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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_and_modern_freedom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Ancient and modern freedom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_and_modern_freedom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critique_of_the_French_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critique_of_the_French_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Critique of the French Revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critique_of_the_French_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commerce_preferable_to_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commerce_preferable_to_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Commerce preferable to war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commerce_preferable_to_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutional_monarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_monarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Constitutional monarchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_monarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imperialism_and_conquest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperialism_and_conquest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Imperialism and conquest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperialism_and_conquest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparative_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparative_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Comparative religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparative_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Novels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Novels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Novels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Novels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Essays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Essays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Essays</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Essays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Novels_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Novels_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Novels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Novels_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Autobiographical_writings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autobiographical_writings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Autobiographical writings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autobiographical_writings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Letters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Letters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Letters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Letters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intimate_Diary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intimate_Diary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Intimate Diary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intimate_Diary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Other languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Benjamin Constant</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 45 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-45" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">45 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86_%D9%83%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="بنجامين كونستانت – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بنجامين كونستانت" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Konstan" title="Benjamin Konstan – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Benjamin Konstan" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="بنژامن کونستان – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بنژامن کونستان" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Бенжамен Констан – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бенжамен Констан" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Benjamin Constant" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri-Benjamin_Constant_de_Rebecque" title="Henri-Benjamin Constant de Rebecque – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Henri-Benjamin Constant de Rebecque" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Benjamin Constant" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Benjamin Constant" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Benjamin Constant" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Benjamin Constant" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%B6%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%AD%CE%BD_%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%BD" title="Μπενζαμέν Κονστάν – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μπενζαμέν Κονστάν" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant_de_Rebecque" title="Benjamin Constant de Rebecque – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Benjamin Constant de Rebecque" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri-Benjamin_Constant_de_Rebeque" title="Henri-Benjamin Constant de Rebeque – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Henri-Benjamin Constant de Rebeque" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Benjamin Constant" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86_%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="بنژامن کنستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بنژامن کنستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Benjamin Constant" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Benjamin Constant" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B1%85%EC%9E%90%EB%A7%B9_%EC%BD%A9%EC%8A%A4%ED%83%95" title="뱅자맹 콩스탕 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="뱅자맹 콩스탕" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%AA%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%B6_%D4%B1%D5%B6%D6%80%D5%AB_%D4%BF%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A4%D5%A8_%D5%8C%D5%A5%D5%A2%D5%A5%D5%AF" title="Բենժամեն Անրի Կոնստան դը Ռեբեկ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բենժամեն Անրի Կոնստան դը Ռեբեկ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Benjamin Constant" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Benjamin Constant" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A0%D7%96%27%D7%9E%D7%9F_%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%9F" title="בנז'מן קונסטן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בנז'מן קונסטן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Бенжамен Констан – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Бенжамен Констан" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Benjamin Constant" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Бенжамен Констан – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Бенжамен Констан" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86_%D9%83%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="بنجامين كونستانت – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بنجامين كونستانت" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86_%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D9%88_%D8%B1%D8%A8%DA%A9" title="بنژامن کنستان دو ربک – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="بنژامن کنستان دو ربک" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant_(schrijver)" title="Benjamin Constant (schrijver) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Benjamin Constant (schrijver)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%90%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A3%E3%83%9E%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B9%E3%82%BF%E3%83%B3" title="バンジャマン・コンスタン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="バンジャマン・コンスタン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri-Benjamin_Constant_de_Rebecque" title="Henri-Benjamin Constant de Rebecque – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Henri-Benjamin Constant de Rebecque" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%BC%D9%86%D9%BC" title="بنیامین کانسټنټ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بنیامین کانسټنټ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Benjamin Constant" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant_(escritor)" title="Benjamin Constant (escritor) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Benjamin Constant (escritor)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Benjamin Constant" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD,_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Констан, Бенжамен – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Констан, Бенжамен" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Benjamin Constant" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8E%D9%86%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%AF%D9%88_%DA%95%D9%88%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8E%DA%A9" title="بێنژامین کۆنستانت دو ڕووبێک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بێنژامین کۆنستانت دو ڕووبێک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Бенжамен Констан – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Бенжамен Констан" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Benjamin Constant" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Benjamin Constant" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Benjamin Constant" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Benjamin Constant" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Benjamin Constant" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Swiss-French politician and writer (1767–1830)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the European writer and politician. For other people and places, see <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Benjamin Constant (disambiguation)">Benjamin Constant (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Benjamin Constant</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_(1767-1830),_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_%281767-1830%29%2C_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg/220px-Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_%281767-1830%29%2C_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_%281767-1830%29%2C_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg/330px-Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_%281767-1830%29%2C_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_%281767-1830%29%2C_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg/440px-Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_%281767-1830%29%2C_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2525" data-file-height="3086" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Portrait by Hercule de Roche, c. 1820</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(France)" title="Chamber of Deputies (France)">Member of the Chamber of Deputies</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />14 April 1819 – 8 December 1830</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Constituency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sarthe" title="Sarthe">Sarthe</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1819–24)</span><br /><a href="/wiki/Seine_(department)" title="Seine (department)">Seine</a> <a href="/wiki/4th_arrondissement_of_Paris" title="4th arrondissement of Paris">4th</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1824–27)</span><br /><a href="/wiki/Bas-Rhin" title="Bas-Rhin">Bas-Rhin</a> <a href="/wiki/Bas-Rhin%27s_1st_constituency" title="Bas-Rhin's 1st constituency">1st</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1827–30)</span></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Conseil_d%27%C3%89tat_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conseil d'État (France)">Member of the Council of State</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />20 April 1815 – 8 July 1815</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Appointed by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon I">Napoleon I</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Tribunat" title="Tribunat">Member of the Tribunat</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />25 December 1799 – 27 March 1802</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Constituency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9man_(department)" title="Léman (department)">Léman</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Henri-Benjamin Constant de Rebecque</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1767-10-25</span>)</span>25 October 1767<br /><a href="/wiki/Lausanne" title="Lausanne">Lausanne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy" title="Old Swiss Confederacy">Swiss Confederacy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">8 December 1830<span style="display:none">(1830-12-08)</span> (aged 63)<br />Paris, <a href="/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">Kingdom of France</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Nationality</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Swiss_people" title="Swiss people">Swiss</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_nationality_law" title="French nationality law">French</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Republicanism in France">Republican</a> (1799–1802)<br /><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Bourbon_Restoration)" title="Liberal Party (Bourbon Restoration)">Liberals</a> (1819–24)<br /><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Bourbon_Restoration)#Decline" title="Liberal Party (Bourbon Restoration)">Liberal Party (Bourbon Restoration)#Decline</a> (1824–30)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Alma_mater" title="Alma mater">Alma mater</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a><br /><a href="/wiki/University_of_Erlangen" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Erlangen">University of Erlangen</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Profession</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatist" class="mw-redirect" title="Diplomatist">diplomatist</a></li><li>political activist</li><li>author</li><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Political philosopher">political philosopher</a></li><li>novelist</li><li>elected politician</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Writing career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Period</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/18th_century_in_literature" title="18th century in literature">18th</a> and <a href="/wiki/19th_century_in_literature" title="19th century in literature">19th centuries</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Genre</th><td class="infobox-data category" style="line-height:1.4em;">Prose, essays, pamphlets</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Subject</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Political_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Political theory">Political theory</a>, liberalism, religion, <a href="/wiki/Romantic_love" class="mw-redirect" title="Romantic love">romantic love</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Literary movement</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">classical liberalism</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Years active</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">1792–1830</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Notable works</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><i>Principes de Politique Applicables a Tous les Gouvernements</i> (1810)</li><li><i><a href="/wiki/Adolphe" title="Adolphe">Adolphe</a></i> (1816)</li><li><i>De la religion considérée dans sa source, ses formes et son développement</i> (1824–30)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Henri-Benjamin Constant de Rebecque</b> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">French:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="fr-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[kɔ̃stɑ̃]</a></span>; 25 October 1767 – 8 December 1830), or simply <b>Benjamin Constant</b>, was a <a href="/wiki/Swiss_people" title="Swiss people">Swiss</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French</a> political thinker, activist and writer on political theory and religion. </p><p>A committed republican from 1795, he backed the coup d'état of <a href="/wiki/18_Fructidor" class="mw-redirect" title="18 Fructidor">18 Fructidor</a> (4 September 1797) and the following one on <a href="/wiki/18_Brumaire" class="mw-redirect" title="18 Brumaire">18 Brumaire</a> (9 November 1799). During the <a href="/wiki/Consulat" class="mw-redirect" title="Consulat">Consulat</a>, in 1800 he became the leader of the Liberal Opposition. Having upset <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> and left France to go to Switzerland then to the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony" title="Kingdom of Saxony">Kingdom of Saxony</a>, Constant nonetheless sided with him during the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days" title="Hundred Days">Hundred Days</a> and became politically active again during the <a href="/wiki/French_Restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="French Restoration">French Restoration</a>. He was elected <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9put%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Député">Député</a> in 1818 and remained in post until his death in 1830. Head of the Liberal opposition, known as <i>Indépendants</i>, he was one of the most notable orators of the <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Chamber of Deputies of France">Chamber of Deputies of France</a>, as a proponent of the <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary system</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a>, he was a supporter of <a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a> ascending the throne. </p><p>Besides his numerous essays on political and religious themes, Constant also wrote on romantic love. His autobiographical <i>Le Cahier rouge</i> (1807) gives an account of his love for <a href="/wiki/Madame_de_Sta%C3%ABl" class="mw-redirect" title="Madame de Staël">Madame de Staël</a>, whose protégé and collaborator he became, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Coppet_group" title="Coppet group">Coppet circle</a>, and a successful novella, <i>Adolphe</i> (1816), are good examples of his work on this topic.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He was a fervent <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberal" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical liberal">classical liberal</a> of the early 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He refined the concept of liberty, defining it as a condition of existence that allowed the individual to turn away interference from the state or society.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His ideas influenced the <a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a> movement in Spain, the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Revolution_of_1820" title="Liberal Revolution of 1820">Liberal Revolution of 1820</a> in Portugal, the <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</a>, the <a href="/wiki/November_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="November uprising">November uprising</a> in Poland, the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">Belgian Revolution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Brazil" title="Liberalism in Brazil">liberalism in Brazil</a> and Mexico.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Henri-Benjamin Constant was born in <a href="/wiki/Lausanne" title="Lausanne">Lausanne</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Constant_de_Rebecque" title="Constant de Rebecque">Constant de Rebecque</a> family, descendants of French <a href="/wiki/Huguenot" class="mw-redirect" title="Huguenot">Huguenots</a> who had fled from <a href="/wiki/Artois" title="Artois">Artois</a> to Switzerland during the <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a> in the 16th century. His father, Jules Constant de Rebecque, served as a high-ranking officer in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_States_Army" title="Dutch States Army">Dutch States Army</a>, like his grandfather, his uncle and his cousin <a href="/wiki/Jean_Victor_de_Constant_Rebecque" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Victor de Constant Rebecque">Jean Victor de Constant Rebecque</a>. When Constant's mother, Henriette-Pauline de Chandieu-Villars, died soon after his birth, both his grandmothers took care of him. Private tutors educated him in <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a> (1779) and in the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> (1780). While at the Protestant <a href="/wiki/University_of_Erlangen" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Erlangen">University of Erlangen</a> (1783), he gained access to the court of <a href="/wiki/Duchess_Sophie_Caroline_Marie_of_Brunswick-Wolfenb%C3%BCttel" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchess Sophie Caroline Marie of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel">Duchess Sophie Caroline Marie of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel</a>. He had to leave after an affair with a girl, and moved to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a>. There he lived at the home of <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Duncan,_the_elder" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrew Duncan, the elder">Andrew Duncan</a> and was befriended by <a href="/wiki/James_Mackintosh" title="James Mackintosh">James Mackintosh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Laing" title="Malcolm Laing">Malcolm Laing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When he left the city, he promised to pay back his gambling debts. </p><p>In 1787, he returned to continental Europe, travelling on horseback through <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> and England. In those years European nobility, with their <a href="/wiki/Prerogatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Prerogatives">prerogatives</a>, came under heavy attack from those, like Constant, who were influenced by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a></i>. Constant's family criticized him for leaving out part of his last name.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Paris, at the home of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Antoine_Suard" title="Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Suard">Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Suard</a> he became acquainted with <a href="/wiki/Isabelle_de_Charriere" class="mw-redirect" title="Isabelle de Charriere">Isabelle de Charriere</a>, a 46-year-old Dutch woman of letters, who later helped publish Rousseau's <i><a href="/wiki/Confessions_(Rousseau)" title="Confessions (Rousseau)">Confessions</a></i>, and who knew his uncle <a href="/wiki/David-Louis_Constant_de_Rebecque" title="David-Louis Constant de Rebecque">David-Louis Constant de Rebecque</a> extremely well by virtue of a 15-year correspondence. While he stayed at her home in <a href="/wiki/Colombier,_Neuch%C3%A2tel" title="Colombier, Neuchâtel">Colombier</a> Switzerland, together they wrote an <a href="/wiki/Epistolary_novel" title="Epistolary novel">epistolary novel</a>. She acted as a maternal mentor to him until Constant's appointment to the court of <a href="/wiki/Charles_William_Ferdinand,_Duke_of_Brunswick-Wolfenb%C3%BCttel" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel">Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel</a> that required him to move north. He left the court when the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">War of the First Coalition</a> began in 1792. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Braunschweig" title="Braunschweig">Braunschweig</a>, he married Wilhelmina von Cramm, but she divorced him in 1793. In September 1794, he met and became interested in the famous and wealthy already married Germaine de Staël, herself brought up on the principles of Rousseau. They both admired <a href="/wiki/Jean_Lambert_Tallien" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Lambert Tallien">Jean Lambert Tallien</a> and <a href="/wiki/Talleyrand" class="mw-redirect" title="Talleyrand">Talleyrand</a>. Their intellectual collaboration between 1795 and 1811 made them one of the most celebrated intellectual couples of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paris">Paris</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Paris"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CH-NB_-_Jouxtens-M%C3%A9zery,_Grosse_Grange_-_Collection_Gugelmann_-_GS-GUGE-BRANDOIN-E-2.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/CH-NB_-_Jouxtens-M%C3%A9zery%2C_Grosse_Grange_-_Collection_Gugelmann_-_GS-GUGE-BRANDOIN-E-2.tif/lossy-page1-220px-CH-NB_-_Jouxtens-M%C3%A9zery%2C_Grosse_Grange_-_Collection_Gugelmann_-_GS-GUGE-BRANDOIN-E-2.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/CH-NB_-_Jouxtens-M%C3%A9zery%2C_Grosse_Grange_-_Collection_Gugelmann_-_GS-GUGE-BRANDOIN-E-2.tif/lossy-page1-330px-CH-NB_-_Jouxtens-M%C3%A9zery%2C_Grosse_Grange_-_Collection_Gugelmann_-_GS-GUGE-BRANDOIN-E-2.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/CH-NB_-_Jouxtens-M%C3%A9zery%2C_Grosse_Grange_-_Collection_Gugelmann_-_GS-GUGE-BRANDOIN-E-2.tif/lossy-page1-440px-CH-NB_-_Jouxtens-M%C3%A9zery%2C_Grosse_Grange_-_Collection_Gugelmann_-_GS-GUGE-BRANDOIN-E-2.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5864" data-file-height="4436" /></a><figcaption>Jouxtens-Mézery, Grosse Grange</figcaption></figure> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a> in France (1793–1794), Constant became an advocate of <a href="/wiki/Bicameralism" title="Bicameralism">bicameralism</a> and of an assembly like the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">Parliament of Great Britain</a>. In revolutionary France this strand of political thought resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Year_III" title="Constitution of the Year III">Constitution of the Year III</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Five_Hundred" title="Council of Five Hundred">Council of Five Hundred</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ancients" title="Council of Ancients">Council of Ancients</a>. In 1799, after <a href="/wiki/18_Brumaire" class="mw-redirect" title="18 Brumaire">18 Brumaire</a>, Constant was reluctantly appointed, on the insistence of <a href="/wiki/Abbe_Sieyes" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbe Sieyes">Abbe Sieyes</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Tribunat" title="Tribunat">Tribunat</a>, despite grave reservations on the latter's part. Eventually, in 1802, the first consul confirmed in his doubts, forced Constant to withdraw because of the tenor of his speeches and his close connection with Mme de Staël.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Constant became acquainted with <a href="/wiki/Julie_Talma" title="Julie Talma">Julie Talma</a>, the salonnière wife of actor <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Joseph_Talma" title="François-Joseph Talma">François-Joseph Talma</a>, who wrote many letters to him of compelling human interest.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1800, the <a href="/wiki/Plot_of_the_rue_Saint-Nicaise" title="Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise">Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise</a>, an attempt to assassinate Napoleon, failed. Nevertheless, in 1803, at a time when Britain and France were at peace, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Gabriel_Peltier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean Gabriel Peltier (page does not exist)">Jean Gabriel Peltier</a>, while living in England, argued that Napoleon should be assassinated.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lawyer <a href="/wiki/James_Mackintosh" title="James Mackintosh">James Mackintosh</a> defended the French refugee Peltier against a <a href="/wiki/Libel" class="mw-redirect" title="Libel">libel</a> suit instigated by Napoleon – then First Consul of France. Mackintosh's speech was widely published in English and also across Europe in a French translation by Madame de Staël. She was forced to leave Paris as a result. </p><p>De Staël, disappointed by French <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>, became interested in <a href="/wiki/German_romanticism" class="mw-redirect" title="German romanticism">German romanticism</a>. She and Constant set out for <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saxony" title="Saxony">Saxony</a> and travelled with her two children to <a href="/wiki/Weimar" title="Weimar">Weimar</a>. <a href="/wiki/Duchess_Anna_Amalia_of_Brunswick-Wolfenb%C3%BCttel" title="Duchess Anna Amalia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel">Duchess Anna Amalia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel</a> welcomed them the day after their arrival. In Weimar they met <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_von_Schiller" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich von Schiller">Friedrich von Schiller</a>. Due to illness <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_Goethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Wolfgang Goethe">Johann Wolfgang Goethe</a> at first hesitated.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, they met <a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel" title="August Wilhelm Schlegel">August Wilhelm Schlegel</a>, and his brother, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Schlegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel">Friedrich Schlegel</a>. Constant left de Staël in <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a> and in 1806 lived in <a href="/wiki/Rouen" title="Rouen">Rouen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meulan" class="mw-redirect" title="Meulan">Meulan</a>, where he started work on his novel <i><a href="/wiki/Adolphe" title="Adolphe">Adolphe</a></i>. In 1808, he secretly married Caroline von Hardenberg, a woman who had been divorced twice, (she was related to <a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a> and to <a href="/wiki/Karl_August_von_Hardenberg" title="Karl August von Hardenberg">Karl August von Hardenberg</a>). He moved back to Paris in 1814, where the <a href="/wiki/French_Restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="French Restoration">French Restoration</a> took place and <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVIII_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XVIII of France">Louis XVIII</a> had become king. As a member of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_State_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of State (France)">Council of State</a>, Constant proposed a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>. He became friends with <a href="/wiki/Madame_R%C3%A9camier" class="mw-redirect" title="Madame Récamier">Madame Récamier</a> while he fell out with Germaine de Staël, who had asked him to pay back his gambling debts when their daughter, Albertine, married <a href="/wiki/Victor_de_Broglie_(1785%E2%80%931870)" title="Victor de Broglie (1785–1870)">Victor de Broglie</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days" title="Hundred Days">Hundred Days</a> of Napoleon, who had become more liberal, Constant fled to the <a href="/wiki/Vend%C3%A9e" title="Vendée">Vendée</a>, but returned when he was invited several times to the <a href="/wiki/Tuileries" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuileries">Tuileries</a> to set up changes for the <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_1815" title="Charter of 1815">Charter of 1815</a>. </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Battle of Waterloo</a> (18 June 1815), Constant moved to London with his wife. In 1817, the year when Madame de Staël died, he was back in Paris and was elected to the <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Chamber of Deputies of France">Chamber of Deputies</a>, the lower legislative house of the Restoration-era government. One of its most eloquent orators, he became a leader of the parliamentary bloc first known as the <i>Independents</i> and later as "liberals". He became an opponent of <a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Charles X of France</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Restoration</a> between 1815 and 1830.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1822, Goethe praised Constant in the following terms: </p> <blockquote><p>I spent many instructive evenings with Benjamin Constant. Whoever recollects what this excellent man accomplished in [later] years, and with what zeal he advanced without wavering along the path which, once chosen, was forever followed, realizes what noble aspirations, as yet undeveloped, were fermenting within him.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Freemason" class="mw-redirect" title="Freemason">Freemason</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1830 King <a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a> gave Constant a large sum of money to help him pay off his debts, and appointed him to the <a href="/wiki/Conseil_d%27Etat_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conseil d'Etat (France)">Conseil d'Etat</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Constant is said to have fathered <a href="/wiki/Albertine,_Baroness_Sta%C3%ABl_von_Holstein" title="Albertine, Baroness Staël von Holstein">Albertine de Staël-Holstein</a> (1797–1838), who later married <a href="/wiki/Victor_de_Broglie_(1785%E2%80%931870)" title="Victor de Broglie (1785–1870)">Victor de Broglie (1785–1870)</a>. Constant died in Paris on 8 December 1830 and was buried in the <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A8re_Lachaise_cemetery" class="mw-redirect" title="Père Lachaise cemetery">Père Lachaise cemetery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_philosophy">Political philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Political philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol 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.sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Liberalism_in_France" title="Category:Liberalism in France">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#FFD424; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:150%; font-weight:normal; color:black; line-height:1em"><b><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_France" title="Liberalism and radicalism in France"><span style="color: #000;">Liberalism in France</span></a></b></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:French_Liberalism_Flags_Symbol.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/French_Liberalism_Flags_Symbol.svg/120px-French_Liberalism_Flags_Symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/French_Liberalism_Flags_Symbol.svg/180px-French_Liberalism_Flags_Symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/French_Liberalism_Flags_Symbol.svg/240px-French_Liberalism_Flags_Symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="518" data-file-height="290" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_liberal_school" title="French liberal school">Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9anist" title="Orléanist">Orléanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_liberalism" title="National liberalism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Radical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(politics)" title="Jacobin (politics)">Jacobinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism#France" title="Social liberalism">Social</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">Anti-clericalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_nationalism" title="Civic nationalism">Civic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">Civil and political rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Freedom of the press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laicism" title="Laicism">Laicism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</a></i></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></i></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dreyfus_affair" title="Dreyfus affair">Dreyfusards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">February Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">July Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res" title="Lumières">Lumières</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alain_(philosopher)" title="Alain (philosopher)">Alain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Pierre_Brissot" title="Jacques Pierre Brissot">Brissot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau" title="Georges Clemenceau">Clemenceau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Doumergue" title="Gaston Doumergue">Doumergue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armand_Falli%C3%A8res" title="Armand Fallières">Fallières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julien_Freund" title="Julien Freund">Freund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Gambetta" title="Léon Gambetta">Gambetta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">de Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Gr%C3%A9vy" title="Jules Grévy">Grévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Hugo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a> (early)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron" title="Emmanuel Macron">Macron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Manent" title="Pierre Manent">Manent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Mend%C3%A8s_France" title="Pierre Mendès France">Mendès France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_de_Molinari" title="Gustave de 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/></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Isabelle_de_Charri%C3%A8re" title="Isabelle de Charrière">Isabelle de Charrière</a>, a Dutch-Swiss intellectual with whom Constant conducted an extensive correspondence</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Liberty_of_Ancients_Compared_with_that_of_Moderns" title="The Liberty of Ancients Compared with that of Moderns">The Liberty of Ancients Compared with that of Moderns</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_and_modern_freedom">Ancient and modern freedom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ancient and modern freedom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the first thinkers to go by the name of "liberal", Constant looked to Britain rather than to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a> for a practical model of freedom in a large mercantile society. He drew a distinction between the "Liberty of the Ancients" and the "Liberty of the Moderns".<sup id="cite_ref-AncientModern_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AncientModern-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Liberty of the Ancients was a participatory <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republican</a> liberty, which gave the citizens the right to influence politics directly through debates and votes in the public assembly.<sup id="cite_ref-AncientModern_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AncientModern-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To support this degree of participation, citizenship was a burdensome moral obligation requiring a considerable investment of time and energy. Generally, this required a sub-society of slaves to do much of the productive work, leaving the citizens free to deliberate on public affairs. Ancient Liberty was also limited to relatively small and homogenous male societies, in which they could be conveniently gathered together in one place to transact public affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-AncientModern_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AncientModern-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Liberty of the Moderns, in contrast, was based on the possession of <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a>, the rule of law, and freedom from excessive state interference. Direct participation would be limited: a necessary consequence of the size of modern states, and also the inevitable result of having created a mercantile society in which there were no slaves but almost everybody had to earn a living through work. Instead, the voters would elect <a href="/wiki/Legislator" title="Legislator">representatives</a>, who would deliberate in Parliament on behalf of the people and would save citizens from daily political involvement.<sup id="cite_ref-AncientModern_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AncientModern-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Critique_of_the_French_Revolution">Critique of the French Revolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Critique of the French Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>He criticised several aspects of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, and the failures of the social and political upheaval. He stated how the French attempted to apply ancient republican liberties to a modern state. Constant realized that freedom meant drawing a line between a person's private life and that of state interference.<sup id="cite_ref-Rosenblatt_2004_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosenblatt_2004-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He praised the noble spirit of regenerating the state. However, he stated that it was naïve for writers to believe that two thousand years had not brought some changes in the customs and needs of the people. The dynamics of the state had changed. Ancient populations paled in comparison to the size of modern countries. He even argued that with a large population, man had no role in government regardless of its form or type. Constant emphasised how citizens in ancient states found more satisfaction in the public sphere and less in their private lives whereas modern people favoured their private life. </p><p>Constant's repeated denunciation of <a href="/wiki/Despotism" title="Despotism">despotism</a> pervaded his critique of French political philosophers Jean-Jacques Rousseau and <a href="/wiki/Abb%C3%A9_de_Mably" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbé de Mably">Abbé de Mably</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These writers, influential in the French Revolution, according to Constant, mistook authority for liberty and approved any means of extending the action of the state. Alleged reformers used the model of public force of the <a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a>, and organised the most absolute despotism in the name of the Republic. He continually condemned despotism, citing the contradiction of a liberty derived from despotism, and the vacuous nature of this ideology. </p><p>Furthermore, he pointed out the detrimental nature of the <a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a>, as an inexplicable delirium. In <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Furet" title="François Furet">François Furet</a>'s words, Constant's "entire political thought" revolved around this question, namely the problem of how to justify the Terror.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Constant understood the revolutionaries' disastrous over-investment in the political sphere.<sup id="cite_ref-Rosenblatt_2004_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosenblatt_2004-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French revolutionaries such as the <a href="/wiki/Sans-culottes" title="Sans-culottes">Sans-culottes</a> were the primary force in the streets. They promoted constant vigilance in public. Constant pointed out how despite the most obscure life, the quietest existence, the most unknown name, it offered no protection during the Reign of Terror. The pervasive <a href="/wiki/Mob_mentality" class="mw-redirect" title="Mob mentality">mob mentality</a> deterred many right thinking people and helped to usher in despots such as Napoleon. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commerce_preferable_to_war">Commerce preferable to war</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Commerce preferable to war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Moreover, Constant believed that, in the modern world, commerce was superior to war. He attacked <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>'s belligerence, on the grounds that it was illiberal and no longer suited to modern commercial social organization. Ancient Liberty tended to rely on war, whereas a state organized on the principles of Modern Liberty would tend to be at peace with all other peaceful nations. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mme_de_Sta%C3%ABl_avec_sa_fille_Albertine.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Mme_de_Sta%C3%ABl_avec_sa_fille_Albertine.png/220px-Mme_de_Sta%C3%ABl_avec_sa_fille_Albertine.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Mme_de_Sta%C3%ABl_avec_sa_fille_Albertine.png/330px-Mme_de_Sta%C3%ABl_avec_sa_fille_Albertine.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Mme_de_Sta%C3%ABl_avec_sa_fille_Albertine.png/440px-Mme_de_Sta%C3%ABl_avec_sa_fille_Albertine.png 2x" data-file-width="1842" data-file-height="1992" /></a><figcaption>Painting by Marguerite Gérard, <i><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Mme de Staël</a> et sa fille</i> (around 1805); de Staël was Constant's partner and intellectual collaborator</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Johann_Heinrich_Schr%C3%B6der_zugeschrieben,_Portrait_der_Gr%C3%A4fin_Charlotte_von_Hardenberg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Johann_Heinrich_Schr%C3%B6der_zugeschrieben%2C_Portrait_der_Gr%C3%A4fin_Charlotte_von_Hardenberg.jpg/220px-Johann_Heinrich_Schr%C3%B6der_zugeschrieben%2C_Portrait_der_Gr%C3%A4fin_Charlotte_von_Hardenberg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Johann_Heinrich_Schr%C3%B6der_zugeschrieben%2C_Portrait_der_Gr%C3%A4fin_Charlotte_von_Hardenberg.jpg/330px-Johann_Heinrich_Schr%C3%B6der_zugeschrieben%2C_Portrait_der_Gr%C3%A4fin_Charlotte_von_Hardenberg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Johann_Heinrich_Schr%C3%B6der_zugeschrieben%2C_Portrait_der_Gr%C3%A4fin_Charlotte_von_Hardenberg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="551" /></a><figcaption>Charlotte von Hardenberg, Constant's second, "secret" wife</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Madame_Recamier_(1777%E2%80%931849)_by_Alexandre-Evariste_Fragonard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Madame_Recamier_%281777%E2%80%931849%29_by_Alexandre-Evariste_Fragonard.jpg/220px-Madame_Recamier_%281777%E2%80%931849%29_by_Alexandre-Evariste_Fragonard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Madame_Recamier_%281777%E2%80%931849%29_by_Alexandre-Evariste_Fragonard.jpg/330px-Madame_Recamier_%281777%E2%80%931849%29_by_Alexandre-Evariste_Fragonard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Madame_Recamier_%281777%E2%80%931849%29_by_Alexandre-Evariste_Fragonard.jpg/440px-Madame_Recamier_%281777%E2%80%931849%29_by_Alexandre-Evariste_Fragonard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2630" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Juliette_R%C3%A9camier" title="Juliette Récamier">Madame Récamier</a> (1777–1849) by <a href="/wiki/Alexandre-Evariste_Fragonard" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandre-Evariste Fragonard">Alexandre-Evariste Fragonard</a> Juliette Récamier was a friend and intellectual correspondent of Constant</figcaption></figure> <p>Constant believed that if liberty were to be salvaged from the aftermath of the Revolution, then the chimera of Ancient Liberty had to be reconciled with the practical to achieve Modern Liberty. England, since the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution_of_1688" class="mw-redirect" title="Glorious Revolution of 1688">Glorious Revolution of 1688</a>, and the United Kingdom after 1707, had demonstrated the practicality of Modern Liberty and Britain was a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>. Constant concluded that constitutional monarchy was better suited than republicanism to maintaining Modern Liberty. He was instrumental in drafting the "Acte Additional" of 1815, which transformed Napoleon's restored rule into a modern constitutional monarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was only to last for "One Hundred Days" before Napoleon was defeated, but Constant's work nevertheless provided a means of reconciling monarchy with liberty. Indeed, the French Constitution (or Charter) of 1830 could be seen as a practical implementation of many of Constant's ideas: a hereditary monarchy existing alongside an elected Chamber of Deputies and a senatorial Chamber of Peers, with the executive power vested in responsible ministers. Thus, although often ignored in France, because of his Anglo-Saxon sympathies, Constant succeeded in contributing in a profound (albeit indirect) way to French constitutional traditions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_monarchy">Constitutional monarchy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Constitutional monarchy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Secondly, Constant developed a new theory of constitutional monarchy, in which royal power was intended to be a neutral power, protecting, balancing and restraining the excesses of the other active powers (the executive, legislature, and <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judiciary</a>). This was an advance on the prevailing theory in the English-speaking world, which, following the opinion of <a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">William Blackstone</a>, the 18th-century English <a href="/wiki/Jurist" title="Jurist">jurist</a>, had regarded the King as head of the executive branch.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In Constant's scheme, the executive power would be entrusted to a Council of Ministers (or Cabinet) who, although appointed by the King, were ultimately accountable to Parliament. In making this clear theoretical distinction between the powers of the King (as <a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">head of state</a>) and the ministers (as Executive), Constant was responding to the political reality which had become apparent in Britain for more than a century: that is, the ministers, and not the King, are responsible actors, and the King "reigns but does not rule". This was important for the development of parliamentary government in France and elsewhere. The King was not to be a powerless cipher in Constant's scheme. He would have many powers, including the power to make judicial appointments, to dissolve the Chamber and call new elections, to appoint the <a href="/wiki/Peerage" title="Peerage">peers</a>, and to dismiss ministers – but he would not be able to govern, make policy, or direct the administration, since that would be the task of the responsible ministers. This theory was literally applied in Brazil (1824) and Portugal (1826), where the King/Emperor was explicitly given "<a href="/wiki/Moderating_power_(Empire_of_Brazil)" title="Moderating power (Empire of Brazil)">Moderating Powers</a>" in addition to the executive power. Elsewhere (for example, the 1848 "Statuto albertino" of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia" title="Kingdom of Sardinia">Kingdom of Sardinia</a>, which later became the basis of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Italy" title="History of Italy">Italian</a> constitution from 1861) the executive power was notionally vested in the King, but was exercised only by the responsible ministers. </p><p>He advocated the <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a> as a basis for a liberal State, but unlike <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> and most of the liberal thinkers, he advocated four powers instead of three. They were: </p> <ol><li>the Neutral Power of the Monarch,</li> <li>the Executive,</li> <li>the Legislative,</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial power">Judiciary</a>.</li></ol> <p>Thus the Moderating Power was a monarch, a type of judge, who was not part of government, but served as a neutral power to the government, the Executive Power was vested in the ministers that the monarch appointed and they were, collectively, the <a href="/wiki/Head_of_government" title="Head of government">head of government</a>, the Representative Powers were a separation of the Monstesquieu's <a href="/wiki/Legislative_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative power">Legislative power</a>, with the Representative Power of Opinion being an elected body to represent the opinion of the citizenry and the Representative Power of Tradition was a hereditary House of Peers and the judiciary was similar to the Montesquieu's Judicial Power.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Constant's other concerns included a "new type of <a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">federalism</a>": a serious attempt to decentralize French government through the devolution of powers to elected municipal councils. This proposal reached fruition in 1831, when elected municipal councils (albeit on a narrow <a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">franchise</a>) were created. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imperialism_and_conquest">Imperialism and conquest</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Imperialism and conquest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Constant was an opponent of imperialism and conquest, denouncing <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial policy</a> in the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a> and elsewhere as racist, unjust, and a violation of basic principles of human equality. He supported an extension of civil and political rights to non-white colonial subjects. He supported the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian revolution</a>, and argued that the institutions set up by Haitians were evidence that non-Europeans could found institutions equivalent to those of Europeans. He was a staunch proponent of <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek independence</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparative_religion">Comparative religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Comparative religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aside from his political and literary output, Constant spent forty years working on religion and religious feeling. His publications demonstrate his desire to grasp this social phenomenon inherent to human nature, which, in whatever forms it may present, is always a search for <a href="/wiki/Perfectibility" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfectibility">perfectibility</a>. If its manifestations become rigid, splitting becomes inevitable. Thus, however religious feeling may present, it needs to adapt and evolve. </p><p>Constant is adamant that political authority should not meddle in the religious beliefs of the citizenry, even to defend them. In his view it is up to each person to decide where to seek their consolation, moral compass or faith. External authority cannot act upon someone's convictions, it can only act upon their interests.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also condemns a religion that is commonly regarded as utilitarian, since it degrades authentic religious feeling. </p><p>He considers that it was necessary for <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheism</a> to decline in line with human progress. The more humans progress in their understanding, the more beneficial the effects of <a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">theism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Belief in a god has itself evolved. Christianity, especially <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> is, he argues, its most tolerant form and an indicator of intellectual, moral and spiritual evolution. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Novels">Novels</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Novels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Constant published only one novel during his lifetime, <i><a href="/wiki/Adolphe" title="Adolphe">Adolphe</a></i> (1816), the story of a young, indecisive man's disastrous love affair with an older mistress. A first-person novel in the sentimentalist tradition, <i>Adolphe</i> examines the thoughts of the young man as he falls in and out of love with Ellenore, a woman of uncertain virtue. Constant began the novel as an autobiographical tale of two loves, but decided that the reading public would object to serial passions. The love affair depicted in the finished version of the novel is thought to be based on Constant's affair with Anna Lindsay, who describes the affair in her correspondence (published in the <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, December 1930 – January 1931). The book has been compared to <a href="/wiki/Chateaubriand" class="mw-redirect" title="Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a>'s <i>René</i> or <a href="/wiki/Mme_de_Stael" class="mw-redirect" title="Mme de Stael">Mme de Stael</a>'s <i>Corinne</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a young man, Constant became acquainted with a literary friend of his uncle, <a href="/wiki/David-Louis_Constant_de_Rebecque" title="David-Louis Constant de Rebecque">David-Louis Constant de Rebecque</a>. She was <a href="/wiki/Isabelle_de_Charri%C3%A8re" title="Isabelle de Charrière">Isabelle de Charrière</a>, a Dutch woman of letters with whom he jointly wrote an <a href="/wiki/Epistolary_novel" title="Epistolary novel">epistolary novel</a>, under the title, <i>Les Lettres d'Arsillé fils, Sophie Durfé et autres</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The importance of Constant's writings on the liberty of the ancients and of that of his time has dominated understanding of his work, as has his critique of the French Revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British philosopher and historian of ideas, Sir <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a> has acknowledged his debt to Constant.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Constant's wider literary and cultural writings (most importantly the novella <i>Adolphe</i> and his extensive history of comparative religion) emphasised the importance of <a href="/wiki/Self-sacrifice" title="Self-sacrifice">self-sacrifice</a> and effect of human emotions as a basis for social living. Thus, while he pleaded for <a href="/wiki/Individual_liberty" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual liberty">individual liberty</a> as vital for individual and moral development and appropriate for modernity, he felt that egoism and self-interest were not part of a true definition of individual liberty. Emotional authenticity and fellow-feeling were critical. In this, his moral and religious thought was strongly influenced by the moral writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and German thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, whom he read in reference to his religious history. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Essays">Essays</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Essays"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EoO2PgAUFL8C"><i>De la force du gouvernement actuel de la France et de la nécessité de s'y rallier</i></a> (1796)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SvQOAAAAQAAJ"><i>Des réactions politiques</i></a> (1797)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/deseffetsdelater00cons/page/n1/mode/2up"><i>Des effets de la Terreur</i></a> (1797)</li> <li><i>Principes de politique</i> (1806)</li> <li><i>Fragments d'un ouvrage abandonné sur la possibilité d'une constitution républicaine dans un grand pays</i> (published in 1991 by Aubier, manuscript probably written between 1795 and 1810)</li> <li>Benjamin Constant, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8NJPAAAAcAAJ">"<i>De l’esprit de conquête et de l’usurpation dans leur rapports avec la civilisation européenne</i>"</a>, Hanovre, Londres et Paris, Hahn et H. Nicolle, 1814, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/729678587">729678587</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/BNF_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="BNF (identifier)">BnF</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cbFRBNF35284845.public">FRBNF35284845</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1157300">available</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Gallica" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallica">Gallica</a></i></li> <li><i>Réflexions sur les constitutions, la distribution des pouvoirs et les garanties dans une monarchie constitutionnelle</i> (1814)</li> <li><i>De l'esprit de conquête et d'usurpation dans leurs rapports avec la civilisation actuelle</i> (1815) (against <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a8lBAAAAcAAJ"><i>Principes de politique applicables à tous les gouvernements représentatifs et particulièrement á la constution actuelle de la France</i></a> (1815)/ Translated as: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/On_the_Sovereignty_of_the_People_1/mode/2up"><i>On the Sovereignty of the People</i></a>, 1996</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hc24YZmBvRgC"><i>De la doctrine politique qui peut réunir les partis en France</i></a> (1816)</li> <li><i>De la liberté de l'industrie</i> (1818)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iflNAAAAcAAJ"><i>Des élections de 1818</i></a> (1818)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/coursdepolitiqu01paggoog/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>Cours de politique constitutionnelle</i></a> (1818-1820). Nouvelle édition 1836</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ConstantBenjaminLiberteAnciensModernes1819"><i>De la liberté des Anciens comparée à celle des Modernes</i></a> (famous speech delivered in 1819)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uAsxAQAAIAAJ"><i>Mémoires sur les Cent-Jours</i></a> (1819-1820)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/commentairesurl00consgoog/page/n7/mode/2up"><i>Commentaire sur l'ouvrage de Filangieri</i></a> (1822)</li> <li>* <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kaNTAAAAcAAJ"><i>De la religion, considérée dans sa source, ses formes et ses développements</i>. Tome premier</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=laNTAAAAcAAJ">Tome II</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=maNTAAAAcAAJ">Tome III</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=maNTAAAAcAAJ">Tome IV</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oaNTAAAAcAAJ">Tome V</a> (1824–1834) (on ancient religion)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gTRCAAAAcAAJ"><i>Appel aux Nations chrétiennes en faveur des Grecs</i></a> (1825)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oaNTAAAAcAAJ"><i>Discours de M. Bejamin Constant à la Chambre des députés</i>. Tome premier</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FqdPAAAAcAAJ">Tome second</a> (1827-1828)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MYHcy0Kmtd8C"><i>Mélanges de littérature et de politique</i></a> (1829)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4vJNAAAAcAAJ"><i>Choix de rapports opinions et discours prononcés à la chambre des deputés</i></a> (1832)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bnf-bpt6k1054564f/page/n9/mode/2up"><i>Du polythéisme romain considéré dans ses rapports avec la philosophie grecque et la religion chrétienne</i></a> (1833)</li> <li><i>Correspondance de Benjamin Constant et d'Anna Lindsay – L'Inconnue d'Adolphe, publiée par la baronne Constant de Rebecque.</i> (Plon, 1933).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Novels_2">Novels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Novels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Dennis Wood, Isabelle de Charrière et Benjamin Constant. À propos d'une découverte récente. [Sur <i>Les Lettres d'Arsillé fils, Sophie Durfé</i> et autres, roman écrit par Benjamin Constant et Madame de Charrière.] In : <i>Studies on Voltaire and the eighteenth century</i>; 215. (Oxford, Voltaire Foundation, 1982), p. 273–279.</li> <li><i>Adolphe</i> (1816) – <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" class="extiw" title="q:Benjamin Constant">quotes</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autobiographical_writings">Autobiographical writings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Autobiographical writings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Le Cahier rouge</i> (1807), published posthumously (1907)</li> <li><i>Cécile</i> (écrit vers 1809), published posthumously (1951)<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Letters">Letters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Letters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rPxCAAAAcAAJ"><i>Lettre à M. Odillon-Barrot, avocat en la Cour de cassation, sur l'affaire de Wilfrid Regnault </i>Lettre à M. Odillon-Barrot, avocat en la Cour de cassation, sur l'affaire de Wilfrid Regnault, condamné à mort<i></i></a><i> (1818)</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sfxCAAAAcAAJ"><i>2me lettre à M. Odilon Barrot, avocat en la Cour de cassation, sur l'affaire de Wilfrid Regnault, condamné à mort</i></a> (1818)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7JxPAAAAcAAJ"><i>De l'appel en calomnie de M. le marquis de Blosseville, contre Wilfrid-Regnault</i></a> (1818)</li> <li>Correspondance Isabelle de Charrière et Benjamin Constant (1787–1805), Éd. Jean-Daniel Candaux. Paris, Desjonquères, 1996</li> <li>Renée Weingarten, Germaine de Staël & Benjamin Constant. <i>A dual Biography</i>, Yale, 2008.</li> <li>Lettres à Madame Récamier (1807–1830), Edition critique par Ephraïm Harpaz, Paris, Librairie C. Klincksieck, 1977.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intimate_Diary">Intimate Diary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Intimate Diary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Journaux intimes</i>, Édition de Jean-Marie Roulin, Éd. Gallimard, collection folio classique n°6382, Paris, 2017. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2070792146" title="Special:BookSources/978-2070792146">978-2070792146</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contributions_to_liberal_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Contributions to liberal theory">Contributions to liberal theory</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRenée_Winegarten2008" class="citation book cs1">Renée Winegarten (2008). <i>Germaine de Staël and Benjamin Constant</i>. Yale University Press. p. 82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300119251" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300119251"><bdi>978-0300119251</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germaine+de+Sta%C3%ABl+and+Benjamin+Constant&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0300119251&rft.au=Ren%C3%A9e+Winegarten&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span> He was granted French nationality in 1797 according to a law passed in 1790 to restore their citizenship to French people exiled on account of their religion.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Raico" title="Ralph Raico">Ralph Raico</a>, <i>Classical Liberalism and the Austrian School</i>, Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2012, p. 222.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaronna2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Garonna, Paolo (2010). <i>L'Europe de Coppet – Essai sur l'Europe de demain</i> (in French). Le Mont-sur-Lausanne: LEP Éditions Loisirs et Pėdagogie. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2606013691" title="Special:BookSources/978-2606013691"><bdi>978-2606013691</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27Europe+de+Coppet+%E2%80%93+Essai+sur+l%27Europe+de+demain&rft.place=Le+Mont-sur-Lausanne&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=LEP+%C3%89ditions+Loisirs+et+P%C4%97dagogie&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-2606013691&rft.aulast=Garonna&rft.aufirst=Paolo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mises.org/library/benjamin-constant-french-liberal-extraordinaire">Benjamin Constant: French Liberal Extraordinaire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mises_Institute" title="Mises Institute">Mises Institute</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Craiutu, A. (2012) A Virtue for Courageous Minds: Moderation in French Political Thought, 1748–1830, pp. 199, 202–203</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edmund Fawcett, <i>Liberalism: The Life of an Idea</i> (2nd ed. 2018) pp. 33–48</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BFVdUXEXhDYC&pg=PR23">"Benjamin Constant: philosophe, historien, romancier, homme d'état"</a>. Ardent Media. 26 November 1987. p. 38 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Constant%3A+philosophe%2C+historien%2C+romancier%2C+homme+d%27%C3%A9tat&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Ardent+Media&rft.date=1987-11-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBFVdUXEXhDYC%26pg%3DPR23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://assets.cambridge.org/97805218/56461/excerpt/9780521856461_excerpt.htm">"The Cambridge Companion to Constant"</a>. Assets.cambridge.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Constant&rft.pub=Assets.cambridge.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fassets.cambridge.org%2F97805218%2F56461%2Fexcerpt%2F9780521856461_excerpt.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Constant_-_Le_Cahier_rouge,_%C3%A9d._Constant_de_Rebecque.djvu&page=138">"Cahier Rouge, p. 122"</a>. Commons.wikimedia.org. 11 August 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cahier+Rouge%2C+p.+122&rft.pub=Commons.wikimedia.org&rft.date=2013-08-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DFile%3AConstant_-_Le_Cahier_rouge%2C_%25C3%25A9d._Constant_de_Rebecque.djvu%26page%3D138&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Their affair resulted in one presumed daughter <a href="/wiki/Albertine,_baroness_Sta%C3%ABl_von_Holstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Albertine, baroness Staël von Holstein">Albertine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Étienne Hofmann, <i>Les « Principes de politique » de Benjamin Constant</i>, Librairie Droz, 1980, vol. 1. pp. 187–193. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2600046747" title="Special:BookSources/2600046747">2600046747</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood1987" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Dennis (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BFVdUXEXhDYC&pg=PA222"><i>Benjamin Constant</i></a>. Ardent Media. p. 222.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Constant&rft.pages=222&rft.pub=Ardent+Media&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Dennis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBFVdUXEXhDYC%26pg%3DPA222&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203000534/http://etudes-revolutionnaires.org/prestashop/product.php?id_product=50">"Un journaliste contre-révolutionnaire, Jean-Gabriel Peltier (1760–1825) – Etudes Révolutionnaires"</a>. Etudes-revolutionnaires.org. 7 October 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etudes-revolutionnaires.org/prestashop/product.php?id_product=50">the original</a> on 3 December 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Un+journaliste+contre-r%C3%A9volutionnaire%2C+Jean-Gabriel+Peltier+%281760%E2%80%931825%29+%E2%80%93+Etudes+R%C3%A9volutionnaires&rft.pub=Etudes-revolutionnaires.org&rft.date=2011-10-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetudes-revolutionnaires.org%2Fprestashop%2Fproduct.php%3Fid_product%3D50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadame_de_Stael1862" class="citation book cs1">Madame de Stael (1862). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/madamedestaelan00staegoog"><i>Madame De Stael and the Grand-Duchess Louise</i></a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/madamedestaelan00staegoog/page/n52">24</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Madame+De+Stael+and+the+Grand-Duchess+Louise&rft.pages=24&rft.date=1862&rft.au=Madame+de+Stael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmadamedestaelan00staegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">G. Lanson, P. Tuffrau, Manuel d'histoire de la Littérature Française, Hachette, Paris 1953</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2002" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Dennis (2002). <i>Benjamin Constant: A Biography</i>. Routledge. p. 185.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Constant%3A+A+Biography&rft.pages=185&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Dennis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.grandeoriente.it/benjamin-constant-e-la-dicotomia-tra-la-liberta-degli-antichi-e-la-liberta-dei-moderni-il-filosofo-fondatore-del-liberalismo-fu-un-faro-per-il-massone-bruno-segre-c/">"Benjamin Constant e la dicotomia tra la libertá degli antichi e la libertá dei moderni. Il filosofo fondatore del liberalismo fu un faro per il massone Bruno Segre"</a> (in Italian). <a href="/wiki/Grand_Orient_of_Italy" title="Grand Orient of Italy">Grand Orient of Italy</a>. 7 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Constant+e+la+dicotomia+tra+la+libert%C3%A1+degli+antichi+e+la+libert%C3%A1+dei+moderni.+Il+filosofo+fondatore+del+liberalismo+fu+un+faro+per+il+massone+Bruno+Segre&rft.pub=Grand+Orient+of+Italy&rft.date=2024-02-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.grandeoriente.it%2Fbenjamin-constant-e-la-dicotomia-tra-la-liberta-degli-antichi-e-la-liberta-dei-moderni-il-filosofo-fondatore-del-liberalismo-fu-un-faro-per-il-massone-bruno-segre-c%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Location: in division 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AncientModern-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AncientModern_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AncientModern_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AncientModern_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AncientModern_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120805184450/http://www.uark.edu/depts/comminfo/cambridge/ancients.html">"Constant, Benjamin, 1988, 'The Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns' (1819), in The Political Writings of Benjamin Constant, ed. Biancamaria Fontana, Cambridge, pp. 309–328"</a>. Uark.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uark.edu/depts/comminfo/cambridge/ancients.html">the original</a> on 5 August 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Constant%2C+Benjamin%2C+1988%2C+%27The+Liberty+of+the+Ancients+Compared+with+that+of+the+Moderns%27+%281819%29%2C+in+The+Political+Writings+of+Benjamin+Constant%2C+ed.+Biancamaria+Fontana%2C+Cambridge%2C+pp.+309%E2%80%93328&rft.pub=Uark.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uark.edu%2Fdepts%2Fcomminfo%2Fcambridge%2Fancients.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rosenblatt_2004-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rosenblatt_2004_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rosenblatt_2004_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rosenblatt 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertholet2021" class="citation journal cs1">Bertholet, Auguste (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.slatkine.com/fr/editions-slatkine/75250-book-05077807-3600120175625.html">"Constant, Sismondi et la Pologne"</a>. <i>Annales Benjamin Constant</i>. <b>46</b>: 65–85.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+Benjamin+Constant&rft.atitle=Constant%2C+Sismondi+et+la+Pologne&rft.volume=46&rft.pages=65-85&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Bertholet&rft.aufirst=Auguste&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.slatkine.com%2Ffr%2Feditions-slatkine%2F75250-book-05077807-3600120175625.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Furet 1981, p. 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.napoleon-series.org/research/government/legislation/c_additional.html">"The Act Additional 1815"</a>. <i>www.napoleon-series.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.napoleon-series.org&rft.atitle=The+Act+Additional+1815&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.napoleon-series.org%2Fresearch%2Fgovernment%2Flegislation%2Fc_additional.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCulverde_Oliveira_Torres1968" class="citation journal cs1">Culver, John W.; de Oliveira Torres, Joao Camillo (May 1968). "A democracia coroada. Teoria politica de Imperio do Brasil". <i>The Hispanic American Historical Review</i>. <b>48</b> (2): 338. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2510809">10.2307/2510809</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2168">0018-2168</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2510809">2510809</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hispanic+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=A+democracia+coroada.+Teoria+politica+de+Imperio+do+Brasil.&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=338&rft.date=1968-05&rft.issn=0018-2168&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2510809%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2510809&rft.aulast=Culver&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft.au=de+Oliveira+Torres%2C+Joao+Camillo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPitts2005" class="citation book cs1">Pitts, Jennifer (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=szeU8olEDewC"><i>A Turn to Empire: The Rise of Imperial Liberalism in Britain and France</i></a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 173–183. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1400826636" title="Special:BookSources/978-1400826636"><bdi>978-1400826636</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Turn+to+Empire%3A+The+Rise+of+Imperial+Liberalism+in+Britain+and+France&rft.pages=173-183&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1400826636&rft.aulast=Pitts&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DszeU8olEDewC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Constant. Principes de politique, Livre VIII, chapitre IV</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Constant. <i>Polythéisme romain</i>, II, p. 312</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood, Dennis. <i>Isabelle de Charrière et Benjamin Constant. À propos d'une découverte récente</i>. [Sur <i>Les Lettres d'Arsillé fils, Sophie Durfé et autres</i>, roman écrit par Benjamin Constant et Madame de Charrière.] In : <i>Studies on Voltaire and the eighteenth century</i>; 215. (Oxford, <a href="/wiki/Voltaire_Foundation" title="Voltaire Foundation">Voltaire Foundation</a>, 1982), p. 273–279.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHofmann,_Étienne1982" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hofmann, Étienne, ed. (1982). <i>Benjamin Constant, Madame de Staël et le Groupe de Coppet: Actes du Deuxième Congrès de Lausanne à l'occasion du 150e anniversaire de la mort de Benjamin Constant Et Du Troisième Colloque de Coppet, 15–19 juilliet 1980</i> (in French). Oxford, The <a href="/wiki/Voltaire_Foundation" title="Voltaire Foundation">Voltaire Foundation</a> and Lausanne, Institut Benjamin Constant. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0729402800" title="Special:BookSources/0729402800"><bdi>0729402800</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Constant%2C+Madame+de+Sta%C3%ABl+et+le+Groupe+de+Coppet%3A+Actes+du+Deuxi%C3%A8me+Congr%C3%A8s+de+Lausanne+%C3%A0+l%27occasion+du+150e+anniversaire+de+la+mort+de+Benjamin+Constant+Et+Du+Troisi%C3%A8me+Colloque+de+Coppet%2C+15%E2%80%9319+juilliet+1980&rft.pub=Oxford%2C+The+Voltaire+Foundation+and+Lausanne%2C+Institut+Benjamin+Constant&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0729402800&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosen,_Frederick2005" class="citation book cs1">Rosen, Frederick (2005). <i>Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill</i>. Routledge. p. 251.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Utilitarianism+from+Hume+to+Mill&rft.pages=251&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Rosen%2C+Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span> According to Berlin, the most eloquent of all defenders of freedom and privacy [was] Benjamin Constant, who had not forgotten the Jacobin dictatorship.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henriot, Émile. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1951/06/20/benjamin-constant-inedit_2075337_1819218.html">« Benjamin Constant inédit », sur lemonde.fr</a>, 20 juin 1951 (accessed 17 February 2020).</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Biancamaria Fontana, <i>Benjamin Constant and the Post-Revolutionary Mind</i> (1991. Yale U.P., New Haven – London)</li> <li>Carpenter, Catrine. "Benjamin Constant's religious politics" <i>History of European Ideas</i> 35#4 (2009), 503–509.</li> <li>Constant, Benjamin. <i>Constant: Political Writings</i> (Cambridge UP, 1988).</li> <li>Dodge, Guy Howard. <i>Benjamin Constant's Philosophy of Liberalism: A Study in Politics & Religion</i> (1980) 195 pp.</li> <li>Gauchet, Marcel. "Constant," in <i>A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution,</i> ed. François Furet and Mona Ozouf (1989), p. 924.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hart, David (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC">"Constant, Benjamin (1767–1830)"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a> (ed.). <i>The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism</i>. Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">Sage</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. pp. 97–98. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n63">10.4135/9781412965811.n63</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1412965804" title="Special:BookSources/978-1412965804"><bdi>978-1412965804</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151">2008009151</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Constant%2C+Benjamin+%281767%E2%80%931830%29&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=97-98&rft.pub=Sage%3B+Cato+Institute&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750831024&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008009151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412965811.n63&rft.isbn=978-1412965804&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyxNgXs3TkJYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Pitt, A. "The Religion of the Moderns: Freedom and Authenticity in Constant's De la Religion", in <i>History of Political Thought</i>; 21#1 (2000), 67–87.</li> <li>Rosenblatt, Helena, ed. <i>The Cambridge Companion to Constant</i>, (2009. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge)</li> <li>Rosenblatt, Helena, <i>Liberal Values: Benjamin Constant and the Politics of Religion</i>, (2011. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107402300" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107402300">978-1107402300</a></li> <li>Steven, Vincent, K. "Benjamin Constant, the French Revolution, and the Origins of French Romantic Liberalism", <i>French Historical Studies</i>; 23:4 (2000 Fall), pp. 607–637 in <a href="/wiki/Project_MUSE" class="mw-redirect" title="Project MUSE">Project MUSE</a></li> <li>Vincent, K. Steven. <i>Benjamin Constant and the Birth of French Liberalism</i> (Springer, 2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9780230110090">online.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVincent2013" class="citation journal cs1">Vincent, K. Steven (2013). "The Liberalism of Sismondi and Constant". <i>The European Legacy</i>. <b>18</b> (7): 912–916. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10848770.2013.839497">10.1080/10848770.2013.839497</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219640988">219640988</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+European+Legacy&rft.atitle=The+Liberalism+of+Sismondi+and+Constant&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=912-916&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10848770.2013.839497&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219640988%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Vincent&rft.aufirst=K.+Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Wood, Dennis. <i>Benjamin Constant: A Biography</i> (1993).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_languages">Other languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Other languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Mauro Barberis, <i>Benjamin Constant. Rivoluzione, costituzione, progresso</i> (1988. Il Mulino, Bologna)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bastid" title="Paul Bastid">Paul Bastid</a>, <i>Benjamin Constant et sa doctrine</i>, I–II (1966. Colin, Paris)</li> <li>Pierre Deguise, <i>Benjamin Constant méconnu. Le livre De la religion, avec des documents inédits</i> (1966. Droz, Genève)</li> <li>Stefano De Luca, <i>Il pensiero politico di Benjamin Constant</i> (1993. Laterza, Roma-Bari)</li> <li>Béatrice Fink (dir.), <i>Benjamin Constant : philosophe, historien, romancier et homme d'État</i> (actes du colloque de l'université du Maryland, octobre 1989), Lausanne, Institut Benjamin Constant ; Paris, J. Touzot, 1991, 186 pp.</li> <li>Luca Fezzi, <i>Il rimpianto di Roma. 'Res publica', libertà 'neoromane' e Benjamin Constant, agli inizi del terzo millennio</i> (2012, Firenze, Le Monnier)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Furet" title="François Furet">François Furet</a>, "La Révolution sans la Terreur? Le débat des historiens du XIXe siècle", in <i><a href="/wiki/Le_D%C3%A9bat" title="Le Débat">Le Débat</a></i> pp. 13, 41. (1981)</li> <li>Henri Guillemin, <i>Benjamin Constant, muscadin</i>, Paris, Gallimard, 1958</li> <li>Kurt Kloocke, <i>Benjamin Constant. Une biographie intellectuelle</i> (1984. Droz, Genève)</li> <li>Giovanni Paoletti, <i>Benjamin Constant et les Anciens. Politique, réligion, histoire</i> (2006. Champion, Paris)</li> <li>Tzvetan Todorov, <i>Benjamin Constant: la passion democratique</i> (1997. Hachette, Paris)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Benjamin_Constant" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Benjamin Constant">Benjamin Constant</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Benjamin_Constant" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Benjamin Constant">Benjamin Constant</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Constant de Rebecque, Henri Benjamin"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Constant_de_Rebecque,_Henri_Benjamin">"Constant de Rebecque, Henri Benjamin" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). 1911.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Constant+de+Rebecque%2C+Henri+Benjamin&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenjamin+Constant" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nb-helveticat.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/search?query=any,contains,%22Benjamin+Constant%22&tab=LibraryCatalog&search_scope=MyInstitution&vid=41SNL_51_INST:helveticat&lang=de&offset=0">Publications by and about Benjamin Constant</a> in the catalogue Helveticat of the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_National_Library" title="Swiss National Library">Swiss National Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/5256">Works by Benjamin Constant</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Constant%2C%20Benjamin%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Benjamin%20Constant%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Constant%2C%20Benjamin%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Benjamin%20Constant%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Constant%2C%20B%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Benjamin%20Constant%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Constant%2C%20Benjamin%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Benjamin%20Constant%22%29%20OR%20%28%221767-1830%22%20AND%20Constant%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Benjamin Constant</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unil.ch/ibc/">Institut Benjamin Constant homepage</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070204105059/http://www.librerebecq.be/">Rebecq liberal</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fare.tunes.org/books/Faguet/benjamin_constant.html">Intellectual portrait of B. C. by Emile Faguet</a> (in French)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120805184450/http://www.uark.edu/depts/comminfo/cambridge/ancients.html">The Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns</a> (1816)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oll-resources.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/oll3/store/titles/861/Constant_0452_EBk_v6.0.pdf"><i>Principles of Politics Applicable to All Governments</i></a></li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/">Lecture on ancient and modern liberty</a></i> contains a readable version for contemporary students</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/7807">Benjamin Constant <small>Original name: Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque</small></a> at <a href="/wiki/Find_a_Grave" title="Find a Grave">Find a Grave</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libertarianinstitute.org/articles/how-a-classical-frenchman-predicted-the-21st-centurys-humanitarian-interventions/">How a Classical Frenchman Predicted the 21st Century’s ‘Humanitarian Interventions’</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Romanticism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Romanticism" title="Template:Romanticism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Romanticism" title="Template talk:Romanticism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Romanticism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Romanticism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Romanticism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Golden_Age" title="Danish Golden Age">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">England (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_France" title="Romanticism in France">France</a> <a href="/wiki/19th-century_French_literature#Romanticism" title="19th-century French literature">(literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Roman" title="Taishō Roman">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_romantic_nationalism" title="Norwegian romantic nationalism">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland" title="Romanticism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Russian_Poetry" title="Golden Age of Russian Poetry">Russia (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Scotland" title="Romanticism in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Spanish_literature" title="Romanticism in Spanish literature">Spain (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Romantic_literature" title="Swedish Romantic literature">Sweden (literature)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancients_(art_group)" title="Ancients (art group)">Ancients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemianism" title="Bohemianism">Bohemianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coppet_group" title="Coppet group">Coppet group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Romanticism" title="Dark Romanticism">Dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf_School_of_painting" title="Düsseldorf School of painting">Düsseldorf School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_historical_school" title="German historical school">German historical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson_River_School" title="Hudson River School">Hudson River School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indianism_(arts)" title="Indianism (arts)">Indianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jena_Romanticism" title="Jena Romanticism">Jena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Poets" title="Lake Poets">Lake Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazarene_movement" title="Nazarene movement">Nazarene movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-romanticism" title="Neo-romanticism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preromanticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Preromanticism">Pre</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sturm_und_Drang" title="Sturm und Drang">Sturm und Drang</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-romanticism" title="Post-romanticism">Post</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Purismo" title="Purismo">Purismo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_school" title="Ukrainian school">Ukrainian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-Romanticism" title="Ultra-Romanticism">Ultra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Wallenrod" title="Konrad Wallenrod">Wallenrodism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_flower" title="Blue flower">Blue flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Marine_Art_(Romantic_Era)" title="British Marine Art (Romantic Era)">British Marine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gesamtkunstwerk" title="Gesamtkunstwerk">Gesamtkunstwerk</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">Gothic fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hero" title="Hero">Hero</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byronic_hero" title="Byronic hero">Byronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_hero" title="Romantic hero">Romantic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical fiction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mal_du_si%C3%A8cle" title="Mal du siècle">Mal du siècle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble savage">Noble savage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostalgia#Romanticism" title="Nostalgia">Nostalgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossian" title="Ossian">Ossian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine_romanticism" title="Rhine romanticism">Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genius_(literature)#Romanticism_and_genius" title="Genius (literature)">Romantic genius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanderlust" title="Wanderlust">Wanderlust</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Weltschmerz" title="Weltschmerz">Weltschmerz</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Mountain_art" title="White Mountain art">White Mountain art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism#Literature" title="Romanticism">Writers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Brazil</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casimiro_de_Abreu" title="Casimiro de Abreu">Abreu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Alencar" title="José de Alencar">Alencar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Ant%C3%B4nio_de_Almeida" title="Manuel Antônio de Almeida">Manuel Antônio de Almeida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castro_Alves" title="Castro Alves">Alves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machado_de_Assis" title="Machado de Assis">Assis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvares_de_Azevedo" title="Álvares de Azevedo">Azevedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobias_Barreto" title="Tobias Barreto">Barreto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_Dias" title="Gonçalves Dias">Dias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Guimar%C3%A3es" title="Bernardo Guimarães">Guimarães</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joaquim_Manuel_de_Macedo" title="Joaquim Manuel de Macedo">Macedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_de_Magalh%C3%A3es,_Viscount_of_Araguaia" title="Gonçalves de Magalhães, Viscount of Araguaia">Magalhães</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Firmina_dos_Reis" title="Maria Firmina dos Reis">Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfredo_d%27Escragnolle_Taunay,_Viscount_of_Taunay" title="Alfredo d'Escragnolle Taunay, Viscount of Taunay">Taunay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fagundes_Varela" title="Fagundes Varela">Varela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_France#Literature" title="Romanticism in France">France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Baudelaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aloysius_Bertrand" title="Aloysius Bertrand">Bertrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas" title="Alexandre Dumas">Dumas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9ophile_Gautier" title="Théophile Gautier">Gautier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Hugo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Lamartine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosper_M%C3%A9rim%C3%A9e" title="Prosper Mérimée">Mérimée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Musset" title="Alfred de Musset">Musset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_de_Nerval" title="Gérard de Nerval">Nerval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Nodier" title="Charles Nodier">Nodier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Vigny" title="Alfred de Vigny">Vigny</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achim_von_Arnim" title="Achim von Arnim">A. v. Arnim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettina_von_Arnim" title="Bettina von Arnim">B. v. Arnim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beer_(poet)" title="Michael Beer (poet)">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clemens_Brentano" title="Clemens Brentano">Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Freiherr_von_Eichendorff" title="Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff">Eichendorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_de_la_Motte_Fouqu%C3%A9" title="Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué">Fouqué</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brothers_Grimm" title="Brothers Grimm">Brothers Grimm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karoline_von_G%C3%BCnderrode" title="Karoline von Günderrode">Günderrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Gutzkow" title="Karl Gutzkow">Gutzkow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Hauff" title="Wilhelm Hauff">Hauff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Heine" title="Heinrich Heine">Heine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._T._A._Hoffmann" title="E. T. A. Hoffmann">Hoffmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin" title="Friedrich Hölderlin">Hölderlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Paul" title="Jean Paul">Jean Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Kleist" title="Heinrich von Kleist">Kleist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_M%C3%B6rike" title="Eduard Mörike">Mörike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Schwab" title="Gustav Schwab">Schwab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Tieck" title="Ludwig Tieck">Tieck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Uhland" title="Ludwig Uhland">Uhland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">Great<br />Britain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Laetitia_Barbauld" title="Anna Laetitia Barbauld">Barbauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Bront%C3%AB" title="Anne Brontë">Anne Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Bront%C3%AB" title="Charlotte Brontë">C. Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Bront%C3%AB" title="Emily Brontë">E. Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Byron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Clare" title="John Clare">Clare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_De_Quincey" title="Thomas De Quincey">de Quincey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Edgeworth" title="Maria Edgeworth">Maria Edgeworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Keats" title="John Keats">Keats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maturin" title="Charles Maturin">Maturin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Polidori" title="John William Polidori">Polidori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_Radcliffe" title="Ann Radcliffe">Radcliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Robinson_(poet)" title="Mary Robinson (poet)">Mary Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Seward" title="Anna Seward">Seward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">M. Shelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">P. B. Shelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Southey" title="Robert Southey">Southey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">Wordsworth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland#Notable_Polish_Romantic_writers_and_poets" title="Romanticism in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleksander_Fredro" title="Aleksander Fredro">Fredro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Krasi%C5%84ski" title="Zygmunt Krasiński">Krasiński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Ignacy_Kraszewski" title="Józef Ignacy Kraszewski">Józef Ignacy Kraszewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Malczewski" title="Antoni Malczewski">Malczewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz" title="Adam Mickiewicz">Mickiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprian_Norwid" title="Cyprian Norwid">Norwid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Potocki" title="Jan Potocki">Potocki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wincenty_Pol" title="Wincenty Pol">Wincenty Pol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki" title="Juliusz Słowacki">Słowacki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camilo_Castelo_Branco" title="Camilo Castelo Branco">Castelo Branco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Feliciano_de_Castilho" title="António Feliciano de Castilho">Castilho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Deus_de_Nogueira_Ramos" title="João de Deus de Nogueira Ramos">João de Deus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BAlio_Dinis" title="Júlio Dinis">Dinis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almeida_Garrett" title="Almeida Garrett">Garrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Herculano" title="Alexandre Herculano">Herculano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Augusto_Soares_de_Passos" title="António Augusto Soares de Passos">Soares dos Passos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Baratynsky" title="Yevgeny Baratynsky">Baratynsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Batyushkov" title="Konstantin Batyushkov">Batyushkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol" title="Nikolai Gogol">Gogol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Karamzin" title="Nikolay Karamzin">Karamzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_K%C3%BCchelbecker" title="Wilhelm Küchelbecker">Küchelbecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lermontov" title="Mikhail Lermontov">Lermontov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin" title="Alexander Pushkin">Pushkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Tyutchev" title="Fyodor Tyutchev">Tyutchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Vyazemsky" title="Pyotr Vyazemsky">Vyazemsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Zhukovsky" title="Vasily Zhukovsky">Zhukovsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90ura_Jak%C5%A1i%C4%87" title="Đura Jakšić">Jakšić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laza_Kosti%C4%87" title="Laza Kostić">Kostić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petar_II_Petrovi%C4%87-Njego%C5%A1" title="Petar II Petrović-Njegoš">Njegoš</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branko_Radi%C4%8Devi%C4%87" title="Branko Radičević">Radičević</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milica_Stojadinovi%C4%87-Srpkinja" title="Milica Stojadinović-Srpkinja">Stojadinović-Srpkinja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jovan_Jovanovi%C4%87_Zmaj" title="Jovan Jovanović Zmaj">Zmaj</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gustavo_Adolfo_B%C3%A9cquer" title="Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer">Bécquer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosal%C3%ADa_de_Castro" title="Rosalía de Castro">Rosalía de Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Espronceda" title="José de Espronceda">Espronceda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Garc%C3%ADa_Guti%C3%A9rrez" title="Antonio García Gutiérrez">Gutiérrez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81ngel_de_Saavedra,_3rd_Duke_of_Rivas" title="Ángel de Saavedra, 3rd Duke of Rivas">Saavedra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Zorrilla" title="José Zorrilla">Zorrilla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">U.S.</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen_Bryant" title="William Cullen Bryant">Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Fenimore_Cooper" title="James Fenimore Cooper">Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Hawthorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Gilbert_Holland" title="Josiah Gilbert Holland">Josiah Gilbert Holland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Irving" title="Washington Irving">Irving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow" title="Henry Wadsworth Longfellow">Longfellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Russell_Lowell" title="James Russell Lowell">Lowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Poe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khachatur_Abovian" title="Khachatur Abovian">Abovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Alfieri" title="Vittorio Alfieri">Alfieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_Andersen" title="Hans Christian Andersen">Andersen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikoloz_Baratashvili" title="Nikoloz Baratashvili">Baratashvili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hristo_Botev" title="Hristo Botev">Botev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Chavchavadze" title="Alexander Chavchavadze">Chavchavadze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mihai_Eminescu" title="Mihai Eminescu">Eminescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_Foscolo" title="Ugo Foscolo">Foscolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naim_Frash%C3%ABri" title="Naim Frashëri">Frashëri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Gustaf_Geijer" title="Erik Gustaf Geijer">Geijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N._F._S._Grundtvig" title="N. F. S. Grundtvig">Grundtvig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Heliade_R%C4%83dulescu" title="Ion Heliade Rădulescu">Heliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jorge_Isaacs" title="Jorge Isaacs">Isaacs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaus_Lenau" title="Nikolaus Lenau">Lenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Leopardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_Hynek_M%C3%A1cha" title="Karel Hynek Mácha">Mácha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Manzoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maturin" title="Charles Maturin">Maturin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Oehlenschl%C3%A4ger" title="Adam Oehlenschläger">Oehlenschläger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigol_Orbeliani" title="Grigol Orbeliani">Orbeliani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_Pre%C5%A1eren" title="France Prešeren">Prešeren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raffi_(novelist)" title="Raffi (novelist)">Raffi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Ludvig_Runeberg" title="Johan Ludvig Runeberg">Runeberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taras_Shevchenko" title="Taras Shevchenko">Shevchenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachris_Topelius" title="Zachris Topelius">Topelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mih%C3%A1ly_V%C3%B6r%C3%B6smarty" title="Mihály Vörösmarty">Vörösmarty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrik_Wergeland" title="Henrik Wergeland">Wergeland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romantic_music" title="Romantic music">Musicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Austria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Bruckner" title="Anton Bruckner">Bruckner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Czerny" title="Carl Czerny">Czerny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Nepomuk_Hummel" title="Johann Nepomuk Hummel">Hummel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Mahler" title="Gustav Mahler">Mahler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Schubert" title="Franz Schubert">Schubert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigismond_Thalberg" title="Sigismond Thalberg">Thalberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Wolf" title="Hugo Wolf">Wolf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Czechia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k" title="Antonín Dvořák">Dvořák</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Moscheles" title="Ignaz Moscheles">Moscheles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Reicha" title="Anton Reicha">Reicha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed%C5%99ich_Smetana" title="Bedřich Smetana">Smetana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_V%C3%A1clav_Vo%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1ek" title="Jan Václav Voříšek">Voříšek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Adam" title="Adolphe Adam">Adam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Valentin_Alkan" title="Charles-Valentin Alkan">Alkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Auber" title="Daniel Auber">Auber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hector_Berlioz" title="Hector Berlioz">Berlioz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Faur%C3%A9" title="Gabriel Fauré">Fauré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fromental_Hal%C3%A9vy" title="Fromental Halévy">Halévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_M%C3%A9hul" title="Étienne Méhul">Méhul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Onslow_(composer)" title="George Onslow (composer)">Onslow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Saint-Sa%C3%ABns" title="Camille Saint-Saëns">Saint-Saëns</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Beethoven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Brahms" title="Johannes Brahms">Brahms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Bruch" title="Max Bruch">Bruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Kalkbrenner" title="Friedrich Kalkbrenner">Kalkbrenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Loewe" title="Carl Loewe">Loewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Marschner" title="Heinrich Marschner">Marschner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanny_Mendelssohn" title="Fanny Mendelssohn">Fanny Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn" title="Felix Mendelssohn">Felix Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Meyerbeer" title="Giacomo Meyerbeer">Meyerbeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Moszkowski" title="Moritz Moszkowski">Moszkowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Schumann" title="Clara Schumann">C. Schumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schumann" title="Robert Schumann">R. Schumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Spohr" title="Louis Spohr">Spohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Strauss" title="Richard Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Wagner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Maria_von_Weber" title="Carl Maria von Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hungary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Erkel" title="Ferenc Erkel">Erkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Goldmark" title="Karl Goldmark">Goldmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Heller" title="Stephen Heller">Heller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jen%C5%91_Hubay" title="Jenő Hubay">Hubay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Joachim" title="Joseph Joachim">Joachim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Liszt" title="Franz Liszt">Liszt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Bellini" title="Vincenzo Bellini">Bellini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferruccio_Busoni" title="Ferruccio Busoni">Busoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Cherubini" title="Luigi Cherubini">Cherubini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Donizetti" title="Gaetano Donizetti">Donizetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Paganini" title="Niccolò Paganini">Paganini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gioachino_Rossini" title="Gioachino Rossini">Rossini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspare_Spontini" title="Gaspare Spontini">Spontini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Verdi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bortkiewicz" title="Sergei Bortkiewicz">Bortkiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin" title="Frédéric Chopin">Chopin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karol_Lipi%C5%84ski" title="Karol Lipiński">Lipiński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Moniuszko" title="Stanisław Moniuszko">Moniuszko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski" title="Ignacy Jan Paderewski">Paderewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Stolpe" title="Antoni Stolpe">Stolpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Tausig" title="Karl Tausig">Tausig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henryk_Wieniawski" title="Henryk Wieniawski">Wieniawski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Arensky" title="Anton Arensky">Arensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mily_Balakirev" title="Mily Balakirev">Balakirev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Borodin" title="Alexander Borodin">Borodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Cui" title="César Cui">Cui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Glinka" title="Mikhail Glinka">Glinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Lyapunov" title="Sergei Lyapunov">Lyapunov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Medtner" title="Nikolai Medtner">Medtner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modest_Mussorgsky" title="Modest Mussorgsky">Mussorgsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Rachmaninoff" title="Sergei Rachmaninoff">Rachmaninoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Rimsky-Korsakov" title="Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov">Rimsky-Korsakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Rubinstein" title="Anton Rubinstein">Rubinstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Scriabin" title="Alexander Scriabin">Scriabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky" title="Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky">Tchaikovsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stevan_Hristi%C4%87" title="Stevan Hristić">Hristić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petar_Konjovi%C4%87" title="Petar Konjović">Konjović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stevan_Mokranjac" title="Stevan Mokranjac">Mokranjac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kornelije_Stankovi%C4%87" title="Kornelije Stanković">Stanković</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterndale_Bennett" title="William Sterndale Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Berwald" title="Franz Berwald">Berwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Elgar" title="Edward Elgar">Elgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Field_(composer)" title="John Field (composer)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Franck" title="César Franck">Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edvard_Grieg" title="Edvard Grieg">Grieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Sibelius" title="Jean Sibelius">Sibelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Sor" title="Fernando Sor">Sor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_philosophy" title="Romanticism in philosophy">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vissarion_Belinsky" title="Vissarion Belinsky">Belinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Berchet" title="Giovanni Berchet">Berchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Chaadayev" title="Pyotr Chaadayev">Chaadayev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hazlitt" title="William Hazlitt">Hazlitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksey_Khomyakov" title="Aleksey Khomyakov">Khomyakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_de_La_Mennais" title="Félicité de La Mennais">Lamennais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariano_Jos%C3%A9_de_Larra" title="Mariano José de Larra">Larra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Michelet" title="Jules Michelet">Michelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Quinet" title="Edgar Quinet">Quinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel" title="August Wilhelm Schlegel">A. Schlegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schlegel" title="Friedrich Schlegel">F. Schlegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Pivert_de_Senancour" title="Étienne Pivert de Senancour">Senancour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Vilhelm_Snellman" title="Johan Vilhelm Snellman">Snellman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Tieck" title="Ludwig Tieck">Tieck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Heinrich_Wackenroder" title="Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder">Wackenroder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism#Visual_arts" title="Romanticism">Visual artists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Aivazovsky" title="Ivan Aivazovsky">Aivazovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bierstadt" title="Albert Bierstadt">Bierstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Parkes_Bonington" title="Richard Parkes Bonington">Bonington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Bryullov" title="Karl Bryullov">Bryullov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Chass%C3%A9riau" title="Théodore Chassériau">Chassériau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Edwin_Church" title="Frederic Edwin Church">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Constable" title="John Constable">Constable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cole" title="Thomas Cole">Cole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot" title="Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot">Corot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Christian_Dahl" title="Johan Christian Dahl">Dahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_d%27Angers" title="David d'Angers">David d'Angers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Delacroix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Edelfelt" title="Albert Edelfelt">Edelfelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspar_David_Friedrich" title="Caspar David Friedrich">Friedrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Fuseli" title="Henry Fuseli">Fuseli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akseli_Gallen-Kallela" title="Akseli Gallen-Kallela">Gallen-Kallela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault" title="Théodore Géricault">Géricault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne-Louis_Girodet_de_Roussy-Trioson" title="Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson">Girodet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Nepomucen_G%C5%82owacki" title="Jan Nepomucen Głowacki">Głowacki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Goya" title="Francisco Goya">Goya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Gude" title="Hans Gude">Gude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Hayez" title="Francesco Hayez">Hayez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Janmot" title="Louis Janmot">Janmot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jones_(artist)" title="Thomas Jones (artist)">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orest_Kiprensky" title="Orest Kiprensky">Kiprensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Anton_Koch" title="Joseph Anton Koch">Koch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franciszek_Ksawery_Lampi" title="Franciszek Ksawery Lampi">Lampi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Leutze" title="Emanuel Leutze">Leutze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Martin_(painter)" title="John Martin (painter)">Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piotr_Micha%C5%82owski" title="Piotr Michałowski">Michałowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Palmer" title="Samuel Palmer">Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_de_Ara%C3%BAjo_Porto-Alegre,_Baron_of_Santo_%C3%82ngelo" title="Manuel de Araújo Porto-Alegre, Baron of Santo Ângelo">Porto-Alegre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine-Augustin_Pr%C3%A9ault" title="Antoine-Augustin Préault">Préault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_R%C3%A9voil" title="Pierre Révoil">Révoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleury_Fran%C3%A7ois_Richard" title="Fleury François Richard">Richard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Rude" title="François Rude">Rude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Otto_Runge" title="Philipp Otto Runge">Runge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raden_Saleh" title="Raden Saleh">Saleh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ary_Scheffer" title="Ary Scheffer">Scheffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Stattler" title="Wojciech Stattler">Stattler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Stroy" title="Michael Stroy">Stroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolph_Tidemand" title="Adolph Tidemand">Tidemand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Tropinin" title="Vasily Tropinin">Tropinin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Veit" title="Philipp Veit">Veit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Ward_(English_artist)" title="James Ward (English artist)">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Wiertz" title="Antoine Wiertz">Wiertz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Scholars" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholars">Scholars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Abraham" title="Gerald Abraham">Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._H._Abrams" title="M. H. Abrams">Abrams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Barzun" title="Jacques Barzun">Barzun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_C._Beiser" title="Frederick C. Beiser">Beiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._C._W._Blanning" title="T. C. W. Blanning">Blanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom" title="Harold Bloom">Bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Blume" title="Friedrich Blume">Blume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Dahlhaus" title="Carl Dahlhaus">Dahlhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ferber" title="Michael Ferber">Ferber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northrop_Frye" title="Northrop Frye">Frye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Janion" title="Maria Janion">Janion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Lacoue-Labarthe" title="Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe">Lacoue-Labarthe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy" title="Arthur Oncken Lovejoy">Lovejoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Nancy" title="Jean-Luc Nancy">Nancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrik_Gabriel_Porthan" title="Henrik Gabriel Porthan">Porthan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Ricks" title="Christopher Ricks">Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Rosen" title="Charles Rosen">Rosen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Wellek" title="René Wellek">Wellek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coleridge%27s_theory_of_life" title="Coleridge's theory of life">Coleridge's theory of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_romantics" title="List of romantics">List of romantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Romantic_poets" title="List of Romantic poets">List of Romantic poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Ages in history">Middle Ages in history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium_and_Romanticism" title="Opium and Romanticism">Opium and Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_ballet" title="Romantic ballet">Romantic ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_epistemology" title="Romantic epistemology">Romantic epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_medicine" title="Romantic medicine">Romantic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_poetry" title="Romantic poetry">Romantic poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_psychology" title="Romantic psychology">Romantic psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_economics" title="Romanticism and economics">Romanticism and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_the_French_Revolution" title="Romanticism and the French Revolution">Romanticism and the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" title="Romanticism in science">Romanticism in science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_Bacon" title="Romanticism and Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_evolution_theory" title="Romanticism in evolution theory">Evolution theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wanderer_above_the_Sea_of_Fog" title="Wanderer above the Sea of Fog">Wanderer above the Sea of Fog</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;">← <b><a href="/wiki/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template:Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></b></div> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><b><a href="/wiki/Template:Modernism" title="Template:Modernism">Modernism</a></b> →</div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/016052">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6jd5895">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&oldid=1259872009">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Constant&oldid=1259872009</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1767_births" title="Category:1767 births">1767 births</a></li><li><a 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