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id="toc-Organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Recruiting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recruiting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Recruiting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recruiting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fortifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fortifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Fortifications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Fortifications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Fortifications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Fortifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Siege_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siege_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Siege warfare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siege_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Relics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Naval_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Naval_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Naval warfare</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Naval_warfare-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Naval warfare subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Naval_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Introduction_of_guns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Introduction_of_guns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Introduction of guns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Introduction_of_guns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_infantry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_infantry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Rise of infantry</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rise_of_infantry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Rise of infantry subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_infantry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Swiss_pikemen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Swiss_pikemen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Swiss pikemen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Swiss_pikemen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Welsh_and_English_longbowmen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Welsh_and_English_longbowmen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Welsh and English longbowmen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Welsh_and_English_longbowmen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transition_to_gunpowder_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transition_to_gunpowder_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Transition to gunpowder warfare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transition_to_gunpowder_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strategy_and_tactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategy_and_tactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Strategy and tactics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Strategy_and_tactics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Strategy and tactics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Strategy_and_tactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-De_re_militari" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#De_re_militari"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span><i>De re militari</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-De_re_militari-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Supplies_and_logistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supplies_and_logistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Supplies and logistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supplies_and_logistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Regional examples</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Regional_examples-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Regional examples subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Regional_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arabs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arabs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Arabs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arabs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vikings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vikings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Vikings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vikings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mongols" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Mongols</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turks_and_Central_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turks_and_Central_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Turks and Central Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turks_and_Central_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Equipment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equipment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Equipment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equipment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Medieval warfare</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%89" title="حروب العصور الوسطى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حروب العصور الوسطى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7_%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Военно дело през Средновековието – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Военно дело през Средновековието" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednjovjekovno_ratovanje" title="Srednjovjekovno ratovanje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Srednjovjekovno ratovanje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_medieval" title="Guerra medieval – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra medieval" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezepoka_militado" title="Mezepoka militado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mezepoka militado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerra_Erdi_Aroan" title="Gerra Erdi Aroan – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gerra Erdi Aroan" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_au_Moyen_%C3%82ge" title="Guerre au Moyen Âge – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerre au Moyen Âge" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_medievale" title="Guerra medievale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerra medievale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%98%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94_%D7%95%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="הטקטיקה והאסטרטגיה האירופיות בימי הביניים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הטקטיקה והאסטרטגיה האירופיות בימי הביניים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D2%93%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D1%81%D0%BE%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Ортағасырлық соғыстар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ортағасырлық соғыстар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viduslaiku_karam%C4%81ksla" title="Viduslaiku karamāksla – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Viduslaiku karamāksla" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middeleeuwse_oorlogsvoering" title="Middeleeuwse oorlogsvoering – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Middeleeuwse oorlogsvoering" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krigf%C3%B8ring_i_middelalderen" title="Krigføring i middelalderen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Krigføring i middelalderen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_na_Idade_M%C3%A9dia" title="Guerra na Idade Média – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerra na Idade Média" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Средневековые войны – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Средневековые войны" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lufta_mesjetare" title="Lufta mesjetare – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Lufta mesjetare" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vojenstvo_v_stredoveku" title="Vojenstvo v stredoveku – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vojenstvo v stredoveku" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%95%DA%95%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%95%D8%AF%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%DB%95%DA%95%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="شەڕی سەدەکانی ناوەڕاست – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شەڕی سەدەکانی ناوەڕاست" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orta_%C3%87a%C4%9F%27da_sava%C5%9F" title="Orta Çağ'da savaş – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Orta Çağ'da savaş" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Середньовічні війни – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Середньовічні війни" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%BA%AA%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89" title="中世纪战争 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="中世纪战争" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_crecy_froissart.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Battle_of_crecy_froissart.jpg/300px-Battle_of_crecy_froissart.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Battle_of_crecy_froissart.jpg/450px-Battle_of_crecy_froissart.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Battle_of_crecy_froissart.jpg/600px-Battle_of_crecy_froissart.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1998" data-file-height="1755" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cr%C3%A9cy" title="Battle of Crécy">Battle of Crécy</a> (1346) between the English and the French in the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred 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style="width:"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:150%;"><span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></span><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_war" title="Outline of war">outline</a>)</span></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:War,_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers,_artist._LCCN91480633_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3691" data-file-height="1076" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_warfare" title="Ancient warfare">Ancient</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Post-classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_fortification" title="Medieval fortification">castles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Early modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Revolution" title="Military Revolution">military revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pike_and_shot" title="Pike and shot">pike and shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_weaponry_and_warfare" title="Napoleonic weaponry and warfare">napoleonic warfare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_warfare" title="Modern warfare">Late modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">industrial warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth-generation_warfare" title="Fourth-generation warfare">fourth-gen warfare</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">Command and control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_ministry" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense ministry">Defense ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army" title="Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navy" title="Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_force" title="Air force">Air force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marines" title="Marines">Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_guard" title="Coast guard">Coast guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Space force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_reserve_force" title="Military reserve force">Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_army" title="Regular army">Regular</a> / <a href="/wiki/Irregular_military" title="Irregular military">Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">Ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">Standing army</a> / <a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">Militia</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Specialties:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifleman" title="Rifleman">Rifleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_engineer" title="Combat engineer">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Intel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">Recon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_corps" title="Medical corps">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_police" title="Military police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_diving" title="Military diving">Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_communications" title="Military communications">Comms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_pilot" title="Aircraft pilot">Pilot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_commissar" title="Political commissar">Commissar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Land units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanized_infantry" title="Mechanized infantry">Mechanized</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle" title="Armoured fighting vehicle">Armor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_forces" title="Special forces">Special forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_corps" title="Signal corps">Signal corps</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Naval units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogman" title="Frogman">Frogman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warship" title="Warship">Warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">Submarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">Aircraft carriers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_craft" title="Landing craft">Landing craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_ship" title="Auxiliary ship">Auxiliary ships</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Air units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighter_aircraft" title="Fighter aircraft">Fighters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">Bombers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_early_warning_and_control" title="Airborne early warning and control">Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_air_support" title="Close air support">Close air support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic-warfare_aircraft" title="Electronic-warfare aircraft">Electronic-warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_aircraft" title="Reconnaissance aircraft">Reconnaissance</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Combat systems:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_system" title="Fire-control system">Fire-control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_radar" title="Fire-control radar">Fire-control radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Director_(military)" title="Director (military)">Director (military)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_information_center" title="Combat information center">Combat information center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">Radar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Historical:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_gun_fire-control_system" title="Ship gun fire-control system">Ship gun fire-control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_data_computer" title="Gun data computer">Gun data computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo_Data_Computer" title="Torpedo Data Computer">Torpedo data computer</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Development:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic training">Basic training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">Military manoeuvrers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Combat training">Combat training</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Battlespace" title="Battlespace">Battlespace</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li>Aerospace <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_forces" title="Airborne forces">Airborne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Space</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_warfare" title="Land warfare">Land</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold-weather_warfare" title="Cold-weather warfare">Cold-region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_warfare" title="Desert warfare">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">Fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jungle_warfare" title="Jungle warfare">Jungle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_warfare" title="Mountain warfare">Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">Sea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphibious_warfare" title="Amphibious warfare">Amphibious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue-water_navy" title="Blue-water navy">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown-water_navy" title="Brown-water navy">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green-water_navy" title="Green-water navy">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_warfare" title="Surface warfare">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_warfare" title="Underwater warfare">Underwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seabed_warfare" title="Seabed warfare">Seabed</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">Information</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">Weapons</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Anti-aircraft warfare">Air defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_warfare" title="Armoured warfare">Armor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrage_(artillery)" title="Barrage (artillery)">Barrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_camouflage" title="Military camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_warfare" title="Horses in warfare">Horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_tactics#Cavalry_in_modern_warfare" title="Cavalry tactics">Air cavalry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_arms" title="Combined arms">Combined arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_warfare" title="Conventional warfare">Conventional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberweapon" title="Cyberweapon">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_denial_weapon" title="Area denial weapon">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_warfare" title="Drone warfare">Drone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Military_robot" title="Military robot">Robot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic warfare">Electromagnetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loitering_munition" title="Loitering munition">Loitering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_defense" title="Missile defense">Missile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_music" title="Martial music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiological_warfare" title="Radiological warfare">Radiological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_warfare" title="Submarine warfare">Submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_warfare" title="Unconventional warfare">Unconventional</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">Tactics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_tactics" title="List of military tactics">List of military tactics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_combat_manoeuvring" title="Air combat manoeuvring">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airlift" title="Airlift">Airlift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_assault" title="Air assault">Air assault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airbridge_(logistics)" title="Airbridge (logistics)">Airbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airdrop" title="Airdrop">Airdrop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Anti-aircraft warfare">Anti-aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare" title="Anti-submarine warfare">Anti-sub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_warfare" title="Anti-tank warfare">Anti-tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle" title="Battle">Battle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_tactics" title="Cavalry tactics">Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge_(warfare)" title="Charge (warfare)">Charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterattack" title="Counterattack">Counterattack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterinsurgency" title="Counterinsurgency">Counterinsurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy" title="Convoy">Convoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defeat_in_detail" title="Defeat in detail">Defeat in detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position" title="Defensive fighting position">Foxhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_warfare" title="Drone warfare">Drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Envelopment" title="Envelopment">Envelopment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_formation" title="Tactical formation">Formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_tactics" title="Naval tactics">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_and_awe" title="Shock and awe">Rapid dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encirclement" title="Encirclement">Encirclement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_(military)" title="Investment (military)">Investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">Siege</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_(military)" title="Swarming (military)">Swarm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screening_(tactical)" title="Screening (tactical)">Screen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_objective" title="Tactical objective">Tactical objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_attack" title="Saturation attack">Target saturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_(military)" title="Withdrawal (military)">Withdrawal</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Operational_level_of_war" title="Operational level of war">Operational</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_operation" title="Military operation">Military operation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_operations" title="Special operations">Special</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_warfare" title="Expeditionary warfare">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_operation" title="Deep operation">Deep operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maneuver_warfare" title="Maneuver warfare">Maneuver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operational_manoeuvre_group" title="Operational manoeuvre group">Operational manoeuvre group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_(military)" title="Raid (military)">Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covert_operation" title="Covert operation">Covert</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_strategy" title="Military strategy">Strategy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_strategies_and_concepts" title="List of military strategies and concepts">List of military strategies and concepts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_campaign" title="Military campaign">Military campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-access/area_denial" title="Anti-access/area denial">Anti-access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_raiding" title="Commerce raiding">Commerce raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-offensive">Counter-offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culminating_point" title="Culminating point">Culminating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_in_depth" title="Defence in depth">Defence in depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabian_strategy" title="Fabian strategy">Fabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empty_Fort_Strategy" title="Empty Fort Strategy">Empty fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic Warfare">Mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_defence" title="Strategic defence">Defensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_depth" title="Strategic depth">Depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_goal_(military)" title="Strategic goal (military)">Goal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_strategy" title="Nuclear strategy">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_strategy" title="Naval strategy">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offensive_(military)" title="Offensive (military)">Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Grand_strategy" title="Grand strategy">Grand strategy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_warfare" title="Asymmetric warfare">Asymmetric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken-backed_war_theory" title="Broken-backed war theory">Broken-backed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_war_(general_term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold war (general term)">Cold war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_war" title="Colonial war">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest" title="Conquest">Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divide_and_rule" title="Divide and rule">Divide and conquer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_warfare" title="Economic warfare">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic warfare">Endemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_in_being" title="Fleet in being">Fleet in being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irregular_warfare" title="Irregular warfare">Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_national_liberation" title="Wars of national liberation">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_war" title="Limited war">Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network-centric_warfare" title="Network-centric warfare">Network-centric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_generation_warfare" title="New generation warfare">New generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_war" title="Perpetual war">Perpetual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_warfare" title="Political warfare">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_rebellion" title="Princely rebellion">Princely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_war" title="Resource war">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_studies" title="Strategic studies">Strategic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_succession" title="War of succession">Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_(warfare)" title="Theater (warfare)">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_war" title="Total war">Total war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">World war</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_administration" title="Military administration">Administrative</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_branch" title="Military branch">Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_policy" title="Military policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_education_and_training" title="Military education and training">Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_service" title="Military service">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">Organization</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_of_responsibility" title="Area of responsibility">Area of responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_hierarchy" title="Command hierarchy">Chain of command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">Command and control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_doctrine" title="Military doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_war" title="Principles of war">Principles of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_force" title="Economy of force">Economy of force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_medicine" title="Military medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">Ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Technology and equipment</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_personnel" title="Military personnel">Personnel</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_recruitment" title="Military recruitment">Recruitment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counter-recruitment" title="Counter-recruitment">counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobilization" title="Mobilization">Mobilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruit_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Recruit training">Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_specialism" title="Military specialism">Specialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morale" title="Morale">Morale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_military" title="Women in the military">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_people_and_military_service" title="Transgender people and military service">Transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment_in_the_military" title="Sexual harassment in the military">Harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_volunteer" title="Military volunteer">Volunteer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foreign_volunteers" title="List of foreign volunteers">foreign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">Mercenary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldier" title="Soldier">Soldier</a> / <a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_logistics" title="Military logistics">Logistics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_military_logistics" title="History of military logistics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_economy" title="War economy">War economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Military–industrial complex">Military–industrial complex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">Arms industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materiel" title="Materiel">Materiel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_supply-chain_management" title="Military supply-chain management">Supply-chain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_base" title="Military base">Base</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Main_operating_base" title="Main operating base">MOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forward_operating_base" title="Forward operating base">FOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outpost_(military)" title="Outpost (military)">Outpost</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_science" title="Military science">Science</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Power_projection" title="Power projection">Power projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss-of-strength_gradient" title="Loss-of-strength gradient">Loss-of-strength gradient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lanchester%27s_laws" title="Lanchester's laws">Lanchester's laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Force_multiplication" title="Force multiplication">Force multiplication</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupation" title="Military occupation">Occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice" title="Armistice">Armistice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceasefire" title="Ceasefire">Ceasefire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> / <a href="/wiki/Military_volunteer" title="Military volunteer">Volunteer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertion" title="Desertion">Desertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Islamic rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combatant" title="Combatant">Lawful</a> / <a href="/wiki/Unlawful_combatant" title="Unlawful combatant">Unlawful combatant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_of_marque" title="Letter of marque">Letter of marque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfidy" title="Perfidy">Perfidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_military_company" title="Private military company">Private military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foreign_volunteers" title="List of foreign volunteers">Foreign expatriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">Mercenary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">Privateer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_laws_on_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish laws on war">Jewish laws on war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">Right of conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rules_of_engagement" title="Rules of engagement">Rules of engagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">Martial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_military_unit" title="Penal military unit">Penal military unit</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_theory" title="Military theory">Theory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_supremacy" title="Air supremacy">Air supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">Appeasement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_of_the_sea" title="Command of the sea">Command of the sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">Deterrence theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-spectrum_dominance" title="Full-spectrum dominance">Full-spectrum dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overmatch" title="Overmatch">Overmatch</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unrestricted_Warfare" title="Unrestricted Warfare">Unrestricted Warfare</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">Just war theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_war" title="Principles of war">Principles of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">Philosophy of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_dilemma" title="Security dilemma">Security dilemma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tripwire_force" title="Tripwire force">Tripwire force</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_wargaming" title="Professional wargaming">Wargaming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_simulation" title="Military simulation">Simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">Exercises</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_operations_other_than_war" title="Military operations other than war">Non-warfare</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_control" title="Arms control">Arms control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-insurgency" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-insurgency">Counter-insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">deterrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_response" title="Disaster response">Disaster response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey-zone_(international_relations)" title="Grey-zone (international relations)">Grey-zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunboat_diplomacy" title="Gunboat diplomacy">Gunboat diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_aid" title="Humanitarian aid">Humanitarian aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-intensity_conflict" title="Low-intensity conflict">Low-intensity conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Military engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilateralism" title="Multilateralism">Multilateralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peacekeeping" title="Peacekeeping">Peacekeeping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peacebuilding" title="Peacebuilding">Peacebuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_through_strength" title="Peace through strength">Peace through strength</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Show_of_force" title="Show of force">Show of force</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_tradition" title="Military tradition">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_awards_and_decorations" title="Military awards and decorations">Awards and decorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_cry" title="Battle cry">Battle cry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_film" title="War film">War film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_science_fiction" title="Military science fiction">Military science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_novel" title="War novel">War novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foot_drill" title="Foot drill">Foot drill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_song" title="War song">War song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_uniform" title="Military uniform">Uniform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wargame" title="Wargame">Wargame</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_war" title="Women in war">Women in war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_resister" title="War resister">War resister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_studies" title="War studies">War studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_warfare" title="Horses in warfare">Horses in warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartime_sexual_violence" title="Wartime sexual violence">Wartime sexual violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_column" title="Fifth column">Fifth column</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_lists" title="Category:Military lists">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_battles" title="Lists of battles">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_occupations" title="List of military occupations">Military occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_established_military_terms" title="List of established military terms">Military terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_operations" title="List of military operations">Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sieges" title="List of sieges">Sieges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_war_crimes" title="List of war crimes">War crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_war#Wars" title="Outline of war">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_weapons" title="Lists of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_writers" title="List of military writers">Writers</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:War" title="Template:War"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:War" title="Template talk:War"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:War"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Medieval warfare</b> is the warfare of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. Technological, cultural, and social advancements had forced a severe transformation in the character of warfare from <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">antiquity</a>, changing <a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">military tactics</a> and the role of <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military history</a>). In terms of fortification, the Middle Ages saw the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">castle</a> in Europe, which then spread to the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Holy Land</a> (modern day Palestine). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organization">Organization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">Knight</a> and <a href="/wiki/Infantry_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Infantry in the Middle Ages">Infantry in the Middle Ages</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Heavy_cavalry" title="Heavy cavalry">Heavy cavalry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Light_cavalry" title="Light cavalry">Light cavalry</a></div> <p>The medieval knight was usually a mounted and armoured <a href="/wiki/Soldier" title="Soldier">soldier</a>, often connected with <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobility</a> or <a href="/wiki/Royal_family" title="Royal family">royalty</a>, although (especially in north-eastern Europe) knights could also come from the lower classes, and could even be enslaved persons. The cost of their <a href="/wiki/Armour" title="Armour">armour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horses_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Horses in the Middle Ages">horses</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons">weapons</a> was great; this, among other things, helped gradually transform the knight, at least in western Europe, into a distinct social class separate from other warriors. During the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">crusades</a>, holy orders of Knights fought in the Holy Land (see <a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller" title="Knights Hospitaller">Hospitallers</a>, etc.).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The light cavalry consisted usually of lighter armed and armoured men, who could have lances, <a href="/wiki/Javelin" title="Javelin">javelins</a> or missile weapons, such as <a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">bows</a> or <a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">crossbows</a>. In much of the Middle Ages, light cavalry usually consisted of wealthy commoners. Later in the Middle Ages, light cavalry would also include sergeants who were men who had trained as knights but could not afford the costs associated with the title. Light cavalry was used as scouts, skirmishers or outflankers. Many countries developed their styles of light cavalries, such as Hungarian <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_cavalry" title="Hungarian cavalry">mounted archers</a>, Spanish <a href="/wiki/Jinete" title="Jinete">jinetes</a>, Italian and German mounted crossbowmen and English <a href="/wiki/Hobelar" title="Hobelar">currours</a>. </p><p>The infantry was recruited and trained in a wide variety of manners in different regions of Europe all through the Middle Ages, and probably always formed the most numerous part of a medieval field army. Many infantrymen in prolonged wars would be mercenaries. Most armies contained significant numbers of spearmen, archers and other unmounted soldiers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recruiting">Recruiting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Recruiting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kalandozasok.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Kalandozasok.jpg/300px-Kalandozasok.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Kalandozasok.jpg/450px-Kalandozasok.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Kalandozasok.jpg/600px-Kalandozasok.jpg 2x" data-file-width="724" data-file-height="496" /></a><figcaption>Hungarian raids in the 10th century. Before the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lechfeld" title="Battle of Lechfeld">battle of Lechfeld</a> in 955 Medieval Europeans were vulnerable from the Nomadic style of war that came from the Hungarians.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the earliest Middle Ages, it was the obligation of every noble to respond to the call to battle with his equipment, archers, and infantry. This decentralized system was necessary due to the social order of the time but could lead to motley forces with variable training, equipment and abilities. The more resources the noble had access to, the better his troops would typically be. </p><p>Typically the feudal armies consisted of a core of highly skilled knights and their household troops, mercenaries hired for the time of the campaign and feudal levies fulfilling their feudal obligations, who usually were little more than rabble. They could, however, be efficient in disadvantageous terrain. Towns and cities could also field militias. </p><p>As central governments grew in power, a return to the citizen and mercenary armies of the classical period also began, as central levies of the peasantry began to be the central recruiting tool. It was estimated that the best <a href="/wiki/Infantrymen" class="mw-redirect" title="Infantrymen">infantrymen</a> came from the younger sons of free land-owning <a href="/wiki/Yeoman" title="Yeoman">yeomen</a>, such as the English archers and Swiss pikemen. England was one of the most centralized states in the Late Middle Ages, and the armies that fought the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> were mostly paid professionals. </p><p>In theory, every Englishman had an obligation to serve for forty days. Forty days was not long enough for a campaign, especially one on the continent. Thus the <a href="/wiki/Scutage" title="Scutage">scutage</a> was introduced, whereby most Englishmen paid to escape their service and this money was used to create a permanent army. However, almost all high medieval armies in Europe were composed of a great deal of paid core troops, and there was a large mercenary market in Europe from at least the early 12th century.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the Middle Ages progressed in Italy, Italian cities began to rely mostly on <a href="/wiki/Mercenaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercenaries">mercenaries</a> to do their fighting rather than the militias that had dominated the early and high medieval period in this region. These would be groups of career soldiers who would be paid a set rate. Mercenaries tended to be effective soldiers, especially in combination with standing forces, but in Italy, they came to dominate the armies of the city-states. This made them problematic; while at war they were considerably more reliable than a standing army, at peacetime they proved a risk to the state itself like the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a> had once been. </p><p>Mercenary-on-mercenary warfare in Italy led to relatively bloodless campaigns which relied as much on manoeuvre as on battles, since the <a href="/wiki/Condottieri" class="mw-redirect" title="Condottieri">condottieri</a> recognized it was more efficient to attack the enemy's ability to wage war rather than his battle forces, discovering the concept of <a href="/wiki/Indirect_approach" title="Indirect approach">indirect warfare</a> 500 years before Sir Basil <a href="/wiki/Liddell_Hart" class="mw-redirect" title="Liddell Hart">Liddell Hart</a>, and attempting to attack the enemy supply lines, his economy and his ability to wage war rather than risking an open battle, and manoeuvre him into a position where risking a battle would have been suicidal. Machiavelli understood this <a href="/wiki/Indirect_approach" title="Indirect approach">indirect approach</a> as cowardice.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fortifications">Fortifications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Fortifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Falaise_chateau_guillaume_conquerant_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Falaise_chateau_guillaume_conquerant_2.jpg/220px-Falaise_chateau_guillaume_conquerant_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Falaise_chateau_guillaume_conquerant_2.jpg/330px-Falaise_chateau_guillaume_conquerant_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Falaise_chateau_guillaume_conquerant_2.jpg/440px-Falaise_chateau_guillaume_conquerant_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3574" data-file-height="2674" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Falaise" title="Château de Falaise">Château de Falaise</a> in France.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Celje_Celjski_grad_003.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Celje_Celjski_grad_003.jpg/220px-Celje_Celjski_grad_003.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Celje_Celjski_grad_003.jpg/330px-Celje_Celjski_grad_003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Celje_Celjski_grad_003.jpg/440px-Celje_Celjski_grad_003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1333" /></a><figcaption>Celje Castle in Slovenia.</figcaption></figure> <p>In Europe, breakdowns in centralized power led to the rise of several groups that turned to large-scale pillage as a source of income. Most notably the <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cumans" title="Cumans">Cumans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tartars" class="mw-redirect" title="Tartars">Tartars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Magyars" class="mw-redirect" title="Magyars">Magyars</a> raided significantly.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As these groups were generally small and needed to move quickly, building <a href="/wiki/Fortifications" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortifications">fortifications</a> was a good way to provide refuge and protection for the people and the wealth in the region. </p><p>These fortifications evolved throughout the Middle Ages, the most important form being the <a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">castle</a>, a structure which has become almost synonymous with the Medieval era in the popular eye. The castle served as a protected place for the local elites. Inside a castle they were protected from bands of raiders and could send mounted warriors to drive the enemy from the area, or to disrupt the efforts of larger armies to supply themselves in the region by gaining local superiority over foraging parties that would be impossible against the whole enemy host.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fortifications were a very important part of warfare because they provided safety to the lord, his family, and his servants. They provided refuge from armies too large to face in open battle. The ability of the heavy cavalry to dominate a battle on an open field was useless against fortifications. Building <a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">siege engines</a> was a time-consuming process, and could seldom be effectively done without preparations before the campaign. Many sieges could take months, if not years, to weaken or demoralize the defenders sufficiently. Fortifications were an excellent means of ensuring that the elite could not be easily dislodged from their lands – as <a href="/wiki/Baldwin_V,_Count_of_Hainaut" title="Baldwin V, Count of Hainaut">Count Baldwin of Hainaut</a> commented in 1184 on seeing enemy troops ravage his lands from the safety of his castle, "they can't take the land with them".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag needs to be fact-checked with the cited source(s). (September 2009)">verification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Siege_warfare">Siege warfare</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Siege warfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Medieval period besieging armies used a wide variety of <a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">siege engines</a> including: scaling ladders; <a href="/wiki/Battering_ram" title="Battering ram">battering rams</a>; <a href="/wiki/Siege_tower" title="Siege tower">siege towers</a> and various types of <a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">catapults</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Mangonel" title="Mangonel">mangonel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Onager_(siege_weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Onager (siege weapon)">onager</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">ballista</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trebuchet" title="Trebuchet">trebuchet</a>. Siege techniques also included <a href="/wiki/Mining_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mining (military)">mining</a> in which tunnels were dug under a section of the wall and then rapidly collapsed to destabilize the wall's foundation. Another technique was to bore into the enemy walls, however, this was not nearly as effective as other methods due to the thickness of castle walls. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Forteresse_de_Dubrovnik.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Forteresse_de_Dubrovnik.jpg/220px-Forteresse_de_Dubrovnik.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Forteresse_de_Dubrovnik.jpg/330px-Forteresse_de_Dubrovnik.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Forteresse_de_Dubrovnik.jpg/440px-Forteresse_de_Dubrovnik.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2985" data-file-height="1454" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Dubrovnik" title="Walls of Dubrovnik">Walls of Dubrovnik</a> are a series of <a href="/wiki/Defensive_wall" title="Defensive wall">defensive stone walls</a>, never breached by a hostile army, that have surrounded and protected the maritime <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-state</a> of <a href="/wiki/Dubrovnik" title="Dubrovnik">Dubrovnik</a> (<a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ragusa" title="Republic of Ragusa">Ragusa</a>), situated in southern <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Advances in the prosecution of <a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">sieges</a> encouraged the development of a variety of defensive counter-measures. In particular, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_fortification" title="Medieval fortification">Medieval fortifications</a> became progressively stronger – for example, the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Concentric_castle" title="Concentric castle">concentric castle</a> from the period of the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a> – and more dangerous to attackers – witness the increasing use of <a href="/wiki/Machicolation" title="Machicolation">machicolations</a>, as well the preparation of <a href="/wiki/Early_thermal_weapons" title="Early thermal weapons">hot or incendiary substances</a>. <a href="/wiki/Arrow_slit" class="mw-redirect" title="Arrow slit">Arrow slits</a>, concealed doors for sallies, and deep water wells were also integral to resisting siege at this time. Designers of castles paid particular attention to defending entrances, protecting gates with <a href="/wiki/Drawbridge" title="Drawbridge">drawbridges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portcullis" title="Portcullis">portcullises</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barbican" title="Barbican">barbicans</a>. Wet animal skins were often draped over gates to repel fire. <a href="/wiki/Moat" title="Moat">Moats</a> and other water defences, whether natural or augmented, were also vital to defenders. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, virtually all large cities had <a href="/wiki/City_wall" class="mw-redirect" title="City wall">city walls</a> – <a href="/wiki/Dubrovnik" title="Dubrovnik">Dubrovnik</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a> is a well-preserved example – and more important cities had <a href="/wiki/Citadel" title="Citadel">citadels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort">forts</a> or <a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">castles</a>. Great effort was expended to ensure a good water supply inside the city in case of siege. In some cases, long tunnels were constructed to carry water into the city. In other cases, such as the Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Shkodra" title="Siege of Shkodra">siege of Shkodra</a>, Venetian engineers had designed and installed cisterns that were fed by rain water channeled by a system of conduits in the walls and buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Complex systems of tunnels were used for storage and communications in medieval cities like <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A1bor" title="Tábor">Tábor</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>. Against these would be matched the <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> skills of teams of trained <a href="/wiki/Sapper" title="Sapper">sappers</a>, who were sometimes employed by besieging armies. </p><p>Until the invention of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a>-based weapons (and the resulting higher-velocity projectiles), the balance of power and logistics favoured the defender. With the invention of gunpowder, the traditional methods of defence became less and less effective against a determined siege. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mining_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mining (military)">Mining (military)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relics">Relics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Relics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The practice of carrying <a href="/wiki/Relic" title="Relic">relics</a> into battle is a feature that distinguishes medieval warfare from its predecessors or early modern warfare and possibly inspired by biblical references.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presence of relics was believed to be an important source of supernatural power that served both as a spiritual weapon and a form of defence; the relics of martyrs were considered by Saint <a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">John Chrysostom</a> much more powerful than "walls, trenches, weapons and hosts of soldiers"<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Italy, the <i><a href="/wiki/Carroccio" title="Carroccio">carroccio</a></i> or <i>carro della guerra</i>, the "war wagon", was an elaboration of this practice that developed during the 13th century. The <i>carro della guerra</i> of Milan was described in detail in 1288 by <a href="/wiki/Bonvesin_de_la_Riva" class="mw-redirect" title="Bonvesin de la Riva">Bonvesin de la Riva</a> in his book on the "Marvels of Milan". Wrapped in scarlet cloth and drawn by three yoke of oxen that were <a href="/wiki/Caparison" title="Caparison">caparisoned</a> in white with the red cross of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Ambrose" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Ambrose">Saint Ambrose</a>, the city's patron, it carried a crucifix so massive it took four men to step it in place, like a ship's mast.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Naval_warfare">Naval warfare</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Naval warfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_navy" title="Byzantine navy">Byzantine navy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Byzantines_repel_the_Russian_attack_of_941.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Byzantines_repel_the_Russian_attack_of_941.jpg/220px-Byzantines_repel_the_Russian_attack_of_941.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Byzantines_repel_the_Russian_attack_of_941.jpg/330px-Byzantines_repel_the_Russian_attack_of_941.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Byzantines_repel_the_Russian_attack_of_941.jpg/440px-Byzantines_repel_the_Russian_attack_of_941.jpg 2x" data-file-width="758" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption>The Byzantine fleet repels the Rus' attack on Constantinople in 941. The Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Dromon" title="Dromon">dromons</a> are rolling over the Rus' vessels and smashing their oars with their spurs.</figcaption></figure> <p>The waters surrounding Europe can be grouped into two types which affected the design of craft that traveled and therefore the warfare. The <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Seas</a> were free of large tides, generally calm, and had predictable weather. The seas around the north and west of Europe experienced stronger and less predictable weather. The <a href="/wiki/Weather_gage" title="Weather gage">weather gauge</a>, the advantage of having a following wind, was an important factor in naval battles, particularly to the attackers. Typically <a href="/wiki/Westerlies" title="Westerlies">westerlies</a> (winds blowing from west to east) dominated Europe, giving naval powers to the west an advantage.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medieval sources on the conduct of medieval naval warfare are less common than those about land-based war. Most medieval chroniclers had no experience of life on the sea and generally were not well informed. <a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime archaeology</a> has helped provide information.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turkish_armor_during_battles_of_Marica_and_Kosovo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Turkish_armor_during_battles_of_Marica_and_Kosovo.jpg/170px-Turkish_armor_during_battles_of_Marica_and_Kosovo.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Turkish_armor_during_battles_of_Marica_and_Kosovo.jpg/255px-Turkish_armor_during_battles_of_Marica_and_Kosovo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Turkish_armor_during_battles_of_Marica_and_Kosovo.jpg/340px-Turkish_armor_during_battles_of_Marica_and_Kosovo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="5184" /></a><figcaption>Turkish armor during battles of Marica and Kosovo in 1371 and 1389</figcaption></figure> <p>Early in the medieval period, ships in the context of warfare were used primarily for transporting troops.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Mediterranean, naval warfare in the Middle Ages was similar to that under late Roman Empire: fleets of <a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">galleys</a> would exchange missile fire and then try to board bow first to allow <a href="/wiki/Marine_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine (military)">marines</a> to fight on deck. This mode of naval warfare remained the same into the early modern period, as, for example, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto_(1571)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Lepanto (1571)">Battle of Lepanto</a>. Famous admirals included <a href="/wiki/Roger_of_Lauria" title="Roger of Lauria">Roger of Lauria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Doria" title="Andrea Doria">Andrea Doria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hayreddin_Barbarossa" title="Hayreddin Barbarossa">Hayreddin Barbarossa</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late medieval</a> maritime warfare was divided in two distinct regions. In the Mediterranean, galleys were used for raiding along coasts, and in the constant fighting for naval bases. In the Atlantic and Baltic there was greater focus on sailing ships that were used mostly for troop transport, with galleys providing fighting support.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Galleys were still widely used in the north and were the most numerous warships used by Mediterranean powers with interests in the north, especially the French and Iberian kingdoms.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bulkier ships were developed which were primarily <a href="/wiki/Sail" title="Sail">sail</a>-driven, although the long lowboard Viking-style rowed <a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">longship</a> saw use well into the 15th century. Their main purpose in the north remained the transportation of soldiers to fight on the decks of the opposing ship (as, for example, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Svolder" title="Battle of Svolder">Battle of Svolder</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sluys" title="Battle of Sluys">Battle of Sluys</a>). </p><p>Late medieval sailing warships resembled floating fortresses, with towers in the <a href="/wiki/Bow_(boat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bow (boat)">bows</a> and at the <a href="/wiki/Stern" title="Stern">stern</a> (respectively, the <a href="/wiki/Forecastle" title="Forecastle">forecastle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aftcastle" class="mw-redirect" title="Aftcastle">aftcastle</a>). The large superstructure made these warships quite unstable, but the decisive defeats that the more mobile but considerably lower boarded longships suffered at the hands of high-boarded cogs in the 15th century ended the issue of which ship type would dominate northern European warfare. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Introduction_of_guns">Introduction of guns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Introduction of guns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The introduction of guns was the first step towards major changes in naval warfare, but it only slowly changed the dynamics of ship-to-ship combat. The first guns on ships were introduced in the 14th century and consisted of small wrought-iron pieces placed on the open decks and in the <a href="/wiki/Fighting_top" class="mw-redirect" title="Fighting top">fighting tops</a>, often requiring only one or two men to handle them. They were designed to injure, kill or simply stun, shock and frighten the enemy before boarding.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HandCulverinWithSmallCannonsEurope15thCentury.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/HandCulverinWithSmallCannonsEurope15thCentury.jpg/220px-HandCulverinWithSmallCannonsEurope15thCentury.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/HandCulverinWithSmallCannonsEurope15thCentury.jpg/330px-HandCulverinWithSmallCannonsEurope15thCentury.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/HandCulverinWithSmallCannonsEurope15thCentury.jpg/440px-HandCulverinWithSmallCannonsEurope15thCentury.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1193" data-file-height="620" /></a><figcaption>Two views of a hand culverin and two small cannons from the 15th century.</figcaption></figure><p>As guns were made more durable to withstand stronger gunpowder charges, they increased their potential to inflict critical damage to the vessel rather than just their crews. Since these guns were much heavier than the earlier anti-personnel weapons, they had to be placed lower in the ships, and fire from <a href="/wiki/Gunport" class="mw-redirect" title="Gunport">gunports</a>, to avoid ships becoming unstable. In Northern Europe the technique of building ships with <a href="/wiki/Clinker_(boat_building)" title="Clinker (boat building)">clinker</a> planking made it difficult to cut ports in the hull; clinker-built (or clench-built) ships had much of their structural strength in the outer hull. The solution was the gradual adoption of <a href="/wiki/Carvel_(boat_building)" title="Carvel (boat building)">carvel</a>-built ships that relied on an internal skeleton structure to bear the weight of the ship.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first ships to actually mount heavy cannon capable of sinking ships were galleys, with large wrought-iron pieces mounted directly on the timbers in the bow. The first example is known from a woodcut of a Venetian galley from 1486.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heavy artillery on galleys was mounted in the bow which fit conveniently with the long-standing tactical tradition of attacking head-on and bow-first. The ordnance on galleys was quite heavy from its introduction in the 1480s, and capable of quickly demolishing medieval-style stone walls that still prevailed until the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Guilmartin_1974,_pp._264–66_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guilmartin_1974,_pp._264–66-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This temporarily upended the strength of older seaside fortresses, which had to be rebuilt to cope with gunpowder weapons. The addition of guns also improved the amphibious abilities of galleys as they could assault supported with heavy firepower, and could be even more effectively defended when beached stern-first.<sup id="cite_ref-Guilmartin_1974,_pp._264–66_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guilmartin_1974,_pp._264–66-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Galleys and similar oared vessels remained uncontested as the most effective gun-armed warships in theory until the 1560s, and in practice for a few decades more, and were considered a grave risk to sailing warships.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rise_of_infantry">Rise of infantry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Rise of infantry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Infantry_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Infantry in the Middle Ages">Infantry in the Middle Ages</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinello-Battle_of_Punta_San_Salvatore-detail1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Spinello-Battle_of_Punta_San_Salvatore-detail1.jpg/220px-Spinello-Battle_of_Punta_San_Salvatore-detail1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Spinello-Battle_of_Punta_San_Salvatore-detail1.jpg/330px-Spinello-Battle_of_Punta_San_Salvatore-detail1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Spinello-Battle_of_Punta_San_Salvatore-detail1.jpg/440px-Spinello-Battle_of_Punta_San_Salvatore-detail1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1092" data-file-height="728" /></a><figcaption>A battle between the Venetian and Holy Roman fleets. Detail of a fresco by <a href="/wiki/Spinello_Aretino" title="Spinello Aretino">Spinello Aretino</a> 1407–1408.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the Medieval period, the mounted cavalry long held sway on the battlefield. Heavily armoured mounted knights represented a formidable foe for reluctant peasant draftees and lightly armoured freemen. To defeat mounted cavalry, infantry used swarms of missiles or a tightly packed phalanx of men, techniques honed in antiquity by the Greeks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Swiss_pikemen">Swiss pikemen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Swiss pikemen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The use of long pikes and densely packed foot troops was not uncommon in the Middle Ages. The <a href="/wiki/Flemings" class="mw-redirect" title="Flemings">Flemish</a> footmen at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Golden_Spurs" title="Battle of the Golden Spurs">Battle of the Golden Spurs</a> met and overcame French knights in 1302, as the <a href="/wiki/Lombard_League" title="Lombard League">Lombards</a> did in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Legnano" title="Battle of Legnano">Legnano</a> in 1176 and the Scots held their own against heavily armoured English cavalry. During the St. Louis crusade, dismounted French knights formed a tight lance-and-shield phalanx to repel Egyptian cavalry. The Swiss used pike tactics in the late medieval period. While pikemen usually grouped and awaited a mounted attack, the Swiss developed flexible formations and aggressive manoeuvring, forcing their opponents to respond. The Swiss won at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Morgarten" title="Battle of Morgarten">Morgarten</a>, Laupen, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sempach" title="Battle of Sempach">Sempach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Grandson" title="Battle of Grandson">Grandson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Morat" title="Battle of Morat">Murten</a>, and between 1450 and 1550 every leading prince in Europe (except the English and Scottish) hired Swiss pikemen, or emulated their tactics and weapons (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Landsknechte" class="mw-redirect" title="Landsknechte">German Landsknechte</a>).</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arc_long_anglais.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Arc_long_anglais.jpg/130px-Arc_long_anglais.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Arc_long_anglais.jpg/195px-Arc_long_anglais.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Arc_long_anglais.jpg/260px-Arc_long_anglais.jpg 2x" data-file-width="971" data-file-height="2483" /></a><figcaption>A modern replica of an English longbow.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Welsh_and_English_longbowmen">Welsh and English longbowmen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Welsh and English longbowmen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_longbow" title="English longbow">English longbow</a></div> <p>The Welsh and English longbowmen used a single-piece longbow (but some bows later developed a composite design) to deliver arrows that could penetrate contemporary <a href="/wiki/Mail_(armour)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mail (armour)">mail</a> and damage/dent <a href="/wiki/Plate_armour" title="Plate armour">plate armour</a>. The longbow was a difficult weapon to master, requiring long years of use and constant practice. A skilled longbowman could shoot about 12 shots per minute. This rate of fire was far superior to competing weapons like the <a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">crossbow</a> or early gunpowder weapons. The nearest competitor to the longbow was the much more expensive crossbow, used often by urban militias and <a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">mercenary</a> forces. The crossbow had greater penetrating power and did not require the extended years of training. However, it lacked the rate of fire of the longbow.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cr%C3%A9cy" title="Battle of Crécy">Crécy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Agincourt" title="Battle of Agincourt">Agincourt</a> bowmen unleashed clouds of arrows into the ranks of knights. At Crécy, even 5,000 Genoese crossbowmen could not dislodge them from their hill. At Agincourt, thousands of French knights were brought down by armour-piercing <a href="/wiki/Bodkin_point" title="Bodkin point">bodkin point</a> arrows and horse-maiming <a href="/wiki/Arrowhead#Variants" title="Arrowhead">broadheads</a>. Longbowmen decimated an entire generation of the French nobility. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Transition_to_gunpowder_warfare">Transition to gunpowder warfare</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Transition to gunpowder warfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_artillery_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Gunpowder artillery in the Middle Ages">Gunpowder artillery in the Middle Ages</a></div> <p>In 1326 the earliest known European picture of a gun appeared in a manuscript by Walter de Milemete.<sup id="cite_ref-kelly29_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kelly29-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1350, <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a> wrote that the presence of cannons on the battlefield was 'as common and familiar as other kinds of arms'.<sup id="cite_ref-norris_19_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-norris_19-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early artillery played a limited role in the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>, and it became indispensable in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a> of 1494–1559, marking the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">early modern warfare</a>. Charles VIII, during his <a href="/wiki/First_Italian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Italian War">invasion of Italy</a>, brought with him the first truly mobile siege train: <a href="/wiki/Culverin" title="Culverin">culverins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bombard_(weapon)" title="Bombard (weapon)">bombards</a> mounted on wheeled carriages, which could be deployed against an enemy stronghold immediately after arrival. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Strategy_and_tactics">Strategy and tactics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Strategy and tactics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Medieval campaigns were planned with strategy in mind, such as maintaining unity in morale, planning troop movements, and mount offensives with numerical advantages.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medieval armies used strategic deception, such as misleading troop movements, to take opposing armies by surprise. They would also spread misinformation regarding army size and provisions.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One common tactic used in medieval warfare was raiding; this benefitted the attacking army by with new supplies and wealth while damaging the target's resources.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="De_re_militari"><i>De re militari</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: De re militari"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style=";"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p><i>si vis pacem, para bellum</i><br />If you want peace, prepare for war </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">Vegetius, <i>De re militari</i>, preface to book 3.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <p><a href="/wiki/Publius_Flavius_Vegetius_Renatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus">Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus</a> wrote <i><a href="/wiki/De_re_militari" title="De re militari">De re militari</a> (Concerning Military Matters)</i> possibly in the late 4th century.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Described by historian <a href="/wiki/Walter_Goffart" title="Walter Goffart">Walter Goffart</a> as "the bible of warfare throughout the Middle Ages", <i>De re militari</i> was widely distributed through the Latin West. While <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> relied on a single text for the basis of its military knowledge, the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> in <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeastern Europe">Southeastern Europe</a> had a succession of military writers.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though Vegetius had no military experience and <i>De re militari</i> was derived from the works of <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Younger" title="Cato the Younger">Cato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a>, his books were the standard for military discourse in Western Europe from their production until the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>De re militari</i> was divided into five books: who should be a soldier and the skills they needed to learn, the composition and structure of an <a href="/wiki/Army" title="Army">army</a>, field tactics, how to conduct and withstand <a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">sieges</a>, and the role of the <a href="/wiki/Navy" title="Navy">navy</a>. According to Vegetius, <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a> was the most important element of an army because it was cheap compared to <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a> and could be deployed on any terrain.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholson14_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholson14-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the tenets he put forward was that a general should only engage in battle when he was sure of victory or had no other choice.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As archaeologist Robert Liddiard explains, "<a href="/wiki/Pitched_battle" title="Pitched battle">Pitched battles</a>, particularly in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, were rare."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although his work was widely reproduced, and over 200 copies, translations, and extracts survive today, the extent to which Vegetius affected the actual practice of warfare as opposed to its concept is unclear because of his habit of stating the obvious.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholson14_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholson14-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Michael_Clanchy" title="Michael Clanchy">Michael Clanchy</a> noted "the medieval axiom that laymen are illiterate and its converse that clergy are literate",<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so it may be the case that few soldiers read Vegetius' work. While their Roman predecessors were well-educated and had been experienced in warfare, the European nobility of the early Medieval period were not renowned for their education, but from the 12th century, it became more common for them to read.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholson_2004,_p._16_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholson_2004,_p._16-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some soldiers regarded the experience of warfare as more valuable than reading about it; for example, <a href="/wiki/Geoffroi_de_Charny" title="Geoffroi de Charny">Geoffroi de Charny</a>, a 14th century knight who wrote about warfare, recommended that his audience should learn by observing and asking advice from their superiors. Vegetius remained prominent in medieval literature on warfare, although it is uncertain to what extent his work was read by the warrior class as opposed to the clergy.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholson_2004,_p._16_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholson_2004,_p._16-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1489, King <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII of England</a> commissioned the translation of <i>De re militari</i> into English, "so every gentleman born to arms and all manner of men of war, captains, soldiers, victuallers and all others would know how they ought to behave in the feats of wars and battles".<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Supplies_and_logistics">Supplies and logistics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Supplies and logistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Topfhelm_DHM_transparent.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Topfhelm_DHM_transparent.png/170px-Topfhelm_DHM_transparent.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Topfhelm_DHM_transparent.png/255px-Topfhelm_DHM_transparent.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Topfhelm_DHM_transparent.png/340px-Topfhelm_DHM_transparent.png 2x" data-file-width="2076" data-file-height="3123" /></a><figcaption>13th century German <a href="/wiki/Great_helm" title="Great helm">great helm</a> with a flat top to the skull</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Byzantine_klivanium_(%CE%9A%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BD).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Byzantine_klivanium_%28%CE%9A%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BD%29.jpg/220px-Byzantine_klivanium_%28%CE%9A%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BD%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Byzantine_klivanium_%28%CE%9A%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BD%29.jpg/330px-Byzantine_klivanium_%28%CE%9A%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BD%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Byzantine_klivanium_%28%CE%9A%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BD%29.jpg/440px-Byzantine_klivanium_%28%CE%9A%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BD%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1420" data-file-height="1202" /></a><figcaption>Byzantine <i><a href="/wiki/Klivanion" title="Klivanion">klivanion</a></i></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reproducci%C3%B3_de_la_indument%C3%A0ria_d%27un_almog%C3%A0ver_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Reproducci%C3%B3_de_la_indument%C3%A0ria_d%27un_almog%C3%A0ver_2.JPG/170px-Reproducci%C3%B3_de_la_indument%C3%A0ria_d%27un_almog%C3%A0ver_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Reproducci%C3%B3_de_la_indument%C3%A0ria_d%27un_almog%C3%A0ver_2.JPG/255px-Reproducci%C3%B3_de_la_indument%C3%A0ria_d%27un_almog%C3%A0ver_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Reproducci%C3%B3_de_la_indument%C3%A0ria_d%27un_almog%C3%A0ver_2.JPG/340px-Reproducci%C3%B3_de_la_indument%C3%A0ria_d%27un_almog%C3%A0ver_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="6016" /></a><figcaption>Spanish <a href="/wiki/Almogavars" title="Almogavars">Almogávar</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Medieval warfare largely predated the use of <a href="/wiki/Train_(military)" title="Train (military)">supply trains</a>, which meant that armies had to acquire food supplies from the territory they were passing through. This meant that large-scale <a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">looting</a> by soldiers was unavoidable, and was actively encouraged in the 14th century with its emphasis on <i><a href="/wiki/Chevauch%C3%A9e" title="Chevauchée">chevauchée</a></i> tactics, where mounted troops would burn and pillage enemy territory in order to distract and demoralize the enemy while denying them their supplies. </p><p>Through the medieval period, soldiers were responsible for supplying themselves, either through foraging, looting, or purchases. Even so, military commanders often provided their troops with food and supplies, but this would be provided instead of the soldiers' wages, or soldiers would be expected to pay for it from their wages, either at cost or even with a profit.<sup id="cite_ref-AbelsRichard_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AbelsRichard-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1294, the same year <a href="/wiki/John_Balliol" title="John Balliol">John II de Balliol of Scotland</a> refused to support <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edward I of England</a>'s planned invasion of France, Edward I implemented a system in <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> where <a href="/wiki/Sheriff" title="Sheriff">sheriffs</a> would acquire foodstuffs, horses and carts from merchants with <a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">compulsory sales</a> at prices fixed below typical market prices under the Crown's rights of <a href="/wiki/Purveyance" title="Purveyance">prise and purveyance</a>. These goods would then be transported to <a href="/wiki/Supply_depot" title="Supply depot">Royal Magazines</a> in southern Scotland and along the Scottish border where English <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">conscripts</a> under his command could purchase them. This continued during the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Scottish_Independence" title="Wars of Scottish Independence">First War of Scottish Independence</a> which began in 1296, though the system was unpopular and was ended with Edward I's death in 1307.<sup id="cite_ref-AbelsRichard_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AbelsRichard-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Starting under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Edward_II_of_England" title="Edward II of England">Edward II</a> in 1307 and ending under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Edward_III_of_England" title="Edward III of England">Edward III</a> in 1337, the English instead used a system where merchants would be asked to meet armies with supplies for the soldiers to purchase. This led to discontent as the merchants saw an opportunity to <a href="/wiki/War_profiteering" title="War profiteering">profiteer</a>, forcing the troops to pay well above normal market prices for food.<sup id="cite_ref-AbelsRichard_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AbelsRichard-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As Edward III went to war with France in the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> (starting in 1337), the English returned to a practice of foraging and raiding to meet their logistical needs. This practice lasted throughout the war, extending through the remainder of Edward III's reign into the reign of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AbelsRichard_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AbelsRichard-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regional_examples">Regional examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Regional examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-No_footnotes plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-No_footnotes" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">list of references</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Further_reading" title="Wikipedia:Further reading">related reading</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links" title="Wikipedia:External links">external links</a>, <b>but its sources remain unclear because it lacks <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Fact_and_Reference_Check" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Fact and Reference Check">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arabs">Arabs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Arabs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early Muslim conquests</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arab_armored_14th_century_battering_ram,_reconstructed_model.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Arab_armored_14th_century_battering_ram%2C_reconstructed_model.jpg/220px-Arab_armored_14th_century_battering_ram%2C_reconstructed_model.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Arab_armored_14th_century_battering_ram%2C_reconstructed_model.jpg/330px-Arab_armored_14th_century_battering_ram%2C_reconstructed_model.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Arab_armored_14th_century_battering_ram%2C_reconstructed_model.jpg/440px-Arab_armored_14th_century_battering_ram%2C_reconstructed_model.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3902" data-file-height="2288" /></a><figcaption>14th century Arab style <a href="/wiki/Battering_ram" title="Battering ram">battering ram</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The initial <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a> began in the 7th century after the death of the <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> prophet <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, and were marked by a century of rapid <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> expansion beyond the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphates</a>. Under the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a>, the Arabs <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">conquered the Persian Empire</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Syria">Roman Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Roman Egypt</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine-Arab_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine-Arab Wars">Byzantine-Arab Wars</a>, all within just seven years from 633 to 640. Under the Umayyads, the Arabs annexed <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_North_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of North Africa">North Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">southern Italy</a> from the Romans and the Arab Empire soon stretched from <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent">parts of the Indian subcontinent</a>, across <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, the Middle East, North Africa, and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">southern Italy</a>, to the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Iberian Peninsula</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pyrenees" title="Pyrenees">Pyrenees</a>. </p><p>The early Arab army mainly consisted of <a href="/wiki/Camel" title="Camel">camel</a>-mounted <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a>, alongside a few <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a>. Constantly outnumbered by their opponent, they did, however, possess the advantage of strategic mobility, their camel-borne nature allowing them to constantly outmaneuver larger Byzantine and Sassanid armies to take prime defensive positions. The <a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a> cavalry, while lacking the number and mounted archery skill of their Roman and Persian counterparts was for the most part skillfully employed, and played a decisive role in many crucial battles such as <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yarmouk" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Yarmouk">Battle of Yarmouk</a>. During the 7th century, Arab armies employed weapons such as swords, spears, iron mace and lances. For protection, they used shields and wore helmets and coats of mail, although the latter was extremely rare. The bow and arrow was also utilized. Also, after the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(674%E2%80%93678)" title="Siege of Constantinople (674–678)">naval siege of Constantinople in the 670s</a>, they started to employ <a href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">greek fire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid army">Persian army</a> at the time both had large numbers of <a href="/wiki/Heavy_infantry" title="Heavy infantry">heavy infantry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heavy_cavalry" title="Heavy cavalry">heavy cavalry</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cataphract" title="Cataphract">cataphracts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clibanarii" title="Clibanarii">clibanarii</a>) that were better equipped, heavily protected, and were more experienced and disciplined. The Arab invasions came at a time when both ancient powers were exhausted from the protracted <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sassanid_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Sassanid Wars">Byzantine–Sassanid Wars</a>, particularly the bitterly fought <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sassanid_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628">Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628</a> which had brought both empires close to collapse. Also, the typically multi-ethnic Byzantine force was always wracked by dissension and lacked a unity of command, a similar situation also being encountered among the Sassanids who had been embroiled in a bitter civil war for a decade before the coming of the Arabs. In contrast, the <a href="/wiki/Ridda_Wars" title="Ridda Wars">Ridda Wars</a> which preceded the Arab conflicts with both the Sasanids and the Byzantines, had forged the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a>'s army into a united and loyal fighting force. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vikings">Vikings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Vikings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Viking_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking invasions">Viking invasions</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vikings_841_at_Dublin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Vikings_841_at_Dublin.jpg/260px-Vikings_841_at_Dublin.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Vikings_841_at_Dublin.jpg/390px-Vikings_841_at_Dublin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Vikings_841_at_Dublin.jpg/520px-Vikings_841_at_Dublin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="340" /></a><figcaption>Viking fleet <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dublin" title="Kingdom of Dublin">landing at Dublin</a>, 841</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Vikings</a> were a feared force in Europe because of their savagery and speed of their attacks. Whilst seaborne raids were nothing new at the time, the Vikings refined the practice to a science through their shipbuilding, tactics and training.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike other raiders, the Vikings made a lasting impact on the face of Europe. During the Viking age, their expeditions, frequently combining raiding and trading, penetrated most of the old Frankish Empire, the British Isles, the Baltic region, Russia, and both Muslim and Christian Iberia. Many served as mercenaries, and the famed <a href="/wiki/Varangian_Guard" title="Varangian Guard">Varangian Guard</a>, serving the Emperor of Constantinople, was drawn principally of Scandinavian warriors. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arbo_-_Battle_of_Stamford_Bridge_(1870).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Arbo_-_Battle_of_Stamford_Bridge_%281870%29.jpg/220px-Arbo_-_Battle_of_Stamford_Bridge_%281870%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Arbo_-_Battle_of_Stamford_Bridge_%281870%29.jpg/330px-Arbo_-_Battle_of_Stamford_Bridge_%281870%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Arbo_-_Battle_of_Stamford_Bridge_%281870%29.jpg/440px-Arbo_-_Battle_of_Stamford_Bridge_%281870%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Norwegian Vikings' defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_Bridge" title="Battle of Stamford Bridge">Battle of Stamford Bridge</a>, 1066</figcaption></figure><p>Viking <a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">longships</a> were swift and easily manoeuvered; they could navigate deep seas or shallow rivers,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and could carry <a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">warriors</a> that could be rapidly deployed directly onto land due to the longships being able to land directly. The longship was the enabler of the Viking style of warfare that was fast and mobile, relying heavily on the element of surprise.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The usual method was to approach a target with the element of surprise and then retire swiftly using <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla">guerrilla</a>-style fighting. The fully armoured Viking raider would wear an iron helmet and a mail hauberk, and fight with a combination of axe, sword, shield, spear or great "Danish" two-handed axe, although the typical raider would be unarmoured, carrying only a bow and arrows, a <a href="/wiki/Seax" title="Seax">seax</a>, a shield and spear. European countries with a weak system of government would be unable to organize a suitable response and would naturally suffer the most to Viking raiders. Viking raiders always had the option to fall back in the face of a superior force or stubborn defence and then reappear to attack other locations or retreat to their bases. As time went on, Viking raids became more sophisticated, with coordinated strikes involving multiple forces and large armies, as the "<a href="/wiki/Great_Heathen_Army" title="Great Heathen Army">Great Heathen Army</a>" that ravaged <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a> in the 9th century. In time, the Vikings began to hold on to the areas they raided, first wintering and then consolidating footholds for further expansion later.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>After the Vikings consolidated their kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, this period marks the end of significant raider activity both for plunder or conquest; adapting a more continental European tradition of warfare, whilst retaining an emphasis on naval power – the "Viking" <a href="/wiki/Clinker_(boat_building)" title="Clinker (boat building)">clinker-built warship</a> was used in the war until the 14th century. However, developments in shipbuilding elsewhere removed the advantage they previously enjoyed at sea, whilst castle building throughout frustrated and eventually ended Viking raids.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (June 2012)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Scandinavian armies of the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a> followed the usual pattern of the Northern European armies, but with a stronger emphasis on infantry. The terrain of Scandinavia favoured heavy infantry, and whilst the nobles fought mounted in the continental fashion, the Scandinavian peasants formed a well-armed and well-armoured infantry, of which approximately 30% to 50% would be archers or crossbowmen. The <a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">crossbow</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Flatbow" title="Flatbow">flatbow</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Longbow" title="Longbow">longbow</a> were especially popular in Sweden and Finland. The <a href="/wiki/Chainmail" class="mw-redirect" title="Chainmail">chainmail</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lamellar_armour" title="Lamellar armour">lamellar armour</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Coat_of_plates" title="Coat of plates">coat of plates</a> were the usual Scandinavian infantry armour before the era of plate armour.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mongols">Mongols</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Mongols"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasions">Mongol invasions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tatar_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Tatar invasions">Tatar invasions</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clissa,_principal_fortezza_del_Turcho_nella_Dalmatia_-_Camocio_Giovanni_Francesco_-_1574.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Clissa%2C_principal_fortezza_del_Turcho_nella_Dalmatia_-_Camocio_Giovanni_Francesco_-_1574.jpg/220px-Clissa%2C_principal_fortezza_del_Turcho_nella_Dalmatia_-_Camocio_Giovanni_Francesco_-_1574.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Clissa%2C_principal_fortezza_del_Turcho_nella_Dalmatia_-_Camocio_Giovanni_Francesco_-_1574.jpg/330px-Clissa%2C_principal_fortezza_del_Turcho_nella_Dalmatia_-_Camocio_Giovanni_Francesco_-_1574.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Clissa%2C_principal_fortezza_del_Turcho_nella_Dalmatia_-_Camocio_Giovanni_Francesco_-_1574.jpg/440px-Clissa%2C_principal_fortezza_del_Turcho_nella_Dalmatia_-_Camocio_Giovanni_Francesco_-_1574.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1174" /></a><figcaption>During The <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tatars" title="Tatars">Tatars</a>, under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Kadan" title="Kadan">Kadan</a>, experienced a major failure in March 1242 at <a href="/wiki/Klis_Fortress" class="mw-redirect" title="Klis Fortress">Klis Fortress</a> in southern <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Povijest_Klisa_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Povijest_Klisa-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Archdeacon_299_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Archdeacon_299-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure><p> By 1241, having conquered large parts of Russia, the Mongols continued the invasion of Europe with a massive three-pronged advance, following the fleeing <a href="/wiki/Cumans" title="Cumans">Cumans</a>, who had established an uncertain alliance with King Bela IV of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a>. They first invaded <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1025%E2%80%931385)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)">Poland</a>, and finally, Hungary, culminating in the crushing defeat of the Hungarians in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mohi" title="Battle of Mohi">Battle of Mohi</a>. The Mongol aim seems to have consistently been to defeat the Hungarian-Cuman alliance. The Mongols raided across the borders to Austria and Bohemia in the summer when the Great Khan died, and the Mongol princes returned home to elect a new <a href="/wiki/Great_khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Great khan">Great Khan</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> would frequently clash with Hungarians, Lithuanians and Poles in the thirteenth century, with two large raids in the 1260s and 1280s respectively. In 1284 the Hungarians repelled the last major raid into Hungary, and in 1287 the Poles repelled a raid against them. The instability in the Golden Horde seems to have quieted the western front of the Horde. Also, the large scale invasions and raiding that had previously characterized the expansion of the Mongols was cut short probably in some part due to the death of the last great Mongol leader, <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Tamerlane</a>. </p><p>The Hungarians and Poles had responded to the mobile threat by extensive fortification-building, army reform in the form of better-armoured cavalry, and refusing battle unless they could control the site of the battlefield to deny the Mongols local superiority. The Lithuanians relied on their forested homelands for defence and used their cavalry for raiding into Mongol-dominated Russia. When attacking fortresses they would launch dead or diseased animals into fortresses to help spread disease. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turks_and_Central_Asia">Turks and Central Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Turks and Central Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An early <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a> group, the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Turks" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuk Turks">Seljuks</a>, were known for their cavalry archers. These fierce nomads were often raiding empires, such as the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, and they scored several victories using mobility and timing to defeat the heavy <a href="/wiki/Cataphract" title="Cataphract">cataphracts</a> of the Byzantines. </p><p>One notable victory was at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert" title="Battle of Manzikert">Manzikert</a>, where conflict among the generals of the Byzantines gave the Turks the perfect opportunity to strike. They hit the cataphracts with arrows, and outmanoeuvred them, then rode down their less mobile infantry with light cavalry that used <a href="/wiki/Scimitar" title="Scimitar">scimitars</a> (in use since the 9th century).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When gunpowder was introduced, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottoman Turks</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> hired the mercenaries that used the gunpowder weapons and obtained their instruction for the <a href="/wiki/Janissary" title="Janissary">Janissaries</a>. Out of these Ottoman soldiers rose the Janissaries (<i>yeni ceri</i>; "new soldier"), from which they also recruited many of their heavy infantry. Along with the use of cavalry and early grenades, the Ottomans mounted an offensive in the early Renaissance period and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Europe" title="Ottoman wars in Europe">attacked Europe</a>, taking <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> by massed infantry assaults. </p><p>Like many other nomadic peoples, the Turks featured a core of heavy cavalry from the upper classes. These evolved into the Sipahis (feudal landholders similar to western knights and Byzantine <i>pronoiai</i>) and Qapukulu (<i>door slaves</i>, taken from youth like Janissaries and trained to be royal servants and elite soldiers, mainly cataphracts). </p><p>Already by the late 13th century, the <a href="/wiki/Khilji_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Khilji Dynasty">Khilji dynasty</a> utilized several siege technologies such as <a href="/wiki/Trebuchet" title="Trebuchet">trebuchets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">ballistas</a> and wooden parapets by their war engineers. In order to breach a fortification's <a href="/wiki/Curtain_wall_(architecture)" title="Curtain wall (architecture)">curtain walls</a>, long earthen-ramps were used to fill up <a href="/wiki/Moat" title="Moat">moats</a>. In ranged military techniques, they used the powerful war-horses from Central Asia with mounted archers.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Equipment">Equipment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Equipment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_weapons" title="List of medieval weapons">List of medieval weapons</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Costimography_for_the_Nemanji%C4%87i_series.IMG_3637_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Costimography_for_the_Nemanji%C4%87i_series.IMG_3637_%282%29.jpg/170px-Costimography_for_the_Nemanji%C4%87i_series.IMG_3637_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Costimography_for_the_Nemanji%C4%87i_series.IMG_3637_%282%29.jpg/255px-Costimography_for_the_Nemanji%C4%87i_series.IMG_3637_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Costimography_for_the_Nemanji%C4%87i_series.IMG_3637_%282%29.jpg/340px-Costimography_for_the_Nemanji%C4%87i_series.IMG_3637_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1691" data-file-height="2788" /></a><figcaption>Replica of 12th century Serbian medieval armor</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Varlet_or_Squire_carrying_a_Halberd_with_a_thick_Blade_and_Archer_in_Fighting_Dress_drawing_the_String_of_his_Crossbow_with_a_double_handled_Winch.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Varlet_or_Squire_carrying_a_Halberd_with_a_thick_Blade_and_Archer_in_Fighting_Dress_drawing_the_String_of_his_Crossbow_with_a_double_handled_Winch.png/220px-Varlet_or_Squire_carrying_a_Halberd_with_a_thick_Blade_and_Archer_in_Fighting_Dress_drawing_the_String_of_his_Crossbow_with_a_double_handled_Winch.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Varlet_or_Squire_carrying_a_Halberd_with_a_thick_Blade_and_Archer_in_Fighting_Dress_drawing_the_String_of_his_Crossbow_with_a_double_handled_Winch.png/330px-Varlet_or_Squire_carrying_a_Halberd_with_a_thick_Blade_and_Archer_in_Fighting_Dress_drawing_the_String_of_his_Crossbow_with_a_double_handled_Winch.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Varlet_or_Squire_carrying_a_Halberd_with_a_thick_Blade_and_Archer_in_Fighting_Dress_drawing_the_String_of_his_Crossbow_with_a_double_handled_Winch.png/440px-Varlet_or_Squire_carrying_a_Halberd_with_a_thick_Blade_and_Archer_in_Fighting_Dress_drawing_the_String_of_his_Crossbow_with_a_double_handled_Winch.png 2x" data-file-width="1443" data-file-height="1495" /></a><figcaption>A varlet or <a href="/wiki/Squire" title="Squire">squire</a> carrying a <a href="/wiki/Halberd" title="Halberd">halberd</a> with a thick blade; and archer, in fighting dress, drawing the string of his crossbow with a double-handled winch. From the <a href="/wiki/Miniature_(illuminated_manuscript)" title="Miniature (illuminated manuscript)">miniatures</a> of the "Jouvencel", and <a href="/wiki/Froissart%27s_Chronicles" title="Froissart's Chronicles">Froissart's <i>Chronicles</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">Imperial Library of Paris</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marksburg03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Marksburg03.jpg/220px-Marksburg03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Marksburg03.jpg/330px-Marksburg03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Marksburg03.jpg/440px-Marksburg03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1719" data-file-height="1195" /></a><figcaption>15th century armor from Germany</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Weapons</b> </p><p>Medieval weapons consisted of many different types of ranged and hand-held objects: </p> <ul><li>Melee <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battleaxe" class="mw-redirect" title="Battleaxe">Battleaxe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horseman%27s_pick" title="Horseman's pick">Horseman's pick</a></li></ul></li> <li>Blades <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arming_sword" class="mw-redirect" title="Arming sword">Arming sword</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagger" title="Dagger">Dagger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knife" title="Knife">Knife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longsword" title="Longsword">Longsword</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messer_(weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Messer (weapon)">Messer</a></li></ul></li> <li>Blunt weapons <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Club_(weapon)" title="Club (weapon)">Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mace_(bludgeon)" title="Mace (bludgeon)">Mace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_hammer" title="War hammer">War hammer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polearm" title="Polearm">Polearm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Halberd" title="Halberd">Halberd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lance" title="Lance">Lance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_fork" title="Military fork">Military fork</a>, the weaponized <a href="/wiki/Pitchfork" title="Pitchfork">Pitchfork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollaxe_(polearm)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollaxe (polearm)">Pollaxe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">Spear</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Ranged <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">Bow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_longbow" title="English longbow">Longbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">Crossbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Throwing_axe" title="Throwing axe">Throwing axe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">Throwing spear</a> and <a href="/wiki/Javelin" title="Javelin">Javelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sling_(weapon)" title="Sling (weapon)">Sling</a></li></ul></li></ul> <p><b>Armour</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Components_of_medieval_armour" class="mw-redirect" title="Components of medieval armour">Body armour</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boiled_leather" title="Boiled leather">Leather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambeson" title="Gambeson">Fabric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chain_mail" title="Chain mail">Chain mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigandine" title="Brigandine">Brigandine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_armour" title="Plate armour">Plate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shield" title="Shield">Shield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_helmet" title="Combat helmet">Helmet</a></li></ul> <p><b>Artillery and Siege engine</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battering_ram" title="Battering ram">Battering ram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">Catapult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trebuchet" title="Trebuchet">Trebuchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_tower" title="Siege tower">Siege tower</a></li></ul> <p><b>Animals</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camel_cavalry" title="Camel cavalry">Camels in warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogs_in_warfare#History" title="Dogs in warfare">Dogs in warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_warfare" title="Horses in warfare">Horses in warfare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Horses_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Horses in the Middle Ages">Horses in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_elephant" title="War elephant">War elephant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_pig" title="War pig">War pigs</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 44em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endemic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic warfare">Endemic warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Stirrup_Controversy" title="Great Stirrup Controversy">Great Stirrup Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_warfare" title="Horses in warfare">Horses in warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slighting" title="Slighting">Slighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_Medieval_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of women in Medieval warfare">Timeline of women in Medieval warfare</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCarruthers2013" class="citation book cs1">Carruthers, Bob (2013). <i>Medieval Warfare</i>. Pen and Sword. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781473846968" title="Special:BookSources/9781473846968"><bdi>9781473846968</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Warfare&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781473846968&rft.aulast=Carruthers&rft.aufirst=Bob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarruthers2013" class="citation book cs1">Carruthers, Bob (2013). <i>Medieval Warfare</i>. Pen and Sword. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781473846968" title="Special:BookSources/9781473846968"><bdi>9781473846968</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Warfare&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781473846968&rft.aulast=Carruthers&rft.aufirst=Bob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarruthers2013" class="citation book cs1">Carruthers, Bob (2013). <i>Medieval Warfare</i>. Pen and Sword. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781473846968" title="Special:BookSources/9781473846968"><bdi>9781473846968</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Warfare&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781473846968&rft.aulast=Carruthers&rft.aufirst=Bob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParsa2017" class="citation book cs1">Parsa, Ali (2017). <i>World History: A Concise, Selective, Interpretive History of the World</i>. Sentia Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780999005613" title="Special:BookSources/9780999005613"><bdi>9780999005613</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+History%3A+A+Concise%2C+Selective%2C+Interpretive+History+of+the+World&rft.pub=Sentia+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780999005613&rft.aulast=Parsa&rft.aufirst=Ali&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradbury2004" class="citation book cs1">Bradbury, Jim (2004). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/routledgecompani00brad_406"><i>The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare</i></a></span>. Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/routledgecompani00brad_406/page/n293">284</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134598472" title="Special:BookSources/9781134598472"><bdi>9781134598472</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Companion+to+Medieval+Warfare&rft.pages=284&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781134598472&rft.aulast=Bradbury&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Froutledgecompani00brad_406&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGlynn1994" class="citation journal cs1">McGlynn, Sean (Jan 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.ebscohost.com">"The Myths of Medieval Warfare"</a>. <i>History Today</i>. <b>44</b> (1): 32. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2753">0018-2753</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 14,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=The+Myths+of+Medieval+Warfare&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=32&rft.date=1994-01&rft.issn=0018-2753&rft.aulast=McGlynn&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.ebscohost.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarruthers2013" class="citation book cs1">Carruthers, Bob (2013). <i>Medieval Warfare</i>. Pen and Sword. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781473846968" title="Special:BookSources/9781473846968"><bdi>9781473846968</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Warfare&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781473846968&rft.aulast=Carruthers&rft.aufirst=Bob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karaiskaj, Gjerak. "Furnizimi me ujë i kalasë së Shkodrës ne mesjetë." <i>Monumentet: Materialet e sesionit III shkencor të Institutit të Monumenteve të Kulturës</i> 11 (1985): 55–77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1+Samuel+4:3%E2%80%9311:3&version=nrsv">"Oremus Bible Browser"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oremus+Bible+Browser&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbible.oremus.org%2F%3Fpassage%3D1%2BSamuel%2B4%3A3%25E2%2580%259311%3A3%26version%3Dnrsv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Chrysostom, <i>Laudatio martyrum Aegyptiorum</i>, 1 <i>PG</i> <b>50</b> col. 694f.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bovesin de la Riva, <i>De Magnalibus Mediolani: Meraviglie di Milano</i> (Milan, 1998), as reported in John Dickie, <i>Delizia! The Epic History of Italians and Their Food</i> (New York, 2008), p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fernández-Armesto (1999), p. 231</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fernández-Armesto (1999), pp. 230–231</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DeVries (1992), p. 283</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Glete (2000), p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mott, Lawrence V., "Iberian Naval Power, 1000–1650" in Hattendorf & Unger (2003),  pp. 105–106</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rodger (1997), pp. 205–206 .</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsden (2003), pp. 137–142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lehmann (1984), p. 31</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guilmartin_1974,_pp._264–66-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guilmartin_1974,_pp._264–66_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guilmartin_1974,_pp._264–66_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Guilmartin (1974), pp. 264–266</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The British naval historian Nicholas Rodger describes this as a "crisis in naval warfare" which eventually led to the development of the galleon, which combined ahead-firing capabilities, heavy broadside guns and a considerable increase in manoeuvrability by the introduction of more advanced sailing rigs; Rodger (2003), p. 245. For more detailed arguments concerning the development of broadside armament, see Rodger (1996).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thebeckoning.com/medieval/crossbow/cross_l_v_c.html">"The Crossbow vs the Longbow in the Medieval Period – on 'The Beckoning'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>www.thebeckoning.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-01-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.thebeckoning.com&rft.atitle=The+Crossbow+vs+the+Longbow+in+the+Medieval+Period+%E2%80%93+on+%27The+Beckoning%27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thebeckoning.com%2Fmedieval%2Fcrossbow%2Fcross_l_v_c.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kelly29-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kelly29_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly2004" class="citation book cs1">Kelly, Jack (2004). <i>Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World</i>. Basic Books. p. 29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gunpowder%3A+Alchemy%2C+Bombards%2C+%26+Pyrotechnics%3A+The+History+of+the+Explosive+that+Changed+the+World&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=Jack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-norris_19-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-norris_19_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorris2003" class="citation book cs1">Norris, John (2003). <i>Early Gunpowder Artillery: 1300–1600</i>. Marlborough: The Crowood Press. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86126-615-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-86126-615-4"><bdi>1-86126-615-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Gunpowder+Artillery%3A+1300%E2%80%931600&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Marlborough%3A+The+Crowood+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-86126-615-4&rft.aulast=Norris&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTitterton2022" class="citation book cs1">Titterton, James (2022-02-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781800104747/type/book"><i>Deception in Medieval Warfare: Trickery and Cunning in the Central Middle Ages</i></a> (1 ed.). Boydell and Brewer Limited. pp. 28–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781800104747.006">10.1017/9781800104747.006</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-80010-474-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-80010-474-7"><bdi>978-1-80010-474-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deception+in+Medieval+Warfare%3A+Trickery+and+Cunning+in+the+Central+Middle+Ages&rft.pages=28-31&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Boydell+and+Brewer+Limited&rft.date=2022-02-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781800104747.006&rft.isbn=978-1-80010-474-7&rft.aulast=Titterton&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2F9781800104747%2Ftype%2Fbook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrance2017" class="citation book cs1">France, John, ed. (2017-05-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315249247"><i>Medieval Warfare 1000–1300</i></a>. Routledge. p. 124. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315249247">10.4324/9781315249247</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-24924-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-24924-7"><bdi>978-1-315-24924-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Warfare+1000%E2%80%931300&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017-05-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315249247&rft.isbn=978-1-315-24924-7&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9781315249247&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Milner (1996), p. 63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholson (2004), p. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goffart (1977), p. 65</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholson (2004), pp. 13–14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nicholson14-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nicholson14_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nicholson14_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholson (2004), p. 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gillingham (1992), p. 150</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liddiard (2005), p. 79</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in Nicholson (2004), p. 16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nicholson_2004,_p._16-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nicholson_2004,_p._16_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nicholson_2004,_p._16_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholson (2004), p. 16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in Nicholson (2004), pp. 18–19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AbelsRichard-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AbelsRichard_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AbelsRichard_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AbelsRichard_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AbelsRichard_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbels,_Richard" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Abels,_Richard" class="mw-redirect" title="Abels, Richard">Abels, Richard</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160413140254/http://www.usna.edu/Users/history/abels/hh381/Medieval%20Logistics.htm">"War in the Middle Ages: Medieval Logistics – English Experience"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_Academy" title="United States Naval Academy">United States Naval Academy</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Life+in+the+Medieval+Islamic+World&rft.pages=63-64&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780313322709&rft.aulast=Lindsay&rft.aufirst=James+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdailylifeinmedie00lind%2Fpage%2F62%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker2016" class="citation web cs1">Parker, Philip (May 25, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historyextra.com/period/viking/a-brief-history-of-the-vikings/">"A brief history of the Vikings"</a>. <i>The official website for BBC History Magazine and BBC World Histories Magazine</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+official+website+for+BBC+History+Magazine+and+BBC+World+Histories+Magazine&rft.atitle=A+brief+history+of+the+Vikings&rft.date=2016-05-25&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyextra.com%2Fperiod%2Fviking%2Fa-brief-history-of-the-vikings%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalsh2013" class="citation web cs1">Walsh, David (May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.asme.org/engineering-topics/articles/history-of-mechanical-engineering/engineering-the-viking-longboat">"Engineering the Viking Longboat"</a>. <i>The American Society of Mechanical Engineers</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Society+of+Mechanical+Engineers&rft.atitle=Engineering+the+Viking+Longboat&rft.date=2013-05&rft.aulast=Walsh&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.asme.org%2Fengineering-topics%2Farticles%2Fhistory-of-mechanical-engineering%2Fengineering-the-viking-longboat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.timeref.com/castles/why_castles_were_built.htm">"Medieval and Middle Ages History Timelines – Why castles were built"</a>. <i>www.timeref.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-05-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.timeref.com&rft.atitle=Medieval+and+Middle+Ages+History+Timelines+%E2%80%93+Why+castles+were+built&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.timeref.com%2Fcastles%2Fwhy_castles_were_built.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReardon2011" class="citation web cs1">Reardon, Sara (19 July 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/heavy-armor-gave-knights-workout">"Heavy Armor Gave Knights a Workout"</a>. <i>Science.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science.org&rft.atitle=Heavy+Armor+Gave+Knights+a+Workout&rft.date=2011-07-19&rft.aulast=Reardon&rft.aufirst=Sara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Fheavy-armor-gave-knights-workout&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Povijest_Klisa-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Povijest_Klisa_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFListeš" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Listeš, Srećko. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100323064005/http://portal.klis.com.hr/povijest-klisa/">"Povijest Klisa"</a>. <i>klis.hr</i> (in Croatian). Službene stranice Općine Klis. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.klis.com.hr/povijest-klisa/">the original</a> on 2010-03-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-05-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=klis.hr&rft.atitle=Povijest+Klisa&rft.aulast=Liste%C5%A1&rft.aufirst=Sre%C4%87ko&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.klis.com.hr%2Fpovijest-klisa%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Archdeacon_299-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Archdeacon_299_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Archdeacon (2006), p. 299.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEaton2019" class="citation book cs1">Eaton, Richard M. (2019). "Chapter Two". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aIF6DwAAQBAJ"><i>India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765</i></a>. Penguin UK. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-196655-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-196655-7"><bdi>978-0-14-196655-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+Two&rft.btitle=India+in+the+Persianate+Age%3A+1000%E2%80%931765&rft.pub=Penguin+UK&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-14-196655-7&rft.aulast=Eaton&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaIF6DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArchdeacon2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_the_Archdeacon" title="Thomas the Archdeacon">Archdeacon, Thomas of Split</a> (2006). <i>History of the Bishops of Salona and Split – Historia Salonitanorum atque Spalatinorum pontificum</i> (in Latin and English). Budapest: Central European University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-7326-59-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-7326-59-2"><bdi>978-963-7326-59-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Bishops+of+Salona+and+Split+%E2%80%93+Historia+Salonitanorum+atque+Spalatinorum+pontificum&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-963-7326-59-2&rft.aulast=Archdeacon&rft.aufirst=Thomas+of+Split&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeVries1992" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Kelly_DeVries" title="Kelly DeVries">DeVries, Kelly</a> (1992), <i>Military Medieval Technology</i>, Broadview Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-921149-74-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-921149-74-3"><bdi>0-921149-74-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Military+Medieval+Technology&rft.pub=Broadview+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-921149-74-3&rft.aulast=DeVries&rft.aufirst=Kelly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFernández-Armesto1999" class="citation cs2">Fernández-Armesto, Felipe (1999), "Naval Warfare after the Viking Age, <i>c</i>. 1100–1500", in <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Keen" title="Maurice Keen">Keen, Maurice</a> (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/medievalwarfareh00maur/page/230"><i>Medieval Warfare: A History</i></a>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/medievalwarfareh00maur/page/230">230–252</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820639-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-820639-9"><bdi>0-19-820639-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Naval+Warfare+after+the+Viking+Age%2C+c.+1100%E2%80%931500&rft.btitle=Medieval+Warfare%3A+A+History&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=230-252&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-19-820639-9&rft.aulast=Fern%C3%A1ndez-Armesto&rft.aufirst=Felipe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmedievalwarfareh00maur%2Fpage%2F230&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillingham1992" class="citation cs2">Gillingham, John (1992), "William the Bastard at War", in Strickland, Matthew (ed.), <i>Anglo-Norman warfare: Studies in Late Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman Military Organization and Warfare</i>, Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, pp. 143–160, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85115-327-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-85115-327-5"><bdi>0-85115-327-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=William+the+Bastard+at+War&rft.btitle=Anglo-Norman+warfare%3A+Studies+in+Late+Anglo-Saxon+and+Anglo-Norman+Military+Organization+and+Warfare&rft.place=Woodbridge&rft.pages=143-160&rft.pub=The+Boydell+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-85115-327-5&rft.aulast=Gillingham&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Glete, Jan, <i>Warfare at Sea, 1500–1650: Maritime Conflicts and the Transformation of Europe.</i> Routledge, London. 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-21455-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-21455-6">0-415-21455-6</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoffart1977" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Goffart" title="Walter Goffart">Goffart, Walter</a> (1977), "The date and purpose of Vegetius' <i>De Re Militari</i>", <i>Traditio</i>, xxxiii: 65–100, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0362152900009077">10.1017/S0362152900009077</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27831025">27831025</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151406462">151406462</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Traditio&rft.atitle=The+date+and+purpose+of+Vegetius%27+De+Re+Militari&rft.volume=xxxiii&rft.pages=65-100&rft.date=1977&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151406462%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27831025%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0362152900009077&rft.aulast=Goffart&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Guilmartin, John Francis, <i>Gunpowder and Galleys: Changing Technology and Mediterranean Warfare at Sea in the Sixteenth Century.</i> Cambridge University Press, London. 1974.</li> <li>Hattendorf, John B. & Unger, Richard W. (editors), <i>War at Sea in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.</i> Woodbridge, Suffolk. 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85115-903-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-85115-903-6">0-85115-903-6</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YVbAwbQrJtAC">[1]</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiddiard2005" class="citation cs2">Liddiard, Robert (2005), <i>Castles in Context: Power, Symbolism and Landscape, 1066 to 1500</i>, Macclesfield: Windgather Press Ltd, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9545575-2-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-9545575-2-2"><bdi>0-9545575-2-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Castles+in+Context%3A+Power%2C+Symbolism+and+Landscape%2C+1066+to+1500&rft.place=Macclesfield&rft.pub=Windgather+Press+Ltd&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-9545575-2-2&rft.aulast=Liddiard&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Lehmann, L. Th., <i>Galleys in the Netherlands.</i> Meulenhoff, Amsterdam. 1984. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-290-1854-2" title="Special:BookSources/90-290-1854-2">90-290-1854-2</a></li> <li>Marsden, Peter, <i>Sealed by Time: The Loss and Recovery of the Mary Rose.</i> The Archaeology of the <i>Mary Rose</i>, Volume 1. The Mary Rose Trust, Portsmouth. 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9544029-0-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-9544029-0-1">0-9544029-0-1</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholson2004" class="citation cs2">Nicholson, Helen (2004), <i>Medieval Warfare: Theory and Practice of War in Europe, 300–1500</i>, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-76330-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-76330-0"><bdi>0-333-76330-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Warfare%3A+Theory+and+Practice+of+War+in+Europe%2C+300%E2%80%931500&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-333-76330-0&rft.aulast=Nicholson&rft.aufirst=Helen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPublius_Flavius_Vegetius_Renatus1996" class="citation cs2">Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus (1996), Milner, N. P. (ed.), <i>Vegetius: epitome of military science</i>, Translated Texts for Historians, vol. xvi, Liverpool: Liverpool University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vegetius%3A+epitome+of+military+science&rft.place=Liverpool&rft.series=Translated+Texts+for+Historians&rft.pub=Liverpool+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.au=Publius+Flavius+Vegetius+Renatus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Rodger, Nicholas A. M., "The Development of Broadside Gunnery, 1450–1650." <i>Mariner's Mirror</i> 82 (1996), pp. 301–324.</li> <li>Rodger, Nicholas A. M., <i>The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660–1649.</i> W.W. Norton & Company, New York. 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-04579-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-04579-X">0-393-04579-X</a></li> <li>Laury Sarti, "Perceiving War and the Military in Early Christian Gaul (ca. 400–700 A.D.)" (= Brill's Series on the Early Middle Ages, 22), Leiden/Boston 2013, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004-25618-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004-25618-7">978-9004-25618-7</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Contamine, Philippe. <i>War in the Middle Ages</i>. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Creveld" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Van Creveld">Creveld, Martin Van</a>. <i>Technology and War: From 2000 BC to present</i>, 1989.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrance1999" class="citation cs2">France, John (1999), <i>Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, 1000–1300</i>, London: Cornell University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8607-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8607-4"><bdi>978-0-8014-8607-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Warfare+in+the+Age+of+the+Crusades%2C+1000%26ndash%3B1300&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-8607-4&rft.aulast=France&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Keegan" title="John Keegan">Keegan, John</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_face_of_battle:_a_study_of_Agincourt,_Waterloo,_and_the_Somme" class="mw-redirect" title="The face of battle: a study of Agincourt, Waterloo, and the Somme">The face of battle: a study of Agincourt, Waterloo, and the Somme</a></i>. London: Barrie & Jenkins, 1988.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Keen" title="Maurice Keen">Keen, Maurice</a>. <i>Medieval Warfare: A History</i>. Oxford University Press, 1999.</li> <li>H. W. Koch: <i>Medieval Warfare.</i> Bison Books Limited, London, 1978, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86124-008-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86124-008-1">978-0-86124-008-1</a></li> <li>Kosztolnyik, Z.J. <i>Hungary in the thirteenth century</i>. New York: Columbia University Press: Stackpole Books, 1996. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/articles/kosztolnyik.htm">Parts of which are available online</a>)</li> <li>McNeill, William Hardy. <i>The pursuit of power: technology, armed force, and society since A.D. 1000</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.</li> <li>Oman, Charles William Chadwick. <i>A history of the art of war in the Middle Ages</i>. London: Greenhill Books; Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 1998.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deremilitari.org">De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History</a></li> <li>Parker, Geoffrey. <i>The Military Revolution: Military innovation and the Rise of The West</i>, 1988.</li> <li>Titterton, James, <i>Deception in Medieval Warfare</i>. Boydell & Brewer, 2022, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781783276783" title="Special:BookSources/9781783276783">9781783276783</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_warfare&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medievalwarfare.info">Medieval Warfare</a> Siege warfare, open battles, weapons, armour and fighting techniques.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.medievalsoldier.org/">Database of thousands of English soldiers during the later medieval period</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://medieval-history.org/">Medieval History Database (MHDB), which includes medieval military records</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/help-with-your-research/research-guides/medieval-early-modern-soldiers/">Guide to researching records of medieval soldiers, from the British National Archives site</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Military_and_war" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Military_and_war" title="Template:Military and war"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Military_and_war" title="Template talk:Military and war"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Military_and_war" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Military and war"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Military_and_war" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a> and <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_service" title="Military service">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_military_technology" title="History of military technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_specialism" title="Military specialism">Occupational roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_recruitment" title="Military recruitment">Recruitment</a></li> <li><i>Roles:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldier" title="Soldier">Soldier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailor" title="Sailor">Sailor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airman" title="Airman">Airman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlisted_rank" title="Enlisted rank">Enlisted rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officer_(armed_forces)" title="Officer (armed 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forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commando" title="Commando">Commando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogman" title="Frogman">Frogman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_reserve_force" title="Military reserve force">Reserves</a></li> <li><i>Functional specialties:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_communications" title="Military communications">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_engineer" title="Combat engineer">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">Reconnaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reconnaissance_units" title="List of reconnaissance units">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_corps" title="Medical corps">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_police" title="Military police">Military police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendarmerie" title="Gendarmerie">Gendarmerie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_forces" title="Security forces">Security forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_guard" title="Border guard">Border guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_guard" title="Coast guard">Coast guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_logistics" title="Military logistics">Logistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_logistics_units_and_formations" title="Category:Military logistics units and formations">By country</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Categories:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Combat_occupations" title="Category:Combat occupations">Combat occupations</a></li> <li><i>Development:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_recruit_training" title="Military recruit training">Basic training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">Military maneuvers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat" title="Combat">Combat training</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_branch" title="Military branch">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Land units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_arms" title="Combat arms">Combat arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle" title="Armoured fighting vehicle">Armor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_reconnaissance" title="Special reconnaissance">Special reconnaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_corps" title="Signal corps">Signal corps</a></li> <li><i>Naval units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warship" title="Warship">Warships</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surface_combatant" title="Surface combatant">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_combat_ship" title="Littoral combat ship">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrol_boat" title="Patrol boat">Patrol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">Submarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">Aircraft carriers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_craft" title="Landing craft">Landing craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_ship" title="Auxiliary ship">Auxiliary ship</a></li> <li><i>Air units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighter_aircraft" title="Fighter aircraft">Fighters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">Bombers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_early_warning_and_control" title="Airborne early warning and control">Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_air_support" title="Close air support">Close air support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic-warfare_aircraft" title="Electronic-warfare aircraft">Electronic-warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_aircraft" title="Reconnaissance aircraft">Reconnaissance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">Organization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Structure_of_contemporary_armed_forces" title="Category:Structure of contemporary armed forces">By country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Structure_of_contemporary_armies" title="Category:Structure of contemporary armies">Armies by country</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_hierarchy" title="Command hierarchy">Chain of command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_combatant_command" title="Unified combatant command">Unified combatant command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">General staff</a></li> <li><i>Land:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_group" title="Army group">Army group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_army" title="Field army">Field army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corps" title="Corps">Corps</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_corps" title="List of military corps">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_(military)" title="Division (military)">Division</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_divisions" title="List of military divisions">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigade" title="Brigade">Brigade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Brigades_by_type" title="Category:Brigades by type">By type</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regiment" title="Regiment">Regiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Regiments_by_country" title="Category:Regiments by country">By country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Regiments_by_type" title="Category:Regiments by type">By type</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battalion" title="Battalion">Battalion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Battalions_by_country" title="Category:Battalions by country">By country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Battalions_by_type" title="Category:Battalions by type">By type</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platoon" title="Platoon">Platoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squad" title="Squad">Squad</a></li> <li><i>Naval:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_fleet" title="Naval fleet">Naval fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_force#Naval" title="Task force">Task force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier_strike_group" title="Carrier strike group">Carrier strike group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_(naval)" title="Division (naval)">Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flotilla" title="Flotilla">Flotilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squadron_(naval)" title="Squadron (naval)">Squadron</a></li> <li><i>Air:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_box" title="Combat box">Combat box</a></li> <li><i>Special units by nation:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_Fleet" title="Battle Fleet">Battle Fleet; U.S. Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Front_(military_formation)" title="Front (military formation)">Front; Russian land forces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vehicles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Ground:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_vehicle" title="Military vehicle">Ground</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_vehicles" title="List of military vehicles">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_vehicle" title="Combat vehicle">Combat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tracked_military_vehicles" title="Category:Tracked military vehicles">Tracked vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wheeled_military_vehicles" title="Category:Wheeled military vehicles">Wheeled vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle" title="Armoured fighting vehicle">Armor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tank" title="Tank">Tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry_fighting_vehicle" title="Infantry fighting vehicle">Infantry fighting vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_armoured_fighting_vehicles" title="Lists of armoured fighting vehicles">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_armoured_fighting_vehicles_by_country" title="List of armoured fighting vehicles by country">By country</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armored_car_(military)" title="Armored car (military)">Armored car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scout_car" title="Scout car">Scout car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_vehicle#Military_trucks" title="Military vehicle">Truck</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_trucks" title="Category:Military trucks">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_truck" title="Gun truck">Gun truck</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-propelled_artillery" title="Self-propelled artillery">Self-propelled artillery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_howitzers#Self-propelled_howitzers" title="List of howitzers">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-propelled_anti-aircraft_weapon" title="Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon">Anti-aircraft</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_railways" title="Military railways">Rail</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Land</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">Weapons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_weapons" title="Lists of weapons">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Artillery:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_artillery" title="Field artillery">Artillery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artillery" title="List of artillery">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artillery_by_country" title="List of artillery by country">By country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery_battery" title="Artillery battery">Battery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_gun" title="Field gun">Field gun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_field_guns" title="List of field guns">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howitzer" title="Howitzer">Howitzer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_howitzers" title="List of howitzers">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_artillery" title="Rocket artillery">Rocket</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rocket_artillery" title="List of rocket artillery">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Small_Arms_and_Light_Weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Small Arms and Light Weapons">Infantry guns</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_pistol" title="Service pistol">Pistols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_gun" title="Machine gun">Machine guns</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_machine_guns" title="List of machine guns">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Service_rifle" title="Service rifle">Service rifles</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_rifle" title="Battle rifle">Battle rifles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battle_rifles" title="List of battle rifles">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assault_rifle" title="Assault rifle">Assault rifle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_assault_rifles" title="List of assault rifles">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sniper_rifle" title="Sniper rifle">Sniper rifle</a></li> <li><i>Other infantry weapons:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bazooka" title="Bazooka">Bazooka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_gun" title="Anti-tank gun">Anti-tank gun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anti-tank_guns" title="List of anti-tank guns">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenade" title="Grenade">Grenade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Grenades" title="Category:Grenades">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flamethrower" title="Flamethrower">Flamethrower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayonet" title="Bayonet">Bayonet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_knife" title="Combat knife">Combat knife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_knives" title="Category:Military knives">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Missile" title="Missile">Missiles</a>:</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shoulder-fired_missile" title="Shoulder-fired missile">Shoulder-fired</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_guided_missile" title="Anti-tank guided missile">Anti-tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missiles" title="List of missiles">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missiles_by_country" title="List of missiles by country">By country</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortar_(weapon)" title="Mortar (weapon)">Mortar</a> <ul><li><i>Lists:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_infantry_mortars" title="List of infantry mortars">Infantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heavy_mortars" title="List of heavy mortars">Heavy</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Other:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_mine" title="Land mine">Land mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_(projectile)" title="Shell (projectile)">Shells</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Sea/Air:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missile" title="Missile">Guided missiles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missiles" title="List of missiles">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">Naval</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_artillery" title="Naval artillery">Naval artillery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_guns" title="List of naval guns">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-ship_missile" title="Anti-ship missile">Anti-ship missiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo" title="Torpedo">Torpedoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_charge" title="Depth charge">Depth charges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close-in_weapon_system" title="Close-in weapon system">Close-in weapons</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">Aerial</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aircraft_guns" title="Category:Aircraft guns">Guns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Air-launched_missiles" title="Category:Air-launched missiles">Missiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_bomb" title="Aerial bomb">Bombs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Military equipment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_military_equipment" title="Lists of military equipment">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_equipment_by_country" title="Category:Military equipment by country">By country</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_helmet" title="Combat helmet">Helmet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_combat_helmets" title="List of combat helmets">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_camouflage" title="Military camouflage">Camouflage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_clothing_camouflage_patterns" title="List of military clothing camouflage patterns">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_armor" title="Body armor">Body armor</a></li> <li><i>Facilities:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_base" title="Military base">Military base</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_military_installations" title="Lists of military installations">Lists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_hospital" title="Field hospital">Field hospital</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Combat systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_system" title="Fire-control system">Fire-control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_radar" title="Fire-control radar">Fire-control radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Director_(military)" title="Director (military)">Director (military)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_information_center" title="Combat information center">Combat information center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">Radar</a></li> <li><i>Historical:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_gun_fire-control_system" title="Ship gun fire-control system">Ship gun fire-control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_data_computer" title="Gun data computer">Gun data computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo_Data_Computer" title="Torpedo Data Computer">Torpedo Data Computer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">Warfare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle" title="Battle">Battle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy" title="Strategy">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">Tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat" title="Combat">Combat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_science" title="Military science">Military science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><i>By era:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_warfare" title="Ancient warfare">Ancient</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Post-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_warfare" title="Modern warfare">Late modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth-generation_warfare" title="Fourth-generation warfare">fourth-gen</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>By type:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_warfare" title="Armoured warfare">Armoured warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrage_(artillery)" title="Barrage (artillery)">Barrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_camouflage" title="Military camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_arms" title="Combined arms">Combined arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_warfare" title="Conventional warfare">Conventional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberweapon" title="Cyberweapon">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_denial_weapon" title="Area denial weapon">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_warfare" title="Drone warfare">Drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_warfare" title="Electronic warfare">Electronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawfare" title="Lawfare">Lawfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loitering_munition" title="Loitering munition">Loitering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_music" title="Martial music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiological_warfare" title="Radiological warfare">Radiological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_warfare" title="Unconventional warfare">Unconventional</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Battlespace" title="Battlespace">Battlespace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Aerospace <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_forces" title="Airborne forces">Airborne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Space</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_warfare" title="Land warfare">Land</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold-weather_warfare" title="Cold-weather warfare">Cold-region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_warfare" title="Desert warfare">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jungle_warfare" title="Jungle warfare">Jungle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_warfare" title="Mountain warfare">Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">Urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">Sea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphibious_warfare" title="Amphibious warfare">Amphibious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue-water_navy" title="Blue-water navy">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown-water_navy" title="Brown-water navy">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green-water_navy" title="Green-water navy">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_warfare" title="Surface warfare">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_warfare" title="Underwater warfare">Underwater</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">Information</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">Tactics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_tactics" title="List of military tactics">List of military tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_combat_manoeuvring" title="Air combat manoeuvring">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airlift" title="Airlift">Airlift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airbridge_(logistics)" title="Airbridge (logistics)">Airbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airdrop" title="Airdrop">Airdrop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle" title="Battle">Battle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_tactics" title="Cavalry tactics">Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge_(warfare)" title="Charge (warfare)">Charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterattack" title="Counterattack">Counterattack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterinsurgency" title="Counterinsurgency">Counterinsurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defeat_in_detail" title="Defeat in detail">Defeat in detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position" title="Defensive fighting position">Foxhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Envelopment" title="Envelopment">Envelopment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morale" title="Morale">Morale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_and_awe" title="Shock and awe">Rapid dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">Siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_(military)" title="Swarming (military)">Swarming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_objective" title="Tactical objective">Tactical objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_attack" title="Saturation attack">Target saturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_(military)" title="Withdrawal (military)">Withdrawal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Operational_level_of_war" title="Operational level of war">Operational</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_operation" title="Military operation">Military operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_warfare" title="Expeditionary warfare">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_operation" title="Deep operation">Deep operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maneuver_warfare" title="Maneuver warfare">Maneuver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operational_manoeuvre_group" title="Operational manoeuvre group">Operational manoeuvre group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_strategy" title="Military strategy">Strategy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_strategies_and_concepts" title="List of military strategies and concepts">List of military strategies and concepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_campaign" title="Military campaign">Military campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-offensive">Counter-offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culminating_point" title="Culminating point">Culminating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_in_depth" title="Defence in depth">Defence in depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabian_strategy" title="Fabian strategy">Fabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic Warfare">Mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_defence" title="Strategic defence">Defensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_depth" title="Strategic depth">Depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_goal_(military)" title="Strategic goal (military)">Goal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_strategy" title="Naval strategy">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offensive_(military)" title="Offensive (military)">Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">Diplomacy</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance" title="Alliance">Alliances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">Peace treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation" title="Cooperation">Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediation" title="Mediation">Mediation</a></li> <li><i>Public policy:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_budget" title="Military budget">Defense budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_policy" title="Military policy">Defense policy</a></li> <li><i>Related:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_lists" title="Category:Military lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Military lists</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_war#Wars" title="Outline of war">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_weapons" title="Lists of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_tactics" title="List of military tactics">Military tactics</a></li> <li><i>History lists:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_wars" title="Lists of wars">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_battles" title="Lists of battles">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_occupations" title="List of military occupations">Military occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_operations" title="List of military operations">Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sieges" title="List of sieges">Sieges</a></li> <li><i>Related lists:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_war_crimes" title="List of war crimes">War crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_writers" title="List of military writers">Writers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other namespace</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Templates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:War" title="Template:War">War</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Weapons" title="Template:Weapons">Weapons</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Military_ranks_by_country" title="Template:Military ranks by country">Ranks</a>}}</span></li> <li><i>Vehicles and weapons</i> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Tanks" title="Template:Tanks">Tanks</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Weapons" title="Template:Weapons">Weapons</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Modern_IFV_and_APC" title="Template:Modern IFV and APC">Infantry fighting vehicles</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Warship_types_of_the_19th_%26_20th_centuries" title="Template:Warship types of the 19th & 20th centuries">Modern warships</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Military_aircraft_types_(roles)" title="Template:Military aircraft types (roles)">Aircraft</a>}}</span></li></ul></li> <li><i>Specific modern wars</i> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Napoleonic_Wars" title="Template:Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:World_War_I" title="Template:World War I">World War I</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:World_War_II" title="Template:World War II">World War II</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cold_War" title="Template:Cold War">Cold War</a>}}</span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_wars_by_country_involved" title="Category:Lists of wars by country involved">Lists of wars by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Conflicts_by_time" title="Category:Conflicts by time">Conflicts by time</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_and_conflict_studies" title="Peace and conflict studies">Peace and conflict studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_movement" title="Peace movement">Peace movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_process" title="Peace process">Peace process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disarmament" title="Disarmament">Disarmament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_in_international_relations" title="Idealism in international relations">Idealism in international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitarianism" title="Humanitarianism">Humanitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilateralism" title="Multilateralism">International cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Crimes against humanity</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:International_relations" title="Template:International relations">International relations</a>}}</span></li> <li><i>Categories:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peace_organizations" title="Category:Peace organizations">Peace organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Category:War" title="Category:War">Category</a></b>  <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/CategoryWar" class="extiw" title="commons:CategoryWar">Commons</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_Middle_Ages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_Middle_Ages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">European Middle Ages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Decline of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Decline of Hellenistic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Rise of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Rise of the Venetian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Rise of the Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capet%E2%80%93Plantagenet_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Capet–Plantagenet feud">Capet–Plantagenet feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the late Middle Ages">Crisis of the late Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_dance" title="Medieval dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastilude" title="Hastilude">Hastilude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_household" title="Medieval household">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_hunting" title="Medieval hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" title="Middle Ages in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">Itinerant court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">Minstrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_the_Middle_Ages" title="List of common misconceptions about the Middle Ages">Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Historiography in the Middle Ages">Historiography in the Middle Ages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" 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