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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#k-anonymization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>k-anonymization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-k-anonymization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Data_De-identification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Preventing personal identity from being revealed</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Walking_reflection.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Walking_reflection.jpg/220px-Walking_reflection.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Walking_reflection.jpg/330px-Walking_reflection.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Walking_reflection.jpg/440px-Walking_reflection.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3240" data-file-height="3443" /></a><figcaption>While a person can usually be readily identified from a picture taken directly of them, the task of identifying them on the basis of limited <a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">data</a> is harder, yet sometimes possible.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>De-identification</b> is the process used to prevent someone's <a href="/wiki/Personal_identity" title="Personal identity">personal identity</a> from being revealed. For example, <a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">data</a> produced during <a href="/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">human subject research</a> might be de-identified to preserve <a href="/wiki/Privacy_for_research_participants" title="Privacy for research participants">the privacy of research participants</a>. Biological data may be de-identified in order to comply with <a href="/wiki/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act" title="Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act">HIPAA</a> regulations that define and stipulate patient privacy laws. <sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When applied to <a href="/wiki/Metadata" title="Metadata">metadata</a> or general data about identification, the process is also known as <a href="/wiki/Data_anonymization" title="Data anonymization">data anonymization</a>. Common strategies include deleting or masking <a href="/wiki/Personal_identifier" title="Personal identifier">personal identifiers</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Personal_name" title="Personal name">personal name</a>, and suppressing or generalizing <a href="/wiki/Quasi-identifier" title="Quasi-identifier">quasi-identifiers</a>, such as date of birth. The reverse process of using de-identified data to identify individuals is known as <a href="/wiki/Data_re-identification" title="Data re-identification">data re-identification</a>. Successful re-identifications<sup id="cite_ref-sweeney2000_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sweeney2000-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-demontjoye2013_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-demontjoye2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-demontjoye2015_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-demontjoye2015-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-narayanan2006_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-narayanan2006-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> cast doubt on de-identification's effectiveness. A systematic review of fourteen distinct re-identification attacks found "a high re-identification rate […] dominated by small-scale studies on data that was not de-identified according to existing standards".<sup id="cite_ref-Malin,_El_Emam,_et_al_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malin,_El_Emam,_et_al-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>De-identification is adopted as one of the main approaches toward data <a href="/wiki/Privacy_protection" class="mw-redirect" title="Privacy protection">privacy protection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is commonly used in fields of communications, multimedia, biometrics, <a href="/wiki/Big_data" title="Big data">big data</a>, cloud computing, <a href="/wiki/Data_mining" title="Data mining">data mining</a>, internet, social networks, and audio–video surveillance.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=De-identification&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_designing_surveys">In designing surveys</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=De-identification&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: In designing surveys"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When surveys are conducted, such as a <a href="/wiki/Census" title="Census">census</a>, they collect information about a specific group of people. To encourage participation and to protect the privacy of survey respondents, the researchers attempt to design the survey in a way that when people participate in a survey, it will not be possible to match any participant's individual response(s) with any data published.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Before_using_information">Before using information</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=De-identification&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Before using information"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When an online shopping website wants to know its users' preferences and shopping habits, it decides to retrieve customers' data from its database and do analysis on them. The personal data information include <a href="/wiki/Personal_identifier" title="Personal identifier">personal identifiers</a> which were collected directly when customers created their accounts. The website needs to pre-handle the data through de-identification techniques before analyzing data records to avoid violating their customers' privacy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anonymization">Anonymization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=De-identification&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Anonymization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Anonymity" title="Anonymity">Anonymization</a> refers to irreversibly severing a data set from the identity of the data contributor in a study to prevent any future re-identification, even by the study organizers under any condition.<sup id="cite_ref-storage_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-storage-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-meeting_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meeting-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> De-identification may also include preserving identifying information which can only be re-linked by a trusted party in certain situations.<sup id="cite_ref-storage_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-storage-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-meeting_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meeting-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-publichealth_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-publichealth-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a debate in the technology community on whether data that can be re-linked, even by a trusted party, should ever be considered de-identified.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Techniques">Techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=De-identification&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Common strategies of de-identification are masking <a href="/wiki/Personal_identifier" title="Personal identifier">personal identifiers</a> and generalizing <a href="/wiki/Quasi-identifier" title="Quasi-identifier">quasi-identifiers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pseudonymization" title="Pseudonymization">Pseudonymization</a> is the main technique used to mask <a href="/wiki/Personal_identifier" title="Personal identifier">personal identifiers</a> from data records, and k-anonymization is usually adopted for generalizing <a href="/wiki/Quasi-identifier" title="Quasi-identifier">quasi-identifiers</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pseudonymization">Pseudonymization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=De-identification&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Pseudonymization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pseudonymization is performed by replacing real names with a temporary ID. It deletes or masks personal identifiers to make individuals unidentified. This method makes it possible to track the individual's record over time, even though the record will be updated. However, it can not prevent the individual from being identified if some specific combinations of attributes in the data record indirectly identify the individual.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="k-anonymization">k-anonymization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=De-identification&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: k-anonymization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/K-anonymity" title="K-anonymity">k-anonymization</a> defines attributes that indirectly points to the individual's identity as <a href="/wiki/Quasi-identifier" title="Quasi-identifier">quasi-identifiers</a> (QIs) and deal with data by making at least <i>k</i> individuals have some combination of QI values.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> QI values are handled following specific standards. For example, the k-anonymization replaces some original data in the records with new range values and keep some values unchanged. New combination of QI values prevents the individual from being identified and also avoid destroying data records. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=De-identification&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research into de-identification is driven mostly for protecting <a href="/wiki/Health_information" class="mw-redirect" title="Health information">health information</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-library_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-library-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some libraries have adopted methods used in the <a href="/wiki/Healthcare_industry" title="Healthcare industry">healthcare industry</a> to preserve their readers' privacy.<sup id="cite_ref-library_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-library-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Big_data" title="Big data">big data</a>, de-identification is widely adopted by individuals and organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the development of social media, e-commerce, and big data, de-identification is sometimes required and often used for <a href="/wiki/Data_privacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Data privacy">data privacy</a> when users' personal data are collected by companies or third-party organizations who will analyze it for their own personal usage. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Smart_cities" class="mw-redirect" title="Smart cities">smart cities</a>, de-identification may be required to protect the privacy of residents, workers and visitors. Without strict regulation, de-identification may be difficult because sensors can still collect information without consent.<sup id="cite_ref-IT_World_June_2019_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IT_World_June_2019-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_De-identification">Data De-identification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=De-identification&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Data De-identification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Protected_health_information" title="Protected health information">PHI (Protected Health Information)</a> can be present in various data and each format need specific techniques and tools for de-identify it: </p> <ul><li>For <a href="/wiki/Plain_text" title="Plain text">Text</a> de-identification is using rule based and <a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">NLP (Natural language processing)</a> approaches.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pdf" class="mw-redirect" title="Pdf">Pdf</a> de-identification is based on text de-identification, also required in most cases OCR and specific techniques for hide <a href="/wiki/Protected_health_information" title="Protected health information">PHI</a> in PDF.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DICOM" title="DICOM">DICOM</a> de-identification required to clean metadata, pixel data, encapsulated documents.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Limits">Limits</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=De-identification&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Limits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Whenever a person participates in <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> research, the donation of a biological specimen often results in the creation of a large amount of personalized data. Such data is uniquely difficult to de-identify.<sup id="cite_ref-nolonger_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nolonger-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anonymization of genetic data is particularly difficult because of the huge amount of genotypic information in biospecimens,<sup id="cite_ref-nolonger_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nolonger-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the ties that specimens often have to medical history,<sup id="cite_ref-Genotype-phenotype_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genotype-phenotype-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the advent of modern bioinformatics tools for <a href="/wiki/Data_mining" title="Data mining">data mining</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Genotype-phenotype_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genotype-phenotype-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There have been demonstrations that data for individuals in aggregate collections of genotypic data sets can be tied to the identities of the specimen donors.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some researchers have suggested that it is not reasonable to ever promise participants in genetics research that they can retain their anonymity, but instead, such participants should be taught the limits of using coded identifiers in a de-identification process.<sup id="cite_ref-meeting_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meeting-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="De-identification_laws_in_the_United_States_of_America">De-identification laws in the United States of America</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=De-identification&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: De-identification laws in the United States of America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In May 2014, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_President%27s_Council_of_Advisors_on_Science_and_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="United States President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology">United States President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology</a> found de-identification "somewhat useful as an added safeguard" but not "a useful basis for policy" as "it is not robust against near‐term future re‐identification methods".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act" title="Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act">HIPAA</a> Privacy Rule provides mechanisms for using and disclosing health data responsibly without the need for patient consent. These mechanisms center on two HIPAA de-identification standards – <a href="/wiki/Safe_harbor_(law)" title="Safe harbor (law)">Safe Harbor</a> and the Expert Determination Method. Safe harbor relies on the removal of specific patient identifiers (e.g. name, phone number, email address, etc.), while the Expert Determination Method requires knowledge and experience with generally accepted statistical and scientific principles and methods to render information not individually identifiable.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Safe_harbor">Safe harbor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=De-identification&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Safe harbor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Safe_harbor_(law)" title="Safe harbor (law)">safe harbor</a> method uses a list approach to de-identification and has two requirements: </p> <ol><li>The removal or generalization of 18 elements from the data.</li> <li>That the Covered Entity or Business Associate does not have actual knowledge that the residual information in the data could be used alone, or in combination with other information, to identify an individual. Safe Harbor is a highly prescriptive approach to de-identification. Under this method, all dates must be generalized to year and zip codes reduced to three digits. The same approach is used on the data regardless of the context. Even if the information is to be shared with a trusted researcher who wishes to analyze the data for seasonal variations in acute respiratory cases and, thus, requires the month of hospital admission, this information cannot be provided; only the year of admission would be retained.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expert_Determination">Expert Determination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=De-identification&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Expert Determination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Expert Determination takes a risk-based approach to de-identification that applies current standards and best practices from the research to determine the <a href="/wiki/Likelihood_principle" title="Likelihood principle">likelihood</a> that a person could be identified from their protected <a href="/wiki/Health_information" class="mw-redirect" title="Health information">health information</a>. This method requires that a person with appropriate <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> of and experience with generally accepted statistical and scientific principles and methods render the information not individually identifiable. It requires: </p> <ol><li>That the risk is very small that the information could be used alone, or in combination with other reasonably available information, by an anticipated recipient to identify an individual who is a subject of the information;</li> <li>Documents the methods and results of the analysis that justify such a determination.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_on_decedents">Research on decedents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=De-identification&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Research on decedents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The key law about research in <a href="/wiki/Electronic_health_record" title="Electronic health record">electronic health record</a> data is <a href="/wiki/HIPAA" class="mw-redirect" title="HIPAA">HIPAA</a> Privacy Rule. This law allows use of electronic health record of deceased subjects for research (HIPAA Privacy Rule (section 164.512(i)(1)(iii))).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=De-identification&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adversarial_stylometry" title="Adversarial stylometry">Adversarial stylometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_privacy" title="Genetic privacy">Genetic privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_disclosure_control" title="Statistical disclosure control">Statistical disclosure control</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=De-identification&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRights_(OCR)2012" class="citation web cs1">Rights (OCR), Office for Civil (2012-09-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/privacy/special-topics/de-identification/index.html">"Methods for De-identification of PHI"</a>. <i>HHS.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-01-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NISTIR+8053%2C+De-Identification+of+Personal+Information&rft.pub=NIST&rft.date=2015-12-16&rft.au=Simson+L.+Garfinkel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnvlpubs.nist.gov%2Fnistpubs%2Fir%2F2015%2FNIST.IR.8053.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADe-identification" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hhs.gov/ocr/privacy/hipaa/understanding/coveredentities/De-identification/deidentificationworkshop2010.html">A training series</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151113083212/https://www.hhs.gov/ocr/privacy/hipaa/understanding/coveredentities/De-identification/deidentificationworkshop2010.html">Archived</a> 2015-11-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> on United States government de-identification standards</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hhs.gov/ocr/privacy/hipaa/understanding/coveredentities/De-identification/guidance.html">Guidance Regarding Methods for De-identification of Protected Health Information</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151210024653/https://www.hhs.gov/ocr/privacy/hipaa/understanding/coveredentities/De-identification/guidance.html">Archived</a> 2015-12-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOhm2010" class="citation journal cs1">Ohm, Paul (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uclalawreview.org/pdf/57-6-3.pdf">"Broken Promises of Privacy: Responding to the Surprising Failure of Anonymization"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>UCLA Law Review</i>. <b>57</b>: 1701–77.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=UCLA+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Broken+Promises+of+Privacy%3A+Responding+to+the+Surprising+Failure+of+Anonymization&rft.volume=57&rft.pages=1701-77&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Ohm&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uclalawreview.org%2Fpdf%2F57-6-3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADe-identification" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPadilla-LópezChaaraouiFlórez-Revuelta2015" class="citation journal cs1">Padilla-López, José Ramón; Chaaraoui, Alexandros Andre; Flórez-Revuelta, Francisco (June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.kingston.ac.uk/31628/1/Florez-Revuelta-F-31628.pdf">"Visual privacy protection methods: A survey"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Expert Systems with Applications</i>. <b>42</b> (9): <span class="nowrap">4177–</span>4195. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.eswa.2015.01.041">10.1016/j.eswa.2015.01.041</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10045%2F44523">10045/44523</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6794899">6794899</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Expert+Systems+with+Applications&rft.atitle=Visual+privacy+protection+methods%3A+A+survey&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4177-%3C%2Fspan%3E4195&rft.date=2015-06&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10045%2F44523&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6794899%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.eswa.2015.01.041&rft.aulast=Padilla-L%C3%B3pez&rft.aufirst=Jos%C3%A9+Ram%C3%B3n&rft.au=Chaaraoui%2C+Alexandros+Andre&rft.au=Fl%C3%B3rez-Revuelta%2C+Francisco&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.kingston.ac.uk%2F31628%2F1%2FFlorez-Revuelta-F-31628.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADe-identification" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaaraouiPadilla-LópezFerrández-PastorNieto-Hidalgo2014" class="citation journal cs1">Chaaraoui, Alexandros; Padilla-López, José; Ferrández-Pastor, Francisco; Nieto-Hidalgo, Mario; Flórez-Revuelta, Francisco (20 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4063058">"A Vision-Based System for Intelligent Monitoring: Human Behaviour Analysis and Privacy by Context"</a>. <i>Sensors</i>. <b>14</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">8895–</span>8925. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014Senso..14.8895C">2014Senso..14.8895C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fs140508895">10.3390/s140508895</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4063058">4063058</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24854209">24854209</a>.</cite><span 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biobank" title="Biobank">Biobank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_database" title="Biological database">Biological database</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Field concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_specimen" title="Biological specimen">Biological specimen</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">De-identification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_genetic_variation" title="Human genetic variation">Human genetic variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_linkage" title="Genetic linkage">Genetic linkage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-nucleotide_polymorphisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-nucleotide polymorphisms">Single-nucleotide polymorphisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_by_descent" 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Genome Diversity Project">Human Genome Diversity Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Telemedicine_and_telehealth199" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Telemedicine_navbox" title="Template:Telemedicine navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a 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