[181]</a> Boxers burned Christian churches, killed Chinese Christians and intimidated Chinese officials who stood in their way. Orthodox, Protestant, and Catholic missionaries and their Chinese parishioners were massacred throughout northern China, some by Boxers and others by government troops and authorities. <a href="/wiki/Yuxian_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Yuxian (Qing dynasty)">Yuxian</a> implemented a brutal anti-foreign and anti-Christian policy. The <a href="/wiki/Baptist_Missionary_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptist Missionary Society">Baptist Missionary Society</a>, based in England, opened its mission in Shanxi in 1877. In 1900 all its missionaries there were killed, along with all 120 converts.<a href="#cite_note-185">[182]</a> By the summer's end, more foreigners and as many as 2,000 Chinese Christians had been put to death in the province. Journalist and historical writer Nat Brandt has called the massacre of Christians in Shanxi "the greatest single tragedy in the history of Christian evangelicalism."<a href="#cite_note-186">[183]</a> During the Boxer Rebellion as a whole, a total of 136 Protestant missionaries and 53 children were killed, and 47 Catholic priests and nuns, 30,000 Chinese Catholics, 2,000 Chinese Protestants, and 200 to 400 of the 700 Russian Orthodox Christians in Beijing were estimated to have been killed. Collectively, the Protestant dead were called the <a href="/wiki/China_Martyrs_of_1900" title="China Martyrs of 1900">China Martyrs of 1900</a>.<a href="#cite_note-187">[184]</a> The Muslim unit <a href="/wiki/Kansu_Braves" title="Kansu Braves">Kansu Braves</a> which was serving in the Chinese army attacked Christians.<a href="#cite_note-188">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[187]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> incited <a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">anti-foreign</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Western_sentiment" title="Anti-Western sentiment">anti-Western sentiment</a>. Portraits of <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a> replaced the crucifix in several churches, KMT posters proclaimed that "Jesus Christ is dead. Why not worship something alive such as <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a>?" Foreign missionaries were attacked and anti-foreign riots broke out.<a href="#cite_note-191">[188]</a> In 1926, Muslim General <a href="/wiki/Bai_Chongxi" title="Bai Chongxi">Bai Chongxi</a> attempted to drive out foreigners in <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>, attacking American, European, and other foreigners and missionaries, and generally making the province unsafe for foreigners. Westerners fled from the province, and some Chinese Christians were also attacked as imperialist agents.<a href="#cite_note-192">[189]</a> From 1894 to 1938, many <a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uighur</a> Muslims converted to Christianity. They were killed, tortured and jailed.<a href="#cite_note-193">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[192]</a> Christian missionaries were expelled.<a href="#cite_note-196">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_Revolution">French Revolution</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: French Revolution" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Dechristianisation_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution">Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Revolt_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolt in the Vendée">Revolt in the Vendée</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MassacrePrincessLamballe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/MassacrePrincessLamballe.jpg/270px-MassacrePrincessLamballe.jpg" decoding="async" width="270" height="173" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="6467" data-file-height="4152"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 270px;height: 173px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/MassacrePrincessLamballe.jpg/270px-MassacrePrincessLamballe.jpg" data-width="270" data-height="173" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/MassacrePrincessLamballe.jpg/405px-MassacrePrincessLamballe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/MassacrePrincessLamballe.jpg/540px-MassacrePrincessLamballe.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/September_massacres" class="mw-redirect" title="September massacres">September massacres</a>, 1792</figcaption></figure> The Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution is a conventional description of a campaign, conducted by various <a href="/wiki/Robespierre" class="mw-redirect" title="Robespierre">Robespierre</a>-era governments of France beginning with the start of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> in 1789, to eliminate any symbol that might be associated with the past, especially the <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Monarchy of France">monarchy</a>. The program included the following policies:<a href="#cite_note-197">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-google-199">[196]</a>: 1 <ul><li>the deportation of clergy and the condemnation of many of them to death,</li> <li>the closing, <a href="/wiki/Desecration" title="Desecration">desecration</a> and pillaging of churches, removal of the word "saint" from street names and other acts to banish Christian culture from the public sphere</li> <li>removal of statues, plates, and other iconography from places of worship</li> <li>destruction of crosses, bells and other external signs of worship</li> <li>the institution of revolutionary and civic cults, including the <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_Reason" title="Cult of Reason">Cult of Reason</a> and subsequently the <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_the_Supreme_Being" title="Cult of the Supreme Being">Cult of the Supreme Being</a>,</li> <li>the large-scale destruction of religious monuments,</li> <li>the outlawing of public and private worship and religious education,</li> <li>forced marriages of the clergy,</li> <li>forced abjuration of priesthood, and</li> <li>the enactment of a law on 21 October 1793 making all nonjuring priests and all persons who harbored them liable to death on sight.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fusillades_de_Nantes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Fusillades_de_Nantes.jpg/270px-Fusillades_de_Nantes.jpg" decoding="async" width="270" height="124" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1924" data-file-height="884"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 270px;height: 124px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Fusillades_de_Nantes.jpg/270px-Fusillades_de_Nantes.jpg" data-width="270" data-height="124" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Fusillades_de_Nantes.jpg/405px-Fusillades_de_Nantes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Fusillades_de_Nantes.jpg/540px-Fusillades_de_Nantes.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mass shootings at Nantes, 1793</figcaption></figure> The climax was reached with the celebration of the Goddess "Reason" in <a href="/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris" title="Notre-Dame de Paris">Notre-Dame de Paris</a>, the Parisian cathedral, on 10 November. Under threat of death, imprisonment, military conscription or loss of income, about 20,000 constitutional priests were forced to abdicate or hand over their letters of ordination and 6,000 – 9,000 were coerced to marry, many ceasing their ministerial duties.<a href="#cite_note-google-199">[196]</a>: 10 Some of those who abdicated covertly ministered to the people.<a href="#cite_note-google-199">[196]</a>: 10 By the end of the decade, approximately 30,000 priests were forced to leave France, and thousands who did not leave were executed.<a href="#cite_note-200">[197]</a> Most of France was left without the services of a priest, deprived of the <a href="/wiki/Sacraments" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacraments">sacraments</a> and any nonjuring priest faced the <a href="/wiki/Guillotine" title="Guillotine">guillotine</a> or deportation to <a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-google-199">[196]</a>: 11 The March 1793 conscription requiring <a href="/wiki/Vend%C3%A9e" title="Vendée">Vendeans</a> to fill their district's quota of 300,000 enraged the populace, who took up arms as "The Catholic Army", "Royal" being added later, and fought for "above all the reopening of their parish churches with their former priests."<a href="#cite_note-Jones-52-53-201">[198]</a> With these <a href="/wiki/Mass_murder" title="Mass murder">massacres</a> came formal orders for forced evacuation; also, a '<a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">scorched earth</a>' policy was initiated: farms were destroyed, crops and forests burned and villages razed. There were many reported atrocities and a campaign of mass killing universally targeted at residents of the <a href="/wiki/Vend%C3%A9e" title="Vendée">Vendée</a> regardless of combatant status, political affiliation, age or gender.<a href="#cite_note-202">[199]</a> By July 1796, the estimated Vendean dead numbered between 117,000 and 500,000, out of a population of around 800,000.<a href="#cite_note-203">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-204">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Japan" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_Japan" title="Martyrs of Japan">Martyrs of Japan</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martyrdom-of-Nagasaki-Painting-1622.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Martyrdom-of-Nagasaki-Painting-1622.png/220px-Martyrdom-of-Nagasaki-Painting-1622.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3341" data-file-height="2335"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 154px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Martyrdom-of-Nagasaki-Painting-1622.png/220px-Martyrdom-of-Nagasaki-Painting-1622.png" data-width="220" data-height="154" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Martyrdom-of-Nagasaki-Painting-1622.png/330px-Martyrdom-of-Nagasaki-Painting-1622.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Martyrdom-of-Nagasaki-Painting-1622.png/440px-Martyrdom-of-Nagasaki-Painting-1622.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Christian martyrs of the 1622 <a href="/wiki/Great_Genna_Martyrdom" title="Great Genna Martyrdom">Great Genna Martyrdom</a>. 17th-century Japanese painting.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_Ieyasu" title="Tokugawa Ieyasu">Tokugawa Ieyasu</a> assumed control over Japan in 1600. Like <a href="/wiki/Toyotomi_Hideyoshi" title="Toyotomi Hideyoshi">Toyotomi Hideyoshi</a>, he disliked Christian activities in Japan. The <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Tokugawa shogunate</a> finally decided to ban Catholicism in 1614, and in the mid-17th century it demanded the expulsion of all European missionaries and the execution of all converts. This marked the end of open Christianity in Japan.<a href="#cite_note-Mullins-206">[203]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Shimabara_Rebellion" title="Shimabara Rebellion">Shimabara Rebellion</a>, led by a young <a href="/wiki/Kirishitan" title="Kirishitan">Japanese Christian</a> boy named <a href="/wiki/Amakusa_Shir%C5%8D" title="Amakusa Shirō">Amakusa Shirō Tokisada</a>, took place in 1637. After the <a href="/wiki/Hara_Castle" title="Hara Castle">Hara Castle</a> fell, the shogunate's forces beheaded an estimated 37,000 rebels and sympathizers. Amakusa Shirō's severed head was taken to <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki,_Nagasaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagasaki, Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a> for public display, and the entire complex at Hara Castle was burned to the ground and buried together with the bodies of all the dead.<a href="#cite_note-207">[204]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] Many of the Christians in Japan continued for two centuries to maintain their religion as <a href="/wiki/Kakure_Kirishitan" title="Kakure Kirishitan">Kakure Kirishitan</a>, or hidden Christians, without any priests or pastors. Some of those who were killed for their Faith are venerated as the <a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_Japan" title="Martyrs of Japan">Martyrs of Japan</a>. Christianity was later allowed during the <a href="/wiki/Meiji_era" title="Meiji era">Meiji era</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Constitution" title="Meiji Constitution">Meiji Constitution</a> of 1890 introduced <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">separation of church and state</a> and permitted freedom of religion. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kingdom_of_Mysore">Kingdom of Mysore</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Kingdom of Mysore" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Captivity_of_Mangalorean_Catholics_at_Seringapatam" title="Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam">Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JamalabadFortPassage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/JamalabadFortPassage.jpg/220px-JamalabadFortPassage.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2472" data-file-height="3296"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 293px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/JamalabadFortPassage.jpg/220px-JamalabadFortPassage.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="293" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/JamalabadFortPassage.jpg/330px-JamalabadFortPassage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/JamalabadFortPassage.jpg/440px-JamalabadFortPassage.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Jamalabad" title="Jamalabad">Jamalabad fort</a> route. Mangalorean Catholics had traveled through this route on their way to <a href="/wiki/Seringapatam" class="mw-redirect" title="Seringapatam">Seringapatam</a>.</figcaption></figure> Muslim <a href="/wiki/Tipu_Sultan" title="Tipu Sultan">Tipu Sultan</a>, the ruler of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Kingdom of Mysore</a>, took action against the <a href="/wiki/Mangalorean_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangalorean Catholic">Mangalorean Catholic</a> community from <a href="/wiki/Mangalore" title="Mangalore">Mangalore</a> and the <a href="/wiki/South_Canara" title="South Canara">South Canara</a> district on the southwestern coast of India. Tipu was widely reputed to be anti-Christian. He took Mangalorean Catholics into captivity at <a href="/wiki/Seringapatam" class="mw-redirect" title="Seringapatam">Seringapatam</a> on 24 February 1784 and released them on 4 May 1799.<a href="#cite_note-dajser-208">[205]</a> Soon after the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Mangalore" title="Treaty of Mangalore">Treaty of Mangalore</a> in 1784, Tipu gained control of Canara.<a href="#cite_note-209">[206]</a> He issued orders to seize the Christians in Canara, confiscate their estates,<a href="#cite_note-210">[207]</a> and deport them to Seringapatam, the capital of his empire, through the <a href="/wiki/Jamalabad" title="Jamalabad">Jamalabad fort</a> route.<a href="#cite_note-dm-211">[208]</a> There were no priests among the captives. Together with Fr. Miranda, all the 21 arrested priests were issued orders of expulsion to Goa, fined Rs 2 lakhs, and threatened death by hanging if they ever returned.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Tipu ordered the destruction of 27 Catholic churches. According to <a href="/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Munro,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Thomas Munro, 1st Baronet">Thomas Munro</a>, a Scottish soldier and the first collector of Canara, around 60,000 of them,<a href="#cite_note-bow2-212">[209]</a> nearly 92 percent of the entire Mangalorean Catholic community, were captured. 7,000 escaped. Observer <a href="/wiki/Francis_Buchanan-Hamilton" title="Francis Buchanan-Hamilton">Francis Buchanan</a> reports that 70,000 were captured, from a population of 80,000, with 10,000 escaping. They were forced to climb nearly 4,000 feet (1,200 m) through the jungles of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Ghats" title="Western Ghats">Western Ghat</a> mountain ranges. It was 210 miles (340 km) from Mangalore to Seringapatam, and the journey took six weeks. According to British Government records, 20,000 of them died on the march to Seringapatam. According to <a href="/wiki/James_Scurry" title="James Scurry">James Scurry</a>, a British officer, who was held captive along with Mangalorean Catholics, 30,000 of them were forcibly converted to Islam. The young women and girls were forcibly made wives of the Muslims living there and later distributed and sold in prostitution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScurryWhiteway1824103-213">[210]</a> The young men who offered resistance were disfigured by cutting their noses, upper lips, and ears.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScurryWhiteway1824104-214">[211]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Scurry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/James_Scurry.jpg/220px-James_Scurry.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="232" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="314" data-file-height="331"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 232px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/James_Scurry.jpg/220px-James_Scurry.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="232" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/James_Scurry.jpg 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The British officer <a href="/wiki/James_Scurry" title="James Scurry">James Scurry</a>, who was detained a prisoner for 10 years by Tipu Sultan along with the Mangalorean Catholics</figcaption></figure> Tipu Sultan's invasion of the <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar Coast</a> had an adverse impact on the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Thomas Christian">Saint Thomas Christian</a> community of the Malabar coast. Many churches in Malabar and <a href="/wiki/Cochin" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochin">Cochin</a> were damaged. The old Syrian Nasrani seminary at Angamaly which had been the center of Catholic religious education for several centuries was razed to the ground by Tipu's soldiers. Many centuries-old religious manuscripts were lost forever. The church was later relocated to Kottayam where it still exists to this date. The Mor Sabor church at Akaparambu and the Martha Mariam Church attached to the seminary were destroyed as well. Tipu's army set fire to the church at Palayoor and attacked the Ollur Church in 1790. Furthernmore, the Arthat church and the Ambazhakkad seminary was also destroyed. Over the course of this invasion, many Saint Thomas Christians were killed or forcibly converted to Islam. Most of the coconut, arecanut, pepper and cashew plantations held by the Saint Thomas Christian farmers were also indiscriminately destroyed by the invading army. As a result, when Tipu's army invaded Guruvayur and adjacent areas, the Syrian Christian community fled Calicut and small towns like Arthat to new centres like Kunnamkulam, Chalakudi, Ennakadu, Cheppadu, Kannankode, <a href="/wiki/Mavelikkara" title="Mavelikkara">Mavelikkara</a>, etc. where there were already Christians. They were given refuge by Sakthan Tamburan, the ruler of Cochin and Karthika Thirunal, the ruler of Travancore, who gave them lands, plantations and encouraged their businesses. Colonel Macqulay, the British resident of Travancore also helped them.<a href="#cite_note-Bernard-215">[212]</a> Tipu's persecution of Christians also extended to captured British soldiers. For instance, there were a significant amount of forced conversions of British captives between 1780 and 1784. Following their disastrous defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pollilur" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Pollilur">battle of Pollilur</a>, 7,000 British men along with an unknown number of women were held captive by Tipu in the fortress of Seringapatnam. Of these, over 300 were circumcised and given Muslim names and clothes, and several British regimental drummer boys were made to wear <a href="/wiki/Ghagra_cholis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghagra cholis">ghagra cholis</a> and entertain the court as nautch girls or dancing girls. After the 10-year-long captivity ended, James Scurry, one of those prisoners, recounted that he had forgotten how to sit in a chair and use a knife and fork. His English was broken and stilted, having lost all his vernacular idiom. His skin had darkened to the swarthy complexion of <a href="/wiki/Negro" title="Negro">negroes</a>, and moreover, he had developed an aversion to wearing European clothes.<a href="#cite_note-216">[213]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ottoman_Empire">Ottoman Empire</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Ottoman Empire" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Christianity in the Ottoman Empire">Christianity in the Ottoman Empire</a></div> Historian Warren Treadgold gives a summary on the historical background highlighting the cumulative effects of the relentless Turkish Muslim depredations against the Byzantine Empire in its Anatolian heartland by the late 14th century:<a href="#cite_note-217">[214]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">As the Turks raided and conquered, they enslaved many Christians, selling some in other Muslim regions and hindering the rest from practicing their faith. Conversions [to islam], Turkish migration, and Greek outmigration increasingly endangered the Greek minority in central Asia Minor. When the Turks overran Western Anatolia, they occupied the countryside first, driving the Greeks into the cities, or away to Europe, or the islands. By the time the Anatolian cities fell, the land around them was already largely Turkish [and Islamic].</blockquote> In accordance with the traditional custom which was practiced at the time, Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a> allowed his troops and his entourage to engage in unbridled pillaging and looting in the city of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> for three full days shortly after <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">it was captured</a>. Once the three days passed, he claimed its remaining contents for himself.<a href="#cite_note-Runciman_1965-144">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-218">[215]</a> However, at the end of the first day, he proclaimed that the looting should cease because he felt profound sadness when he toured the looted and enslaved city.<a href="#cite_note-219">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-Runciman_1965-144">[142]</a> Hagia Sophia was not exempted from the pillage and looting and specifically became its focal point as the invaders believed it to contain the greatest treasures and valuables of the city.<a href="#cite_note-Nicol_a_2-220">[217]</a> Shortly after the defence of the <a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople" title="Walls of Constantinople">Walls of Constantinople</a> collapsed and the Ottoman troops entered the city victoriously, the pillagers and looters made their way to the Hagia Sophia and battered down its doors before storming in.<a href="#cite_note-Runciman_1965-144">[142]</a> Throughout the period of the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Constantinople">siege of Constantinople</a>, the worshippers who were trapped in the city participated in the <a href="/wiki/Divine_Liturgy" title="Divine Liturgy">Divine Liturgy</a> and they also recited the Prayer of the Hours at the <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a> and the church formed a safe-haven and a refuge for many of those worshippers who were unable to contribute to the city's defence, which comprised women, children, elderly, the sick and the wounded.<a href="#cite_note-Runciman_2.5-221">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nicol_b_1-222">[219]</a> Being trapped in the church, the many congregants and yet more refugees inside became spoils-of-war to be divided amongst the triumphant invaders. The building was desecrated and looted, with the helpless occupants who sought shelter within the church being enslaved.<a href="#cite_note-Nicol_a_2-220">[217]</a> While most of the elderly and the infirm/wounded and sick were killed, and the remainder (mainly teenage males and young boys) were chained up and sold into slavery.<a href="#cite_note-Runciman_1965-144">[142]</a> The women of Constantinople also suffered from rape at the hands of Ottoman forces.<a href="#cite_note-hRhtW-223">[220]</a> According to Barbaro, "all through the day the Turks made a great slaughter of Christians through the city". According to historian <a href="/wiki/Philip_Mansel" title="Philip Mansel">Philip Mansel</a>, widespread persecution of the city's civilian inhabitants took place, resulting in thousands of murders and rapes, and 30,000 civilians being enslaved or forcibly deported.<a href="#cite_note-iK51W-224">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-Crowley2009-225">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-Akbar2002-226">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bradbury1992-227">[224]</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Sphrantzes" title="George Sphrantzes">George Sphrantzes</a> says that people of both genders were raped inside <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-228">[225]</a> Since the time of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Turkish_War" title="Great Turkish War">Austro-Turkish war (1683–1699)</a>, relations between Muslims and Christians who lived in the European provinces of the Ottoman Empire gradually deteriorated [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness">vague</a>] and this deterioration in interfaith relations occasionally resulted in calls for the expulsion or extermination of local Christian communities by some Muslim religious leaders. As a result of Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">oppression</a>, the destruction of Churches and Monasteries, and violence against the non-Muslim civilian population, <a href="/wiki/Serbs" title="Serbs">Serbian</a> Christians and their church leaders, headed by Serbian Patriarch <a href="/wiki/Arsenije_III_%C4%8Carnojevi%C4%87" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsenije III Čarnojević">Arsenije III</a>, sided with the Austrians in 1689 and again in 1737 under Serbian Patriarch <a href="/wiki/Arsenije_IV_Jovanovi%C4%87_%C5%A0akabenta" title="Arsenije IV Jovanović Šakabenta">Arsenije IV</a>. In the following punitive campaigns, Ottoman forces conducted systematic atrocities against the Christian population in the Serbian regions, resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migrations_of_the_Serbs" title="Great Migrations of the Serbs">Great Migrations of the Serbs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPavlowitch200219%E2%80%9320-229">[226]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ottoman_Albania_and_Kosovo">Ottoman Albania and Kosovo</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Ottoman Albania and Kosovo" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_Albania" title="Islamization of Albania">Islamization of Albania</a></div> Before the late 16th century, Albania's population remained overwhelmingly <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Albania" title="Christianity in Albania">Christian</a>, despite the fact that it was under Ottoman rule, unlike the more diverse populations of other regions of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, such as Bosnia, Bulgaria and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Greece" title="Northern Greece">Northern Greece</a>,<a href="#cite_note-MinkovDemographics-230">[227]</a> the mountainous Albania was a frequent site of revolts against Ottoman rule, often at an enormous human cost, such as the destruction of entire villages.<a href="#cite_note-231">[228]</a> In response, the Ottomans abandoned their usual policy of tolerating Christians in favor of a policy which was aimed at reducing the size of Albania's Christian population through <a href="/wiki/Islamization" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamization">Islamization</a>, beginning in the restive Christian regions of Reka and Elbasan in 1570.<a href="#cite_note-232">[229]</a> The pressures which resulted from this campaign included particularly harsh economic conditions which were imposed on Albania's Christian population; while earlier taxes on the Christians were around 45 <a href="/wiki/Ak%C3%A7e" title="Akçe">akçes</a> a year, by the middle of the 17th century the rate had been multiplied by 27 to 780 akçes a year. Albanian elders often opted to save their clans and villages from hunger and economic ruin by advocating village-wide and region-wide conversions to Islam, with many individuals frequently continuing to practice Christianity in private.<a href="#cite_note-233">[230]</a> A failed Catholic rebellion in 1596 and the Albanian population's support of Austro-Hungary during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Turkish_War" title="Great Turkish War">Great Turkish War</a>,<a href="#cite_note-PahumiKosovoIslamization-234">[231]</a> and its support of the Venetians in the 1644 Venetian-Ottoman War<a href="#cite_note-Ramet210-235">[232]</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Orlov_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Orlov Revolt">Orlov Revolt</a><a href="#cite_note-Ramet203-236">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-Skendi1013-237">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-Skendi1956321323-238">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vickers16-239">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-Koti1617-240">[237]</a> were all factors which led to punitive measures in which outright force was accompanied by economic incentives depending on the region, and ended up forcing the conversion of large Christian populations to Islam in Albania. In the aftermath of the Great Turkish War, massive punitive measures were imposed on Kosovo's Catholic Albanian population and as a result of them, most members of it fled to Hungary and settled around <a href="/wiki/Buda" title="Buda">Buda</a>, where most of them died of disease and starvation.<a href="#cite_note-PahumiKosovoIslamization-234">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-MalcolmRaspasani-241">[238]</a> After the Orthodox Serbian population's subsequent flight from Kosovo, the pasha of Ipek (Peja/Pec) forced Albanian Catholic mountaineers to repopulate Kosovo by deporting them to Kosovo, and also forced them adopt Islam.<a href="#cite_note-PahumiKosovoIslamization-234">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-Koti1617-240">[237]</a> In the 17th and 18th centuries, South Albania also saw numerous instances of violence which was directed against those who remained Christian by local newly converted Muslims, ultimately resulting in many more conversions out of fear as well as flight to faraway lands by the Christian population.<a href="#cite_note-Kallivretakis233-242">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hammond30-243">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ramet203-236">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hammond197662-244">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-Koukoudis2003-245">[242]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Modern_era_(1815_to_1989)">Modern era (1815 to 1989)</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Modern era (1815 to 1989)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communist_Albania">Communist Albania</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Communist Albania" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Albania#Communist_Albania" title="Religion in Albania">Religion in Albania § Communist Albania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Albania" title="Freedom of religion in Albania">Freedom of religion in Albania</a></div> Religion in Albania was subordinated to the interests of <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> during the rule of <a href="/wiki/Party_of_Labour_of_Albania" title="Party of Labour of Albania">the country's communist party</a> when all religions were suppressed. This policy was justified by the communist stance of <a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">state atheism</a> from 1967 to 1991.<a href="#cite_note-Hall1999-246">[243]</a> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Agrarian_Reform_Law_(Albania)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agrarian Reform Law (Albania) (page does not exist)">Agrarian Reform Law</a> of August 1945 nationalized most of the property which belonged to religious institutions, including the estates of mosques, monasteries, religious orders, and dioceses. Many clergy and believers were tried and some of them were executed. All foreign Roman Catholic priests, monks, and nuns were expelled from Albania in 1946.<a href="#cite_note-country-data.com-247">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-AlbaniaHandbook-248">[245]</a> The military seized churches, cathedrals and mosques and converted them into basketball courts, movie theaters, dance halls, and the like; and members of the clergy were stripped of their titles and imprisoned.<a href="#cite_note-249">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[247]</a> Around 6,000 Albanians were disappeared and murdered by agents of the Communist government, and their bodies were never found or identified. Albanians continued to be imprisoned, tortured and killed for their religious practices well into 1991.<a href="#cite_note-251">[248]</a> Religious communities or branches of them which had their headquarters outside the country, such as the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franciscans" title="Franciscans">Franciscan</a> orders, were henceforth ordered to terminate their activities in Albania. Religious institutions were forbidden to have anything to do with the education of the young, because that activity had been made the exclusive province of the state. All religious communities were prohibited from owning real estate and they were also prohibited from operating philanthropic and welfare institutions and hospitals. <a href="/wiki/Enver_Hoxha" title="Enver Hoxha">Enver Hoxha</a>'s overarching goal was the eventual destruction of all <a href="/wiki/Organized_religion" title="Organized religion">organized religions</a> in Albania, despite some variance in his approach to it.<a href="#cite_note-country-data.com-247">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-AlbaniaHandbook-248">[245]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iraq">Iraq</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Iraq" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iraq" title="Christianity in Iraq">Christianity in Iraq</a></div> The Assyrians were subjected to another series of persecutions during the <a href="/wiki/Simele_massacre" title="Simele massacre">Simele massacre</a> of 1933, with the death of approximately 3,000 Assyrian civilians in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Kingdom of Iraq</a> at the hands of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Iraqi_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Iraqi Army">Royal Iraqi Army</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1987, the last Iraqi census counted 1.4 million Christians.<a href="#cite_note-252">[249]</a> They were tolerated under the secular regime of <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>, who even made one of them, <a href="/wiki/Tariq_Aziz" title="Tariq Aziz">Tariq Aziz</a> his deputy. However, Saddam Hussein's government continued to persecute the Christians on an <a href="/wiki/Ethnic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic">ethnic</a>, cultural and racial basis, because the vast majority are Mesopotamian <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Aramaic">Eastern Aramaic</a>-speaking ethnic Assyrians (aka <a href="/wiki/Chaldo-Assyrians" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaldo-Assyrians">Chaldo-Assyrians</a>). The Assyro-Aramaic language and script was repressed, the giving of Hebraic/Aramaic Christian names or Akkadian/Assyro-Babylonian names was forbidden (for example <a href="/wiki/Tariq_Aziz" title="Tariq Aziz">Tariq Aziz</a>'s real name was Michael Youhanna), and Saddam exploited religious differences between Assyrian denominations such as <a href="/wiki/Chaldean_Catholics" title="Chaldean Catholics">Chaldean Catholics</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian Church of the East</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox_Church" title="Syriac Orthodox Church">Syriac Orthodox Church</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Pentecostal_Church" title="Assyrian Pentecostal Church">Assyrian Pentecostal Church</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Church_of_the_East" title="Ancient Church of the East">Ancient Church of the East</a>, in an attempt to divide them. Many Assyrians and Armenians were ethnically cleansed from their towns and villages during the <a href="/wiki/Al_Anfal_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Anfal Campaign">al Anfal Campaign</a> in 1988, despite the fact that this campaign was primarily directed against the Kurds.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Madagascar">Madagascar</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Madagascar" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christian_martyrs_burned_at_the_stake_in_Madagascar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Christian_martyrs_burned_at_the_stake_in_Madagascar.jpg/260px-Christian_martyrs_burned_at_the_stake_in_Madagascar.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="360" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="490" data-file-height="679"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 260px;height: 360px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Christian_martyrs_burned_at_the_stake_in_Madagascar.jpg/260px-Christian_martyrs_burned_at_the_stake_in_Madagascar.jpg" data-width="260" data-height="360" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Christian_martyrs_burned_at_the_stake_in_Madagascar.jpg/390px-Christian_martyrs_burned_at_the_stake_in_Madagascar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Christian_martyrs_burned_at_the_stake_in_Madagascar.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Christian martyrs <a href="/wiki/Burned_at_the_stake" class="mw-redirect" title="Burned at the stake">burned at the stake</a> by Ranavalona I in Madagascar</figcaption></figure> Queen <a href="/wiki/Ranavalona_I" title="Ranavalona I">Ranavalona I</a> (reigned 1828–1861) issued a royal edict prohibiting the practice of <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Madagascar" title="Christianity in Madagascar">Christianity in Madagascar</a>, expelled British missionaries from the island, and sought to <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians in Madagascar">stem the growth of conversion</a> to Christianity within her realm. Far more, however, were punished in other ways: many were required to undergo the <a href="/wiki/Tangena" title="Tangena">tangena</a> ordeal, while others were condemned to hard labor or the confiscation of their land and property, and many of these consequently died. The tangena ordeal was commonly administered to determine the guilt or innocence of an accused person for any crime, including the practice of Christianity, and involved ingestion of the poison contained within the nut of the tangena tree (<a href="/wiki/Cerbera_odollam" title="Cerbera odollam">Cerbera odollam</a>). Survivors were deemed innocent, while those who perished were assumed guilty. In 1838, it was estimated that as many as 100,000 people in Imerina died as a result of the tangena ordeal, constituting roughly 20% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-253">[250]</a> contributing to a strongly unfavorable view of Ranavalona's rule in historical accounts.<a href="#cite_note-Laidler_2005-254">[251]</a> <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Malagasy people">Malagasy</a> Christians would remember this period as ny tany maizina, or "the time when the land was dark". Persecution of Christians intensified in 1840, 1849 and 1857; in 1849, deemed the worst of these years by British missionary to Madagascar W.E. Cummins (1878), 1,900 people were fined, jailed or otherwise punished in relation to their Christian faith, including 18 executions.<a href="#cite_note-Sunday-255">[252]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nazi_Germany">Nazi Germany</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Nazi Germany" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Religion in Nazi Germany">Religion in Nazi Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_aspects_of_Nazism" title="Religious aspects of Nazism">Religious aspects of Nazism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_views_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Religious views of Adolf Hitler">Religious views of Adolf Hitler</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_Christians_(movement)" title="German Christians (movement)">German Christians (movement)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Positive_Christianity" title="Positive Christianity">Positive Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kirchenkampf" title="Kirchenkampf">Kirchenkampf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nazi_persecution_of_the_Catholic_Church_in_Germany" title="Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church in Germany">Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church in Germany</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany">Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"> <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazis</a> received some support from certain Christian fundamentalist communities, mainly due to their common cause against the anti-religious Communists, as well as their mutual <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Judeophobia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a>. Once in power, the Nazis moved to consolidate their power over the German churches and bring them in line with Nazi ideals. Some historians say that Hitler had a general covert plan, which some of them say existed even before the Nazis' rise to power, to destroy Christianity within the Reich, which was to be accomplished through Nazi control and subversion of the churches and it would be completed after the war.<a href="#cite_note-256">[253]</a> The Third Reich founded its own version of Christianity which was called <a href="/wiki/Positive_Christianity" title="Positive Christianity">Positive Christianity</a>, a Nazi version of Christianity which made major changes in the interpretation of the Bible by arguing that <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus Christ</a> was the son of God, but he was not a Jew, arguing that Jesus despised Jews and Judaism, and arguing that <a href="/wiki/Jewish_deicide" title="Jewish deicide">the Jews were the ones who were solely responsible for Jesus's death</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Outside mainstream Christianity, the <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany">Jehovah's Witnesses were targets of Nazi Persecution</a>, for their refusal to swear allegiance to the Nazi government. In Nazi Germany in the 1930s and early 1940s, <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a> refused to renounce their political neutrality and as a result, they were imprisoned in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">concentration camps</a>. The Nazi government gave detained Jehovah's Witnesses the option of release if they signed a document which indicated their renunciation of their faith, their submission to state authority, and their support of the German military.<a href="#cite_note-257">[254]</a> Historian Hans Hesse said, "Some five thousand Jehovah's Witnesses were sent to concentration camps where they alone were 'voluntary prisoners', so termed because the moment they recanted their views, they could be freed. Some lost their lives in the camps, but few renounced their faith."<a href="#cite_note-258">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-259">[256]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ottoman_Empire_2">Ottoman Empire</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Ottoman Empire" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Christianity in the Ottoman Empire">Christianity in the Ottoman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians#Persecution_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians § Persecution in the Ottoman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seyfo" class="mw-redirect" title="Seyfo">Seyfo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon" title="Great Famine of Mount Lebanon">Great Famine of Mount Lebanon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greek genocide</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/1843_and_1846_massacres_in_Hakkari" title="1843 and 1846 massacres in Hakkari">1843 and 1846 massacres in Hakkari</a></div> During the modern era, relations between Muslims and Christians in the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> were largely shaped by broader dynamics which were related to European colonial and neo-imperialist activities in the region, dynamics which frequently (though by no means always) generated tensions between the two communities. Too often, growing European influence in the region during the nineteenth century seemed to disproportionately benefit Christians, thus, it triggered resentment on the part of many Muslims, likewise, many Muslims suspected that Christians and the European powers were plotting to weaken the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islamic world</a>. Further exacerbating relations was the fact that Christians seemed to disproportionately benefit from efforts at reform (one aspect of which generally sought to elevate the political status of non-Muslims), likewise, the various Christian nationalist uprisings in the Empire's European territories, which often had the support of the European powers.<a href="#cite_note-260">[257]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1895erzurum-victims.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/1895erzurum-victims.jpg/290px-1895erzurum-victims.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="269" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5046" data-file-height="4683"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 290px;height: 269px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/1895erzurum-victims.jpg/290px-1895erzurum-victims.jpg" data-width="290" data-height="269" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/1895erzurum-victims.jpg/435px-1895erzurum-victims.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/1895erzurum-victims.jpg/580px-1895erzurum-victims.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Corpses of massacred Armenian Christians in <a href="/wiki/Erzurum" title="Erzurum">Erzurum</a> in 1895</figcaption></figure>Persecutions and forced migrations of Christian populations were induced by Ottoman forces during the 19th century in the European and Asian provinces of the Ottoman Empire. The <a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Badr_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Massacres of Badr Khan">Massacres of Badr Khan</a> were conducted by <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish people">Kurdish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> forces against the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Christian">Assyrian Christian</a> population of the Ottoman Empire between 1843 and 1847, resulting in the slaughter of more than 10,000 indigenous Assyrian civilians of the <a href="/wiki/Hakkari_(historical_region)" title="Hakkari (historical region)">Hakkari</a> region, with many thousands more being sold into <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-261">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauntBe%E1%B9%AF-%C5%9Eawoce200632-262">[259]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adana_Massacre_in_Le_Petit.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Adana_Massacre_in_Le_Petit.jpeg/170px-Adana_Massacre_in_Le_Petit.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="203" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="586" data-file-height="699"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 203px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Adana_Massacre_in_Le_Petit.jpeg/170px-Adana_Massacre_in_Le_Petit.jpeg" data-width="170" data-height="203" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Adana_Massacre_in_Le_Petit.jpeg/255px-Adana_Massacre_in_Le_Petit.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Adana_Massacre_in_Le_Petit.jpeg/340px-Adana_Massacre_in_Le_Petit.jpeg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Adana_massacre_of_1909" class="mw-redirect" title="Adana massacre of 1909">Adana massacre of 1909</a></figcaption></figure> On 17 October 1850 the Muslim majority began rioting against the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Uniate Catholics</a> – a minority that lived in the communities of Judayda, in the city of Aleppo.<a href="#cite_note-263">[260]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/April_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="April Uprising">Bulgarian Uprising (1876)</a> against Ottoman rule, and the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)</a>, the persecution of the <a href="/wiki/Bulgarians" title="Bulgarians">Bulgarian</a> Christian population was conducted by Ottoman soldiers. The principal locations were <a href="/wiki/Panagurishte" class="mw-redirect" title="Panagurishte">Panagurishte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perushtitza" class="mw-redirect" title="Perushtitza">Perushtitza</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bratzigovo" class="mw-redirect" title="Bratzigovo">Bratzigovo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chisholm_1911,_p._781-264">[261]</a> Over 15,000 non-combatant <a href="/wiki/Bulgarians" title="Bulgarians">Bulgarian</a> civilians were killed by the Ottoman army between 1876 and 1878, with the worst single instance being the <a href="/wiki/Batak_massacre" title="Batak massacre">Batak massacre</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chisholm_1911,_p._781-264">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[262]</a>: 228 During the war, whole cities including the largest Bulgarian one (<a href="/wiki/Stara_Zagora" title="Stara Zagora">Stara Zagora</a>) were destroyed and most of their inhabitants were killed, the rest being expelled or enslaved. The atrocities included impaling and grilling people alive.<a href="#cite_note-266">[263]</a> Similar attacks were undertaken by Ottoman troops against Serbian Christians during the <a href="/wiki/Attacks_on_Serbs_in_the_Serbian%E2%80%93Ottoman_War_(1876%E2%80%9378)" class="mw-redirect" title="Attacks on Serbs in the Serbian–Ottoman War (1876–78)">Serbian-Turkish War (1876–1878)</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anatolian_Metropolises_1880.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Anatolian_Metropolises_1880.svg/290px-Anatolian_Metropolises_1880.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="164" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1375" data-file-height="779"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 290px;height: 164px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Anatolian_Metropolises_1880.svg/290px-Anatolian_Metropolises_1880.svg.png" data-width="290" data-height="164" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Anatolian_Metropolises_1880.svg/435px-Anatolian_Metropolises_1880.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Anatolian_Metropolises_1880.svg/580px-Anatolian_Metropolises_1880.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Greek-Orthodox metropolises in Asia Minor, ca. 1880. Since 1923 only the <a href="/wiki/Metropolis_of_Chalcedon" title="Metropolis of Chalcedon">Metropolis of Chalcedon</a> retains a small community.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Assyrianmassacres.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Assyrianmassacres.jpg" decoding="async" width="228" height="370" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="228" data-file-height="370"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 228px;height: 370px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Assyrianmassacres.jpg" data-width="228" data-height="370" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Assyrian genocide was a mass slaughter of the Assyrian population.<a href="#cite_note-267">[264]</a></figcaption></figure> The abolition of jizya and emancipation of formerly dhimmi subjects was one of the most embittering stipulations the Ottoman Empire had to accept to end the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> in 1856. Then, "for the first time since 1453, church bells were permitted to ring... in Constantinople," writes M. J. Akbar. "Many Muslims declared it a day of mourning." Indeed, because superior social standing was from the start one of the advantages of conversion to Islam, resentful Muslim mobs rioted and hounded Christians all over the empire. In 1860 up to 30,000 Christians were massacred in the Levant alone.<a href="#cite_note-268">[265]</a> Mark Twain recounts what took place in the levant:<a href="#cite_note-269">[266]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Men, women and children were butchered indiscriminately and left to rot by hundreds all through the Christian quarter... the stench was dreadful. All the Christians who could get away fled from the city, and the Mohammedans would not defile their hands by burying the 'infidel dogs.' The thirst for blood extended to the high lands of Hermon and Anti-Lebanon, and in a short time twenty-five thousand more Christians were massacred.</blockquote> Between 1894 and 1896 a series of ethno-religiously motivated Anti-Christian <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Hamidian_massacres" title="Hamidian massacres">Hamidian massacres</a> were conducted against the ancient <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a> populations by the forces of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-270">[267]</a> The motives for these massacres were an attempt to reassert <a href="/wiki/Pan-Islamism" title="Pan-Islamism">Pan-Islamism</a> in the Ottoman Empire, resentment of the comparative wealth of the ancient indigenous Christian communities, and a fear that they would attempt to secede from the tottering Ottoman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-271">[268]</a> The massacres mainly took place in what is today southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria and northern Iraq. Assyrians and Armenians were massacred in <a href="/wiki/Diyarbakir" class="mw-redirect" title="Diyarbakir">Diyarbakir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hasankeyef" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasankeyef">Hasankeyef</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sivas" title="Sivas">Sivas</a> and other parts of Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia, by Sultan Abdul Hamid II. The death toll is estimated to have been as high as 325,000 people,<a href="#cite_note-272">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-273">[270]</a> with a further 546,000 Armenians and Assyrians made destitute by forced deportations of survivors from cities, and the destruction or theft of almost 2500 of their farmsteads towns and villages. Hundreds of churches and monasteries were also destroyed or forcibly converted into mosques.<a href="#cite_note-274">[271]</a> These attacks caused the death of over thousands of Assyrians and the forced "Ottomanisation" of the inhabitants of 245 villages. The Ottoman troops looted the remains of the Assyrian settlements and these were later stolen and occupied by south-east Anatolian tribes. Unarmed Assyrian women and children were raped, tortured and murdered.<a href="#cite_note-275">[272]</a> According to H. Aboona, the independence of the Assyrians was destroyed not directly by the Turks but by their neighbours under Ottoman auspices.<a href="#cite_note-276">[273]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Adana_massacre" title="Adana massacre">Adana massacre</a> occurred in the <a href="/wiki/Adana_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Adana Vilayet">Adana Vilayet</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in April 1909. A massacre of <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrian</a> Christians in the city of <a href="/wiki/Adana" title="Adana">Adana</a> and its surrounds amidst the <a href="/wiki/31_March_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="31 March Incident">31 March Incident</a> led to a series of anti-Christian <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a> throughout the province.<a href="#cite_note-277">[274]</a> Reports estimated that the Adana Province massacres resulted in the death of as many as 30,000 Armenians and 1,500 Assyrians.<a href="#cite_note-278">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adalian2010-279">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-280">[277]</a> Between 1915 and 1921 the <a href="/wiki/Young_Turks" title="Young Turks">Young Turks</a> government of the collapsing <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> persecuted <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern Christian</a> populations in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>, Northern <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="The Levant">The Levant</a>. The onslaught by the Ottoman army, which included Kurdish, Arab and Circassian irregulars resulted in an estimated 3.4 million deaths, divided between roughly 1.5 million <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenian</a> Christians,<a href="#cite_note-281">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-282">[279]</a> 0.75 million <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrian</a> Christians, 0.90 million <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Christians</a> and 0.25 million <a href="/wiki/Maronites" title="Maronites">Maronite Christians</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon" title="Great Famine of Mount Lebanon">Great Famine of Mount Lebanon</a>);<a href="#cite_note-283">[280]</a> groups of <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a> Christians were also killed. The massive ethnoreligious cleansing expelled from the empire or killed the <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Thracian_Bulgarians" title="Thracian Bulgarians">Bulgarians</a> who had not converted to Islam, and it came to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>,<a href="#cite_note-284">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-285">[282]</a> <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian genocide">Assyrian genocide</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Aprim2005-286">[283]</a> <a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greek genocide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rummel-157">[155]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon" title="Great Famine of Mount Lebanon">Great Famine of Mount Lebanon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-287">[284]</a><a href="#cite_note-288">[285]</a> which accounted for the deaths of Armenian, Assyrian, Greek and Maronite Christians, and the deportation and destitution of many more. The Genocide led to the devastation of ancient <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous</a> Christian populations who had existed in the region for thousands of years.<a href="#cite_note-289">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-290">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-291">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-292">[289]</a> <a href="/wiki/Benny_Morris" title="Benny Morris">Benny Morris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dror_Ze%27evi" title="Dror Ze'evi">Dror Ze'evi</a> argue that the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a> and other contemporaneous <a href="#Ottoman_Empire">persecution of Christians in the Ottoman Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greek genocide</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian genocide">Assyrian genocide</a>) constitute an extermination campaign, or <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>, carried out by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> against <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Christianity in the Ottoman Empire">its Christian subjects</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Morris-293">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gutman-294">[291]</a><a href="#cite_note-Morris-Zeevi_2021-2">[2]</a> In the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Said_rebellion" title="Sheikh Said rebellion">Sheikh Said rebellion</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox_Church" title="Syriac Orthodox Church">Syriac Orthodox Church</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian Church of the East</a> were subjected to harassment by Turkish authorities, on the grounds that some <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a> allegedly collaborated with the rebelling <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurds</a>.<a href="#cite_note-295">[292]</a> Consequently, mass deportations took place and Assyrian Patriarch <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mar_Ignatius_Elias_III&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mar Ignatius Elias III (page does not exist)">Mar Ignatius Elias III</a> was expelled from the <a href="/wiki/Mor_Hananyo_Monastery" title="Mor Hananyo Monastery">Mor Hananyo Monastery</a> which was turned into a Turkish barrack. The patriarchal seat was then temporarily transferred to <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_Union">Soviet Union</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Soviet Union" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg/220px-Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="610"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 168px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg/220px-Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="168" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg/330px-Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg/440px-Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Demolition of the <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_Christ_the_Saviour" title="Cathedral of Christ the Saviour">Cathedral of Christ the Saviour</a> on 5 December 1931: The USSR's official <a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">state atheism</a> resulted in the <a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1921%E2%80%931928)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)">1921–1928 anti-religious campaign</a>, during which many "church institution[s] at [the] local, diocesan or national level were systematically destroyed."<a href="#cite_note-296">[293]</a></figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union#Freedom_of_religion" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights in the Soviet Union § Freedom of religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Operation_North" title="Operation North">Operation North</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union">Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Religion in the Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_anti-religious_legislation" title="Soviet anti-religious legislation">Soviet anti-religious legislation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc">Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc</a></div> After the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> of 1917, the <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a> undertook a massive program to remove the influence of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox Church</a> from the government, outlawed <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a> in society, and promoted <a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">atheism</a>. Tens of thousands of churches were destroyed or they were converted to buildings which were used for other purposes, and many members of the clergy were murdered, publicly executed and imprisoned for what the government termed "anti-government activities". An extensive educational and propaganda campaign was launched to convince people, especially children and youths, to abandon their religious beliefs. This persecution resulted in the intentional murder of 500,000 Orthodox followers by the government of the Soviet Union during the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-russian_orthodox_killed-297">[294]</a> In the first five years after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed.<a href="#cite_note-Ostling-298">[295]</a> The state established <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a> as the only scientific truth.<a href="#cite_note-peris-299">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-300">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vladimir_pg_291-301">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-302">[299]</a> Soviet authorities forbade the criticism of atheism and agnosticism until 1936 or of the state's anti-religious policies; such criticism could lead to forced retirement.<a href="#cite_note-303">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-304">[301]</a><a href="#cite_note-305">[302]</a> Militant atheism became central to the ideology of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> and a high priority policy of all Soviet leaders.<a href="#cite_note-Froese,_Paul_2005-306">[303]</a> Christopher Marsh, a professor at the <a href="/wiki/Baylor_University" title="Baylor University">Baylor University</a> writes that "Tracing the social nature of religion from Schleiermacher and Feurbach to Marx, Engles, and Lenin...the idea of religion as a social product evolved to the point of policies aimed at the forced conversion of believers to atheism."<a href="#cite_note-Marsh2011-307">[304]</a> Under the doctrine of state atheism in the Soviet Union, a "government-sponsored program of forced conversion to <a href="/wiki/Marxist-Leninist_atheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist-Leninist atheism">atheism</a>" was conducted by the Communists.<a href="#cite_note-308">[305]</a><a href="#cite_note-309">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adappur2000-310">[307]</a> The Communist Party destroyed churches, mosques and <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">temples</a>, ridiculed, harassed, incarcerated and executed religious leaders, flooded the schools and media with anti-religious teachings, and it introduced a belief system called "<a href="/wiki/Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist_atheism" title="Marxist–Leninist atheism">scientific atheism</a>", with its own rituals, promises and proselytizers.<a href="#cite_note-Paul_Froese_2004_pp._35%E2%80%9350-311">[308]</a><a href="#cite_note-Haskins,_Ekaterina_V_2009-312">[309]</a> Many priests were killed and imprisoned; thousands of churches were closed. In 1925 the government founded the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Militant_Atheists" title="League of Militant Atheists">League of Militant Atheists</a> to intensify the persecution.<a href="#cite_note-313">[310]</a> The League of Militant Atheists was also a "nominally independent organization established by the Communist Party to promote atheism".<a href="#cite_note-314">[311]</a> The Communist regime confiscated church property, ridiculed religion, harassed believers, and propagated atheism in the schools. Actions against particular religions, however, were determined by State interests, and most <a href="/wiki/Organized_religion" title="Organized religion">organized religions</a> were never outlawed. It is estimated that 500,000 Russian Orthodox Christians were martyred in the <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">gulags</a> by the Soviet government, excluding the members of other <a href="/wiki/Christian_denominations" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian denominations">Christian denominations</a> who were also tortured or killed.<a href="#cite_note-russian_orthodox_killed-297">[294]</a> The main target of the anti-religious campaign in the 1920s and 1930s was the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox Church</a>, which had the largest number of faithful worshippers. A very large segment of its clergy, and many of its believers, were shot or sent to <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">labor camps</a>. Theological schools were closed, and church publications were prohibited. In the period between 1927 and 1940, the number of Orthodox Churches in the Russian Republic fell from 29,584 to less than 500. Between 1917 and 1940, 130,000 Orthodox priests were arrested. The widespread persecution and internecine disputes within the church hierarchy lead to the seat of <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch of Moscow">Patriarch of Moscow</a> being vacant from 1925 to 1943. After <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a>, Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> revived the Russian Orthodox Church in order to intensify the Soviet population's patriotic support of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">war effort</a>. By 1957, about 22,000 Russian Orthodox churches had become active. But in 1959, <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> initiated his own campaign against the Russian Orthodox Church and forced about 12,000 churches to close. By 1985, fewer than 7,000 churches remained active.<a href="#cite_note-Ostling-298">[295]</a> In the Soviet Union, in addition to the methodical closure and destruction of churches, the charitable and social work which was formerly done by ecclesiastical authorities was taken over by the state. As with all private property, Church owned property was confiscated and converted to public use by the state. The few places of worship which were left to the Church were legally viewed as state property which the government permitted the church to use. After the advent of state funded universal education, the Church was not permitted to carry on educational, instructional activity for children. For adults, only training for church-related occupations was allowed. With the exception of sermons which could be delivered during the celebration of the divine liturgy, it could not instruct the faithful nor could it evangelize the youth. Catechism classes, religious schools, study groups, Sunday schools and religious publications were all declared illegal and banned. This caused many religious tracts to be circulated as illegal literature or <a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">samizdat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-google-199">[196]</a> Even after the <a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Joseph_Stalin" title="Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin">death of Stalin</a> in 1953, the persecution continued, and it did not end until the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> in 1991. Since the fall of the Soviet Union, the Russian Orthodox Church has recognized a number of <a href="/wiki/New-martyr" class="mw-redirect" title="New-martyr">New Martyrs</a> as saints, some of whom were executed during the <a href="/wiki/Mass_operations_of_the_NKVD" title="Mass operations of the NKVD">Mass operations of the NKVD</a> under directives like <a href="/wiki/NKVD_Order_No._00447" title="NKVD Order No. 00447">NKVD Order No. 00447</a>. Both before and after the October Revolution of 7 November 1917 (25 October Old Calendar), there was a movement within the Soviet Union which sought to unite all of the people of the world under Communist rule (see <a href="/wiki/Communist_International" title="Communist International">Communist International</a>). This movement spread to the Eastern European bloc countries as well as the Balkan States. Since the populations of some of these Slavic countries tied their ethnic heritages to their ethnic churches, the people and their churches were both targeted for ethnic and political genocide by the Soviets and their form of <a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-315">[312]</a><a href="#cite_note-316">[313]</a> The Soviets' official religious stance was one of "religious freedom or tolerance", though the state established atheism as the only scientific truth (see also the Soviet or committee of the All-Union Society for the Dissemination of Scientific and Political Knowledge or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Znanie_(society)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Znanie (society) (page does not exist)">Znanie</a> which was until 1947 called <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Godless" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of the Godless">The League of the Militant Godless</a> and various <a href="/wiki/Intelligentsia" title="Intelligentsia">Intelligentsia</a> groups).<a href="#cite_note-Vladimir_pg_291-301">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-302">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-317">[314]</a> Criticism of atheism was strictly forbidden and sometimes, it resulted in imprisonment.<a href="#cite_note-Froese2008-318">[315]</a><a href="#cite_note-FranklinWiddis2006-319">[316]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bevan2016-320">[317]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ramet1990-321">[318]</a> Some of the more high-profile individuals who were executed include <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_of_Petrograd" title="Benjamin of Petrograd">Metropolitan Benjamin of Petrograd</a>, priest and scientist <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a>. According to James M. Nelson a psychology professor at <a href="/wiki/East_Carolina_University" title="East Carolina University">East Carolina University</a>, the total number of Christian victims under the Soviet regime may have been around 12 million,<a href="#cite_note-322">[319]</a> while Todd Johnson and Gina Zurlo of <a href="/wiki/Gordon-Conwell_Theological_Seminary" class="mw-redirect" title="Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary">Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary</a> at <a href="/wiki/Boston_University" title="Boston University">Boston University</a> estimate a figure of 15–20 million.<a href="#cite_note-323">[320]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">unreliable source?</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain">Spain</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Spain" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Red_Terror_(Spain)" title="Red Terror (Spain)">Red Terror (Spain)</a> and <a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Spain)" title="White Terror (Spain)">White Terror (Spain)</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic" title="Second Spanish Republic">Second Spanish Republic</a>, proclaimed in 1931, attempted to establish a regime with a separation between State and Church as it had happened in France (1905). When established, the Republic passed legislation which prevented the Church from conducting educational activities. A process of political polarisation had characterised the Spanish Second Republic, party divisions became increasingly embittered and questions of religious identity came to assume major political significance. The existence of different Church institutions was an illustration of the situation which resulted from the proclamation which denounced the 2nd Republic as an anti-Catholic, Masonic, Jewish, and Communist internationalist conspiracy which heralded a clash between God and atheism, chaos and harmony, Good and Evil.<a href="#cite_note-Dronds_2013-324">[321]</a>: 201–202 The Church's high-ranking officials like Isidro Goma, bishop of <a href="/wiki/Tudela,_Navarre" title="Tudela, Navarre">Tudela</a>, reminded their Christian subjects of their obligation to vote "for the righteous", and their priests of their obligation to "educate the consciences."<a href="#cite_note-Dronds_2013-324">[321]</a>: 220 In the <a href="/wiki/Asturian_miners%27_strike_of_1934" title="Asturian miners' strike of 1934">Asturian miners' strike of 1934</a>, part of the <a href="/wiki/Revolution_of_1934" title="Revolution of 1934">Revolution of 1934</a>, 34 Catholic priests were massacred and churches were systematically burned.<a href="#cite_note-:13-325">[322]</a> Anticlerical opinion accused the Catholic priesthood and religious orders of hypocrisy: clerics were guilty of taking up arms against the people, of exploiting others for the sake of wealth, and of sexual immorality all while claiming the moral authority of peacefulness, poverty, and chastity.<a href="#cite_note-:13-325">[322]</a> Since the early stages of the Second Republic, far-right forces which were imbued with an ultra-Catholic spirit attempted to overthrow the Republic. <a href="/wiki/Carlists" class="mw-redirect" title="Carlists">Carlists</a>, Africanistas, and Catholic theologians fostered an atmosphere of social and racial hatred in their speeches and writings.<a href="#cite_note-Preston_2013-326">[323]</a>: 44–45 The Catholic Church endorsed the rebellion which was led by the fascist <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XI" title="Pope Pius XI">Pope Pius XI</a> expressed sympathy for the Nationalist side during the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:13-325">[322]</a> The Catholic authorities described Franco's war as a "crusade" against the Second Republic, and later the <a href="/wiki/Collective_Letter_of_the_Spanish_Bishops,_1937" title="Collective Letter of the Spanish Bishops, 1937">Collective Letter of the Spanish Bishops, 1937</a> appeared, justifying Franco's attack on the Republic.<a href="#cite_note-:13-325">[322]</a> A similar approach is attested in 1912, when the bishop of <a href="/wiki/Almer%C3%ADa" title="Almería">Almería</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jos%C3%A9_Ignacio_de_Urbina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="José Ignacio de Urbina (page does not exist)">José Ignacio de Urbina</a> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ignacio_de_Urbina" class="extiw" title="es:José Ignacio de Urbina">es</a>] (founder of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Liga_Nacional_Antimas%C3%B3nica_y_Antisemita&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liga Nacional Antimasónica y Antisemita (page does not exist)">National Anti-Masonic and Anti-Semitic League</a> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liga_Nacional_Antimas%C3%B3nica_y_Antisemita" class="extiw" title="es:Liga Nacional Antimasónica y Antisemita">es</a>]) announced "a decisive battle that must be unleashed" between the "light" and "darkness".<a href="#cite_note-Preston_2013-326">[323]</a>: 4 Though the official declaration of the "crusade" followed the Republican persecution of Catholic clerics, the Catholic Church was already predisposed towards Franco's position, because it was seen as the "perfect ally of fascism" while it opposed the anticlerical policies of the Second Republic.<a href="#cite_note-:13-325">[322]</a> The 1936 anticlerical persecution has been seen as "final phase of a long war between clericalism and anticlericalism"<a href="#cite_note-327">[324]</a> and "fully consistent with a Spanish history of popular anticlericalism and anticlerical populism".<a href="#cite_note-:13-325">[322]</a> Stanley Payne suggested that the persecution of right-wingers and people who were associated with the Catholic church both before and at the beginning of the Spanish Civil War involved the murder of priests and other clergy, as well as thousands of lay people, by sections of nearly all leftist groups, while a killing spree was also unleashed across the Nationalist zone.<a href="#cite_note-328">[325]</a> During the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939, and especially during the early months of the conflict, individual clergymen and entire religious communities were executed by leftists, some of whom were <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchists</a>. The death toll of the clergy alone included 13 bishops, 4,172 diocesan priests and seminarians, 2,364 monks and friars and 283 nuns, reaching a total of 6,832 clerical victims.<a href="#cite_note-:13-325">[322]</a> The main perpetrators of the Red Terror were members of the anarchist <a href="/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Anarquista_Ib%C3%A9rica" class="mw-redirect" title="Federación Anarquista Ibérica">Federación Anarquista Ibérica</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Confederaci%C3%B3n_Nacional_del_Trabajo" title="Confederación Nacional del Trabajo">Confederación Nacional del Trabajo</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Trotskyist" class="mw-redirect" title="Trotskyist">Trotskyist</a> <a href="/wiki/Workers%27_Party_of_Marxist_Unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Workers' Party of Marxist Unification">Workers' Party of Marxist Unification</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:13-325">[322]</a> These organizations distanced themselves from the violence, condemned those who were responsible for it or characterized the killings as mob reprisals for acts of violence which had been perpetrated by the clerics themselves, an explanation which was readily accepted by the public.<a href="#cite_note-:13-325">[322]</a> In addition to the murder of both the clergy and the faithful, the destruction of churches and the desecration of sacred sites and objects was also widespread. On the night of 19 July 1936 alone, some fifty churches were burned.<a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_1983-329">[326]</a>: 45 In <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>, out of the 58 churches, only the cathedral was spared, and similar desecrations occurred almost everywhere in Republican Spain.<a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_1983-329">[326]</a>: 46 Two exceptions were <a href="/wiki/Biscay" title="Biscay">Biscay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gipuzkoa" title="Gipuzkoa">Gipuzkoa</a> where the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Democratic">Christian Democratic</a> <a href="/wiki/Basque_Nationalist_Party" title="Basque Nationalist Party">Basque Nationalist Party</a>, after some hesitation, supported the Republic and halted the persecution of Catholics in areas which were held by the <a href="/wiki/Basque_Government" title="Basque Government">Basque Government</a>. All other Catholic churches which were located in the Republican zone were closed. The desecration was not limited to Catholic churches, because synagogues and Protestant churches were also pillaged and closed, but some small Protestant churches were spared. The rising Franco's regime would keep Protestant churches and synagogues closed, as he only permitted the Catholic Church.<a href="#cite_note-google2-330">[327]</a>: 215 Payne called the terror the "most extensive and violent persecution of Catholicism in Western History, in some way even more intense than that of the <a href="/wiki/Dechristianisation_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution">French Revolution</a>."<a href="#cite_note-google2-330">[327]</a>: 13 The persecution drove Catholics to the side of the Nationalists, even more of them sided with the Nationalists than would have been expected, because they defended their religious interests and survival.<a href="#cite_note-google2-330">[327]</a>: 13 The Roman Catholic priests who were killed during the Red Terror are considered "<a href="/wiki/Martyrs_of_the_Spanish_Civil_War" title="Martyrs of the Spanish Civil War">Martyrs of the Spanish Civil War</a>", though the priests who were executed by the fascists are not counted among them. A group known as the "<a href="/wiki/498_Spanish_Martyrs" title="498 Spanish Martyrs">498 Spanish Martyrs</a>" were <a href="/wiki/Beatified" class="mw-redirect" title="Beatified">beatified</a> by the Roman Catholic Church's <a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a> in 2007. The history of the Red Terror has been obscured by scholarly inattention and the "embarrassing partiality" of ecclesiastical historians.<a href="#cite_note-:13-325">[322]</a> Some of the numerous non-fascists who were persecuted during Franco's <a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Spain)" title="White Terror (Spain)">White Terror</a> were Protestants, because the fascists accused them of being associated with <a href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Freemasonry</a>, and the persecution which they were subjected to during Franco's White Terror was much more intense than the persecution which they were subjected to during the <a href="/wiki/Red_Terror_(Spain)" title="Red Terror (Spain)">Red Terror</a>.<a href="#cite_note-331">[328]</a><a href="#cite_note-332">[329]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: United States" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of religion in the United States">Freedom of religion in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">History of religion in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States#Freedom_of_religion" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights in the United States § Freedom of religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">Religion in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Religious discrimination in the United States">Religious discrimination in the United States</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Latter Day Saint Movement">Latter Day Saints</a>, (<a href="/wiki/Mormons" title="Mormons">Mormons</a>) have been <a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">persecuted</a> since their founding in the 1830s. The persecution of the Mormons drove them from New York and <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a> to <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a>, where they continued to be subjected to violent attacks. In 1838, Missouri Gov. <a href="/wiki/Lilburn_Boggs" title="Lilburn Boggs">Lilburn Boggs</a> declared that Mormons had made war on the state of Missouri, so they "must be treated as enemies, and must be exterminated or driven from the state"<a href="#cite_note-Feldman-333">[330]</a> At least 10,000 were expelled from the State. In the most violent altercation which occurred at that time, the <a href="/wiki/Haun%27s_Mill_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Haun's Mill massacre">Haun's Mill massacre</a>, 17 Mormons were murdered by an anti-Mormon mob and 13 other Mormons were wounded.<a href="#cite_note-334">[331]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Executive_Order_44" title="Missouri Executive Order 44">Extermination Order</a> which was signed by Governor Boggs was not formally invalidated until 25 June 1976, 137 years after being signed. The Mormons subsequently fled to <a href="/wiki/Nauvoo,_Illinois" title="Nauvoo, Illinois">Nauvoo</a>, Illinois, where hostilities again escalated. In Carthage, Ill., where <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Smith" title="Joseph Smith">Joseph Smith</a> was being held on the charge of <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a>, a mob stormed the jail and killed him. Smith's brother, Hyrum, was also killed. After a <a href="/wiki/Succession_crisis_(Latter_Day_Saints)" title="Succession crisis (Latter Day Saints)">succession crisis</a>, most united under <a href="/wiki/Brigham_Young" title="Brigham Young">Brigham Young</a>, who organized an evacuation from the United States after the federal government refused to protect them.<a href="#cite_note-335">[332]</a> 70,000 <a href="/wiki/Mormon_pioneers" title="Mormon pioneers">Mormon pioneers</a> crossed the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> to settle in the <a href="/wiki/Salt_Lake_Valley" title="Salt Lake Valley">Salt Lake Valley</a> and surrounding areas. After the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a>, the area became the US <a href="/wiki/Utah_Territory" title="Utah Territory">territory of Utah</a>. Over the next 63 years, several actions by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a> were directed against Mormons in the <a href="/wiki/Mormon_Corridor" class="mw-redirect" title="Mormon Corridor">Mormon Corridor</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Utah_War" title="Utah War">Utah War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Morrill_Anti-Bigamy_Act" title="Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act">Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Poland_Act" title="Poland Act">Poland Act</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reynolds_v._United_States" title="Reynolds v. United States">Reynolds v. United States</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Edmunds_Act" title="Edmunds Act">Edmunds Act</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Edmunds%E2%80%93Tucker_Act" title="Edmunds–Tucker Act">Edmunds–Tucker Act</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Reed_Smoot_hearings" title="Reed Smoot hearings">Reed Smoot hearings</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KKK_-_St_Patricks_Dau_(cr).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/KKK_-_St_Patricks_Dau_%28cr%29.jpg/220px-KKK_-_St_Patricks_Dau_%28cr%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1450" data-file-height="1160"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 176px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/KKK_-_St_Patricks_Dau_%28cr%29.jpg/220px-KKK_-_St_Patricks_Dau_%28cr%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="176" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/KKK_-_St_Patricks_Dau_%28cr%29.jpg/330px-KKK_-_St_Patricks_Dau_%28cr%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/KKK_-_St_Patricks_Dau_%28cr%29.jpg/440px-KKK_-_St_Patricks_Dau_%28cr%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>In this 1926 cartoon, the Ku Klux Klan chases the Roman Catholic Church, personified by <a href="/wiki/St_Patrick" class="mw-redirect" title="St Patrick">St Patrick</a>, from the shores of America.</figcaption></figure> The second iteration of the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>, founded in 1915 and launched in the 1920s, persecuted Catholics in both the United States and <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan_in_Canada" title="Ku Klux Klan in Canada">Canada</a>. As stated in its official rhetoric which focused on the threat of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>, the Klan was motivated by <a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Catholicism in the United States">anti-Catholicism</a> and American <a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">nativism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pegram-336">[333]</a> Its appeal was exclusively directed towards <a href="/wiki/White_Anglo-Saxon_Protestants" title="White Anglo-Saxon Protestants">white Anglo-Saxon Protestants</a>; it opposed <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_people" title="Black people">blacks</a>, Catholics, and newly arriving <a href="/wiki/Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">Southern</a> and Eastern European immigrants such as Italians, <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lithuanians" title="Lithuanians">Lithuanians</a>, many of whom were either Jewish or Catholic.<a href="#cite_note-337">[334]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Warsaw_Pact">Warsaw Pact</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Warsaw Pact" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cerkiew_Teodory_z_Sihli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Cerkiew_Teodory_z_Sihli.jpg/220px-Cerkiew_Teodory_z_Sihli.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="1840"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 124px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Cerkiew_Teodory_z_Sihli.jpg/220px-Cerkiew_Teodory_z_Sihli.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="124" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Cerkiew_Teodory_z_Sihli.jpg/330px-Cerkiew_Teodory_z_Sihli.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Cerkiew_Teodory_z_Sihli.jpg/440px-Cerkiew_Teodory_z_Sihli.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/St._Teodora_de_la_Sihla_Church" title="St. Teodora de la Sihla Church">St. Teodora de la Sihla Church</a> in <a href="/wiki/Central_Chi%C8%99in%C4%83u" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Chișinău">Central Chișinău</a> was one of the churches that were "converted into museums of atheism", under the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist_atheism" title="Marxist–Leninist atheism">Marxist–Leninist atheism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BrezianuSp%C3%A2nu2010-338">[335]</a></figcaption></figure> Across Eastern Europe following World War II, the parts of the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi Empire">Nazi Empire</a> which were conquered by the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> and <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> became one-party Communist states and the project of coercive conversion to atheism continued.<a href="#cite_note-339">[336]</a><a href="#cite_note-340">[337]</a> The Soviet Union ended its war time truce with the Russian Orthodox Church, and <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc">extended its persecutions to the newly Communist Eastern bloc</a>: "In <a href="/wiki/Polish_anti-religious_campaign" title="Polish anti-religious campaign">Poland</a>, Hungary, Lithuania and other Eastern European countries, Catholic leaders who were unwilling to be silent were denounced, publicly humiliated or imprisoned by the Communists. Leaders of the national Orthodox Churches in <a href="/wiki/Anti-religious_campaign_of_Communist_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-religious campaign of Communist Romania">Romania</a> and Bulgaria had to be cautious and submissive", wrote <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Blainey" title="Geoffrey Blainey">Geoffrey Blainey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Viking_p._494-341">[338]</a> While the churches were generally not persecuted as harshly as they had been in the USSR, nearly all of their schools and many of their churches were closed, and they lost their formally prominent roles in public life. Children were taught atheism, and clergy were imprisoned by the thousands.<a href="#cite_note-Viking_p._508-342">[339]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a>, Christian churches, along with Jewish synagogues and Islamic mosques were forcibly "converted into museums of atheism."<a href="#cite_note-FranklinWiddis2006-319">[316]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bevan2016-320">[317]</a> Along with executions, some other actions which were taken against Orthodox priests and believers included <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a>, being sent to <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">prison camps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sharashka" title="Sharashka">labour camps</a> or <a href="/wiki/Psikhushka" title="Psikhushka">mental hospitals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-google-199">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-343">[340]</a><a href="#cite_note-344">[341]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Current_situation_(1989_to_the_present)">Current situation (1989 to the present)</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Current situation (1989 to the present)" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era</a></div> In 2010, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a> claimed that Christians were the most persecuted religious group in the <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">contemporary world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-345">[342]</a> In a speech to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council" title="United Nations Human Rights Council">United Nations Human Rights Council</a>'s 23rd session in May 2013, then-<a href="/wiki/Permanent_Observer_of_the_Holy_See_to_the_United_Nations_in_Geneva" title="Permanent Observer of the Holy See to the United Nations in Geneva">Permanent Observer of the Holy See to the United Nations in Geneva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silvano_Maria_Tomasi" title="Silvano Maria Tomasi">Silvano Maria Tomasi</a> claimed that "an estimate of more than 100,000 Christians are violently killed because of some relation to their faith every year".<a href="#cite_note-:1-346">[343]</a> This number was supported by the Center for the Study of Global Christianity at the evangelical <a href="/wiki/Gordon%E2%80%93Conwell_Theological_Seminary" title="Gordon–Conwell Theological Seminary">Gordon–Conwell Theological Seminary</a> in <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>, which published a statement in December 2016 stating that "between 2005 and 2015 there were 900,000 Christian martyrs worldwide – an average of 90,000 per year."<a href="#cite_note-347">[344]</a> Tomasi's radio address to the council called the figures both a "shocking conclusion" and "credible research".<a href="#cite_note-:1-346">[343]</a> The accuracy of this number, based on population estimates in a 1982 edition of the <a href="/wiki/World_Christian_Encyclopedia" title="World Christian Encyclopedia">World Christian Encyclopedia</a>, is disputed.<a href="#cite_note-BBC-martyrs-348">[345]</a><a href="#cite_note-igfm-349">[346]</a> Almost all died in wars in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where all sides of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a> and subsequent conflicts are majority-Christian, and previous years included victims of the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">ethnic conflict</a> and a part of the <a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War</a> where again most belligerents were Christian.<a href="#cite_note-BBC-martyrs-348">[345]</a> As a result, the <a href="/wiki/BBC_News_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="BBC News Magazine">BBC News Magazine</a> cautioned that "when you hear that 100,000 Christians are dying for their faith, you need to keep in mind that the vast majority – 90,000 – are people who were killed in DR Congo."<a href="#cite_note-BBC-martyrs-348">[345]</a> Klaus Wetzel, an internationally recognized expert on religious persecution, states that this discrepancy in numbers is due to the contradiction between the definition used by Gordon-Conwell defining Christian martyrdom in the widest possible sense, and the more sociological and political definition Wetzel and Open Doors and others such as The International Institute for Religious Freedom use, which is: 'those who are killed, who would not have been killed, if they had not been Christians.'<a href="#cite_note-igfm-349">[346]</a> Numbers are affected by several important factors, for example, population distribution is a factor. The United States submits an annual report on religious freedom and persecution to the Congress which recognizes restrictions on religious freedom, ranging from low to very high, in three-quarters of the world's countries including the United States. In approximatrly one quarter of the world's countries, there are high and very high restrictions and oppression, and some of those countries, such as China and India, Indonesia and Pakistan are among those with the highest populations.<a href="#cite_note-350">[347]</a> About three-quarters of the world's population live in the most oppressive countries in the world.<a href="#cite_note-igfm-349">[346]</a> Numbers of martyrs are especially difficult to accurately identify, because religious persecution often occurs in conjunction with wider conflicts. This fact complicates the identification of acts of persecution because they may be politically rather than religiously motivated.<a href="#cite_note-Grim-351">[348]</a>: xii For example, the U.S. Department of State identified 1.4 million <a href="/wiki/Christians_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Christians in Iraq">Christians in Iraq</a> in 1991 when the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> began. By 2010, the number of Christians dropped to 700,000 and by 2011 it was estimated that there were between 450,000 and 200,000 Christians left in Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-Grim-351">[348]</a>: 135 During that period, actions against Christians included the burning and bombing of churches, the bombing of Christian owned businesses and homes, kidnapping, murder, demands for protection money, and anti-Christian rhetoric in the media with those responsible saying that they wanted to rid the country of its Christians.<a href="#cite_note-Grim-351">[348]</a>: 135–138 A report which was released by the UK's <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Foreign_and_Commonwealth_Affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs">Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs</a> and prepared by <a href="/wiki/Philip_Mounstephen" title="Philip Mounstephen">Philip Mounstephen</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Truro" title="Bishop of Truro">Bishop of Truro</a>, in July 2019, and a report on worldwide restrictions on religious freedom by the PEW organization, both stated that the number of countries where Christians were suffering as a result of religious persecution was increasing, rising from 125 in 2015 to 144 as of 2018.<a href="#cite_note-352">[349]</a><a href="#cite_note-353">[350]</a><a href="#cite_note-354">[351]</a><a href="#cite_note-355">[note 3]</a> PEW has published a caution concerning the interpretation of its numbers: "The Center's recent report ... does not attempt to estimate the number of victims in each country... it does not speak to the intensity of harassment..."<a href="#cite_note-356">[352]</a> The Internationale Gesellschaft für Menschenrechte<a href="#cite_note-357">[353]</a> – the International Society for Human Rights – in Frankfurt, Germany, is a non-governmental organization with 30,000 members from 38 countries who monitor human rights. In September 2009, then chairman Martin Lessenthin,<a href="#cite_note-358">[354]</a> issued a report estimating that 80% of acts of religious persecution around the world were aimed at Christians at that time.<a href="#cite_note-359">[355]</a><a href="#cite_note-360">[356]</a> W. J. Blumenfeld says that Christianity enjoys <a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">dominant group privilege</a> in the US and some other Western societies.<a href="#cite_note-361">[357]</a> Christianity is, numerically, the largest <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">religion in the U.S.</a> according to PEW, with 43% of <a href="/wiki/Americans" title="Americans">Americans</a> identifying themselves as <a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_the_United_States" title="Protestantism in the United States">Protestants</a> and one in five (20%) of Americans identifying themselves as <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_United_States" title="Catholic Church in the United States">Catholics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PEW_decline-362">[358]</a> It remains the largest religion in the world.<a href="#cite_note-363">[359]</a> Roughly two-thirds of the world's countries have Christian majorities.<a href="#cite_note-Kishi-364">[360]</a> Due to the large number of Christian majority countries, differing groups of Christians are harassed and persecuted in Christian countries such as Eritrea<a href="#cite_note-Eritrea-365">[361]</a> and Mexico<a href="#cite_note-Mexico-366">[362]</a> more often than in most Muslim countries, though not in greater numbers.<a href="#cite_note-Kishi-364">[360]</a> According to PEW, the Middle East and North Africa have experienced the highest rates of restrictions on non-favorite religions for the last decade, being higher than any other region, each year, from 2007 to 2017.<a href="#cite_note-PEW_religion_report-367">[363]</a> But it's the gap between this region and other regions where government favoritism is concerned that is particularly large: "the average country in this region scores nearly twice as high on measures of government favoritism of one religion as the average country in any other region".<a href="#cite_note-PEW_religion_report-367">[363]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Commission_on_International_Religious_Freedom" title="United States Commission on International Religious Freedom">United States Commission on International Religious Freedom</a>, a bipartisan independent federal agency which was created by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> in 1998, published a study of the predominantly Muslim countries which are located in the Middle Eastern/North African region. It concludes that, of the world's 1.3 billion Muslims, "28 percent live in ten countries that declare themselves to be <a href="/wiki/Islamic_state" title="Islamic state">Islamic states</a>. In addition, there are 12 predominantly Muslim countries that have chosen to declare that <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> is the official state religion ... Taken together, the 22 states that declare that Islam is the official religion account for 58 percent – or just over 600 million – of the 1 billion Muslims living in 44 predominantly Muslim countries.<a href="#cite_note-constitutions-368">[364]</a>: 6 "Several countries with constitutions establishing Islam as the state religion either do not contain guarantees of the right to freedom of religion or belief, or they contain guarantees that, on their face, do not compare favorably with all aspects of international [human rights] standards."<a href="#cite_note-constitutions-368">[364]</a>: 16 All of these countries defer to religious authorities or doctrines on legal issues in some way.<a href="#cite_note-PEW_religion_report-367">[363]</a> For example, "when one spouse is Muslim and the other has a different religion (such as <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria">Coptic Christianity</a>), or if spouses are members of different <a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Christian denominations</a>, courts still defer to Islamic family law."<a href="#cite_note-PEW_religion_report-367">[363]</a> Grim and Finke say their studies indicate that: "When religious freedoms are denied through the regulation of religious profession or practice, violent religious persecution and conflict increase."<a href="#cite_note-Grim_and_Finke-369">[365]</a>: 6 In its annual report, the USCIRF lists 14 "Countries of Particular Concern" with regard to religious rights and it also lists 15 additional countries which it has recommended be placed on the U.S. Department of State's Special Watch List (SWL), a lesser category than the CPC designation.<a href="#cite_note-USCIRF-11">[11]</a> Twenty four of the USCIRF's twenty nine countries are also included on Open Doors Worldwide Watch list because they are especially dangerous for Christians.<a href="#cite_note-370">[366]</a> Eleven predominantly Muslim countries are ruled by governments which proclaim that their states are secular. "These countries account for nearly 140 million Muslims, or 13.5 percent of the 1 billion Muslims living in predominantly Muslim countries. The 11 remaining predominantly Muslim countries have not made any constitutional declaration concerning the Islamic or secular nature of the state, and have not made Islam the official state religion. This group of countries, which includes Indonesia, the world's largest Muslim country, accounts for over 250 million Muslims".<a href="#cite_note-constitutions-368">[364]</a>: 6 This demonstrates that the majority of the world's Muslim population live in countries that either proclaim the state to be secular, or that make no pronouncements concerning Islam as the official state religion.<a href="#cite_note-constitutions-368">[364]</a>: 2 </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/31px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 31px;height: 28px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/31px-P_christianity.svg.png" data-alt="icon" data-width="31" data-height="28" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/47px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/62px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Anti-Christian sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">Criticism of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Critics_of_Christianity" title="Category:Critics of Christianity">Category:Critics of Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Anti-Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">Anti-Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Anti-Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence_among_Christians" title="Sectarian violence among Christians">Sectarian violence among Christians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_terrorism" title="Hindu terrorism">Hindu terrorism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_Christians_in_India" title="Violence against Christians in India">Violence against Christians in India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_martyrs" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian martyrs">Christian martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_persecution_complex" title="Christian persecution complex">Christian persecution complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution of Hindus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_traditional_African_religions" title="Persecution of traditional African religions">Persecution of traditional African religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_of_contradiction" title="Sign of contradiction">Sign of contradiction</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Augustine, Civitate dei, XVIII.50: <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Proinde ne illud quidem temere puto esse dicendum siue credendum, quod nonnullis uisum est uel uidetur, non-amplius ecclesiam passuram persecutiones usque ad tempus Antichristi, quam quot iam passa est, id est decem, ut undecima eademque nouissima sit ab Antichristo. Primam quippe computant a Nerone quae facta est, secundam a Domitiano, a Traiano tertiam, quartam ab Antonino, a Seuero quintam, sextam a Maximino, a Decio septimam, octauam a Valeriano, ab Aureliano nonam, decimam a Diocletiano et Maximiano. Plagas enim Aegyptiorum, quoniam decem fuerunt, antequam exire inde inciperet populus Dei, putant ad hunc intellectum esse referendas, ut nouissima Antichristi persecutio similis uideatur undecimae plagae, qua Aegyptii, dum hostiliter sequerentur Hebraeos, in mari Rubro populo Dei per siccum transeunte perierunt. </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> (<a href="/wiki/Koin%C4%93_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinē Greek language">Koinē Greek</a>: πρὸ δὲ τούτων πάντων ἐπιβαλοῦσιν ἐφ’ ὑμᾶς τὰς χεῖρας αὐτῶν καὶ διώξουσιν, παραδιδόντες εἰς τὰς συναγωγὰς καὶ φυλακάς, ἀπαγομένους ἐπὶ βασιλεῖς καὶ ἡγεμόνας ἕνεκεν τοῦ ὀνόματός μου·) </li> <li id="cite_note-355"><a href="#cite_ref-355">^</a> PEW measured government restrictions and social hostilities: laws and policies restricting religious freedom (such as requiring religious groups to register in order to operate) and government favoritism of religious groups (through the funding of religious education, property and clergy, for example); government limits on religious activities and government harassment of religious groups. One category of social hostilities has substantially increased – hostilities which are related to religious norms (for example, the harassment of women for violating religious dress codes). Two other types of social hostility, harassment by individuals and social groups (ranging from small <a href="/wiki/Gang" title="Gang">gangs</a> to <a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">mob violence</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">religious violence</a> by organized groups (including <a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">neo-Nazi</a> groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Nordic_Resistance_Movement" title="Nordic Resistance Movement">Nordic Resistance Movement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamist</a> groups like <a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram" title="Boko Haram">Boko Haram</a>), have risen more modestly. A fourth category of social hostility is interreligious tension and violence (for instance, <a href="/wiki/Religious_violence_in_India" title="Religious violence in India">sectarian or communal clashes between Hindus and Muslims in India</a>). </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> French archaeology has shown the north African landscape of this time period became "covered with a white robe of churches" with Catholics and Donatists building multiple churches with granaries to feed the poor as they competed for the loyalty of the people.<a href="#cite_note-Brown1964-61">[61]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Bulut_2024-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Bulut_2024_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBulut2024" class="citation magazine cs1">Bulut, Uzay (30 August 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://europeanconservative.com/articles/analysis/turkey-ongoing-violations-against-greek-christians/">"Turkey: Ongoing Violations against Greek Christians"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_European_Conservative" title="The European Conservative">The European Conservative</a>. <a href="/wiki/Budapest" title="Budapest">Budapest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>: <a href="/wiki/Center_for_European_Renewal" title="Center for European Renewal">Center for European Renewal</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2590-2008">2590-2008</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240830090504/https://europeanconservative.com/articles/analysis/turkey-ongoing-violations-against-greek-christians/">Archived</a> from the original on 30 August 2024. Retrieved 30 August 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+European+Conservative&rft.atitle=Turkey%3A+Ongoing+Violations+against+Greek+Christians&rft.date=2024-08-30&rft.issn=2590-2008&rft.aulast=Bulut&rft.aufirst=Uzay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feuropeanconservative.com%2Farticles%2Fanalysis%2Fturkey-ongoing-violations-against-greek-christians%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morris-Zeevi_2021-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Morris-Zeevi_2021_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morris-Zeevi_2021_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrisZe'evi2021" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benny_Morris" title="Benny Morris">Morris, Benny</a>; <a href="/wiki/Dror_Ze%27evi" title="Dror Ze'evi">Ze'evi, Dror</a> (4 November 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/.premium.HIGHLIGHT.MAGAZINE-then-came-the-chance-the-turks-have-been-waiting-for-to-get-rid-of-christians-1.10354739">"Then Came the Chance the Turks Have Been Waiting For: To Get Rid of Christians Once and for All"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Haaretz" title="Haaretz">Haaretz</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tel_Aviv" title="Tel Aviv">Tel Aviv</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211104172307/https://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/.premium.HIGHLIGHT.MAGAZINE-then-came-the-chance-the-turks-have-been-waiting-for-to-get-rid-of-christians-1.10354739">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2021. Retrieved 5 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=Then+Came+the+Chance+the+Turks+Have+Been+Waiting+For%3A+To+Get+Rid+of+Christians+Once+and+for+All&rft.date=2021-11-04&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Benny&rft.au=Ze%27evi%2C+Dror&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fmiddle-east-news%2F.premium.HIGHLIGHT.MAGAZINE-then-came-the-chance-the-turks-have-been-waiting-for-to-get-rid-of-christians-1.10354739&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morris-Zeevi_2019-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Morris-Zeevi_2019_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrisZe'evi2019" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2019). 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Minneapolis: Fortress.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+Responses+to+Early+Christians%3A+History+and+Polemics%2C+30%E2%80%93150+C.E.&rft.place=Minneapolis&rft.pub=Fortress&rft.date=1994&rft.au=Setzer%2C+Claudia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lieu_2003-16"><a href="#cite_ref-lieu_2003_16-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLieu2003" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Lieu, Judith (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jcrelations.net/pt/article/the-synagogue-and-the-separation-of-the-christians.pdf">"The Synagogue and the Separation of the Christians"</a> (PDF). Coniectanea Biblica. 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Journal of Biblical Literature. 103 (1): 43–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3260313">10.2307/3260313</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3260313">3260313</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Biblical+Literature&rft.atitle=Issues+in+the+Separation+of+Judaism+and+Christianity+after+70+C.E.%3A+A+Reconsideration&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=43-44&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3260313&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3260313%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Steven+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3260313&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw2015" class="citation journal cs1">Shaw, Brent (14 August 2015). "The Myth of the Neronian Persecution". The Journal of Roman Studies. 105: 73–100. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0075435815000982">10.1017/S0075435815000982</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162564651">162564651</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Myth+of+the+Neronian+Persecution&rft.volume=105&rft.pages=73-100&rft.date=2015-08-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0075435815000982&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162564651%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Brent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-carrier-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-carrier_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-carrier_21-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrier2014" class="citation journal cs1">Carrier, Richard (2 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/abstract/journals/vc/68/3/article-p264_2.xml">"The prospect of a Christian interpolation in Tacitus, Annals 15.44"</a>. Vigiliae Christianae. 68 (3). <a href="/wiki/Brill_Academic_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Brill Academic Publishers">Brill Academic Publishers</a>: 264–283. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15700720-12341171">10.1163/15700720-12341171</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vigiliae+Christianae&rft.atitle=The+prospect+of+a+Christian+interpolation+in+Tacitus%2C+Annals+15.44.&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=264-283&rft.date=2014-07-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F15700720-12341171&rft.aulast=Carrier&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fabstract%2Fjournals%2Fvc%2F68%2F3%2Farticle-p264_2.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Ben Witherington III, Revelation, Cambridge 2003, p177 </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a>, Adversus Gnosticos Scorpiace, Book 15, Chapters 2-5 </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a>, <a href="/wiki/De_mortibus_persecutorum" title="De mortibus persecutorum">De mortibus persecutorum</a>, Book 2, Chapters 4-6 </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sulpicius_Severus" title="Sulpicius Severus">Sulpicius Severus</a>, Chronicorum, Book 3, Chapter 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a>, Historiarum, Book 7, Chapters 7-10 </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStark1997" class="citation book cs1">Stark, Rodney (1997). The Rise of Christianity How the Obscure, Marginal Jesus Movement Became the Dominant Religious Force in the Western World in a Few Centuries. HarperCollins. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780060677015" title="Special:BookSources/9780060677015"><bdi>9780060677015</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Christianity+How+the+Obscure%2C+Marginal+Jesus+Movement+Became+the+Dominant+Religious+Force+in+the+Western+World+in+a+Few+Centuries&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780060677015&rft.aulast=Stark&rft.aufirst=Rodney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-earlychristianity-28"><a href="#cite_ref-earlychristianity_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuy2011" class="citation book cs1">Guy, Laurie (28 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CqJ8A2CSb9EC&pg=PA50">Introducing Early Christianity: A Topical Survey of Its Life, Beliefs Practices</a>. InterVarsity Press. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-3942-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-3942-1"><bdi>978-0-8308-3942-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introducing+Early+Christianity%3A+A+Topical+Survey+of+Its+Life%2C+Beliefs+Practices&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=2011-10-28&rft.isbn=978-0-8308-3942-1&rft.aulast=Guy&rft.aufirst=Laurie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCqJ8A2CSb9EC%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bernard_Green-29"><a href="#cite_ref-Bernard_Green_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2010" class="citation book cs1">Green, Bernard (2010). Christianity in Ancient Rome The First Three Centuries. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780567032508" title="Special:BookSources/9780567032508"><bdi>9780567032508</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christianity+in+Ancient+Rome+The+First+Three+Centuries&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780567032508&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGonzález201097-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGonz%C3%A1lez201097_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGonz%C3%A1lez2010">González 2010</a>, p. 97. </li> <li id="cite_note-Papandrea-31"><a href="#cite_ref-Papandrea_31-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPapandrea2011" class="citation book cs1">Papandrea, James L. (2011). The Wedding of the Lamb A Historical Approach to the Book of Revelation. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781498273428" title="Special:BookSources/9781498273428"><bdi>9781498273428</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wedding+of+the+Lamb+A+Historical+Approach+to+the+Book+of+Revelation&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781498273428&rft.aulast=Papandrea&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scarre170-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Scarre170_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scarre170_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scarre170_32-2">c</a> Scarre 1995, p. 170 </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.christianhistoryproject.org/to-the-decian-persecution/irenaeus/">"IRENAEUS – The mass slaughter of Lyon's Christians"</a>. Christian History Project.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Christian+History+Project&rft.atitle=IRENAEUS+%E2%80%93+The+mass+slaughter+of+Lyon%27s+Christians&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.christianhistoryproject.org%2Fto-the-decian-persecution%2Firenaeus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Christopher Reyes (2010). In His Name. California: AuthorHouse. p.33 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eusebius-35"><a href="#cite_ref-Eusebius_35-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEusebius" class="citation web cs1">Eusebius. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250106.htm">"Church History"</a>. Book 6, Chapter 28. New Advent. Retrieved 25 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Book+6%2C+Chapter+28&rft.atitle=Church+History&rft.au=Eusebius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Ffathers%2F250106.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPapandrea2012" class="citation book cs1">Papandrea, James L. (23 January 2012). Reading the Early Church Fathers: From the Didache to Nicaea. Paulist Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0809147519" title="Special:BookSources/978-0809147519"><bdi>978-0809147519</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reading+the+Early+Church+Fathers%3A+From+the+Didache+to+Nicaea&rft.pub=Paulist+Press&rft.date=2012-01-23&rft.isbn=978-0809147519&rft.aulast=Papandrea&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraeme_Clark2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Graeme Clark (2005). "Third-Century Christianity". In Alan K. Bowman; Peter Garnsey; Averil Cameron (eds.). Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 12: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193–337 (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 623.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Third-Century+Christianity&rft.btitle=Cambridge+Ancient+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=623&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Graeme+Clark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Justin, I Apology 31, 6; Eusebius, Chronicle, seventeenth year of the Emperor Hadrian. See: Bourgel, Jonathan, ″The Jewish-Christians in the storm of the Bar Kokhba Revolt″, in: From One Identity to Another: The Mother Church of Jerusalem Between the Two Jewish Revolts Against Rome (66-135/6 EC). Paris: Éditions du Cerf, collection Judaïsme ancien et Christianisme primitif, (French), pp. 127–175. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIdeSmith1985" class="citation book cs1">Ide, Arthur Frederick; <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Paul_Smith&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Paul Smith (page does not exist)">Smith, John Paul</a> (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/martyrdomofwomen0000idea">Martyrdom of Women: A Study of Death Psychology in the Early Christian Church to 301 CE</a>. Garland: Tangelwuld. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/martyrdomofwomen0000idea/page/21">21</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-930383-49-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-930383-49-7"><bdi>978-0-930383-49-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Martyrdom+of+Women%3A+A+Study+of+Death+Psychology+in+the+Early+Christian+Church+to+301+CE&rft.place=Garland&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Tangelwuld&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-930383-49-7&rft.aulast=Ide&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Frederick&rft.au=Smith%2C+John+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmartyrdomofwomen0000idea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> apud <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFdeMause2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_deMause" title="Lloyd deMause">deMause, Lloyd</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://primal-page.com/ps3.htm">"Ch. 9. The Evolution of Psyche and Society. Part III."</a>. The Emotional Life of Nations. New York: Karnac. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-892746-98-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-892746-98-0"><bdi>1-892746-98-0</bdi></a>. <q>Both Christians and Jews "engaged in a contest and reflection about the new-fangled practice of martyrdom,"191 even unto suicide...and Augustine spoke of "the mania for self-destruction" of early Christians.192 But the Christians, following Tertullian's dicta that "martyrdom is required by God," forced their own martyrdom so they could die in an ecstatic trance: "Although their tortures were gruesome, the martyrs did not suffer, enjoying their analgesic state."195 192. Arthur J. Droge and James D. Tabor, A Noble Death: Suicide and Martyrdom Among Christians and Jews in Antiquity. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1992, p. 5. 193. Arthur F. Ide, Martyrdom of Women: A Study of Death Psychology in the Early Christian Church to 301 CE. Garland: Tangelwuld, 1985, p. 21. 194. Ibid., p. 136. 195. Ibid., pp. 146, 138.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+9.+The+Evolution+of+Psyche+and+Society.+Part+III.&rft.btitle=The+Emotional+Life+of+Nations&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Karnac&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-892746-98-0&rft.aulast=deMause&rft.aufirst=Lloyd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprimal-page.com%2Fps3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Boyarin, Daniel. Dying for God: Martyrdom and the Making of Christianity and Judaism. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999, p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrogeTabor1992" class="citation book cs1">Droge, Arthur J.; <a href="/wiki/James_D._Tabor" class="mw-redirect" title="James D. Tabor">Tabor, James D.</a> (November 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nobledeathsuicid00drog/page/136">A Noble Death: Suicide and Martyrdom Among Christians and Jews in Antiquity</a>. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nobledeathsuicid00drog/page/136">136</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-062095-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-062095-0"><bdi>978-0-06-062095-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Noble+Death%3A+Suicide+and+Martyrdom+Among+Christians+and+Jews+in+Antiquity&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pages=136&rft.pub=HarperSanFrancisco&rft.date=1992-11&rft.isbn=978-0-06-062095-0&rft.aulast=Droge&rft.aufirst=Arthur+J.&rft.au=Tabor%2C+James+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnobledeathsuicid00drog%2Fpage%2F136&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> Misquoted as Groge and Tabor (1992:136) by C. Douzinas in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCloss_StephensVaughan-WilliamsDouzinas,_C.2009" class="citation book cs1">Closs Stephens, Angharad; Vaughan-Williams, Nick; Douzinas, C. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C2cAF2OQ7RkC&pg=PA198">Terrorism and the Politics of Response</a>. Oxon and New York: Routledge. p. 198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-45506-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-45506-0"><bdi>978-0-415-45506-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Terrorism+and+the+Politics+of+Response&rft.place=Oxon+and+New+York&rft.pages=198&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-415-45506-0&rft.aulast=Closs+Stephens&rft.aufirst=Angharad&rft.au=Vaughan-Williams%2C+Nick&rft.au=Douzinas%2C+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC2cAF2OQ7RkC%26pg%3DPA198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Candida_Moss-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Candida_Moss_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Candida_Moss_42-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Candida_Moss_42-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Candida_Moss_42-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Candida_Moss_42-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Candida_Moss_42-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoss2012" class="citation book cs1">Moss, Candida R. (2012). Ancient Christian Martyrdom Diverse Practices, Theologies, and Traditions. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300154658" title="Special:BookSources/9780300154658"><bdi>9780300154658</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Christian+Martyrdom+Diverse+Practices%2C+Theologies%2C+and+Traditions&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780300154658&rft.aulast=Moss&rft.aufirst=Candida+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moss_journal-43"><a href="#cite_ref-Moss_journal_43-0">^</a> Moss, Candida R. "The Discourse of Voluntary Martyrdom: Ancient and Modern.” Church History, vol. 81, no. 3, 2012, pp. 531–551., www.jstor.org/stable/23252340. Retrieved 23 January 2021. </li> <li id="cite_note-Daniel_Boyarin-44"><a href="#cite_ref-Daniel_Boyarin_44-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyarin1999" class="citation book cs1">Boyarin, Daniel (1999). Dying for God Martyrdom and the Making of Christianity and Judaism. Stanford University Press. p. 121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804737043" title="Special:BookSources/9780804737043"><bdi>9780804737043</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dying+for+God+Martyrdom+and+the+Making+of+Christianity+and+Judaism&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780804737043&rft.aulast=Boyarin&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-25">z</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-26">aa</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_45-27">ab</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholson2018" class="citation cs2">Nicholson, Oliver (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-1035">"Christians, persecution of"</a>, The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity (online ed.), Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662778.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866277-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866277-8"><bdi>978-0-19-866277-8</bdi></a>, retrieved 7 October 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.atitle=Christians%2C+persecution+of&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662778.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-866277-8&rft.aulast=Nicholson&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662778.001.0001%2Facref-9780198662778-e-1035&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw2011" class="citation book cs1">Shaw, Brent D. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F8ZRPTgcjrcC">Sacred Violence: African Christians and Sectarian Hatred in the Age of Augustine</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 176. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-19605-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-19605-5"><bdi>978-0-521-19605-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sacred+Violence%3A+African+Christians+and+Sectarian+Hatred+in+the+Age+of+Augustine&rft.pages=176&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-521-19605-5&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Brent+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF8ZRPTgcjrcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowells2008" class="citation book cs1">Howells, Kristina (2008). Making Sense of Bible Prophecy. Lulu. p. 91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1409207832" title="Special:BookSources/978-1409207832"><bdi>978-1409207832</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Sense+of+Bible+Prophecy&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=Lulu&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1409207832&rft.aulast=Howells&rft.aufirst=Kristina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frend-48"><a href="#cite_ref-Frend_48-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFW._H._C._Frend1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W._H._C._Frend" title="W. H. C. Frend">W. H. C. Frend</a> (1984). The Rise of Christianity. Fortress Press, Philadelphia. p. 319. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-1931-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-1931-2"><bdi>978-0-8006-1931-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Christianity&rft.pages=319&rft.pub=Fortress+Press%2C+Philadelphia&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-8006-1931-2&rft.au=W.+H.+C.+Frend&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown2-49"><a href="#cite_ref-Brown2_49-0">^</a> Brown, Peter. "Christianization and religious conflict". The Cambridge Ancient History 13 (1998): 337–425. </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_50-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_50-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw2011" class="citation book cs1">Shaw, Brent D. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F8ZRPTgcjrcC">Sacred Violence: African Christians and Sectarian Hatred in the Age of Augustine</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 598–599. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-19605-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-19605-5"><bdi>978-0-521-19605-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sacred+Violence%3A+African+Christians+and+Sectarian+Hatred+in+the+Age+of+Augustine&rft.pages=598-599&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-521-19605-5&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Brent+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF8ZRPTgcjrcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MacMullen1986p4-51"><a href="#cite_ref-MacMullen1986p4_51-0">^</a> MacMullen, Ramsay (1997) Christianity & Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries, Yale University Press, p.4 quote: "non Christian writings came in for this same treatment, that is destruction in great bonfires at the center of the town square. Copyists were discouraged from replacing them by the threat of having their hands cut off </li> <li id="cite_note-Leithart2010-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Leithart2010_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leithart2010_52-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leithart2010_52-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leithart2010_52-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeithart2010" class="citation book cs1">Leithart, Peter J. (2010). Defending Constantine The Twilight of an Empire and the Dawn of Christendom. 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Harvard University Press. p. 239. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781580461719" title="Special:BookSources/9781580461719"><bdi>9781580461719</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews%2C+Pagans+and+Christians+in+the+Galilee%3A+25+Years+of+Archaeological+Excavations+and+Surveys+%3A+Hellenistic+to+Byzantine+Periods&rft.pages=239&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781580461719&rft.au=Mordechai+Aviam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7YTC-52zoooC%26pg%3DPA239&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170405125952/https://www.thejc.com/news/uk-news/historians-back-bbc-over-jewish-massacre-claim">"Historians back BBC over Jewish massacre claim"</a>. 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Bloomsbury. p. 92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781780965055" title="Special:BookSources/9781780965055"><bdi>9781780965055</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manzikert+1071%3A+The+Breaking+of+Byzantium&rft.pages=92&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2013-08-20&rft.isbn=9781780965055&rft.aulast=Nicolle&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5rmHCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVryonis1975" class="citation journal cs1">Vryonis, Speros (26 March 1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1291369">"Nomadization and Islamization in Asia Minor"</a>. Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 29: 50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1291369">10.2307/1291369</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1291369">1291369</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dumbarton+Oaks+Papers&rft.atitle=Nomadization+and+Islamization+in+Asia+Minor&rft.volume=29&rft.pages=50&rft.date=1975-03-26&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1291369&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1291369%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Vryonis&rft.aufirst=Speros&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1291369&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVryonis2008" class="citation book cs1">Vryonis, Speros (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0lxHPgAACAAJ">The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh Through the Fifteenth Century</a>. American Council of Learned Societies. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781597404761" title="Special:BookSources/9781597404761"><bdi>9781597404761</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Decline+of+Medieval+Hellenism+in+Asia+Minor+and+the+Process+of+Islamization+from+the+Eleventh+Through+the+Fifteenth+Century&rft.pub=American+Council+of+Learned+Societies&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781597404761&rft.aulast=Vryonis&rft.aufirst=Speros&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0lxHPgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiszczak2020" class="citation book cs1">Miszczak, Izabela (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HHrKDwAAQBAJ">The Secrets of Ephesus</a>. ASLAN Publishing House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788395654039" title="Special:BookSources/9788395654039"><bdi>9788395654039</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Secrets+of+Ephesus&rft.pub=ASLAN+Publishing+House&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9788395654039&rft.aulast=Miszczak&rft.aufirst=Izabela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHHrKDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiszczak2016" class="citation book cs1">Miszczak, Izabela (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=an9xCwAAQBAJ">Around Ephesus and Kuşadası</a>. ASLAN Publishing House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788394426903" title="Special:BookSources/9788394426903"><bdi>9788394426903</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Around+Ephesus+and+Ku%C5%9Fadas%C4%B1&rft.pub=ASLAN+Publishing+House&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9788394426903&rft.aulast=Miszczak&rft.aufirst=Izabela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dan9xCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuller1987" class="citation book cs1">Fuller, J. F. C. (22 August 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xNXZAAAAMAAJ">A Military History of the Western World: From the Earliest Times to the Battle of Lepanto</a>. Hachette Books. p. 404. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780306803048" title="Special:BookSources/9780306803048"><bdi>9780306803048</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Military+History+of+the+Western+World%3A+From+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Battle+of+Lepanto&rft.pages=404&rft.pub=Hachette+Books&rft.date=1987-08-22&rft.isbn=9780306803048&rft.aulast=Fuller&rft.aufirst=J.+F.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxNXZAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurent1913" class="citation book cs1">Laurent, Joseph (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m2y-eBZUMWgC">Byzance et les Turcs Seldjoucides dans l'Asie occidentale jusqu'en 1081</a>. pp. 106–109.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzance+et+les+Turcs+Seldjoucides+dans+l%27Asie+occidentale+jusqu%27en+1081&rft.pages=106-109&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Laurent&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm2y-eBZUMWgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVryonis1971" class="citation book cs1">Vryonis, Speros (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wBpIAAAAMAAJ">The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century</a>. University of California Press. pp. 194–95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520015975" title="Special:BookSources/9780520015975"><bdi>9780520015975</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Decline+of+Medieval+Hellenism+in+Asia+Minor+and+the+Process+of+Islamization+from+the+Eleventh+through+the+Fifteenth+Century&rft.pages=194-95&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=9780520015975&rft.aulast=Vryonis&rft.aufirst=Speros&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwBpIAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrankopan2013" class="citation book cs1">Frankopan, Peter (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D-xIMAEACAAJ">The First Crusade: The Call from the East</a>. 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Vintage. p. 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780099555032" title="Special:BookSources/9780099555032"><bdi>9780099555032</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Crusade%3A+The+Call+from+the+East&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780099555032&rft.aulast=Frankopan&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD-xIMAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllenblum2012" class="citation book cs1">Ellenblum, Ronnie (2 August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vvMgAwAAQBAJ">The Collapse of the Eastern Mediterranean: Climate Change and the Decline of the East, 950-1072</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 245. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139560986" title="Special:BookSources/9781139560986"><bdi>9781139560986</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Collapse+of+the+Eastern+Mediterranean%3A+Climate+Change+and+the+Decline+of+the+East%2C+950-1072&rft.pages=245&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012-08-02&rft.isbn=9781139560986&rft.aulast=Ellenblum&rft.aufirst=Ronnie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvvMgAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rHgMAQAAMAAJ">Der Islam: Zeitschrift für geschichte und Kultur des islamischen Orients, Volume 83, Issues 1-2</a>. 2006. p. 101.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Der+Islam%3A+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+geschichte+und+Kultur+des+islamischen+Orients%2C+Volume+83%2C+Issues+1-2&rft.pages=101&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrHgMAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubenstein2014" class="citation book cs1">Rubenstein, Jay Carter (26 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pr28oAEACAAJ">The First Crusade: A Brief History with Documents</a>. Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781457629105" title="Special:BookSources/9781457629105"><bdi>9781457629105</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Crusade%3A+A+Brief+History+with+Documents&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.+Martin%27s&rft.date=2014-12-26&rft.isbn=9781457629105&rft.aulast=Rubenstein&rft.aufirst=Jay+Carter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dpr28oAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IiwTAQAAIAAJ">A History of the Crusades</a>. Cambridge University Press. 3 December 1987. p. 1:79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34770-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34770-9"><bdi>978-0-521-34770-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Crusades&rft.pages=1%3A79&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987-12-03&rft.isbn=978-0-521-34770-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIiwTAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RfO1J6hjcdgC">A History of the Crusades. Vol. 1. The First Hundred Years</a>. Univ of Wisconsin Press. 1969. pp. 68–78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-04834-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-04834-1"><bdi>978-0-299-04834-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Crusades.+Vol.+1.+The+First+Hundred+Years&rft.pages=68-78&rft.pub=Univ+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-299-04834-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRfO1J6hjcdgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fQ1DnLPPXGIC">The First Crusaders, 1095-1131</a>. Cambridge University Press. 1997. p. 37-38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64603-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64603-1"><bdi>978-0-521-64603-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Crusaders%2C+1095-1131&rft.pages=37-38&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-64603-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfQ1DnLPPXGIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Runciman_1965-144">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Runciman_1965_144-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Runciman_1965_144-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Runciman_1965_144-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Runciman_1965_144-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Runciman_1965_144-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Runciman_1965_144-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Runciman_1965_144-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Runciman_1965_144-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRunciman1965" class="citation book cs1">Runciman, Steven (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BAzntP0lg58C">The Fall of Constantinople 1453</a>. 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The popes and the Baltic crusades, 1147–1254. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004155022" title="Special:BookSources/9789004155022"><bdi>9789004155022</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+popes+and+the+Baltic+crusades%2C+1147%E2%80%931254&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9789004155022&rft.aulast=Fonnesberg-Schmidt&rft.aufirst=Iben&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alfred_Haverkamp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alfred Haverkamp (page does not exist)">Haverkamp, Alfred</a>. Medieval Germany: 1056–1273. Trans. Helga Braun and Richard Mortimer. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988. p.g. 157–158 </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.31826/9781463209179-020/pdf">"The Laws of Chingiz Khân"</a>. The Chronography of Bar Hebraeus. 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Hong Kong: China Internet Information Center. Retrieved 29 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=China%27s+Religions+Retrospect+and+Prospect&rft.place=Hong+Kong&rft.pub=China+Internet+Information+Center&rft.date=2001-02-19&rft.au=Ye+Xiaowen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.china.org.cn%2Fenglish%2Ffeatures%2F45466.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHsia2018" class="citation journal cs1">Hsia, R. Po-Chia (14 May 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/studies-in-church-history/article/abs/christianity-and-empire-the-catholic-mission-in-late-imperial-china/2B3485994A654C67CA80D0C5F8DAFFEE">"Christianity and Empire: The Catholic Mission in Late Imperial China"</a>. Studies in Church History. 54: 208–224. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fstc.2018.1">10.1017/stc.2018.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165314911">165314911</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Church+History&rft.atitle=Christianity+and+Empire%3A+The+Catholic+Mission+in+Late+Imperial+China&rft.volume=54&rft.pages=208-224&rft.date=2018-05-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fstc.2018.1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A165314911%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hsia&rft.aufirst=R.+Po-Chia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fstudies-in-church-history%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fchristianity-and-empire-the-catholic-mission-in-late-imperial-china%2F2B3485994A654C67CA80D0C5F8DAFFEE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988">Retrieved 2023-02-14. </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVictor_Purcell2010" class="citation book cs1">Victor Purcell (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2MeUoD9G9xAC&pg=PA125">The Boxer Uprising: A Background Study</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 125. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521148122" title="Special:BookSources/9780521148122"><bdi>9780521148122</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Boxer+Uprising%3A+A+Background+Study&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780521148122&rft.au=Victor+Purcell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2MeUoD9G9xAC%26pg%3DPA125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiana_Preston2000" class="citation book cs1">Diana Preston (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/boxerrebelliondr00dian">The Boxer Rebellion: The Dramatic Story of China's War on Foreigners That Shook the World in the Summer of 1900</a>. Walker. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/boxerrebelliondr00dian/page/25">25</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802713612" title="Special:BookSources/9780802713612"><bdi>9780802713612</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Boxer+Rebellion%3A+The+Dramatic+Story+of+China%27s+War+on+Foreigners+That+Shook+the+World+in+the+Summer+of+1900&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Walker&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780802713612&rft.au=Diana+Preston&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fboxerrebelliondr00dian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._G._Tiedemann2009" class="citation book cs1">R. 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Sharpe. p. 125. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780765640017" title="Special:BookSources/9780765640017"><bdi>9780765640017</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reference+Guide+to+Christian+Missionary+Societies+in+China%3A+From+the+Sixteenth+to+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780765640017&rft.au=R.+G.+Tiedemann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrandt1994" class="citation book cs1">Brandt, Nat (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/massacreinshansi00bran">Massacre in Shansi</a>. Syracuse University Press. p. xiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-0282-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-0282-8"><bdi>978-0-8156-0282-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Massacre+in+Shansi&rft.pages=xiii&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-0282-8&rft.aulast=Brandt&rft.aufirst=Nat&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmassacreinshansi00bran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2009" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Larry Clinton (2009). William Scott Ament and the Boxer Rebellion: Heroism, Hubris, and the "Ideal Missionary". Jefferson, NC: McFarland. p. 184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780786453382" title="Special:BookSources/9780786453382"><bdi>9780786453382</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=William+Scott+Ament+and+the+Boxer+Rebellion%3A+Heroism%2C+Hubris%2C+and+the+%22Ideal+Missionary%22&rft.place=Jefferson%2C+NC&rft.pages=184&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780786453382&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Larry+Clinton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen_G._Haw2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_G._Haw" title="Stephen G. Haw">Stephen G. Haw</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CBOpWiyl4NsC&pg=PA172">A traveller's history of China</a>. Interlink Books. p. 172. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56656-486-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-56656-486-7"><bdi>1-56656-486-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+traveller%27s+history+of+China&rft.pages=172&rft.pub=Interlink+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-56656-486-7&rft.au=Stephen+G.+Haw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCBOpWiyl4NsC%26pg%3DPA172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry_McAleavy1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_McAleavy" title="Henry McAleavy">Henry McAleavy</a> (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tvZwAAAAMAAJ&q=muslim+baron+von+ketteler">The modern history of China</a>. Praeger. p. 165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780297176619" title="Special:BookSources/9780297176619"><bdi>9780297176619</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+modern+history+of+China&rft.pages=165&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=9780297176619&rft.au=Henry+McAleavy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtvZwAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dmuslim%2Bbaron%2Bvon%2Bketteler&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSterling_Making_of_America_Project1914" class="citation book cs1">Sterling Making of America Project (1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rcdkmohiuuQC&pg=PA80">The Atlantic monthly, Volume 113 By Making of America Project</a>. Atlantic Monthly Co. p. 80.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+monthly%2C+Volume+113+By+Making+of+America+Project&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Atlantic+Monthly+Co.&rft.date=1914&rft.au=Sterling+Making+of+America+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrcdkmohiuuQC%26pg%3DPA80&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_Fenby2005" class="citation book cs1">Jonathan Fenby (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YkREps9oGR4C&q=emocracy+absolutely+impossible">Chiang Kai Shek: China's Generalissimo and the Nation He Lost</a>. Carroll & Graf Publishers. p. 126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7867-1484-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7867-1484-0"><bdi>0-7867-1484-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chiang+Kai+Shek%3A+China%27s+Generalissimo+and+the+Nation+He+Lost&rft.pages=126&rft.pub=Carroll+%26+Graf+Publishers&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-7867-1484-0&rft.au=Jonathan+Fenby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYkREps9oGR4C%26q%3Democracy%2Babsolutely%2Bimpossible&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiana_Lary1974" class="citation book cs1">Diana Lary (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tCA9AAAAIAAJ&q=muslim">Region and nation: the Kwangsi clique in Chinese politics, 1925–1937</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-20204-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-20204-3"><bdi>0-521-20204-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Region+and+nation%3A+the+Kwangsi+clique+in+Chinese+politics%2C+1925%E2%80%931937&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=0-521-20204-3&rft.au=Diana+Lary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtCA9AAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dmuslim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> Missionary Review of the World; 1878-1939. Princeton Press. 1939. p. 130. vol.62. </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClaydon2005" class="citation book cs1">Claydon, David (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gV32uPMChgAC&pg=PA385">A New Vision, a New Heart, a Renewed Call</a>. William Carey Library. p. 385. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87808-363-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87808-363-3"><bdi>978-0-87808-363-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+Vision%2C+a+New+Heart%2C+a+Renewed+Call&rft.pages=385&rft.pub=William+Carey+Library&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-87808-363-3&rft.aulast=Claydon&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgV32uPMChgAC%26pg%3DPA385&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUhalleyWu2015" class="citation book cs1">Uhalley, Stephen; Wu, Xiaoxin (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iPnqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA274">China and Christianity: Burdened Past, Hopeful Future</a>. Routledge. p. 274. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-47501-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-47501-9"><bdi>978-1-317-47501-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+and+Christianity%3A+Burdened+Past%2C+Hopeful+Future&rft.pages=274&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-317-47501-9&rft.aulast=Uhalley&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Wu%2C+Xiaoxin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiPnqBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA274&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbes1986" class="citation book cs1">Forbes, Andrew D. W. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA84">Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911-1949</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 84, 87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25514-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25514-1"><bdi>978-0-521-25514-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warlords+and+Muslims+in+Chinese+Central+Asia%3A+A+Political+History+of+Republican+Sinkiang+1911-1949&rft.pages=84%2C+87&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-521-25514-1&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=Andrew+D.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIAs9AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Latreille, A. FRENCH REVOLUTION, New Catholic Encyclopedia v. 5, pp. 972–973 (Second Ed. 2002 Thompson/Gale) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7876-4004-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7876-4004-2">0-7876-4004-2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> Spielvogel, Jackson <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ni4PSpOxb6MC">Western Civilization: Combined Volume</a> p. 549, 2005 Thomson Wadsworth </li> <li id="cite_note-google-199">^ <a href="#cite_ref-google_199-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-google_199-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-google_199-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-google_199-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-google_199-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-google_199-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTallett1991" class="citation book cs1">Tallett, Frank (1991). "Dechristianizing France: The year II and the revolutionary experience". In Tallett, Frank; Atkin, Nicholas (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aL4lsWdd-rAC">Religion, Society and Politics in France Since 1789</a>. A&C Black. pp. 1–28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85285-057-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85285-057-9"><bdi>978-1-85285-057-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dechristianizing+France%3A+The+year+II+and+the+revolutionary+experience&rft.btitle=Religion%2C+Society+and+Politics+in+France+Since+1789&rft.pages=1-28&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-1-85285-057-9&rft.aulast=Tallett&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaL4lsWdd-rAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1993" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Gwynne (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VjXHmc6Z5ZcC&dq=dechristianisation+of+france+during+the+french+revolution&pg=PA45">The French Revolution: Rethinking the Debate</a>. Routledge. p. 96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-05466-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-05466-4"><bdi>0-415-05466-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution%3A+Rethinking+the+Debate&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-415-05466-4&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Gwynne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVjXHmc6Z5ZcC%26dq%3Ddechristianisation%2Bof%2Bfrance%2Bduring%2Bthe%2Bfrench%2Brevolution%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jones-52-53-201"><a href="#cite_ref-Jones-52-53_201-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoes2006" class="citation book cs1">Joes, Anthony James (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=buHXFDFdeoQC">Resisting Rebellion</a>. 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Bernard, Kerala History , p. 79 </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> William Dalrymple White Mughals (2006) p. 28 </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTreadgold1997" class="citation book cs1">Treadgold, Warren T. (October 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nYbnr5XVbzUC">A History of the Byzantine State and Society</a>. 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St. Martin's Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190724153239/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/constantinople.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 24 July 2019. Retrieved 7 August 2020 – via The Washington Post.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=One%3A+The+Conqueror&rft.btitle=Constantinople%3A+City+of+the+World%27s+Desire+1453%E2%80%931924&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Mansel&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-srv%2Fstyle%2Flongterm%2Fbooks%2Fchap1%2Fconstantinople.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crowley2009-225"><a href="#cite_ref-Crowley2009_225-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoger_Crowley2009" class="citation book cs1">Roger Crowley (6 August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ftOp1cR7VK8C&pg=PT226">Constantinople: The Last Great Siege, 1453</a>. Faber & Faber. p. 226. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-571-25079-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-571-25079-0"><bdi>978-0-571-25079-0</bdi></a>. <q>The vast majority of the ordinary citizens - about 30,000 - were marched off to the slave markets of Edirne, Bursa and Ankara.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constantinople%3A+The+Last+Great+Siege%2C+1453&rft.pages=226&rft.pub=Faber+%26+Faber&rft.date=2009-08-06&rft.isbn=978-0-571-25079-0&rft.au=Roger+Crowley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DftOp1cR7VK8C%26pg%3DPT226&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Akbar2002-226"><a href="#cite_ref-Akbar2002_226-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM.J_Akbar2002" class="citation book cs1">M.J Akbar (3 May 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d_iBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA86">The Shade of Swords: Jihad and the Conflict Between Islam and Christianity</a>. Routledge. p. 86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-45259-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-45259-0"><bdi>978-1-134-45259-0</bdi></a>. <q>Some 30,000 Christians were either enslaved or sold.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shade+of+Swords%3A+Jihad+and+the+Conflict+Between+Islam+and+Christianity&rft.pages=86&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002-05-03&rft.isbn=978-1-134-45259-0&rft.au=M.J+Akbar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd_iBAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bradbury1992-227"><a href="#cite_ref-Bradbury1992_227-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJim_Bradbury1992" class="citation book cs1">Jim Bradbury (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xVCRpsfwkiUC&pg=PA322">The Medieval Siege</a>. Boydell & Brewer. p. 322. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-312-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-312-4"><bdi>978-0-85115-312-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Medieval+Siege&rft.pages=322&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-85115-312-4&rft.au=Jim+Bradbury&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxVCRpsfwkiUC%26pg%3DPA322&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> Preface to the Chronicle; translated by <a href="/wiki/Marios_Philippides" title="Marios Philippides">Marios Philippides</a>, The Fall of the Byzantine Empire: A Chronicle by George Sphrantzes, 1401–1477 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts, 1980), p. 21 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPavlowitch200219–20-229"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPavlowitch200219%E2%80%9320_229-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPavlowitch2002">Pavlowitch 2002</a>, pp. 19–20. </li> <li id="cite_note-MinkovDemographics-230"><a href="#cite_ref-MinkovDemographics_230-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnton_Minkov2004" class="citation book cs1">Anton Minkov (2004). Conversion to Islam in the Balkans: Kisve Bahası Petitions and Ottoman Social Life, 1670–1730. The Ottoman Empire and its Heritage, Volume: 30. Brill. pp. 41–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789047402770_008">10.1163/9789047402770_008</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-47-40277-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-47-40277-0"><bdi>978-90-47-40277-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:243354675">243354675</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conversion+to+Islam+in+the+Balkans%3A+Kisve+Bahas%C4%B1+Petitions+and+Ottoman+Social+Life%2C+1670%E2%80%931730&rft.series=The+Ottoman+Empire+and+its+Heritage%2C+Volume%3A+30&rft.pages=41-42&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A243354675%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789047402770_008&rft.isbn=978-90-47-40277-0&rft.au=Anton+Minkov&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> Zhelyazkova, Antonina. ‘'Albanian Identities'’. pp. 15–16, 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> Zhelyazkova, Antonina. ‘'Albanian Identities'’. Sofia, 2000: International Center for Minority Studies and Intercultural Relations. pp. 15–16 </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhelyazkova2000" class="citation web cs1">Zhelyazkova, Antonina (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdc.ceu.hu/archive/00003852/01/Albanian_Identities.pdf">"Albanian Identities"</a> (PDF). International Centre for Minority Studies and Intercultural Relation. <q>If the tax levied on the Christians in the Albanian communities in the 16th century amounted to about 45 akçes, in the middle of the 17th century it ran up to 780 akçes a year. In order to save the clans from hunger and ruin, the Albanian elders advised the people in the villages to adopt Islam...Nevertheless, the willingness of the Gegs to support the campaigns of the Catholic West against the Empire, did not abate.... men in Albania, Christians, but also Muslims, were ready to take up arms, given the smallest help from the Catholic West.... the complex dual religious identity of the Albanians become clear. Emblematic is the case of the Crypto-Christians inhabiting the inaccessible geographical area...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Albanian+Identities&rft.pub=International+Centre+for+Minority+Studies+and+Intercultural+Relation&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Zhelyazkova&rft.aufirst=Antonina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdc.ceu.hu%2Farchive%2F00003852%2F01%2FAlbanian_Identities.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PahumiKosovoIslamization-234">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PahumiKosovoIslamization_234-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PahumiKosovoIslamization_234-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PahumiKosovoIslamization_234-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPahumi2007" class="citation thesis cs1">Pahumi, Nevila (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/55462">The Consolidation of Albanian Nationalism</a>. Department of History (Bachelor of Arts thesis). University of Michigan. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F55462">2027.42/55462</a>. <q>The pasha of Ipek forcibly moved the Catholic inhabitants of northern Albania into the plains of southern Serbia after a failed Serb revolt forced many Serbs to flee to the Habsburg Empire in 1689. The transferred villagers were forced to convert to Islam.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+Consolidation+of+Albanian+Nationalism&rft.degree=Bachelor+of+Arts&rft.inst=University+of+Michigan&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027.42%2F55462&rft.aulast=Pahumi&rft.aufirst=Nevila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F2027.42%2F55462&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ramet210-235"><a href="#cite_ref-Ramet210_235-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRamet1998">Ramet 1998</a>, p. 210: "Then, in 1644, war broke out between Venice and the Ottoman empire. At the urging of the clergy, many Albanian Catholics sided with Venice. The Ottomans responded to this by severely repressing them, which in turn drove many Catholics to embrace Islam (although a few of them elected to join the Orthodox Church)... Within the span of twenty-two years (1649–71) the number of Catholics in the diocese of Alessio fell by more than 50 percent, while in the diocese of Pulati (1634–71) the number of Catholics declined from more than 20,000 to just 4,045. In general, Albanian insurrections which occurred during the Ottoman-Venetian wars of 1644–69 resulted in stiff Ottoman reprisals against Catholics in northern Albania and significant acceleration of Islamization... In general, a pattern emerged. When the Ottoman empire was attacked by Catholic powers, local Catholics were pressured to convert, and when Orthodox Russia attacked the Ottoman empire, local Orthodox Christians were also pressured to change their faith. In some cases however, their Islamization was only superficial and as a result, many villages and some districts were still "crypto-Catholic" in the nineteenth century, despite their adoption of the externals of Islamic culture." </li> <li id="cite_note-Ramet203-236">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ramet203_236-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ramet203_236-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRamet1998">Ramet 1998</a>, p. 203: "The Ottoman conquest between the end of the fourteenth century and the mid-fifteenth century introduced a third religion – Islam – but at first the Turks did not use force during their expansion, and it was only in the 1600s that large-scale conversion to Islam began – at first, it chiefly occurred among Albanian Catholics."; p.204. "The Orthodox community enjoyed broad toleration at the hands of the Sublime Porte until the late eighteenth century."; p. 204. "In the late eighteenth century Russian agents began stirring the Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman empire against the Sublime Porte. In the Russo-Turkish wars of 1768–74 and 1787–91, Orthodox Albanians rose up against the Turks. In the course of the second revolt, the "New Academy" in Voskopoje was destroyed (1789), and at the end of the second Russo-Turkish war, more than a thousand Orthodox fled to Russia on Russian warships. In the aftermath of these revolts, the Porte now applied pressure in order to Islamize the Albanian Orthodox population, adding economic incentives in order to stimulate this process. In 1798, Ali Pasha of Janina led Ottoman forces against Christian believers who were assembled in their churches in order to celebrate Easter in the villages of Shen Vasil and Nivica e Bubarit. The bloodbath which was unleashed against these believers frightened Albanian Christians who lived in other districts and inspired a new wave of mass conversions to Islam." </li> <li id="cite_note-Skendi1013-237"><a href="#cite_ref-Skendi1013_237-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSkendi1967a">Skendi 1967a</a>, pp. 10–13. </li> <li id="cite_note-Skendi1956321323-238"><a href="#cite_ref-Skendi1956321323_238-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSkendi1956">Skendi 1956</a>, pp. 321–323. </li> <li id="cite_note-Vickers16-239"><a href="#cite_ref-Vickers16_239-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVickers2011">Vickers 2011</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-Koti1617-240">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koti1617_240-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koti1617_240-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKoti2010">Koti 2010</a>, pp. 16–17. </li> <li id="cite_note-MalcolmRaspasani-241"><a href="#cite_ref-MalcolmRaspasani_241-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalcolm1998" class="citation book cs1">Malcolm, Noel (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GGQ_AQAAIAAJ&q=Toma+Raspasani">Kosovo: a short history</a>. Macmillan. p. 162. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-66612-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-66612-8"><bdi>978-0-333-66612-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kosovo%3A+a+short+history&rft.pages=162&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-333-66612-8&rft.aulast=Malcolm&rft.aufirst=Noel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGGQ_AQAAIAAJ%26q%3DToma%2BRaspasani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kallivretakis233-242"><a href="#cite_ref-Kallivretakis233_242-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKallivretakis2003">Kallivretakis 2003</a>, p. 233. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hammond30-243"><a href="#cite_ref-Hammond30_243-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHammond1967">Hammond 1967</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hammond197662-244"><a href="#cite_ref-Hammond197662_244-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHammond1976">Hammond 1976</a>, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-Koukoudis2003-245"><a href="#cite_ref-Koukoudis2003_245-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKoukoudis2003">Koukoudis 2003</a>, pp. 321–322. "Particularly interesting is the case of Vithkuq, south of Moschopolis... It may well have had Vlach inhabitants before 1769, though the Arvanites were certainly far more numerous, if not the largest population group. This is further supported by the linguistic identity of the refugees who fled Vithkuq and accompanied the waves of departing Vlachs..." p. 339. "As the same time as, or possibly shortly before or after, these events in Moschopolis, unruly Arnauts also attacked the smaller Vlach and Arvanitic communities round about. The Vlach inhabitants of Llengë, Niçë, Grabovë, Shipckë, and the Vlach villages on Grammos, such as Nikolicë, Linotopi, and Grammousta, and the inhabitants of Vithkuq and even the last Albanian speaking Christian villages on Opar found themselves at the mercy of the predatory Arnauts, whom no-one could withstand. For them too, the only solution was to flee... During this period, Vlach and Arvanite families from the surrounding ruined market towns and villages settled alongside the few Moscopolitans who had returned. Refugee families came from Dushar and other villages in Opar, from Vithkuq, Grabovë, Nikolicë, Niçë, and Llengë and from Kolonjë..." </li> <li id="cite_note-Hall1999-246"><a href="#cite_ref-Hall1999_246-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1999" class="citation journal cs1">Hall, Derek R. (1999). "Representations of Place: Albania". The Geographical Journal. 165 (2): 161–172. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999GeogJ.165..161H">1999GeogJ.165..161H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3060414">10.2307/3060414</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0016-7398">0016-7398</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3060414">3060414</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Geographical+Journal&rft.atitle=Representations+of+Place%3A+Albania&rft.volume=165&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=161-172&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3060414&rft.issn=0016-7398&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3060414%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999GeogJ.165..161H&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Derek+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-country-data.com-247">^ <a href="#cite_ref-country-data.com_247-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-country-data.com_247-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFederal_Research_Division_of_the_Library_of_Congress1992" class="citation web cs1">Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress (April 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-186.html">"Albania – Hoxha's Antireligious Campaign"</a>. country-data.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=country-data.com&rft.atitle=Albania+%E2%80%93+Hoxha%27s+Antireligious+Campaign&rft.date=1992-04&rft.au=Federal+Research+Division+of+the+Library+of+Congress&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.country-data.com%2Fcgi-bin%2Fquery%2Fr-186.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AlbaniaHandbook-248">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AlbaniaHandbook_248-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AlbaniaHandbook_248-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZickelIwaskiw1994" class="citation book cs1">Zickel, Raymond; Iwaskiw, Walter R., eds. (1994). Albania : a country study (Area Handbook for Albania) (2nd ed.). Library of Congress; Federal Research Division; Department of the Army. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8444-0792-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8444-0792-5"><bdi>0-8444-0792-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Albania+%3A+a+country+study+%28Area+Handbook+for+Albania%29&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Library+of+Congress%3B+Federal+Research+Division%3B+Department+of+the+Army&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-8444-0792-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJordan2007" class="citation news cs1">Jordan, Mary (18 April 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-2007-04-18-0704170802-story.html">"Albania finds religion after decades of atheism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Chicago_Tribune" class="mw-redirect" title="The Chicago Tribune">The Chicago Tribune</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Chicago+Tribune&rft.atitle=Albania+finds+religion+after+decades+of+atheism&rft.date=2007-04-18&rft.aulast=Jordan&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chicagotribune.com%2Fnews%2Fct-xpm-2007-04-18-0704170802-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHargitai2016" class="citation web cs1">Hargitai, Quinn (3 November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20161024-the-worlds-most-tolerant-country">"The country that's famous for tolerance"</a>. (BBC Travel) bbc.com. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%28BBC+Travel%29+bbc.com&rft.atitle=The+country+that%27s+famous+for+tolerance&rft.date=2016-11-03&rft.aulast=Hargitai&rft.aufirst=Quinn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Ftravel%2Fstory%2F20161024-the-worlds-most-tolerant-country&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrunwasser2017" class="citation news cs1">Brunwasser, Matthew (26 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/26/world/europe/as-albania-reckons-with-its-communist-past-critics-say-its-too-late.html">"As Albania Reckons With Its Communist Past, Critics Say It's Too Late"</a>. The New York Times.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=As+Albania+Reckons+With+Its+Communist+Past%2C+Critics+Say+It%27s+Too+Late&rft.date=2017-02-26&rft.aulast=Brunwasser&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F02%2F26%2Fworld%2Feurope%2Fas-albania-reckons-with-its-communist-past-critics-say-its-too-late.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=61897">"Christians live in fear of death squads"</a>. IRIN. 19 October 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Christians+live+in+fear+of+death+squads&rft.date=2006-10-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.irinnews.org%2Freport.aspx%3Freportid%3D61897&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell1991" class="citation journal cs1">Campbell, Gwyn (October 1991). "The state and pre-colonial demographic history: the case of nineteenth century Madagascar". Journal of African History. 23 (3): 415–445. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021853700031534">10.1017/S0021853700031534</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=The+state+and+pre-colonial+demographic+history%3A+the+case+of+nineteenth+century+Madagascar&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=415-445&rft.date=1991-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021853700031534&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Gwyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Laidler_2005-254"><a href="#cite_ref-Laidler_2005_254-0">^</a> Laidler (2005) </li> <li id="cite_note-Sunday-255"><a href="#cite_ref-Sunday_255-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCousins" class="citation magazine cs1">Cousins, W.E. "Since 1800 in Madagascar; 1877–1878". The Sunday Magazine for Family Reading. Vol. 1. London: Daldy, Isbister & Co. pp. 405–410.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Sunday+Magazine+for+Family+Reading&rft.atitle=Since+1800+in+Madagascar%3B+1877%E2%80%931878&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=405-410&rft.aulast=Cousins&rft.aufirst=W.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffin2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Griffin" title="Roger Griffin">Griffin, Roger</a> (2006). Blamires, Cyprian; Jackson, Paul (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nvD2rZSVau4C">World Fascism: A-K</a>. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781576079409" title="Special:BookSources/9781576079409"><bdi>9781576079409</bdi></a>. <q>There is no doubt that in the long run Nazi leaders such as Hitler and Himmler intended to eradicate Christianity just as ruthlessly as they intended to eradicate any other rival ideology, even if in the short term they had to be content to make compromises with it.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Fascism%3A+A-K&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781576079409&rft.aulast=Griffin&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnvD2rZSVau4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMosse2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Lachmann_Mosse" class="mw-redirect" title="George Lachmann Mosse">Mosse, George Lachmann</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_cyR3QyuSdIC">Nazi Culture: Intellectual, Cultural and Social Life in the Third Reich</a>. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 240. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-19304-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-299-19304-1"><bdi>978-0-299-19304-1</bdi></a>. <q>Had the Nazis won the war, their ecclesiastical policies would have gone beyond those of the <a href="/wiki/German_Christians_(movement)" title="German Christians (movement)">German Christians</a>, to the utter destruction of both the Protestant and Catholic Churches.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nazi+Culture%3A+Intellectual%2C+Cultural+and+Social+Life+in+the+Third+Reich&rft.pages=240&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-299-19304-1&rft.aulast=Mosse&rft.aufirst=George+Lachmann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_cyR3QyuSdIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBendersky2007" class="citation book cs1">Bendersky, Joseph W. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ATCXucbTYX0C">A Concise History of Nazi Germany</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5363-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5363-7"><bdi>978-0-7425-5363-7</bdi></a>. <q>Consequently, it was Hitler's long range goal to eliminate the churches once he had consolidated his control over his European empire.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Nazi+Germany&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-5363-7&rft.aulast=Bendersky&rft.aufirst=Joseph+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DATCXucbTYX0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFischel2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jack_Fischel" title="Jack Fischel">Fischel, Jack R.</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EzBZP92xwUUC">Historical Dictionary of the Holocaust</a>. Scarecrow Press. p. 123. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7485-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7485-5"><bdi>978-0-8108-7485-5</bdi></a>. <q>The objective was to either destroy Christianity and restore the German gods of antiquity or turn Jesus into an <a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryan</a>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+Holocaust&rft.pages=123&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-7485-5&rft.aulast=Fischel&rft.aufirst=Jack+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEzBZP92xwUUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDill1970" class="citation book cs1">Dill, Marshall (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xRrGP7L9_hEC">Germany: A Modern History</a>. University of Michigan Press. p. 365. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0472071017" title="Special:BookSources/0472071017"><bdi>0472071017</bdi></a>. <q>It seems no exaggeration to insist that the greatest challenge the Nazis had to face was their effort to eradicate Christianity in Germany or at least subjugate it to their general world outlook.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany%3A+A+Modern+History&rft.pages=365&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=0472071017&rft.aulast=Dill&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxRrGP7L9_hEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Berenbaum2000" class="citation web cs1">Michael Berenbaum (October 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.holocaust-trc.org/persecution-and-resistance-of-jehovahs-witnesses/">"Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi-Regime 1938–1945"</a>. Holocaust Teacher Resource Center.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Holocaust+Teacher+Resource+Center&rft.atitle=Persecution+and+Resistance+of+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses+During+the+Nazi-Regime+1938%E2%80%931945&rft.date=2000-10&rft.au=Michael+Berenbaum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.holocaust-trc.org%2Fpersecution-and-resistance-of-jehovahs-witnesses%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHesse2001" class="citation book cs1">Hesse, Hans (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mcxD0qxHMO0C">Persecution and resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses during the Nazi regime, 1933–1945</a>. Berghahn Books. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-86108-750-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-86108-750-2"><bdi>978-3-86108-750-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Persecution+and+resistance+of+Jehovah%27s+Witnesses+during+the+Nazi+regime%2C+1933%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-3-86108-750-2&rft.aulast=Hesse&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmcxD0qxHMO0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/jehovahs-witnesses-in-germany-from-the-1890s-to-the-1930s">"Jehovah's Witnesses in Germany: From the 1890s to 1945"</a>. Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 2 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Holocaust+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Jehovah%27s+Witnesses+in+Germany%3A+From+the+1890s+to+1945&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.ushmm.org%2Fcontent%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fjehovahs-witnesses-in-germany-from-the-1890s-to-the-1930s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErik_Freas2016" class="citation book cs1">Erik Freas (2016). Muslim-Christian Relations in Late-Ottoman Palestine: Where Nationalism and Religion Intersect. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1137570413" title="Special:BookSources/978-1137570413"><bdi>978-1137570413</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslim-Christian+Relations+in+Late-Ottoman+Palestine%3A+Where+Nationalism+and+Religion+Intersect&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1137570413&rft.au=Erik+Freas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAboona2008" class="citation book cs1">Aboona, H (2008). Assyrians, Kurds, and Ottomans: intercommunal relations on the periphery of the Ottoman Empire. Cambria Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60497-583-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60497-583-3"><bdi>978-1-60497-583-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Assyrians%2C+Kurds%2C+and+Ottomans%3A+intercommunal+relations+on+the+periphery+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pub=Cambria+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-60497-583-3&rft.aulast=Aboona&rft.aufirst=H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauntBeṯ-Şawoce200632-262"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGauntBe%E1%B9%AF-%C5%9Eawoce200632_262-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGauntBe%E1%B9%AF-%C5%9Eawoce2006">Gaunt & Beṯ-Şawoce 2006</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasters" class="citation journal cs1">Masters, Bruce. "The 1850 Events in Aleppo: An Aftershock of Syria's Incorporation into the Capitalist World System". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=The+1850+Events+in+Aleppo%3A+An+Aftershock+of+Syria%27s+Incorporation+into+the+Capitalist+World+System&rft.volume=22&rft.aulast=Masters&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chisholm_1911,_p._781-264">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chisholm_1911,_p._781_264-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chisholm_1911,_p._781_264-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Bulgaria/History">"Bulgaria § Political History" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 871.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bulgaria+%C2%A7+Political+History&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=871&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelbecheva2011" class="citation book cs1">Kelbecheva, Evelina (2011). "The Short History of Bulgaria for Export". In Jørgen S. Nielsen (ed.). Religion, Ethnicity and Contested Nationhood in the Former Ottoman Space. Brill. pp. 223–247. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004216570_013">10.1163/9789004216570_013</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004211339" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004211339"><bdi>978-9004211339</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Short+History+of+Bulgaria+for+Export&rft.btitle=Religion%2C+Ethnicity+and+Contested+Nationhood+in+the+Former+Ottoman+Space&rft.pages=223-247&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004216570_013&rft.isbn=978-9004211339&rft.aulast=Kelbecheva&rft.aufirst=Evelina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1896" class="citation book cs1">Miller, William (1896). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191016151348/https://depts.washington.edu/cartah/text_archive/miller/m2_c5.html">"Chapter 5: Bulgaria under the Turks"</a>. 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Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 25, 271. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781856490184" title="Special:BookSources/9781856490184"><bdi>9781856490184</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Agha%2C+Shaikh+and+State%3A+The+Social+and+Political+Structures+of+Kurdistan&rft.pages=25%2C+271&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9781856490184&rft.aulast=Bruinessen&rft.aufirst=Martin+van&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkbar2003" class="citation book cs1">Akbar, M.J. 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Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers, 2008, pp. 339–69. </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdalian2012" class="citation book cs1">Adalian, Rouben Paul (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6XYp-z5aP4MC&pg=PA132">"The Armenian genocide"</a>. In Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S. (eds.). Century of Genocide. 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Walker (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KNEOAAAAQAAJ">Armenia, the Survival of a Nation</a>. St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-04944-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-04944-7"><bdi>978-0-312-04944-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Armenia%2C+the+Survival+of+a+Nation&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-312-04944-7&rft.au=Christopher+J.+Walker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKNEOAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> * <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkçam2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Taner_Ak%C3%A7am" title="Taner Akçam">Akçam, Taner</a> (2007). <a href="/wiki/A_Shameful_Act:_The_Armenian_Genocide_and_the_Question_of_Turkish_Responsibility" class="mw-redirect" title="A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility">A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility</a>. p. 327.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Shameful+Act%3A+The+Armenian+Genocide+and+the+Question+of+Turkish+Responsibility&rft.pages=327&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Ak%C3%A7am&rft.aufirst=Taner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E-_XTh0M4swC">Profile at</a> <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aprim2005-286"><a href="#cite_ref-Aprim2005_286-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAprim2005" class="citation book cs1">Aprim, Frederick A. (January 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V4glAQAAMAAJ">Assyrians: the continuous saga</a>. F.A. Aprim. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781413438574" title="Special:BookSources/9781413438574"><bdi>9781413438574</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Assyrians%3A+the+continuous+saga&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=F.A.+Aprim&rft.date=2005-01&rft.isbn=9781413438574&rft.aulast=Aprim&rft.aufirst=Frederick+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV4glAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> Ghazal, Rym (14 April 2015). "Lebanon's dark days of hunger: The Great Famine of 1915–18". The National. Retrieved 24 January 2016. </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> Harris 2012, p. 174 </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> The Plight of Religious Minorities: Can Religious Pluralism Survive? – p. 51 by United States Congress </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> The Armenian Genocide: Wartime Radicalization Or Premeditated Continuum – p. 272 edited by Richard Hovannisian </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> Not Even My Name: A True Story – p. 131 by <a href="/wiki/Thea_Halo" title="Thea Halo">Thea Halo</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> The Political Dictionary of Modern Middle East by Agnes G. Korbani </li> <li id="cite_note-Morris-293"><a href="#cite_ref-Morris_293-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrisZe'evi2019" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2019). The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a>: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. pp. 3–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-24008-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-24008-7"><bdi>978-0-674-24008-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thirty-Year+Genocide%3A+Turkey%27s+Destruction+of+Its+Christian+Minorities%2C+1894%E2%80%931924&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=3-5&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-674-24008-7&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Benny&rft.au=Ze%27evi%2C+Dror&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gutman-294"><a href="#cite_ref-Gutman_294-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGutman,_David2019" class="citation journal cs1">Gutman, David (2019). "The thirty year genocide: Turkey's destruction of its Christian minorities, 1894–1924". <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish Studies">Turkish Studies</a>. 21. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>: 1–3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14683849.2019.1644170">10.1080/14683849.2019.1644170</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201424062">201424062</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Turkish+Studies&rft.atitle=The+thirty+year+genocide%3A+Turkey%27s+destruction+of+its+Christian+minorities%2C+1894%E2%80%931924&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=1-3&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14683849.2019.1644170&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201424062%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Gutman%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> J. Joseph, Muslim-Christian relations and Inter-Christian rivalries in the Middle East, Albany, 1983, p. 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia. Taylor & Francis. 2002. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1857431375" title="Special:BookSources/1857431375"><bdi>1857431375</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eastern+Europe%2C+Russia+and+Central+Asia&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1857431375&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-russian_orthodox_killed-297">^ <a href="#cite_ref-russian_orthodox_killed_297-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-russian_orthodox_killed_297-1">b</a> World Christian trends, AD 30-AD 2200, pp. 230–246 Tables 4–5 & 4–10 By David B. Barrett, Todd M. Johnson, Christopher R. Guidry, Peter F. Crossing NOTE: They define 'martyr' on p235 as only including Christians killed for faith and excluding other Christians killed </li> <li id="cite_note-Ostling-298">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ostling_298-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ostling_298-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstling2001" class="citation magazine cs1">Ostling, Richard (24 June 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070813173443/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,150718,00.html">"Cross meets Kremlin"</a>. Time. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,150718,00.html">the original</a> on 13 August 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Cross+meets+Kremlin&rft.date=2001-06-24&rft.aulast=Ostling&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C150718%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-peris-299"><a href="#cite_ref-peris_299-0">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Peris&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Daniel Peris (page does not exist)">Daniel Peris</a> Storming the Heavens: The Soviet League of the Militant Godless Cornell University Press 1998 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-3485-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-3485-3">978-0-8014-3485-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> Antireligioznik (The Antireligious, 1926–41), Derevenskii Bezbozhnik (The Godless Peasant, 1928–1932), and Yunye Bezbozhniki (The Young Godless, 1931–1933). </li> <li id="cite_note-Vladimir_pg_291-301">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vladimir_pg_291_301-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vladimir_pg_291_301-1">b</a> History of the Orthodox Church in the History of Russian Dimitry Pospielovsky 1998 St Vladimir's Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88141-179-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-88141-179-5">0-88141-179-5</a> pg 291 </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-302">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_302-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_302-1">b</a> A History of Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Antireligious Policies, Dimitry Pospielovsky Palgrave Macmillan (December 1987) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-38132-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-38132-8">0-312-38132-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a> John Anderson, Religion, State and Politics in the Soviet Union and Successor States, Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp 9 </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a> Dimitry V. Pospielovsky. A History of Soviet Atheism in Theory, and Practice, and the Believer, vol 1: A History of Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious Policies, St Martin's Press, New York (1987). pg 84. </li> <li id="cite_note-305"><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a> Prot. Dimitri Konstantinov, Gonimaia Tserkov' (New York:Vseslavianskoe izdatel'stvo, 1967) pp. 286–7, and (London:Macmillan, 1969) chs 4 and 5 </li> <li id="cite_note-Froese,_Paul_2005-306"><a href="#cite_ref-Froese,_Paul_2005_306-0">^</a> Froese, Paul. "'I am an atheist and a Muslim': Islam, communism, and ideological competition." Journal of Church and State 47.3 (2005) </li> <li id="cite_note-Marsh2011-307"><a href="#cite_ref-Marsh2011_307-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarsh2011" class="citation book cs1">Marsh, Christopher (2011). Religion and the State in Russia and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-0284-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-0284-3"><bdi>978-1-4411-0284-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+the+State+in+Russia+and+China%3A+Suppression%2C+Survival%2C+and+Revival&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-0284-3&rft.aulast=Marsh&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-308"><a href="#cite_ref-308">^</a> Religion and the State in Russia and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival, by Christopher Marsh, p. 47. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-309"><a href="#cite_ref-309">^</a> Inside Central Asia: A Political and Cultural History, by Dilip Hiro. Penguin, 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-Adappur2000-310"><a href="#cite_ref-Adappur2000_310-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdappur2000" class="citation book cs1">Adappur, Abraham (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=44DYAAAAMAAJ">Religion and the Cultural Crisis in India and the West</a>. Intercultural Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788185574479" title="Special:BookSources/9788185574479"><bdi>9788185574479</bdi></a>. <q>Forced Conversion under Atheistic Regimes: It might be added that the most modern example of forced "conversions" came not from any theocratic state, but from a professedly atheist government – that of the Soviet Union under the Communists.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+the+Cultural+Crisis+in+India+and+the+West&rft.pub=Intercultural+Publications&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9788185574479&rft.aulast=Adappur&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D44DYAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Paul_Froese_2004_pp._35–50-311"><a href="#cite_ref-Paul_Froese_2004_pp._35%E2%80%9350_311-0">^</a> Paul Froese. Forced Secularization in Soviet Russia: Why an Atheistic Monopoly Failed. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, Vol. 43, No. 1 (Mar. 2004), pp. 35–50 </li> <li id="cite_note-Haskins,_Ekaterina_V_2009-312"><a href="#cite_ref-Haskins,_Ekaterina_V_2009_312-0">^</a> Haskins, Ekaterina V. "Russia's postcommunist past: the Cathedral of Christ the Savior and the reimagining of national identity." History and Memory: Studies in Representation of the Past 21.1 (2009) </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a> Geoffrey Blainey; A Short History of Christianity; Viking; 2011; p. 494" </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeris1998" class="citation book cs1">Peris, Daniel (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nC2LSv5QNYkC">Storming the Heavens: The Soviet League of the Militant Godless</a>. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801434853" title="Special:BookSources/9780801434853"><bdi>9780801434853</bdi></a>. <q>Created in 1925, the League of the Militant Godless was the nominally independent organization established by the Communist Party to promote atheism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storming+the+Heavens%3A+The+Soviet+League+of+the+Militant+Godless&rft.place=Ithaca&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780801434853&rft.aulast=Peris&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnC2LSv5QNYkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a> President of Lithuania: Prisoner of the Gulag a Biography of <a href="/wiki/Aleksandras_Stulginskis" title="Aleksandras Stulginskis">Aleksandras Stulginskis</a> by Afonsas Eidintas Genocide and Research Center of Lithuania <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9986-757-41-X" title="Special:BookSources/9986-757-41-X">9986-757-41-X</a> / 9789986757412, pg 23 "As early as August 1920 <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a> wrote to <a href="/wiki/Ephraim_Sklyansky" title="Ephraim Sklyansky">E. M. Sklyansky</a>, President of the Revolutionary War Soviet: "We are surrounded by the greens (we pack it to them), we will move only about 10–20 versty and we will choke by hand the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a>, the clergy and the landowners. There will be an award of 100,000 rubles for each one hanged." He was speaking about the future actions in the countries neighboring Russia. </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> Christ Is Calling You: A Course in Catacomb Pastorship by Father <a href="/wiki/George_Calciu" class="mw-redirect" title="George Calciu">George Calciu</a> Published by Saint Hermans Press April 1997 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-887904-52-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-887904-52-0">978-1-887904-52-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> Daniel Peris Storming the Heavens: The Soviet League of the Militant Godless Cornell University Press 1998 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-3485-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-3485-3">978-0-8014-3485-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Froese2008-318"><a href="#cite_ref-Froese2008_318-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFroese2008" class="citation book cs1">Froese, Paul (6 August 2008). The Plot to Kill God: Findings from the Soviet Experiment in Secularization. University of California Press. p. 122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-94273-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-94273-8"><bdi>978-0-520-94273-8</bdi></a>. <q>Before 1937, the Soviet regime had closed thousands of churches and removed tens of thousands of religious leaders from positions of influence. By the midthirties, Soviet elites set out to conduct a mass liquidation of all religious organizations and leaders... officers in the League of Militant Atheists found themselves in a bind to explain the widespread persistence of religious belief in 1937.... The latest estimates indicate that thousands of individuals were executed for religious crimes and hundreds of thousands of religious believers were imprisoned in labor camps or psychiatric hospitals.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Plot+to+Kill+God%3A+Findings+from+the+Soviet+Experiment+in+Secularization&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2008-08-06&rft.isbn=978-0-520-94273-8&rft.aulast=Froese&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FranklinWiddis2006-319">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FranklinWiddis2006_319-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FranklinWiddis2006_319-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklinWiddis2006" class="citation book cs1">Franklin, Simon; Widdis, Emma (2 February 2006). National Identity in Russian Culture. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-02429-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-02429-7"><bdi>978-0-521-02429-7</bdi></a>. <q>Churches, when not destroyed, might find themselves converted into museums of atheism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=National+Identity+in+Russian+Culture&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006-02-02&rft.isbn=978-0-521-02429-7&rft.aulast=Franklin&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft.au=Widdis%2C+Emma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bevan2016-320">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bevan2016_320-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bevan2016_320-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBevan2016" class="citation book cs1">Bevan, Robert (15 February 2016). The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War. Reaktion Books. p. 152. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78023-608-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78023-608-7"><bdi>978-1-78023-608-7</bdi></a>. <q>Churches, synagogues, mosques and monasteries were shut down in the immediate wake of the Revolution. Many were converted to secular uses or converted into Museums of Atheism (antichurches), whitewashed and their fittings were removed.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Destruction+of+Memory%3A+Architecture+at+War&rft.pages=152&rft.pub=Reaktion+Books&rft.date=2016-02-15&rft.isbn=978-1-78023-608-7&rft.aulast=Bevan&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ramet1990-321"><a href="#cite_ref-Ramet1990_321-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamet1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sabrina_P._Ramet" title="Sabrina P. Ramet">Ramet, Sabrina P.</a> (1990). Catholicism and Politics in Communist Societies. Duke University Press. pp. 232–33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822310471" title="Special:BookSources/978-0822310471"><bdi>978-0822310471</bdi></a>. <q>From kindergarten onward children are indoctrinated with an aggressive form of atheism and trained to hate and distrust foreigners and to denounce parents who follow religious practices at home.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catholicism+and+Politics+in+Communist+Societies&rft.pages=232-33&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0822310471&rft.aulast=Ramet&rft.aufirst=Sabrina+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-322"><a href="#cite_ref-322">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelson2009" class="citation book cs1">Nelson, James M. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LBv_K9Q0Z6gC&pg=PA427">Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality</a>. Springer. p. 427. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-87573-6_12">10.1007/978-0-387-87573-6_12</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-87572-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-87572-9"><bdi>978-0-387-87572-9</bdi></a>. <q>Estimates of the total number of Christian martyrs in the former Soviet Union are about 12 million.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology%2C+Religion%2C+and+Spirituality&rft.pages=427&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-0-387-87573-6_12&rft.isbn=978-0-387-87572-9&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLBv_K9Q0Z6gC%26pg%3DPA427&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-323"><a href="#cite_ref-323">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnsonZurlo2018" class="citation web cs1">Johnson, Todd; Zurlo, Gina (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/db/wcdo">"Martyrdom (Country-by-country statistics)"</a>. World Christian Database. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Academic_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Brill Academic Publishers">Brill Academic Publishers</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Christian+Database&rft.atitle=Martyrdom+%28Country-by-country+statistics%29&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Todd&rft.au=Zurlo%2C+Gina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fdb%2Fwcdo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dronds_2013-324">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dronds_2013_324-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dronds_2013_324-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDronda2013" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dronda, Javier (2013). Con Cristo o contra Cristo: Religión y movilización antirrepublicana en Navarra (1931–1936) (in Spanish). Tafalla: Txalaparta. pp. 201–202, 220. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-15313-31-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-15313-31-1"><bdi>978-84-15313-31-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Con+Cristo+o+contra+Cristo%3A+Religi%C3%B3n+y+movilizaci%C3%B3n+antirrepublicana+en+Navarra+%281931%E2%80%931936%29&rft.place=Tafalla&rft.pages=201-202%2C+220&rft.pub=Txalaparta&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-84-15313-31-1&rft.aulast=Dronda&rft.aufirst=Javier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-325">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:13_325-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_325-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_325-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_325-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_325-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_325-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_325-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_325-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_325-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_325-9">j</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_la_Cueva1998" class="citation journal cs1">de la Cueva, Julio (1998). "Religious Persecution, Anticlerical Tradition and Revolution: On Atrocities against the Clergy during the Spanish Civil War". Journal of Contemporary History. 33 (3): 355–369. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-0094">0022-0094</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/261121">261121</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+History&rft.atitle=Religious+Persecution%2C+Anticlerical+Tradition+and+Revolution%3A+On+Atrocities+against+the+Clergy+during+the+Spanish+Civil+War&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=355-369&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F261121%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0022-0094&rft.aulast=de+la+Cueva&rft.aufirst=Julio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Preston_2013-326">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Preston_2013_326-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Preston_2013_326-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Preston2013" class="citation book cs1">Paul Preston (2013). The Spanish Holocaust: Inquisition and Extermination in Twentieth-Century Spain. London, UK: HarperCollins. pp. 4, 44–45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-638695-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-638695-7"><bdi>978-0-00-638695-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spanish+Holocaust%3A+Inquisition+and+Extermination+in+Twentieth-Century+Spain.&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=4%2C+44-45&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-00-638695-7&rft.au=Paul+Preston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-327"><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRanzato1988" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ranzato, Gabriele (1988). "Dies irae. La persecuzione religiosa nella zona repubblicana durante la guerra civile spagnola (1936–1939)". Movimento Operaio e Socialista (in Spanish). 11: 195–220.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Movimento+Operaio+e+Socialista&rft.atitle=Dies+irae.+La+persecuzione+religiosa+nella+zona+repubblicana+durante+la+guerra+civile+spagnola+%281936%E2%80%931939%29&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=195-220&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Ranzato&rft.aufirst=Gabriele&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-328"><a href="#cite_ref-328">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayne" class="citation book cs1">Payne, Stanley G. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libro.uca.edu/payne2/payne26.htm">"Chapter 26: The Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939"</a>. A History of Spain and Portugal vol. 2. Retrieved 2 January 2023 – via The Library of Iberian Resources Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+26%3A+The+Spanish+Civil+War+of+1936%E2%80%931939&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Spain+and+Portugal+vol.+2&rft.aulast=Payne&rft.aufirst=Stanley+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibro.uca.edu%2Fpayne2%2Fpayne26.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mitchell_1983-329">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mitchell_1983_329-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mitchell_1983_329-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell1983" class="citation book cs1">Mitchell, David (1983). The Spanish Civil War. New York: Franklin Watts. pp. 45–46.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spanish+Civil+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=45-46&rft.pub=Franklin+Watts&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-google2-330">^ <a href="#cite_ref-google2_330-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-google2_330-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-google2_330-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayne2008" class="citation book cs1">Payne, Stanley G. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KPgPFqXub14C">Franco and Hitler: Spain, Germany, and World War II</a>. Yale University Press. pp. 13, 215. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12282-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12282-4"><bdi>978-0-300-12282-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franco+and+Hitler%3A+Spain%2C+Germany%2C+and+World+War+II&rft.pages=13%2C+215&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-300-12282-4&rft.aulast=Payne&rft.aufirst=Stanley+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKPgPFqXub14C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-331"><a href="#cite_ref-331">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVincent2014" class="citation journal cs1">Vincent, Mary (18 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/80827/3/Ungodly%20subjects%20EHQ%20revised.pdf">"Ungodly Subjects: Protestants in National-Catholic Spain, 1939–53"</a> (PDF). European History Quarterly. 45 (1). Sage: 108–131. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0265691414552782">10.1177/0265691414552782</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0265-6914">0265-6914</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145265537">145265537</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+History+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Ungodly+Subjects%3A+Protestants+in+National-Catholic+Spain%2C+1939%E2%80%9353&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=108-131&rft.date=2014-12-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145265537%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0265-6914&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0265691414552782&rft.aulast=Vincent&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.whiterose.ac.uk%2F80827%2F3%2FUngodly%2520subjects%2520EHQ%2520revised.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-332"><a href="#cite_ref-332">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeevor2006" class="citation book cs1">Beevor, Antony (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q-mayoYS6eIC">The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936-1939</a>. Penguin. pp. 88–89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-20120-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-20120-6"><bdi>978-1-101-20120-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Battle+for+Spain%3A+The+Spanish+Civil+War+1936-1939&rft.pages=88-89&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-101-20120-6&rft.aulast=Beevor&rft.aufirst=Antony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ-mayoYS6eIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Feldman-333"><a href="#cite_ref-Feldman_333-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeldman2008" class="citation news cs1">Feldman, Noah (6 January 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/06/magazine/06mormonism-t.html?pagewanted=1&ei=5124&en=92f33bb3ad8525e6&ex=1357448400&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink">"What Is It About Mormonism?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=What+Is+It+About+Mormonism%3F&rft.date=2008-01-06&rft.aulast=Feldman&rft.aufirst=Noah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F01%2F06%2Fmagazine%2F06mormonism-t.html%3Fpagewanted%3D1%26ei%3D5124%26en%3D92f33bb3ad8525e6%26ex%3D1357448400%26partner%3Dpermalink%26exprod%3Dpermalink&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-334"><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111022133933/http://lds.org/manual/church-history-in-the-fulness-of-times-student-manual/chapter-sixteen-missouri-persecutions-and-expulsion?lang=eng">"Chapter Sixteen: Missouri Persecutions and Expulsion"</a>, Church History in the Fulness of Times, Student manual (Religion 341, 342, and 343), <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Religion" title="Institute of Religion">Institute of Religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Church_Educational_System" title="Church Educational System">Church Educational System</a>, <a href="/wiki/LDS_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="LDS Church">LDS Church</a>, 2003, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lds.org/manual/church-history-in-the-fulness-of-times-student-manual/chapter-sixteen-missouri-persecutions-and-expulsion?lang=eng">the original</a> on 22 October 2011</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+Sixteen%3A+Missouri+Persecutions+and+Expulsion&rft.btitle=Church+History+in+the+Fulness+of+Times%2C+Student+manual+%28Religion+341%2C+342%2C+and+343%29&rft.pub=Institute+of+Religion%2C+Church+Educational+System%2C+LDS+Church&rft.date=2003&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lds.org%2Fmanual%2Fchurch-history-in-the-fulness-of-times-student-manual%2Fchapter-sixteen-missouri-persecutions-and-expulsion%3Flang%3Deng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-335"><a href="#cite_ref-335">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1946–1949" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fielding_Smith" title="Joseph Fielding Smith">Smith, Joseph Fielding</a> (1946–1949), Church History and Modern Revelation, vol. 4, <a href="/wiki/Deseret_Book" class="mw-redirect" title="Deseret Book">Deseret Book</a>, pp. 167–173</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Church+History+and+Modern+Revelation&rft.pages=167-173&rft.pub=Deseret+Book&rft.date=1946%2F1949&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Fielding&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pegram-336"><a href="#cite_ref-pegram_336-0">^</a> Thomas R. Pegram, One Hundred Percent American: The Rebirth and Decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s (2011), pp. 47–88. </li> <li id="cite_note-337"><a href="#cite_ref-337">^</a> Kelly J. Baker, Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK's Appeal to Protestant America, 1915–1930 (2011), p. 248. </li> <li id="cite_note-BrezianuSpânu2010-338"><a href="#cite_ref-BrezianuSp%C3%A2nu2010_338-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrezianu2010" class="citation book cs1">Brezianu, Andrei (26 May 2010). The A to Z of Moldova. Scarecrow Press. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7211-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7211-0"><bdi>978-0-8108-7211-0</bdi></a>. <q>Communist Atheism. Official doctrine of the Soviet regime, also called "scientific atheism". It was aggressively applied to Moldova, immediately after the 1940 annexation, when churches were profaned, clergy were assaulted, and signs and public symbols of religion were prohibited, and it was again applied throughout the subsequent decades of the Soviet regime, after 1944. … The St. Theodora Church in downtown Chişinău was converted into the city's Museum of Scientific Atheism,</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+A+to+Z+of+Moldova&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2010-05-26&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-7211-0&rft.aulast=Brezianu&rft.aufirst=Andrei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-339"><a href="#cite_ref-339">^</a> Peter Hebblethwaite; Paul VI, the First Modern Pope; HarperCollins Religious; 1993; p. 211 </li> <li id="cite_note-340"><a href="#cite_ref-340">^</a> Norman Davies; Rising '44: the Battle for Warsaw; Viking; 2003; p.566 & 568 </li> <li id="cite_note-Viking_p._494-341"><a href="#cite_ref-Viking_p._494_341-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Blainey" title="Geoffrey Blainey">Geoffrey Blainey</a>; <a href="/wiki/A_Short_History_of_Christianity" title="A Short History of Christianity">A Short History of Christianity</a>; Viking; 2011; p.494 </li> <li id="cite_note-Viking_p._508-342"><a href="#cite_ref-Viking_p._508_342-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Blainey" title="Geoffrey Blainey">Geoffrey Blainey</a>; <a href="/wiki/A_Short_History_of_Christianity" title="A Short History of Christianity">A Short History of Christianity</a>; Viking; 2011; p.508 </li> <li id="cite_note-343"><a href="#cite_ref-343">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSullivan2006" class="citation news cs1">Sullivan, Patricia (26 November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/25/AR2006112500783.html">"Anti-Communist Priest Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa"</a>. The Washington Post.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Anti-Communist+Priest+Gheorghe+Calciu-Dumitreasa&rft.date=2006-11-26&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2006%2F11%2F25%2FAR2006112500783.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-344"><a href="#cite_ref-344">^</a> The Washington Post Anti-Communist Priest Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa by Patricia Sullivan Washington Post Staff Writer Sunday, 26 November 2006; p. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20101216/ap_on_re_eu/eu_vatican_religious_persecution">the original</a> on 19 December 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Pope+calls+Christians+the+most+persecuted&rft.date=2010-12-16&rft.au=Frances+D%27Emillo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.yahoo.com%2Fs%2Fap%2F20101216%2Fap_on_re_eu%2Feu_vatican_religious_persecution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-346">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_346-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_346-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenit.org/2013/05/29/archbishop-silvano-tomasi-s-address-to-the-un-human-rights-council-interactive-dialogue/">"Archbishop Silvano Tomasi's Address to the UN Human Rights Council Interactive Dialogue"</a>. Zenit. 29 May 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Zenit&rft.atitle=Archbishop+Silvano+Tomasi%27s+Address+to+the+UN+Human+Rights+Council+Interactive+Dialogue&rft.date=2013-05-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenit.org%2F2013%2F05%2F29%2Farchbishop-silvano-tomasi-s-address-to-the-un-human-rights-council-interactive-dialogue%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130608063330/http://www.news.va/en/news/vatican-to-un-100-thousand-christians-killed-for-t">"Vatican to UN: 100 thousand Christians killed for the faith each year"</a>. Vatican Radio. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.news.va/en/news/vatican-to-un-100-thousand-christians-killed-for-t">the original</a> on 8 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vatican+Radio&rft.atitle=Vatican+to+UN%3A+100+thousand+Christians+killed+for+the+faith+each+year&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.news.va%2Fen%2Fnews%2Fvatican-to-un-100-thousand-christians-killed-for-t&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-347"><a href="#cite_ref-347">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://us11.campaign-archive.com/?u=060e80f6eebfc8804f8049bad&id=c0d75f13c6&e=88b938d3be">"Persecution of Christians in 2016"</a>. Center for the Study of Global Christianity. 2017. Retrieved 2 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Center+for+the+Study+of+Global+Christianity&rft.atitle=Persecution+of+Christians+in+2016&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fus11.campaign-archive.com%2F%3Fu%3D060e80f6eebfc8804f8049bad%26id%3Dc0d75f13c6%26e%3D88b938d3be&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldwatchmonitor.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/StatusofGlobalChristianity2017-1.pdf">"Status of Global Christianity, 2017, in the Context of 1900–2050"</a> (PDF). 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BBC News.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Are+there+really+100%2C000+new+Christian+martyrs+every+year%3F&rft.date=2013-11-12&rft.au=Ruth+Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fmagazine-24864587&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-igfm-349">^ <a href="#cite_ref-igfm_349-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-igfm_349-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-igfm_349-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.igfm.de/christenverfolgung-auf-einen-blick/">"Christenverfolgung auf einen Blick"</a>. Internationale Gesellschaft für Menschenrechte (International Society for Human rights) (in German). 14 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internationale+Gesellschaft+f%C3%BCr+Menschenrechte+%28International+Society+for+Human+rights%29&rft.atitle=Christenverfolgung+auf+einen+Blick&rft.date=2019-08-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.igfm.de%2Fchristenverfolgung-auf-einen-blick%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-350"><a href="#cite_ref-350">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_W._Boehme" class="citation web cs1">Robert W. Boehme; et al. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.state.gov/reports/2018-report-on-international-religious-freedom/">"2018 Report on International Religious Freedom"</a>. Office of International Religious Freedom. United States Department of State. Retrieved 2 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Office+of+International+Religious+Freedom&rft.atitle=2018+Report+on+International+Religious+Freedom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.state.gov%2Freports%2F2018-report-on-international-religious-freedom%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grim-351">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grim_351-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grim_351-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grim_351-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrimFinke2011" class="citation book cs1">Grim, Brian J.; Finke, Roger (2011). The Price of Freedom Denied: Religious Persecution and Conflict in the Twenty-First Century. 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(1893), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110817114702/http://greatest-battles.webs.com/MysoreWars/MysoreWars.htm">Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan and the Struggle with the Musalman Powers of the South</a>, IDARAH-I ADABIYAT-I DELLI, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-1299-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-206-1299-0"><bdi>978-81-206-1299-0</bdi></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.greatest-battles.webs.com/MysoreWars/MysoreWars.htm">the original</a> on 17 August 2011, retrieved 4 March 2010</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Haidar+Ali+and+Tipu+Sultan+and+the+Struggle+with+the+Musalman+Powers+of+the+South&rft.pub=IDARAH-I+ADABIYAT-I+DELLI&rft.date=1893&rft.isbn=978-81-206-1299-0&rft.aulast=Bowring&rft.aufirst=Lewin+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.greatest-battles.webs.com%2FMysoreWars%2FMysoreWars.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrock2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sebastian_P._Brock" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebastian P. Brock">Brock, Sebastian P.</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ey_FW7acTycC">Fire from Heaven: Studies in Syriac Theology and Liturgy</a>. Aldershot: Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780754659082" title="Special:BookSources/9780754659082"><bdi>9780754659082</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fire+from+Heaven%3A+Studies+in+Syriac+Theology+and+Liturgy&rft.place=Aldershot&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780754659082&rft.aulast=Brock&rft.aufirst=Sebastian+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEy_FW7acTycC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForrest1887" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_William_Forrest" title="George William Forrest">Forrest, George W.</a> (1887). Selections from the Letters, Despatches, and Other State Papers Preserved in the Bombay Secretariat. Vol. 2. <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Bombay</a>: Government Central Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selections+from+the+Letters%2C+Despatches%2C+and+Other+State+Papers+Preserved+in+the+Bombay+Secretariat&rft.place=Bombay&rft.pub=Government+Central+Press&rft.date=1887&rft.aulast=Forrest&rft.aufirst=George+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGauntBeṯ-Şawoce2006" class="citation cs2">Gaunt, D; Beṯ-Şawoce, J (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4mug9LrpLKcC">Massacres, resistance, protectors: Muslim-Christian relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I</a>, Gorgias Press LLC, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59333-301-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59333-301-0"><bdi>978-1-59333-301-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Massacres%2C+resistance%2C+protectors%3A+Muslim-Christian+relations+in+Eastern+Anatolia+during+World+War+I&rft.pub=Gorgias+Press+LLC&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-59333-301-0&rft.aulast=Gaunt&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Be%E1%B9%AF-%C5%9Eawoce%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4mug9LrpLKcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Gentleman's_Magazine1833" class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CnSrSlq_ckcC">The Gentleman's Magazine</a>, vol. CIII, F. Jefferies, 1833, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211030140214/https://books.google.com/books?id=CnSrSlq_ckcC">archived</a> from the original on 30 October 2021, retrieved 15 October 2008</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gentleman%27s+Magazine&rft.pub=F.+Jefferies&rft.date=1833&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCnSrSlq_ckcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonzález2010" class="citation book cs1">González, Justo L. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cQW0ACdLn6kC&q=septimius%20severus%20persecution&pg=PP1">The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation</a>. Vol. 1. New York: HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-185588-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-185588-7"><bdi>978-0-06-185588-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/905489146">905489146</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Christianity%3A+The+Early+Church+to+the+Dawn+of+the+Reformation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F905489146&rft.isbn=978-0-06-185588-7&rft.aulast=Gonz%C3%A1lez&rft.aufirst=Justo+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcQW0ACdLn6kC%26q%3Dseptimius%2520severus%2520persecution%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammond1967" class="citation book cs1">Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gI5QjgEACAAJ&q=mohamet">Epirus: the Geography, the Ancient Remains, the History and Topography of Epirus and Adjacent Areas</a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198142539" title="Special:BookSources/9780198142539"><bdi>9780198142539</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epirus%3A+the+Geography%2C+the+Ancient+Remains%2C+the+History+and+Topography+of+Epirus+and+Adjacent+Areas&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=9780198142539&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+Geoffrey+Lempri%C3%A8re&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgI5QjgEACAAJ%26q%3Dmohamet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammond1976" class="citation book cs1">Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O9saAAAAYAAJ&q=The+conditions+which+attented+the+collapse+of+the+Byzantine+Empire+recurred+in+the+late+eighteenth+century+and+therafter+when+the+Turks+were+losing+control+of+their+Balkan+dependencies+more+and+more%2C+until+Albania+became+free+in+1912-13.+Throughout+this+period+bands+of+Albanians+raiders+pillaged+and+destroyed+the+villages+of+the+Vlachs+and+the+Greeks+in+Epirus%2C">Migrations and invasions in Greece and adjacent areas</a>. Park Ridge: Noyes Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780815550471" title="Special:BookSources/9780815550471"><bdi>9780815550471</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Migrations+and+invasions+in+Greece+and+adjacent+areas&rft.place=Park+Ridge&rft.pub=Noyes+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=9780815550471&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+Geoffrey+Lempri%C3%A8re&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO9saAAAAYAAJ%26q%3DThe%2Bconditions%2Bwhich%2Battented%2Bthe%2Bcollapse%2Bof%2Bthe%2BByzantine%2BEmpire%2Brecurred%2Bin%2Bthe%2Blate%2Beighteenth%2Bcentury%2Band%2Btherafter%2Bwhen%2Bthe%2BTurks%2Bwere%2Blosing%2Bcontrol%2Bof%2Btheir%2BBalkan%2Bdependencies%2Bmore%2Band%2Bmore%252C%2Buntil%2BAlbania%2Bbecame%2Bfree%2Bin%2B1912-13.%2BThroughout%2Bthis%2Bperiod%2Bbands%2Bof%2BAlbanians%2Braiders%2Bpillaged%2Band%2Bdestroyed%2Bthe%2Bvillages%2Bof%2Bthe%2BVlachs%2Band%2Bthe%2BGreeks%2Bin%2BEpirus%252C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKallivretakis2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kallivretakis, Leonidas (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://helios-eie.ekt.gr/EIE/bitstream/10442/7651/1/N02.018.08.pdf"><bdi lang="el">Νέα Πικέρνη Δήμου Βουπρασίων: το χρονικό ενός οικισμού της Πελοποννήσου τον 19ο αιώνα (και η περιπέτεια ενός πληθυσμού)</bdi></a> [Nea Pikerni of Demos Vouprassion: The chronicle of a 19th century Peloponnesian settlement (and the adventures of a population)] (PDF). In Panagiotopoulos, Vasilis; Kallivretakis, Leonidas; Dimitropoulos, Dimitris; Kokolakis, Mihalis; Olibitou, Eudokia (eds.). <bdi lang="el">Πληθυσμοί και οικισμοί του ελληνικού χώρου: ιστορικά μελετήματα</bdi> [Populations and settlements of the Greek villages: Historical essays]. Tetrádia Ergasías (in Greek). Athens: Institute for Neohellenic Research. pp. 221–242. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1105-0845">1105-0845</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%CE%9D%CE%AD%CE%B1+%CE%A0%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%BD%CE%B7+%CE%94%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%85+%CE%92%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%80%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CF%89%CE%BD%3A+%CF%84%CE%BF+%CF%87%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C+%CE%B5%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%82+%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%8D+%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82+%CE%A0%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%BD%CE%AE%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%85+%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD+19%CE%BF+%CE%B1%CE%B9%CF%8E%CE%BD%CE%B1+%28%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9+%CE%B7+%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%80%CE%AD%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1+%CE%B5%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%82+%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%B8%CF%85%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%8D%29&rft.btitle=%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%B8%CF%85%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%AF+%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9+%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%AF+%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85+%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%8D+%CF%87%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%85%3A+%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC+%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1&rft.place=Athens&rft.series=Tetr%C3%A1dia+Ergas%C3%ADas&rft.pages=221-242&rft.pub=Institute+for+Neohellenic+Research&rft.date=2003&rft.issn=1105-0845&rft.aulast=Kallivretakis&rft.aufirst=Leonidas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhelios-eie.ekt.gr%2FEIE%2Fbitstream%2F10442%2F7651%2F1%2FN02.018.08.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoti2010" class="citation book cs1">Koti, Dhori (2010). Monografi për Vithkuqin dhe Naum Veqilharxhin [A monograph of Vithkuq and Naum Veqilharxhi]. Pogradec: DIJA Poradeci. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-99956-826-8-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-99956-826-8-2"><bdi>978-99956-826-8-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Monografi+p%C3%ABr+Vithkuqin+dhe+Naum+Veqilharxhin+%26%2391%3BA+monograph+of+Vithkuq+and+Naum+Veqilharxhi%26%2393%3B&rft.place=Pogradec&rft.pub=DIJA+Poradeci&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-99956-826-8-2&rft.aulast=Koti&rft.aufirst=Dhori&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoukoudis2003" class="citation book cs1">Koukoudis, Asterios (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=01JoAAAAMAAJ&q=The+Vlachs:+Metropolis+and+Diaspora">The Vlachs: Metropolis and Diaspora</a>. 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Pavlowitch">Pavlowitch, Stevan K.</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w-RuLDaNwbMC">Serbia: The History behind the Name</a>. London: Hurst & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781850654773" title="Special:BookSources/9781850654773"><bdi>9781850654773</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Serbia%3A+The+History+behind+the+Name&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hurst+%26+Company&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9781850654773&rft.aulast=Pavlowitch&rft.aufirst=Stevan+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw-RuLDaNwbMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamet1998" class="citation book cs1">Ramet, Sabrina (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TrcnAAAAYAAJ">Nihil obstat: religion, politics, and social change in East-Central Europe and Russia</a>. Durham: Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780822320708" title="Special:BookSources/9780822320708"><bdi>9780822320708</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nihil+obstat%3A+religion%2C+politics%2C+and+social+change+in+East-Central+Europe+and+Russia&rft.place=Durham&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780822320708&rft.aulast=Ramet&rft.aufirst=Sabrina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTrcnAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScurryWhiteway1824" class="citation cs2">Scurry, James; Whiteway, William (1824), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SMoEAAAAYAAJ">The Captivity, Sufferings, and Escape of James Scurry, who was Detained a Prisoner During Ten Years, in the Dominions of Hyder Ali and Tippoo Saib</a> (3, illustrated ed.), Monthly Review Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85345-315-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85345-315-4"><bdi>978-0-85345-315-4</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140103085521/http://books.google.com/books?id=SMoEAAAAYAAJ">archived</a> from the original on 3 January 2014, retrieved 4 March 2010</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Captivity%2C+Sufferings%2C+and+Escape+of+James+Scurry%2C+who+was+Detained+a+Prisoner+During+Ten+Years%2C+in+the+Dominions+of+Hyder+Ali+and+Tippoo+Saib&rft.edition=3%2C+illustrated&rft.pub=Monthly+Review+Press&rft.date=1824&rft.isbn=978-0-85345-315-4&rft.aulast=Scurry&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Whiteway%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSMoEAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkendi1956" class="citation journal cs1">Skendi, Stavro (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/openview/69374b2aeb4f4380ae1364da4d940882/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1817218">"Religion in Albania during the Ottoman rule"</a>. Südost Forschungen. 15: 311–327.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=S%C3%BCdost+Forschungen&rft.atitle=Religion+in+Albania+during+the+Ottoman+rule&rft.volume=15&rft.pages=311-327&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Skendi&rft.aufirst=Stavro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fopenview%2F69374b2aeb4f4380ae1364da4d940882%2F1%3Fpq-origsite%3Dgscholar%26cbl%3D1817218&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkendi1967a" class="citation book cs1">Skendi, Stavro (1967a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8QPWCgAAQBAJ&q=The+Albanian+National+Awakening&pg=PR15">The Albanian national awakening</a>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781400847761" title="Special:BookSources/9781400847761"><bdi>9781400847761</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Albanian+national+awakening&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=9781400847761&rft.aulast=Skendi&rft.aufirst=Stavro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8QPWCgAAQBAJ%26q%3DThe%2BAlbanian%2BNational%2BAwakening%26pg%3DPR15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVickers2011" class="citation book cs1">Vickers, Miranda (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vtQABAAAQBAJ&q=The+Albanians:+A+Modern+History+hapless&pg=PA83">The Albanians: a modern history</a>. London: IB Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780857736550" title="Special:BookSources/9780857736550"><bdi>9780857736550</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Albanians%3A+a+modern+history&rft.place=London&rft.pub=IB+Tauris&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780857736550&rft.aulast=Vickers&rft.aufirst=Miranda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvtQABAAAQBAJ%26q%3DThe%2BAlbanians%3A%2BA%2BModern%2BHistory%2Bhapless%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWand1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_William_Charles_Wand" class="mw-redirect" title="John William Charles Wand">Wand, John Williams Charles</a> (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ci2hvwXqlKMC">A History of the Early Church to AD 500</a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 320. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780203131145" title="Special:BookSources/9780203131145"><bdi>9780203131145</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Early+Church+to+AD+500&rft.pages=320&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780203131145&rft.aulast=Wand&rft.aufirst=John+Williams+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dci2hvwXqlKMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stockholmcf.org/most-religion-based-hate-crimes-in-turkey-targeted-alevis-christians-in-2022-report/">"Most religion-based hate crimes in Turkey targeted Alevis, Christians in 2022: report"</a>. Stockholm Center for Freedom.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Most+religion-based+hate+crimes+in+Turkey+targeted+Alevis%2C+Christians+in+2022%3A+report&rft.pub=Stockholm+Center+for+Freedom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstockholmcf.org%2Fmost-religion-based-hate-crimes-in-turkey-targeted-alevis-christians-in-2022-report%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APersecution+of+Christians" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(14)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-14 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-14"> <style 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&oldid=1258708258#Muslim_persecution_of_Christians">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&oldid=1258708258#Muslim_persecution_of_Christians</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Christians&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 21 November 2024, at 04:23 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christenverfolgung" title="Christenverfolgung – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Christenverfolgung" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B6%D8%B7%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86" title="اضطهاد المسيحيين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اضطهاد المسيحيين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecuci%C3%B3_dels_cristians" title="Persecució dels cristians – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Persecució dels cristians" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pron%C3%A1sledov%C3%A1n%C3%AD_k%C5%99es%C5%A5an%C5%AF" title="Pronásledování křesťanů – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pronásledování křesťanů" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristenforf%C3%B8lgelse" title="Kristenforfølgelse – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kristenforfølgelse" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christenverfolgung" title="Christenverfolgung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Christenverfolgung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecuci%C3%B3n_a_los_cristianos" title="Persecución a los cristianos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Persecución a los cristianos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persekutado_de_kristanoj" title="Persekutado de kristanoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Persekutado de kristanoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86" title="آزار مسیحیان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آزار مسیحیان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pers%C3%A9cutions_des_chr%C3%A9tiens" title="Persécutions des chrétiens – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Persécutions des chrétiens" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristenferfolging" title="Kristenferfolging – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Kristenferfolging" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecuci%C3%B3ns_aos_cristi%C3%A1ns" title="Persecucións aos cristiáns – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Persecucións aos cristiáns" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B0%EB%8F%85%EA%B5%90_%EB%B0%95%ED%95%B4" title="기독교 박해 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="기독교 박해" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progoni_kr%C5%A1%C4%87ana" title="Progoni kršćana – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Progoni kršćana" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penindasan_terhadap_orang_Kristen" title="Penindasan terhadap orang Kristen – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penindasan terhadap orang Kristen" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution_del_christianos" title="Persecution del christianos – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Persecution del christianos" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecuzione_dei_cristiani" title="Persecuzione dei cristiani – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Persecuzione dei cristiani" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mateso_ya_Wakristo" title="Mateso ya Wakristo – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mateso ya Wakristo" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecutio_Christianorum" title="Persecutio Christianorum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Persecutio Christianorum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persegue_de_cristianes" title="Persegue de cristianes – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Persegue de cristianes" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kereszt%C3%A9ny%C3%BCld%C3%B6z%C3%A9s" title="Keresztényüldözés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Keresztényüldözés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christenvervolgingen" title="Christenvervolgingen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Christenvervolgingen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88_%DA%81%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84" title="د مسيحيانو ځورول – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د مسيحيانو ځورول" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prze%C5%9Bladowania_chrze%C5%9Bcijan" title="Prześladowania chrześcijan – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Prześladowania chrześcijan" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persegui%C3%A7%C3%A3o_aos_crist%C3%A3os" title="Perseguição aos cristãos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Perseguição aos cristãos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecu%C8%9Bia_cre%C8%99tinilor" title="Persecuția creștinilor – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Persecuția creștinilor" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Преследования христиан – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Преследования христиан" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%ABrndjekja_e_t%C3%AB_krishter%C3%ABve" title="Përndjekja e të krishterëve – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Përndjekja e të krishterëve" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Persecution of Christians" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%95%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95%DB%8C_%D9%85%DB%95%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AD%DB%8C%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="چەوساندنەوەی مەسیحییەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="چەوساندنەوەی مەسیحییەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%88%D1%9B%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Прогон хришћана – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Прогон хришћана" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progoni_kr%C5%A1%C4%87ana" title="Progoni kršćana – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Progoni kršćana" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristittyjen_vainot" title="Kristittyjen vainot – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kristittyjen vainot" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="கிறிஸ்தவர்களை துன்புறுத்துதல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கிறிஸ்தவர்களை துன்புறுத்துதல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%99" title="การเบียดเบียนคริสต์ศาสนิกชน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การเบียดเบียนคริสต์ศาสนิกชน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BD" title="Гоніння християн – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гоніння християн" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrissenvervolgingen" title="Chrissenvervolgingen – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Chrissenvervolgingen" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E5%9F%BA%E7%9D%A3%E5%BE%92%E7%9A%84%E8%BF%AB%E5%AE%B3" title="對基督徒的迫害 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="對基督徒的迫害" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 21 November 2024, at 04:23 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a 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<script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-6bcf67d78c-r6m7l","wgBackendResponseTime":343,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"4.702","walltime":"5.189","ppvisitednodes":{"value":70401,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1019208,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":41527,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":76,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1298731,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 4341.752 1 -total"," 37.01% 1606.717 3 Template:Reflist"," 19.49% 846.404 189 Template:Cite_book"," 17.49% 759.504 152 Template:Rp"," 16.76% 727.815 152 Template:R/superscript"," 10.95% 475.528 2 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 10.51% 456.474 1 Template:Discrimination_sidebar"," 9.09% 394.853 10 Template:Excerpt"," 8.83% 383.454 456 Template:R/where"," 4.24% 184.204 50 Template:Cite_web"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.613","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":21475932,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAboona2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbrahamsonKatz2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdalian2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFAdalian2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdappur2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkbar2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkçam2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAngold2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnton_Minkov2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAprim2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaldwin1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeevor2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBendersky2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBevan2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlumenfeld2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowman,_AlanPeter_GarnseyAveril_Cameron2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoyarin1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrandt1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrezianu2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrock2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrowne1967\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBruinessen1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrunwasser2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBulut2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurke1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbell1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarrier2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChisholm1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristian_Van_Gorder2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristopher_J._Walker1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClaydon2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCloss_StephensVaughan-WilliamsDouzinas,_C.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConybeare1910\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCousins\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrompton\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarius_von_Güttner-Sporzyński2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiana_Lary1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiana_Preston2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDill1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDragnea2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrogeTabor1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDronda2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdward_Lipiński2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEhsan_Yarshater1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllenblum2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElmali-Karakaya2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElton_L._Daniel2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEngh2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErik_Freas2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEusebius\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFederal_Research_Division_of_the_Library_of_Congress1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeldman2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFierro2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFischel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFonnesberg-Schmidt2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForbes1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForrest1887\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrances_D\u0026#039;Emillo2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranklinWiddis2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrankopan2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFrend2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFroese2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuller1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFurlaud1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaunt2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGauntBeṯ-Şawoce2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGideon_Avi2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGil1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiles_Constable2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGonzález2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraeme_Clark2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraham-Leigh2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraves1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffin2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrimFinke2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrimFinke2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGutman,_David2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGutman2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuy2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHammond1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHammond1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHargitai2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHenry_McAleavy1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerbermann1912\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHesse2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHillenbrand2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolt2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolt2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHowells2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHsia2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunt2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIdeSmith1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInalcik1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacob_Neusner1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacob_Neusner1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJerald_Sequeira\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJim_Bradbury1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoel_Thomas_Walker2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJoes2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnsonZurlo2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonathan_Fenby2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJordan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKISHI2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKallivretakis2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKatz1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKazhdanTalbot1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelbecheva2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhanbaghi2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKienzle2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKieserSchaller2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKifner2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKohen2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoti2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoukoudis2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrzysztof_Stopka2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLadjal2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaurent1913\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeeman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeithart2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLessenthin\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLieu2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLim2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM.J_Akbar2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacMullen2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMadden2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalcolm1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMansel1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaqrīzī1873\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMark_Twain1869\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarsh2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMasters\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMasters2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcPhee2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMehrdad_Kia2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Berenbaum2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller1896\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiszczak2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiszczak2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchell1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchell2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMordechai_Aviam2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorrisZe\u0026#039;evi2019\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFMorrisZe\u0026#039;evi2021\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMoss2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMosse2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMullins1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurphy1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNau2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNelson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicholson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicholson2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicol1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicol1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicolle2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNí_Chléirigh2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlson1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOstling2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPEW2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPahumi2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPapandrea2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPapandrea2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul_Preston2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPavlowitch2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPayne\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPayne2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeris1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhilip_Wood2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPipes1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPollmann2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrieto_Dominguez2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFR._G._Tiedemann2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFR._W._Thomson1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamet1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamet1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRanzato1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReinhart_Dozy2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichard_E._Payne2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_W._Boehme\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoger_Crowley2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoshwald2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoy_T._MatthewsF._DeWitt_Platt1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubenstein2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRummel1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRunciman1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRunciman1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRunciman1999\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRussell1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuth_Alexander2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSahner2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchäfer2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScurryWhiteway1824\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSetzer,_Claudia1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaw2011\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFShaw2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShean2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSherwood2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkendi1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkendi1967a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkjærvø2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1946–1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStahnkeBlitt\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStark1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStark2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStephen_G._Haw2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSterling_Making_of_America_Project1914\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStillman1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSullivan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTallett1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Gentleman\u0026#039;s_Magazine1833\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTilley1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTreadgold1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrombley1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTyerman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUhalleyWu2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVallely2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVickers2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVictor_Purcell2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVincent2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVryonis1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVryonis1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVryonis2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFW._H._C._Frend1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWakefieldEvans1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWand1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYe_Xiaowen2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhelyazkova2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZickelIwaskiw1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFdeMause2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Courtois2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_la_Cueva1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvon_Harnack1908\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÜngör2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFİçduyguToktaşAli_Soner2008\"] = 1,\n [\"bow\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Bibleverse\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 9,\n [\"Break\"] = 1,\n [\"Christianity footer\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 3,\n [\"Citation\"] = 11,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 189,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 30,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 9,\n [\"Cite periodical\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 50,\n [\"Citeweb\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 2,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Persecution Of Christians\"] = 1,\n [\"Discrimination\"] = 1,\n [\"Discrimination sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 1,\n [\"En dash\"] = 1,\n [\"Failed verification\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Globalize\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 13,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 13,\n [\"Interlanguage link\"] = 2,\n [\"Langx\"] = 6,\n [\"Main\"] = 18,\n [\"Modern persecutions of the Catholic Church\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple issues\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Pb\"] = 6,\n [\"Persecution of Christians\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Refn\"] = 4,\n [\"Reign\"] = 48,\n [\"Religious persecution\"] = 1,\n [\"Retrieved\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 152,\n [\"See also\"] = 8,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 9,\n [\"Sfnref\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 1,\n [\"Unreliable source?\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Vague\"] = 1,\n [\"Very long\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"short\"] = \"yes\",\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","420","15.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","360","12.9"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","240","8.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","200","7.1"],["recursiveClone 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