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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Dialects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Initial_consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Initial consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initial_consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medial_glides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medial_glides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Medial glides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medial_glides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Codas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Codas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Codas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Codas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Form of Chinese spoken in the Eastern Han period</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">Eastern Han Chinese</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: salmon;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Later Han Chinese</li><li>Late Old Chinese</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Han dynasty">Eastern Han dynasty</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Eastern Han Chinese</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early form</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Clerical_script" title="Clerical script">Clerical script</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: salmon;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">–</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/late1251">late1251</a></code>  Late Han Chinese</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Han_provinces.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Han_provinces.jpg/320px-Han_provinces.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Han_provinces.jpg/480px-Han_provinces.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Han_provinces.jpg 2x" data-file-width="555" data-file-height="545" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;">Provinces of the Han dynasty <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 189 AD</span></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: salmon;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;">東漢上古漢語</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;">东汉上古汉语</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Dōnghàn shànggǔ hànyǔ</span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Romanization_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Romanization System">Tâi-lô</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="nan-Latn">Tang-hàn siōng-kóo Hàn-gú</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: salmon;">Late Old Chinese</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;">晚期上古漢語</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;">晚期上古汉语</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Wǎnqí shànggǔ hànyǔ</span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Romanization_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Romanization System">Tâi-lô</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="nan-Latn">Āu-kî siōng-kóo Hàn-gú</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Eastern Han Chinese</b> (alternatively <b>Later Han Chinese</b> or <b>Late Old Chinese</b>) is the stage of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a> attested in poetry and glosses from the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Han">Eastern Han</a> period (1st–3rd centuries AD). It is considered an intermediate stage between <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> of the 7th-century <i><a href="/wiki/Qieyun" title="Qieyun">Qieyun</a></i> rime dictionary. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Han_Chinese&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The rhyming practice of Han poets has been studied since the Qing period as an intermediate stage between the <i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Poetry" title="Classic of Poetry">Classic of Poetry</a></i> of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a> period and <a href="/wiki/Tang_poetry" title="Tang poetry">Tang poetry</a>. The definitive reference was compiled by <a href="/wiki/Luo_Changpei" title="Luo Changpei">Luo Changpei</a> and Zhou Zumo in 1958. This work identifies the rhyme classes of the period, but leaves the phonetic value of each class open.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin19833–4_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin19833–4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Eastern Han, Confucian scholars were bitterly divided between different versions of the classics: the officially recognized New Texts, and rediscovered versions written in a pre-Qin script known as the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Script_Texts" title="Ancient Script Texts">Ancient Script Texts</a>. To support their challenge to the orthodox position on the classics, Old Text scholars produced many philological studies. Many of these works contain remarks of various types on the pronunciation of various words.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin19839–10_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin19839–10-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sources with the most glosses are the <i><a href="/wiki/Shiming" title="Shiming">Shiming</a></i>, a dictionary of classical terms, <a href="/wiki/Xu_Shen" title="Xu Shen">Xu Shen</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Shuowen_Jiezi" title="Shuowen Jiezi">Shuowen Jiezi</a></i> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 100 AD</span>), a study of the history and structure of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zheng_Xuan" title="Zheng Xuan">Zheng Xuan</a>'s commentaries on various classics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198327–31_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198327–31-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> also expanded greatly in China during the Eastern Han period. Buddhist missionaries, beginning with <a href="/wiki/An_Shigao" title="An Shigao">An Shigao</a> in AD 148, began translating Buddhist texts into Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENattier2008_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENattier2008-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198331–32_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198331–32-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These translations include transcriptions in Chinese characters of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> vocabulary, which were first systematically mined for evidence of the evolution of Chinese phonology by <a href="/wiki/Edwin_G._Pulleyblank" title="Edwin G. Pulleyblank">Edwin G. Pulleyblank</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin19837–8_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin19837–8-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>Shiming</i> glosses were collected and studied by <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Bodman" title="Nicholas Bodman">Nicholas Bodman</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198343,_30–31_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198343,_30–31-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Weldon_South_Coblin" class="mw-redirect" title="Weldon South Coblin">Weldon South Coblin</a> collected all the remaining glosses and transcriptions, and used them in an attempt to reconstruct an intermediate stage between <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a>, both represented by the reconstructions of <a href="/wiki/Li_Fang-Kuei" title="Li Fang-Kuei">Li Fang-Kuei</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198343,_131–132_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198343,_131–132-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Axel Schuessler included reconstructed pronunciations (under the name Later Han Chinese) in his dictionary of Old Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler2007120–121_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler2007120–121-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200929–31_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200929–31-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The customary writing style of the period was strongly modelled on the classics, and thus provides only occasional glimpses of contemporary grammar.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988111,_125_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988111,_125-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some works, while generally following the conventional archaizing style, contain passages in a more colloquial style thought to reflect contemporary speech, at least in part. any such examples are found in translated Buddhist literature, particularly <a href="/wiki/Direct_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct speech">direct speech</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher199614_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher199614-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201328–31_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201328–31-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Qi_(Han_dynasty)" title="Zhao Qi (Han dynasty)">Zhao Qi</a>'s commentary on <i><a href="/wiki/Mencius_(book)" title="Mencius (book)">Mencius</a></i> includes paraphrases of the classic written for the benefit of novice students, and therefore in a more contemporary style.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobson1964xvii–xix_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobson1964xvii–xix-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar passages are also found in the commentaries of <a href="/wiki/Wang_Yi_(librarian)" title="Wang Yi (librarian)">Wang Yi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zheng_Xuan" title="Zheng Xuan">Zheng Xuan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gao_You" title="Gao You">Gao You</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobson1964xviii_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobson1964xviii-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialects">Dialects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Han_Chinese&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Han_dialect_groups_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Han_dialect_groups_map.svg/220px-Han_dialect_groups_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Han_dialect_groups_map.svg/330px-Han_dialect_groups_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Han_dialect_groups_map.svg/440px-Han_dialect_groups_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="920" data-file-height="1006" /></a><figcaption>Major Han-period dialect groups inferred from the <i><a href="/wiki/Fangyan_(book)" title="Fangyan (book)">Fangyan</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>Several texts contain evidence of dialectal variation in the Eastern Han period. The <i><a href="/wiki/Fangyan_(book)" title="Fangyan (book)">Fangyan</a></i>, from the start of the period, discusses variations in regional vocabulary. By analysing the text, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Serruys" title="Paul Serruys">Paul Serruys</a> identified six dialect areas: a central area centred on the <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plain</a> east of <a href="/wiki/Hangu_Pass" title="Hangu Pass">Hangu Pass</a>, surrounded by northern, eastern, southern and western areas, and a southeastern area to the south and east of the lower <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESerruys195998–99_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESerruys195998–99-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESerruys196042–43_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESerruys196042–43-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198319–22_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198319–22-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Distinct rhyme systems of the Han period poets identified by Luo and Zhou broadly correspond to these dialect areas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESerruys1962322–323_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESerruys1962322–323-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most influential dialect was the Qin–Jin dialect, from the western group, reflecting the ascendancy of the state of <a href="/wiki/Qin_(state)" title="Qin (state)">Qin</a>. Second was the <a href="/wiki/Chu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Chu language">Chu dialect</a>, from the southern group, which spread both to the south and to the east. These two dialects were also the principal sources of the Han standard language. The central dialects of the area of former states of <a href="/wiki/Lu_(state)" title="Lu (state)">Lu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Song_(state)" title="Song (state)">Song</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wei_(state)" title="Wei (state)">Wei</a> were the most conservative. The dialects of the eastern area, which had been more recently and slowly sinified, include some non-Chinese vocabulary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESerruys196055_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESerruys196055-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Eastern Han glosses come from 11 sites, all to the north of the <a href="/wiki/Huai_River" title="Huai River">Huai River</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198339_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198339-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They often show marked phonological differences. Many of them exhibit mergers that are not found in the 7th-century <i><a href="/wiki/Qieyun" title="Qieyun">Qieyun</a></i> or in many modern varieties. The exception is the Buddhist transcriptions, suggesting that the later varieties descend from Han-period varieties spoken in the region of <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a> (in the western part of the central dialect area).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin1983132–135_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin1983132–135-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The southeastern dialects are not reflected in Eastern Han texts. They were known as Wu (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">吳</span></span>) or Jiangdong (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">江東</span></span>) dialects in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Jin" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Jin">Western Jin</a> period, when the writer <a href="/wiki/Guo_Pu" title="Guo Pu">Guo Pu</a> described them as quite distinct from other varieties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198325_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198325-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESerruys1962325–328_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESerruys1962325–328-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Jerry Norman</a> called these Han-era southeastern dialects Old Southern Chinese, and suggested that they were the source of common features found in the oldest layers of modern <a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a> varieties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988210–214_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988210–214-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Han_Chinese&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Eastern Han Chinese syllables consisted of an initial consonant, optional medial <a href="/wiki/Glide_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Glide consonant">glides</a>, a vowel and an optional coda. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initial_consonants">Initial consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Han_Chinese&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Initial consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The consonant clusters postulated for Old Chinese had generally disappeared by the Eastern Han period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200929_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200929-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin1977–1978245–246_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin1977–1978245–246-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto; text-align:center"> <caption>Initial consonants in Eastern Han dialects<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198375–76_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198375–76-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Sibilant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Sibilant consonant">Sibilant</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_consonant" title="Alveolo-palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Laryngeal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> or<br /><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">affricate</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">p</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ts</span></td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tɕ</span>)</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">k</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʔ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirate</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pʰ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tsʰ</span></td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tɕʰ</span>)</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʰ</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">b</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">d</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dz</span></td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dʑ</span>)</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɡ</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <th><small>voiceless</small> </th> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">m̥</span>)</td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">n̥</span>)</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ̊</span>)</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>voiced</small> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">m</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">n</span></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> or<br /><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">fricative</a> </th> <th><small>voiceless</small> </th> <td></td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">l̥</span>)</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">s</span></td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɕ</span>)</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">x</span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>voiced</small> </th> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">l</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">z</span></td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʑ</span>)</td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɣ</span>)</td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>One of the major changes between Old Chinese and Middle Chinese was palatalization of initial <a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">dental stops</a> and (in some environments) <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar stops</a>, merging to form a new series of palatal initials. Several Eastern Han varieties show either or both of these palatalizations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198354–59,_75–76,_132_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198354–59,_75–76,_132-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Min" title="Proto-Min">Proto-Min</a>, which branched off during the Han period, has palatalized velars but not dentals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201433,_76,_79_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201433,_76,_79-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The retroflex stops and sibilants of Middle Chinese are not distinguished from plain stops and sibilants in the Eastern Han data.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198346–47,_53–54_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198346–47,_53–54-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is some uncertainty whether the Middle Chinese initials <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">g-</i></span>, <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">ɣ-</i></span> and <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">j-</i></span> can all be derived from a single Old Chinese initial *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɡ-</span>, or whether an additional fricative initial *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɣ-</span> or *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɦ-</span> must be reconstructed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992209–210_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992209–210-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most Eastern Han dialects have a single initial *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɡ-</span> in such words, but some of them distinguish *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɡ-</span> and *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɣ-</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198372–74_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198372–74-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some Eastern Han dialects show evidence of the voiceless sonorant initials postulated for Old Chinese, but they had disappeared by the Eastern Han period in most areas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198375–76_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198375–76-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Old Chinese voiceless lateral and nasal initials yielded a *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰ</span> initial in eastern dialects and *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">x</span> in western ones.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin1983133–135_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin1983133–135-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014112–114,_320_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014112–114,_320-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the Eastern Han, the Old Chinese voiced lateral had also evolved to *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">d</span> or *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">j</span>, depending on syllable type.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagart199930–31_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESagart199930–31-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gap was filled by Old Chinese *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">r</span>, which yielded Eastern Han *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">l</span> and Middle Chinese <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">l</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014110_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014110-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some Eastern Han dialects, this initial may have been a lateral <a href="/wiki/Tap_and_flap_consonants" title="Tap and flap consonants">tap or flap</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198347–48_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198347–48-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medial_glides">Medial glides</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Han_Chinese&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Medial glides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most modern reconstructions of Old Chinese distinguish <a href="/wiki/Labialized_velar_consonant" title="Labialized velar consonant">labiovelar</a> and labiolaryngeal initials from the velar and <a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_consonant" title="Laryngeal consonant">laryngeal</a> series. However, the two series are not separated in Eastern Han glosses, suggesting that Eastern Han Chinese had a *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-w-</span> medial like Middle Chinese. Moreover, this medial also occurs after other initials, including syllables with Old Chinese *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-u-</span> and *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-o-</span> before acute codas (*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-n</span>, *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-t</span> and *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-j</span>), which had broken to *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-wə-</span> and *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-wa-</span> respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin1977–1978228–232_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin1977–1978228–232-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198377_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198377-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992566–567_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992566–567-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most OC reconstructions include a medial *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-r-</span> to account for Middle Chinese retroflex initials, division-II finals and some <i><a href="/wiki/Chongniu" title="Chongniu">chongniu</a></i> finals, and this seems to have still been a distinct phoneme in the Eastern Han period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198377–78_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198377–78-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the pioneering work of <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Karlgren" title="Bernhard Karlgren">Bernhard Karlgren</a>, it has been common to project the palatal medial of Middle Chinese division-III syllables back to an Old Chinese medial *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-j-</span>, but this has been challenged by several authors, partly because Eastern Han Buddhist transcriptions use such syllables for foreign words lacking any palatal element.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198378–79_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198378–79-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Coblin points out that this practice continued into the Tang period, for which a <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">-j-</i></span> medial is generally accepted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198379_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198379-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars agree that the difference reflects a real phonological distinction, but there have been a range of proposals for its realization in early periods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200795_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200795-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distinction is variously described in Eastern Han commentaries:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201473_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201473-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>He Xiu (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">何休</span></span>; mid 2nd century) describes syllables that gave rise to Middle Chinese <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">-j-</i></span> as 'outside and shallow' (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">外而淺</span></span> <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">wài ér qiǎn</i></span>), while others are said to be 'inside and deep' (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">內而深</span></span> <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">nèi ér shēn</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200917_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200917-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gao_You" title="Gao You">Gao You</a> (early 3rd century) describes the former as 'urgent breath' (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">急氣</span></span> <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">jíqì</i></span>) and the latter as 'slack breath' (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">緩氣</span></span> <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">huǎnqì</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200916_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200916-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pan_Wuyun" title="Pan Wuyun">Pan Wuyun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhengzhang_Shangfang" title="Zhengzhang Shangfang">Zhengzhang Shangfang</a> interpreted this as a <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">vowel length</a> distinction, but a more literal reading suggests a <a href="/wiki/Tenseness" title="Tenseness">tenseness</a> contrast.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200916–17_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200916–17-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Han_Chinese&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most recent reconstructions of Old Chinese identify six vowels, *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">i</span>, *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ə</span>, *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u</span>, *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e</span>, *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">a</span> and *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">o</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200925_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200925-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eastern Han rhyming practice indicates that some of the changes found in Middle Chinese had already occurred: </p> <ul><li>The vowels *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">i</span> and *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ə</span> had merged before *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-n</span>, *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-t</span> and *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-j</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELuoZhou195814_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuoZhou195814-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETing1975270_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETing1975270-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The finals *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-ra</span> and *<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-raj</span> had merged (Middle Chinese <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">-æ</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETing1975270_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETing1975270-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The following splits and mergers of finals had occurred:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETing1975270_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETing1975270-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Old Chinese</th> <th>Middle Chinese </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-ja</span> </td> <td><span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">-jo</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">-jæ</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-jaj</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">-je</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">-je</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Middle Chinese finals <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">-jo</i></span> and <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">-je</i></span> occur with finals of all kinds, while <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">-jæ</i></span> occurs only after plain sibilant and palatal initials, with no known conditioning factor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992414,_479–481_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992414,_479–481-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Codas">Codas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Han_Chinese&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Codas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Middle Chinese codas <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">-p</i></span>, <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">-t</i></span>, <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">-k</i></span>, <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">-m</i></span> and <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">-ng</i></span> are projected back onto Eastern Han Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198380,_88_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198380,_88-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Middle Chinese coda <span title="Late Middle Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="ltc-Latn">-n</i></span> also appears to reflect <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*-n</span> in most cases, but in some cases reflects vocalic codas in some Eastern Han varieties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198389–92_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198389–92-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/William_H._Baxter" title="William H. Baxter">Baxter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laurent_Sagart" title="Laurent Sagart">Sagart</a> argue that these words had a coda <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*-r</span> in Old Chinese, which became <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*-j</span> in <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a> and adjacent areas, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*-n</span> elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014254–268,_319_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014254–268,_319-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Middle Chinese syllables with vocalic or nasal codas fell into three <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tonal</a> categories, traditionally known as even, rising and departing tones, with syllables having stop codas assigned to a fourth "<a href="/wiki/Checked_tone" title="Checked tone">entering tone</a>" category.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200729_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200729-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Georges_Haudricourt" title="André-Georges Haudricourt">André-Georges Haudricourt</a> suggested that the Middle Chinese departing tone derived from an Old Chinese final <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*-s</span>, later weakening to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*-h</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198392_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198392-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several Buddhist transcriptions indicate that <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*-s</span> was still present in the Eastern Han period in words derived from Old Chinese <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*-ts</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200923,_30_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200923,_30-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other departing tone syllables may have become <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*-h</span> by the Eastern Han period, as suggested by a slight preference to use them to transcribe Indic long vowels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200930_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200930-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on Haudricourt's analysis of Vietnamese tones, <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Pulleyblank" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Pulleyblank">Edwin Pulleyblank</a> suggested that the Middle Chinese rising tone derived from Old Chinese <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*-ʔ</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198392_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198392-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Syllables in this category were avoided when transcribing long vowels in the Eastern Han period, suggesting that they were shorter, possibly reflecting this final glottal stop.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200930_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200930-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Han_Chinese&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In comparison with Warring States texts, colloquial Eastern Han texts display a massive increase in compound <a href="/wiki/Content_word" title="Content word">content words</a> in clearly distinguished <a href="/wiki/Part_of_speech" title="Part of speech">word classes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobson1964101_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobson1964101-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201332–33_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201332–33-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also make much less use of <a href="/wiki/Function_word" title="Function word">function words</a> in favour of <a href="/wiki/Periphrasis" title="Periphrasis">periphrasis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobson1964101_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobson1964101-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201350_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201350-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The monosyllabic words of the classical period were largely replaced by disyllabic compounds with clearly defined syntactic roles:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201333_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201333-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>verbs, such as <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">bēi'āi</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">悲哀</span></span> 'mourn', <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">huānxǐ</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">歡喜</span></span> 'rejoice', <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">shūhǎo</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">姝好</span></span> 'be beautiful' and <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">fādòng</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">發動</span></span> 'activate';</li> <li>nouns, such as <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">shězhái</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">舍宅</span></span> 'house', <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">zhīshì</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">知識</span></span> 'acquaintance', <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">chùsuǒ</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">處所</span></span> 'place', <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">xíngtǐ</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">形體</span></span> 'body' and <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">rénmín</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">人民</span></span> 'people';</li> <li>adverbs, such as <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">dōulú</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">都盧</span></span> 'all', <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">shēnzì</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">身自</span></span> 'personally', 'together' and <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">ěrnǎi</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">爾乃</span></span> 'then'.</li></ul> <p>The widespread use of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classifier" title="Chinese classifier">measure words</a> between numerals or demonstratives and nouns, a characteristic of the modern language, began in the Han period and became more extensive in the following <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988115_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988115-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Old Chinese had a range of personal pronouns, including case distinctions. In the Eastern Han, these were reduced to first person <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">wǒ</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">我</span></span> and second person <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">rǔ</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">汝</span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201342_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201342-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobson196487–88_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobson196487–88-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the demonstratives were almost exclusively reduced to <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">shì</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">是</span></span> 'this', <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">ěr</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">爾</span></span> 'such' and <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">bǐ</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">彼</span></span> 'that'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201343–49_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201343–49-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both kinds of pronouns were often used with plural suffixes <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">-děng</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">等</span></span>, <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">-bèi</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">輩</span></span> and <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">-cáo</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">曹</span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201342_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201342-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the interrogatives of Old Chinese were replaced with periphrastic forms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201343_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201343-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The demonstrative <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">shì</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">是</span></span> also came to be used as a <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copular verb</a> in sentences of the form A <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">是</span></span> B (as in modern Chinese), replacing the typical classical pattern A B <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">也</span></span> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">yě</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988125_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988125-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201344–36_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201344–36-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobson196471_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobson196471-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike any other verb, <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">shì</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">是</span></span> was not negated with <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">bù</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">不</span></span> – the negative copula <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">fēi</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">非</span></span> was retained from the classical language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201345_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201345-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In classical texts, the particle <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">qǐ</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">豈</span></span> marked a rhetorical question, for which a negative answer was expected, but in the Eastern Han it was a general question marker.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201350_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201350-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobson196494_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobson196494-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, a new question marker <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">níng</i></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">寧</span></span> appeared.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201350_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201350-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobson196491_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobson196491-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Han_Chinese&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Han_Chinese&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin19833–4-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin19833–4_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, pp. 3–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin19839–10-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin19839–10_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, pp. 9–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198327–31-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198327–31_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, pp. 27–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENattier2008-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENattier2008_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNattier2008">Nattier (2008)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198331–32-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198331–32_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, pp. 31–32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin19837–8-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin19837–8_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, pp. 7–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198343,_30–31-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198343,_30–31_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, pp. 43, 30–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198343,_131–132-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198343,_131–132_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, pp. 43, 131–132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler2007120–121-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler2007120–121_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, pp. 120–121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200929–31-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200929–31_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2009">Schuessler (2009)</a>, pp. 29–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988111,_125-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988111,_125_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 111, 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher199614-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher199614_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZürcher1996">Zürcher (1996)</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201328–31-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201328–31_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZürcher2013">Zürcher (2013)</a>, pp. 28–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobson1964xvii–xix-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobson1964xvii–xix_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDobson1964">Dobson (1964)</a>, pp. xvii–xix.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobson1964xviii-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobson1964xviii_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDobson1964">Dobson (1964)</a>, p. xviii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESerruys195998–99-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESerruys195998–99_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSerruys1959">Serruys (1959)</a>, pp. 98–99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESerruys196042–43-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESerruys196042–43_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSerruys1960">Serruys (1960)</a>, pp. 42–43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198319–22-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198319–22_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, pp. 19–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESerruys1962322–323-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESerruys1962322–323_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSerruys1962">Serruys (1962)</a>, pp. 322–323.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESerruys196055-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESerruys196055_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSerruys1960">Serruys (1960)</a>, p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198339-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198339_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin1983132–135-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin1983132–135_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, pp. 132–135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198325-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198325_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESerruys1962325–328-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESerruys1962325–328_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSerruys1962">Serruys (1962)</a>, pp. 325–328.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988210–214-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988210–214_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 210–214.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200929-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200929_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2009">Schuessler (2009)</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin1977–1978245–246-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin1977–1978245–246_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1977–1978">Coblin (1977–1978)</a>, pp. 245–246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198375–76-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198375–76_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198375–76_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, pp. 75–76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198354–59,_75–76,_132-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198354–59,_75–76,_132_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, pp. 54–59, 75–76, 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201433,_76,_79-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201433,_76,_79_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, pp. 33, 76, 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198346–47,_53–54-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198346–47,_53–54_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, pp. 46–47, 53–54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992209–210-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992209–210_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, pp. 209–210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198372–74-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198372–74_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, pp. 72–74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin1983133–135-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin1983133–135_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, pp. 133–135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014112–114,_320-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014112–114,_320_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, pp. 112–114, 320.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESagart199930–31-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagart199930–31_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSagart1999">Sagart (1999)</a>, pp. 30–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014110-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014110_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198347–48-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198347–48_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, pp. 47–48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin1977–1978228–232-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin1977–1978228–232_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1977–1978">Coblin (1977–1978)</a>, pp. 228–232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198377-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198377_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992566–567-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992566–567_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter (1992)</a>, pp. 566–567.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198377–78-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198377–78_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, pp. 77–78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198378–79-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198378–79_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, pp. 78–79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198379-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198379_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200795-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200795_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201473-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart201473_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, p. 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200917-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200917_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2009">Schuessler (2009)</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200916-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200916_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2009">Schuessler (2009)</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200916–17-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200916–17_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2009">Schuessler (2009)</a>, pp. 16–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200925-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200925_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2009">Schuessler 2009</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELuoZhou195814-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELuoZhou195814_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLuoZhou1958">Luo & Zhou (1958)</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETing1975270-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETing1975270_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETing1975270_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETing1975270_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTing1975">Ting (1975)</a>, p. 270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992414,_479–481-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxter1992414,_479–481_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxter1992">Baxter 1992</a>, pp. 414, 479–481.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198380,_88-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198380,_88_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, pp. 80, 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198389–92-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198389–92_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, pp. 89–92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014254–268,_319-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaxterSagart2014254–268,_319_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaxterSagart2014">Baxter & Sagart (2014)</a>, pp. 254–268, 319.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200729-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200729_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2007">Schuessler (2007)</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoblin198392-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198392_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoblin198392_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoblin1983">Coblin (1983)</a>, p. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200923,_30-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200923,_30_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2009">Schuessler (2009)</a>, pp. 23, 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuessler200930-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200930_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuessler200930_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchuessler2009">Schuessler (2009)</a>, p. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobson1964101-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobson1964101_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobson1964101_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDobson1964">Dobson (1964)</a>, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201332–33-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201332–33_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZürcher2013">Zürcher (2013)</a>, pp. 32–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201350-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201350_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201350_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201350_63-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZürcher2013">Zürcher (2013)</a>, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201333-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201333_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZürcher2013">Zürcher (2013)</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988115-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988115_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201342-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201342_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201342_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZürcher2013">Zürcher (2013)</a>, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobson196487–88-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobson196487–88_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDobson1964">Dobson (1964)</a>, pp. 87–88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201343–49-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201343–49_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZürcher2013">Zürcher (2013)</a>, pp. 43–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201343-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201343_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZürcher2013">Zürcher (2013)</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988125-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988125_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, p. 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201344–36-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201344–36_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZürcher2013">Zürcher (2013)</a>, pp. 44–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobson196471-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobson196471_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDobson1964">Dobson (1964)</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZürcher201345-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZürcher201345_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZürcher2013">Zürcher (2013)</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobson196494-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobson196494_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDobson1964">Dobson (1964)</a>, p. 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobson196491-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobson196491_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDobson1964">Dobson (1964)</a>, p. 91.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Han_Chinese&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBaxter1992" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/William_H._Baxter" title="William H. Baxter">Baxter, William H.</a> (1992), <i>A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology</i>, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012324-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012324-1"><bdi>978-3-11-012324-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Handbook+of+Old+Chinese+Phonology&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-3-11-012324-1&rft.aulast=Baxter&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+Han+Chinese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaxterSagart2014" class="citation cs2">Baxter, William H.; <a href="/wiki/Laurent_Sagart" title="Laurent Sagart">Sagart, Laurent</a> (2014), <i>Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction</i>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-994537-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-994537-5"><bdi>978-0-19-994537-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Chinese%3A+A+New+Reconstruction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-994537-5&rft.aulast=Baxter&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rft.au=Sagart%2C+Laurent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+Han+Chinese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoblin1977–1978" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/W._South_Coblin" title="W. South Coblin">Coblin, W. South</a> (1977–1978), "The initials of the Eastern Han period as reflected in phonological cases", <i>Monumenta Serica</i>, <b>33</b>: 207–247, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02549948.1977.11745047">10.1080/02549948.1977.11745047</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40726240">40726240</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monumenta+Serica&rft.atitle=The+initials+of+the+Eastern+Han+period+as+reflected+in+phonological+cases&rft.volume=33&rft.pages=207-247&rft.date=1977%2F1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02549948.1977.11745047&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40726240%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Coblin&rft.aufirst=W.+South&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+Han+Chinese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoblin1983" class="citation cs2">——— (1983), <i>A Handbook of Eastern Han Sound Glosses</i>, Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-201-258-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-201-258-5"><bdi>978-962-201-258-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Handbook+of+Eastern+Han+Sound+Glosses&rft.place=Hong+Kong&rft.pub=Chinese+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-962-201-258-5&rft.aulast=Coblin&rft.aufirst=W.+South&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+Han+Chinese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobson1964" class="citation cs2">Dobson, W.A.C.H. (1964), <i>Late Han Chinese: A Study of the Archaic-Han Shift</i>, University of Toronto Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-3117-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-3117-5"><bdi>978-1-4426-3117-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Late+Han+Chinese%3A+A+Study+of+the+Archaic-Han+Shift&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=978-1-4426-3117-5&rft.aulast=Dobson&rft.aufirst=W.A.C.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+Han+Chinese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuoZhou1958" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Luo_Changpei" title="Luo Changpei">Luo, Changpei</a>; Zhou, Zumo (1958), <i>Hàn Wèi Jìn Nánběicháo yùnbù yǎnbiàn yánjiū</i> <bdi lang="zh">漢魏晋南北朝韻部演變硏究</bdi> [<i>A Study on the Evolution of Rhyme through the Han, Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties</i>] (in Chinese), Beijing: Science Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=H%C3%A0n+W%C3%A8i+J%C3%ACn+N%C3%A1nb%C4%9Bich%C3%A1o+y%C3%B9nb%C3%B9+y%C7%8Enbi%C3%A0n+y%C3%A1nji%C5%AB+%E6%BC%A2%E9%AD%8F%E6%99%8B%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%9C%9D%E9%9F%BB%E9%83%A8%E6%BC%94%E8%AE%8A%E7%A1%8F%E7%A9%B6&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pub=Science+Press&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Luo&rft.aufirst=Changpei&rft.au=Zhou%2C+Zumo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+Han+Chinese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNattier2008" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Nattier" title="Jan Nattier">Nattier, Jan</a> (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/content/pdf/bppb/Vol.%20X.%20J.%20Nattier,%20A%20Guide%20to%20the%20Earliest%20Chinese%20Buddhist%20Translations%20Texts%20from%20the%20Eastern%20Han%20and%20Three%20Kingdoms%20Periods%20(2008)%20ISBN%20978-4-904234-00-6.pdf"><i>A Guide to the Earliest Chinese Buddhist Translations Texts from the Eastern Han and Three Kingdoms Periods</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Bibliotheca Philologica et Philosophica Buddhica, vol. 10, Tokyo: Soka University, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-904234-00-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-904234-00-6"><bdi>978-4-904234-00-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+the+Earliest+Chinese+Buddhist+Translations+Texts+from+the+Eastern+Han+and+Three+Kingdoms+Periods&rft.place=Tokyo&rft.series=Bibliotheca+Philologica+et+Philosophica+Buddhica&rft.pub=Soka+University&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-4-904234-00-6&rft.aulast=Nattier&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Firiab.soka.ac.jp%2Fcontent%2Fpdf%2Fbppb%2FVol.%2520X.%2520J.%2520Nattier%2C%2520A%2520Guide%2520to%2520the%2520Earliest%2520Chinese%2520Buddhist%2520Translations%2520Texts%2520from%2520the%2520Eastern%2520Han%2520and%2520Three%2520Kingdoms%2520Periods%2520%282008%29%2520ISBN%2520978-4-904234-00-6.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+Han+Chinese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1988" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Norman, Jerry</a> (1988), <i>Chinese</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3"><bdi>978-0-521-29653-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29653-3&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+Han+Chinese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagart1999" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Laurent_Sagart" title="Laurent Sagart">Sagart, Laurent</a> (1999), <i>The Roots of Old Chinese</i>, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-3690-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-3690-6"><bdi>978-90-272-3690-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roots+of+Old+Chinese&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-90-272-3690-6&rft.aulast=Sagart&rft.aufirst=Laurent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+Han+Chinese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchuessler2007" class="citation cs2">Schuessler, Axel (2007), <i>ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese</i>, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2975-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2975-9"><bdi>978-0-8248-2975-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ABC+Etymological+Dictionary+of+Old+Chinese&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-2975-9&rft.aulast=Schuessler&rft.aufirst=Axel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+Han+Chinese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchuessler2009" class="citation cs2">——— (2009), <i>Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese: A Companion to Grammata Serica Recensa</i>, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-3264-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-3264-3"><bdi>978-0-8248-3264-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Minimal+Old+Chinese+and+Later+Han+Chinese%3A+A+Companion+to+Grammata+Serica+Recensa&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-3264-3&rft.aulast=Schuessler&rft.aufirst=Axel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+Han+Chinese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSerruys1959" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Serruys" title="Paul Serruys">Serruys, Paul L-M.</a> (1959), <i>The Chinese Dialects of Han Time According to Fang Yen</i>, University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/469563424">469563424</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Dialects+of+Han+Time+According+to+Fang+Yen&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F469563424&rft.aulast=Serruys&rft.aufirst=Paul+L-M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+Han+Chinese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSerruys1960" class="citation cs2">——— (1960), "Note on Archaic Chinese dialectology", <i>Orbis: Bulletin International de Documentation Linguistique</i>, <b>9</b> (1): 42–57.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Orbis%3A+Bulletin+International+de+Documentation+Linguistique&rft.atitle=Note+on+Archaic+Chinese+dialectology&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=42-57&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Serruys&rft.aufirst=Paul+L-M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+Han+Chinese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSerruys1962" class="citation cs2">——— (1962), "Chinese dialectology based on written documents", <i>Monumenta Serica</i>, <b>21</b>: 320–344, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02549948.1962.11731024">10.1080/02549948.1962.11731024</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40726441">40726441</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monumenta+Serica&rft.atitle=Chinese+dialectology+based+on+written+documents&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=320-344&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02549948.1962.11731024&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40726441%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Serruys&rft.aufirst=Paul+L-M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+Han+Chinese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTing1975" class="citation cs2">Ting, Pang-Hsin (1975), <i>Chinese Phonology of the Wei–Chin Period: Reconstruction of the finals as reflected in poetry</i>, Taipei: Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Phonology+of+the+Wei%E2%80%93Chin+Period%3A+Reconstruction+of+the+finals+as+reflected+in+poetry&rft.place=Taipei&rft.pub=Institute+of+History+and+Philology%2C+Academia+Sinica&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Ting&rft.aufirst=Pang-Hsin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+Han+Chinese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZürcher1977" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Erik_Z%C3%BCrcher" title="Erik Zürcher">Zürcher, Erik</a> (1977), "Late Han vernacular elements in the earliest Buddhist translations", <i>Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association</i>, <b>12</b> (3): 177–203.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Chinese+Language+Teachers+Association&rft.atitle=Late+Han+vernacular+elements+in+the+earliest+Buddhist+translations&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=177-203&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Z%C3%BCrcher&rft.aufirst=Erik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+Han+Chinese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZürcher1996" class="citation cs2">——— (1996), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp071_chinese_vernacular.pdf">"Vernacular Elements in Early Buddhist Texts: An attempt to define the optimal source materials"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i>, <b>71</b>: 1–31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Platonic+Papers&rft.atitle=Vernacular+Elements+in+Early+Buddhist+Texts%3A+An+attempt+to+define+the+optimal+source+materials&rft.volume=71&rft.pages=1-31&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Z%C3%BCrcher&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sino-platonic.org%2Fcomplete%2Fspp071_chinese_vernacular.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+Han+Chinese" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZürcher2013" class="citation cs2">——— (2013) [1977], "Late Han vernacular elements in the earliest Buddhist translations", in Silk, Jonathan A. (ed.), <i>Buddhism in China: Collected Papers of Erik Zürcher</i>, Sinica Leidensia, vol. 112, Brill, pp. 27–61, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004263291_003">10.1163/9789004263291_003</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-26329-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-26329-1"><bdi>978-90-04-26329-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Late+Han+vernacular+elements+in+the+earliest+Buddhist+translations&rft.btitle=Buddhism+in+China%3A+Collected+Papers+of+Erik+Z%C3%BCrcher&rft.series=Sinica+Leidensia&rft.pages=27-61&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004263291_003&rft.isbn=978-90-04-26329-1&rft.aulast=Z%C3%BCrcher&rft.aufirst=Erik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+Han+Chinese" class="Z3988"></span> Reprint of <a href="#CITEREFZürcher1977">Zürcher (1977)</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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dialect">Harbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shenyang_Mandarin" title="Shenyang Mandarin">Shenyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taz_dialect" title="Taz dialect">Taz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Mandarin_(division_of_Mandarin)" title="Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)">Beijing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jilu_Mandarin" title="Jilu Mandarin">Jilu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_dialect" title="Tianjin dialect">Tianjin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinan_dialect" title="Jinan dialect">Jinan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jiaoliao_Mandarin" title="Jiaoliao Mandarin">Jiaoliao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dalian_dialect" title="Dalian dialect">Dalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingdao_dialect" title="Qingdao dialect">Qingdao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weihai_dialect" title="Weihai dialect">Weihai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_Mandarin" title="Central Plains Mandarin">Central Plains</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dongping_dialect" title="Dongping dialect">Dongping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangou_language" title="Gangou language">Gangou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanzhong_dialect" title="Guanzhong dialect">Guanzhong</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Xi'an dialect">Xi'an</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luoyang_dialect" title="Luoyang dialect">Luoyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuzhou_dialect" title="Xuzhou dialect">Xuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_language" title="Dungan language">Dungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Mandarin" title="Xinjiang Mandarin">Xinjiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_dialects" title="Sichuanese dialects">Sichuanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengdu-Chongqing_dialect" title="Chengdu-Chongqing dialect">Chengdu–Chongqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minjiang_dialect" title="Minjiang dialect">Minjiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leshan_dialect" title="Leshan dialect">Leshan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renshou%E2%80%93Fushun_Mandarin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Renshou–Fushun Mandarin (page does not exist)">Renshou–Fushun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zigong_dialect" title="Zigong dialect">Zigong</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunming_dialect" title="Kunming dialect">Kunming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanping_dialect" title="Nanping dialect">Nanping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhan_dialect" title="Wuhan dialect">Wuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gui%E2%80%93Liu_Mandarin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gui–Liu Mandarin (page does not exist)">Gui–Liu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuming_Mandarin" title="Wuming Mandarin">Wuming</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin" title="Lower Yangtze Mandarin">Jianghuai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_dialect" title="Nanjing dialect">Nanjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantong_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nantong dialect">Nantong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanping_dialect" title="Nanping dialect">Nanping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lanyin_Mandarin" title="Lanyin Mandarin">Lanyin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lanzhou_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lanzhou dialect (page does not exist)">Lanzhou dialect</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%B0%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D" class="extiw" title="zh:兰州话">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urumqi_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Urumqi dialect (page does not exist)">Urumqi dialect</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E9%B2%81%E6%9C%A8%E9%BD%90%E8%AF%9D" class="extiw" title="zh:乌鲁木齐话">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Mandarin" title="Xinjiang Mandarin">Xinjiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group 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title="Ningbo dialect">Ningbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinxiang_dialect" title="Jinxiang dialect">Jinxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangyin_dialect" title="Jiangyin dialect">Jiangyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadi_dialect" title="Shadi dialect">Shadi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_Wu" title="Taizhou Wu">Taizhou Wu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_dialect" title="Taizhou dialect">Taizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai_dialect" title="Tiantai dialect">Tiantai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Oujiang</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rui%27an_dialect" title="Rui'an dialect">Rui'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wencheng_dialect" title="Wencheng dialect">Wencheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wuzhou_Wu" title="Wuzhou Wu">Wuzhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jinhua_dialect" title="Jinhua dialect">Jinhua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chu%E2%80%93Qu_Wu" title="Chu–Qu Wu">Chu–Qu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quzhou_dialect" title="Quzhou dialect">Quzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangshan_dialect" title="Jiangshan dialect">Jiangshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingtian_dialect" title="Qingtian dialect">Qingtian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Xuanzhou_Wu_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuanzhou Wu dialects">Xuanzhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuancheng_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuancheng dialect">Xuancheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Hui</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ji-She&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ji-She (page does not exist)">Ji-She</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%A9%E6%AD%99%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:绩歙片">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xiu-Yi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xiu-Yi (page does not exist)">Xiu-Yi</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%91%E9%BB%9F%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:休黟片">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qi-De&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qi-De (page does not exist)">Qi-De</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%81%E5%A9%BA%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:祁婺片">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yanzhou_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yanzhou dialect (page does not exist)">Yanzhou</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%8C%E5%8D%A0%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:旌占片">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jing-Zhan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jing-Zhan (page does not exist)">Jing-Zhan</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%A5%E5%B7%9E%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:严州片">zh</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chang%E2%80%93Du_Gan" title="Chang–Du Gan">Chang–Du</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanchang_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang dialect">Nanchang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi%E2%80%93Liu_Gan" title="Yi–Liu Gan">Yi–Liu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ying%E2%80%93Yi_Gan" title="Ying–Yi Gan">Ying–Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da%E2%80%93Tong_Gan" title="Da–Tong Gan">Da–Tong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Xiang" title="New Xiang">Changyi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changsha_dialect" title="Changsha dialect">Changsha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Loushao</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shuangfeng_dialect" title="Shuangfeng dialect">Shuangfeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiangxiang_dialect" title="Xiangxiang dialect">Xiangxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wugang_dialect" title="Wugang dialect">Wugang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji%E2%80%93Xu_Xiang" title="Ji–Xu Xiang">Ji–Xu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong%E2%80%93Quan_Xiang" title="Yong–Quan Xiang">Yong–Quan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiyang_dialect" title="Qiyang dialect">Qiyang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Houguan_language_group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Houguan language group (page does not exist)">Houguan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Fuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuqing_dialect" title="Fuqing dialect">Fuqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changle_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Changle dialect">Changle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_dialect" title="Gutian dialect">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsu_dialect" title="Matsu dialect">Matsu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fu%E2%80%93Ning_language_group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fu–Ning language group (page does not exist)">Fu–Ning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ningde_dialect" title="Ningde dialect">Ningde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fu%27an_dialect" title="Fu'an dialect">Fu'an</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manjiang_dialect" title="Manjiang dialect">Manjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longdu_dialect" title="Longdu dialect">Longdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanlang_dialect" title="Nanlang dialect">Nanlang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quanzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Quanzhou dialect">Quanzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhangzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhangzhou dialect">Zhangzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoy_dialect" title="Amoy dialect">Amoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chawan_dialect" title="Chawan dialect">Chawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Hokkien" title="Philippine Hokkien">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medan_Hokkien" title="Medan Hokkien">Pedan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penang_Hokkien" title="Penang Hokkien">Penang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Hokkien" title="Singaporean Hokkien">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Peninsular_Malaysian_Hokkien" title="Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien">Malaysian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Teochew_Min" title="Teochew Min">Teochew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swatow_dialect" title="Swatow dialect">Swatow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haklau_Min" title="Haklau Min">Haklau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanxiang_dialect" title="Sanxiang dialect">Sanxiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhenan_Min" title="Zhenan Min">Zhenan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longyan_Min" class="mw-redirect" title="Longyan Min">Longyan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Min" title="Northern Min">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jian%27ou_dialect" title="Jian'ou dialect">Jian'ou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jianyang_dialect" title="Jianyang dialect">Jianyang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Min" title="Central Min">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E2%80%93Xian_Min" title="Pu–Xian Min">Pu–Xian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shao%E2%80%93Jiang_Min" title="Shao–Jiang Min">Shao–Jiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leizhou_Min" title="Leizhou Min">Leizhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhanjiang_dialect" title="Zhanjiang dialect">Zhanjiang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hainanese" title="Hainanese">Hainan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wenchang_dialect" title="Wenchang dialect">Wenchang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haikou_dialect" title="Haikou dialect">Haikou</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Banqiao_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Banqiao dialect (page does not exist)">Banqiao</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meixian_dialect" title="Meixian dialect">Meixian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhua_dialect" title="Wuhua dialect">Wuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_dialect" title="Huizhou dialect">Huizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tingzhou_dialect" title="Tingzhou dialect">Tingzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changting_dialect" title="Changting dialect">Changting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hakka" title="Taiwanese Hakka">Taiwanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixian_dialect" title="Sixian dialect">Sixian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hailu_dialect" title="Hailu dialect">Hailu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raoping_Hakka" title="Raoping Hakka">Raoping</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yuehai_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuehai dialects">Yuehai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Guangzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Cantonese" title="Hong Kong Cantonese">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Cantonese" title="Malaysian Cantonese">Malaysia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiguan_dialect" title="Xiguan dialect">Xiguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiujiang_dialect" title="Jiujiang dialect">Jiujiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiqi_dialect" title="Shiqi dialect">Shiqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weitou_dialect" title="Weitou dialect">Weitou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dapeng_dialect" title="Dapeng dialect">Dapeng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Siyi_Yue" title="Siyi Yue">Siyi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taishanese" title="Taishanese">Taishan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xinhui_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xinhui dialect (page does not exist)">Xinhui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gao%E2%80%93Yang_Yue" title="Gao–Yang Yue">Gao–Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulou_Yue" title="Goulou Yue">Goulou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu%E2%80%93Hua_Yue" title="Wu–Hua Yue">Wu–Hua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong%E2%80%93Xun_Yue" title="Yong–Xun Yue">Yong–Xun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo%E2%80%93Guang_Yue" title="Luo–Guang Yue">Luo–Guang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin%E2%80%93Lian_Yue" title="Qin–Lian Yue">Qin–Lian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pinghua" title="Pinghua">Pinghua</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua#Dialects" title="Pinghua">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tongdao_Pinghua" title="Tongdao Pinghua">Tongdao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younian_dialect" title="Younian dialect">Younian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua#Dialects" title="Pinghua">Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yongjiang_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yongjiang dialect (page does not exist)">Yongjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guandao_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guandao dialect (page does not exist)">Guandao</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rongjiang_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rongjiang dialect (page does not exist)">Rongjiang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%">Unclassified</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaozhou_Tuhua" title="Shaozhou Tuhua">Shaozhou Tuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiangnan_Tuhua" title="Xiangnan Tuhua">Xiangnan Tuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badong_Yao_language" title="Badong Yao language">Badong Yao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danzhou_dialect" title="Danzhou dialect">Danzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mai_Chinese" title="Mai Chinese">Mai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She_Chinese" title="She Chinese">Shehua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waxiang_Chinese" title="Waxiang Chinese">Waxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeheni_language" title="Yeheni language">Yeheni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_dialect" title="Huizhou dialect">Huizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai%E2%80%93Long_languages" title="Cai–Long languages">Cai-Long</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luren_language" title="Luren language">Luren</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuanqing_people#Language" title="Chuanqing people">Laobeizi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/350px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="785" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/525px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/700px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="920" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_national_standards_of_Chinese" title="Comparison of national standards of Chinese">Standard<br />forms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_Standard_Chinese" title="Sichuanese Standard Chinese">Sichuanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine Mandarin">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Mandarin" title="Malaysian Mandarin">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Singaporean Mandarin">Singaporean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Standard Singaporean Mandarin">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singdarin" title="Singdarin">Singdarin</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakka" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakka">Hakka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Phonology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Chinese_phonology" title="Historical Chinese phonology">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese_phonology" title="Old Chinese phonology">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_National_Pronunciation" title="Old National Pronunciation">Old National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_phonology" title="Cantonese phonology">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien_phonology" title="Hokkien phonology">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu_phonology" title="Northern Wu phonology">Northern Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese_phonology" title="Standard Chinese phonology">Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings_of_Chinese_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters">Literary and colloquial readings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Grammar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_numerals" title="Chinese numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_classifier" title="Chinese classifier">Classifiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_honorifics" title="Chinese honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_grammar" title="Cantonese grammar">Cantonese grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_grammar" title="Classical Chinese grammar">Classical grammar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Idioms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chengyu" title="Chengyu">Chengyu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xiehouyu" title="Xiehouyu">Xiehouyu</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_input_methods_for_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese input methods for computers">Input</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biaoxingma_method" title="Biaoxingma method">Biaoxingma</a></li> <li>Boshiamy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cangjie_input_method" title="Cangjie input method">Cangjie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Cangjie" title="Simplified Cangjie">Simplified</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CKC_Chinese_Input_System" title="CKC Chinese Input System">CKC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayi_method" title="Dayi method">Dayi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinyin_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin method">Pinyin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Google_Pinyin" title="Google Pinyin">Google</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Pinyin_IME" title="Microsoft Pinyin IME">Microsoft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogou_Pinyin" title="Sogou Pinyin">Sogou</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroke_count_method" title="Stroke count method">Stroke count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wubi_method" title="Wubi method">Wubi (Wang Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhengma_method" title="Zhengma method">ZhengMa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="History of the Chinese language">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Eastern Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Mandarin" title="Old Mandarin">Old Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">Middle Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Min" title="Proto-Min">Proto-Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Hakka" title="Proto-Hakka">Proto-Hakka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%E2%80%93Shu_Chinese" title="Ba–Shu Chinese">Ba–Shu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gan_Chinese" title="History of Gan Chinese">Gan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Literary<br /> forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Official" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_of_Chinese_literary_culture" title="Adoption of Chinese literary culture">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanbun" title="Kanbun">in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese_in_Vietnam" title="Literary Chinese in Vietnam">in Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">Vernacular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Written_Cantonese" title="Written Cantonese">Written Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_alphabets" title="Dungan alphabets">Written Dungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_Hokkien" title="Written Hokkien">Written Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_characters" title="Sichuanese characters">Written Sichuanese</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Logographic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">Logographic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Script_styles" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Script_styles" class="mw-redirect" title="Script styles">Script styles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clerical_script" title="Clerical script">Clerical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-cursive_script" title="Semi-cursive script">Semi-cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_script_(East_Asia)" title="Cursive script (East Asia)">Cursive</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified characters">Simplified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional characters">Traditional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_punctuation" title="Chinese punctuation">Punctuation</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Mainland Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-cell_Chinese_Braille" title="Two-cell Chinese Braille">Two-cell</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Phonetic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillization_of_Chinese" title="Cyrillization of Chinese">Cyrillization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_language#Writing_system" title="Dungan language">Dungan Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Chinese" title="Romanization of Chinese">Romanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gwoyeu_Romatzyh" title="Gwoyeu Romatzyh">Gwoyeu Romatzyh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Phonetic_Symbols_II" title="Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II">MPS II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_postal_romanization" title="Chinese postal romanization">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EFEO_Chinese_transcription" title="EFEO Chinese transcription">EFEO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lessing-Othmer" title="Lessing-Othmer">Lessing-Othmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Mandarin" title="Yale romanization of Mandarin">Yale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Bopomofo" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantonese Bopomofo">Cantonese Bopomofo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Phonetic_Symbols" title="Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols">Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_kana" title="Taiwanese kana">Taiwanese kana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hangul" title="Taiwanese Hangul">Taiwanese Hangul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiao%27erjing" title="Xiao'erjing">Xiao'erjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_varieties_of_Chinese" title="List of varieties of Chinese">List of varieties of Chinese</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Han_dynasty_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Han_dynasty_topics" title="Template:Han dynasty topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Han_dynasty_topics" title="Template talk:Han dynasty topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Han_dynasty_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Han dynasty topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Han_dynasty_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="History of the Han dynasty">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chu%E2%80%93Han_Contention" title="Chu–Han Contention">Chu–Han Contention</a> (<a href="/wiki/Feast_at_Swan_Goose_Gate" title="Feast at Swan Goose Gate">Feast at Swan Goose Gate</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Clan_disturbance" title="Lü Clan disturbance">Lü Clan disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_the_Seven_States" title="Rebellion of the Seven States">Rebellion of the Seven States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Han dynasty in Inner Asia">Han dynasty in Inner Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han%E2%80%93Xiongnu_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Han–Xiongnu War">Han–Xiongnu War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Heavenly_Horses" title="War of the Heavenly Horses">War of the Heavenly Horses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_conquest_of_Gojoseon" title="Han conquest of Gojoseon">Han conquest of Gojoseon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Commanderies_of_Han" title="Four Commanderies of Han">Four Commanderies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southward_expansion_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="Southward expansion of the Han dynasty">Southward expansion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Han_campaigns_against_Minyue" title="Han campaigns against Minyue">Han–Minyue War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_conquest_of_Nanyue" title="Han conquest of Nanyue">Han conquest of Nanyue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_conquest_of_Dian" title="Han conquest of Dian">Han conquest of Dian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Chinese_domination_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="First Chinese domination of Vietnam">First Chinese domination of Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trung_sisters%27_rebellion" title="Trung sisters' rebellion">Trung sisters' rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Chinese_domination_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Chinese domination of Vietnam">Second Chinese domination of Vietnam</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xin_dynasty" title="Xin dynasty">Xin dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Eyebrows" title="Red Eyebrows">Red Eyebrows</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lulin" title="Lulin">Lulin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chengjia" title="Chengjia">Chengjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disasters_of_the_Partisan_Prohibitions" title="Disasters of the Partisan Prohibitions">Disasters of the Partisan Prohibitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Five_Pecks_of_Rice" title="Way of the Five Pecks of Rice">Way of the Five Pecks of Rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion" title="Yellow Turban Rebellion">Yellow Turban Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="End of the Han dynasty">End of the Han dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Red_Cliffs" title="Battle of Red Cliffs">Battle of Red Cliffs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CMOC_Treasures_of_Ancient_China_exhibit_-_painted_figure_of_a_cavalryman,_horse_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Close-up of a Han Dynasty ceramic horse"><img alt="Close-up of a Han Dynasty ceramic horse" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/CMOC_Treasures_of_Ancient_China_exhibit_-_painted_figure_of_a_cavalryman%2C_horse_detail.jpg/100px-CMOC_Treasures_of_Ancient_China_exhibit_-_painted_figure_of_a_cavalryman%2C_horse_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/CMOC_Treasures_of_Ancient_China_exhibit_-_painted_figure_of_a_cavalryman%2C_horse_detail.jpg/150px-CMOC_Treasures_of_Ancient_China_exhibit_-_painted_figure_of_a_cavalryman%2C_horse_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/CMOC_Treasures_of_Ancient_China_exhibit_-_painted_figure_of_a_cavalryman%2C_horse_detail.jpg/200px-CMOC_Treasures_of_Ancient_China_exhibit_-_painted_figure_of_a_cavalryman%2C_horse_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="2736" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Society_and_culture_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="Society and culture of the Han dynasty">Society and culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ban_Gu" title="Ban Gu">Ban Gu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Records of the Grand Historian">Records of the Grand Historian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Han" title="Book of Han">Book of Han</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Later_Han" title="Book of the Later Han">Book of the Later Han</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Records of the Three Kingdoms">Records of the Three Kingdoms</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_Horse_of_Gansu" title="Flying Horse of Gansu">Flying Horse of Gansu</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Immortals_of_Huainan" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight Immortals of Huainan">Eight Immortals of Huainan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mawangdui_Silk_Texts" title="Mawangdui Silk Texts">Mawangdui Silk Texts</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Luxuriant_Dew_of_the_Spring_and_Autumn_Annals" title="Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals">Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yiwu_Zhi" title="Yiwu Zhi">Yiwu Zhi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Texts">Old Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_poetry" title="Han poetry">Han poetry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fu_(poetry)" title="Fu (poetry)">Fu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Eastern Han Chinese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="Government of the Han dynasty">Government</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="Military of the Han dynasty">military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ban_Chao" title="Ban Chao">Ban Chao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Yuan_(Han_dynasty)" title="Ma Yuan (Han dynasty)">Ma Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Han dynasty">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(early)#Han_Dynasty,_Xin_Dynasty_and_Shu_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors family tree (early)">Family tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Lords_and_Nine_Ministers" title="Three Lords and Nine Ministers">Three Lords and Nine Ministers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Ministers" title="Nine Ministers">Nine Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Ducal_Ministers" title="Three Ducal Ministers">Three Ducal Ministers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="Kings of the Han dynasty">Kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_provinces_and_commanderies_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="List of provinces and commanderies of the Han dynasty">Provinces and commanderies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protectorate_of_the_Western_Regions" title="Protectorate of the Western Regions">Protectorate of the Western Regions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chief_Official_of_the_Western_Regions" title="Chief Official of the Western Regions">Chief Official</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_of_Han_dynasty_titles" title="Translation of Han dynasty titles">Translation of government titles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="Economy of the Han dynasty">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty_coinage" title="Han dynasty coinage">Coinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_coinage" title="Ancient Chinese coinage">Ancient Chinese coinage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Roman_relations" title="Sino-Roman relations">Sino-Roman relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="Science and technology of the Han dynasty">Science and technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cai_Lun" title="Cai Lun">Cai Lun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai_Yong" title="Cai Yong">Cai Yong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ding_Huan" title="Ding Huan">Ding Huan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du_Shi" title="Du Shi">Du Shi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua_Tuo" title="Hua Tuo">Hua Tuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_An" title="Liu An">Liu An</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiang_(scholar)" title="Liu Xiang (scholar)">Liu Xiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xin_(scholar)" title="Liu Xin (scholar)">Liu Xin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luoxia_Hong" title="Luoxia Hong">Luoxia Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sima_Tan" title="Sima Tan">Sima Tan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chong" title="Wang Chong">Wang Chong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Heng" title="Zhang Heng">Zhang Heng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zhongjing" title="Zhang Zhongjing">Zhang Zhongjing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Script_Texts" title="Ancient Script Texts">Texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Lunheng" title="Lunheng">Balanced Discourse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shiben" title="Shiben">Book of Origins</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_on_Numbers_and_Computation" title="Book on Numbers and Computation">Book on Numbers and Computation</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fangyan_(book)" title="Fangyan (book)">Fangyan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jingui_Yaol%C3%BCe" title="Jingui Yaolüe">Essential Prescriptions from the Golden Cabinet</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Nine_Chapters_on_the_Mathematical_Art" title="The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art">The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huangdi_Neijing" title="Huangdi Neijing">Huangdi Neijing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shuowen_Jiezi" title="Shuowen Jiezi">Shuowen Jiezi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shanghan_Lun" title="Shanghan Lun">Treatise on Cold Injury and Miscellaneous Disorders</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zhoubi_Suanjing" title="Zhoubi Suanjing">Zhoubi Suanjing</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Han_Chinese&oldid=1259777995">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Han_Chinese&oldid=1259777995</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="Category:History of the Chinese language">History of the Chinese language</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Culture_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="Category:Culture of the Han dynasty">Culture of the Han 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