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Innovative Approaches to Malaria Vaccine Development – Vaccine Studies
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id="primary"> <main class="site-main" id="main"> <article id="post-88" class="post-88 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-malaria-vaccine tag-chemoprevention tag-immune-responses tag-immunogenicity tag-malaria-prevention tag-malaria-vaccine-development tag-monoclonal-antibodies tag-rts tag-s-as01 tag-systems-biology tag-transcriptional-profiling tag-vaccine-efficacy" itemtype="https://schema.org/CreativeWork" itemscope> <div class="inside-article"> <div class="featured-image page-header-image-single "> <img width="1200" height="628" src="https://vaccine-studies.com/archive/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/banner-27-min-scaled-e1729075035184.jpg" class="attachment-full size-full" alt="" itemprop="image" decoding="async" fetchpriority="high" /> </div> <header class="entry-header"> <h1 class="entry-title" itemprop="headline">Innovative Approaches to Malaria Vaccine Development</h1> <div class="entry-meta"> <span class="posted-on"><time class="entry-date published" datetime="2024-10-16T16:07:23+05:30" itemprop="datePublished">October 16, 2024</time></span> <span class="byline">by <span class="author vcard" itemprop="author" itemtype="https://schema.org/Person" itemscope><a class="url fn n" href="https://vaccine-studies.com/archive/author/vaccine-studies/" title="View all posts by vaccine-studies" rel="author" itemprop="url"><span class="author-name" itemprop="name">vaccine-studies</span></a></span></span> </div> </header> <div class="entry-content" itemprop="text"> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Malaria is a severe disease provoked by protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium and remains a major health threat around the world. Malaria, even though it has been the major focus of several control interventions, continues to be a major cause of morbidity and mortality, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Thus, the creation of effective vaccines is one of the key priorities of the world for this disease. New strategies in the development of malaria vaccines have incorporated various new ways of improving the effectiveness and longevity of the vaccines. This paper seeks to briefly describe some of the new approaches and findings of contemporary research in the malaria vaccine, as well as to outline the direction of future development in this field.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The most representative one of the candidates is the RTS, S/AS01 which is developed against the Pf CS antigen. This is one of the vaccination categories that received considerable clinical trials, proving that it has relatively moderate effectiveness in preventing malaria. Although research has established the fact that the vaccine produces vigorous immune reactions and partial efficacy against clinical malaria, the protection observed when administered in children has been noted. However, they are temporary, and immunity fades away, requiring boosters and/or other methods of keeping the immunity going.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Some of the progressive studies carried out in research involve the proposal of improved immunogenicity and long-lasting of the RTS, S/AS01 vaccine. Another is that the formulation of the vaccine is made more effective by adding adjuvants that enhance the reaction of the immune system. For example, some research that was carried out to compare the RTS, S/AS01B formulation, and the RTS, S/AS02A formulation has shown that the former has a stronger humoral response and immunity against malaria than the later. Increasing the strength of adjuvants is another way that has been seen as desirable for increasing the vaccine’s effectiveness and the length of time for which the vaccine will provide immunity.</span></p> <p></div></div> <div style="background: #f7f7f7;border: 1px solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.07);"> <div style="padding: 30px;"><div class="Adblock-main"> <div class="Adblock-head"> <h2>Yearwise Publication Trend on <b>“<a href="https://vaccine-studies.com/publication-trends/index/malaria vaccine" target="_blank" title="malaria vaccine - yearwise publication trends">malaria vaccine</a>”</b></h2> </div> </div><div class="results-container"><div class="chart-block" style="padding:15px;"> <div class="left"> <div id="results" class="results"></div> </div> <div class="right"> <div class="chart-container"><canvas id="publicationChart"></canvas></div> </div> <div class="keywordsdiv"> <div style="text-align:center;"><b>Find publication trends on relevant topics</b> </div> <span class="gp-icon icon-tags"><svg viewBox="0 0 512 512" aria-hidden="true" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="1em" height="1em"><path d="M20 39.5c-8.836 0-16 7.163-16 16v176c0 4.243 1.686 8.313 4.687 11.314l224 224c6.248 6.248 16.378 6.248 22.626 0l176-176c6.244-6.244 6.25-16.364.013-22.615l-223.5-224A15.999 15.999 0 00196.5 39.5H20zm56 96c0-13.255 10.745-24 24-24s24 10.745 24 24-10.745 24-24 24-24-10.745-24-24z"></path><path d="M259.515 43.015c4.686-4.687 12.284-4.687 16.97 0l228 228c4.686 4.686 4.686 12.284 0 16.97l-180 180c-4.686 4.687-12.284 4.687-16.97 0-4.686-4.686-4.686-12.284 0-16.97L479.029 279.5 259.515 59.985c-4.686-4.686-4.686-12.284 0-16.97z"></path></svg></span> <span id="keyword-stats"></span> </div> </div></div></div><div class="inside-article"><style> table { margin: 0 0 1.5em; 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if (!statistics || Object.keys(statistics).length === 0) { resultsContainer.innerHTML = '<p>No data found.</p>'; return; } var tableHTML = `<div class='pub-scroll'> <table class='tablediv' border='1' cellspacing='0' cellpadding='0'> <tr> <th>Year</th> <th>Publication Count</th> </tr>`; Object.entries(statistics).sort(([yearA], [yearB]) => yearB - yearA).forEach(([year, count]) => { const displayCount = count === 0 ? 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Several studies have discovered high-affinity CSP-specific mAbs with notable tropism for the tetrapeptide junction and minor repeats that are described to be targeted against parasite-neutralizing antibodies. Experiments in which the promoter of the malarial parasite expressing transgenic Plasmodium berghei sporozoites was modified for CSP have shown that targeting those epitopes with mAbs may help in preventing malaria illness. It also helps in the design of the vaccines and offers a direction on how mAbs can be utilized in passive immunization as a means of extending immediate protection to those who are at high risk.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Some of the malaria vaccines under research have been under trial for the long term, and the experiences gained from the malaria patients have aided in understanding the major difficulties and possibilities of long-term protection. For example, an efficacy trial of the RTS, S/AS01 malaria vaccine in African children with a seven-year follow-up showed that early protection against clinical malaria wanes over time and that the negative efficacy is seen in the fifth year for children with very high exposure to the malaria parasites. These facts highlight the need to establish various schedules for the vaccinations, particularly the booster vaccinations that are given from time to time to ensure immunity exists.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Co-administering malaria vaccination with other preventive techniques, for example, SMC, has proven effective in decreasing the malaria incidence rate. A similar study aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of giving RTS, S/AS01, and SMC to children scientifically established that this cross-sectional intervention significantly reduced the incidence of malaria as evidenced by uncomplicated and severe forms as compared to the individual use of the two interventions. This is a perfect combination of vaccination and chemoprevention in which the programs reinforce each other and the effects are doubled; the idea behind this approach could be quite useful in areas with high malaria transmission rates.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Non-conventional research has also centered on identifying the immunologic processes that are involved in immunity acquired from vaccination. This is because research has pointed out certain immunities correlated with protection, like the production of antibodies that trigger effector functions taking place through Fc receptors. These antibodies not only help neutralize the parasite but also help the body get rid of the parasite. When the functional characteristics of protective antibodies have been explained, then researchers can develop better vaccines that stimulate more robust immunological responses.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Another achievement is the emergence of new models to research the liver stage of malaria parasites, where vaccine work is also carried out. The liver stage happens to be the most important developmental cycle where the parasite undergoes multiplication before entering the bloodstream. Mathematically, this stage is hard to model due to the innate characteristics of liver-stage infections and the accessible tissue; however, current research options with in vitro and in vivo models have served to uncover liver-stage biology and eradicate its targets. These models are crucial for ensuring vaccines that offer the prophylactic and radical cure activities that are hard to come by due to the aspect of resistance in the parasites to treatment.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">There is therefore a need to understand the level of the community’s awareness and willingness to pay for malaria vaccines before their implementation. Cross-sectional surveys in various regions, such as Ethiopian and Nigerian populations, have determined the caregivers’ WTP for childhood malaria vaccines and factors influencing vaccine acceptance. Altogether, these works draw attention to the need for designing specific strategies for the distribution of vaccines based on the socioeconomic characteristics of populations and conceptions of communities. It is important to be able to extend the vaccine to people of all backgrounds and ages without high costs to maintain a proper degree of coverage and decrease malaria incidents.</span></p> <p></div></div> <div style="background: #f7f7f7;border: 1px solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.07);"> <div style="padding: 30px;"><div class="Adblock-main"> <div class="Adblock-head"> <h2>Recent Publications on <b>“<a href="https://vaccine-studies.com/recent-publications/index/malaria vaccine" target="_blank" rel="noopener" title="malaria vaccine - yearwise publication list">malaria vaccine</a>”</b></h2> </div> </div> <div class="pb-main"><div class="article-scroll"><div id="results_recent" class="results"></div></div><div class="keywordsdiv" style="margin: 0px 15px;margin-top:20px;"> <div style="text-align:center;"><b>Find publications on relevant topics</b> </div> <span class="gp-icon icon-tags"><svg viewBox="0 0 512 512" aria-hidden="true" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="1em" height="1em"><path d="M20 39.5c-8.836 0-16 7.163-16 16v176c0 4.243 1.686 8.313 4.687 11.314l224 224c6.248 6.248 16.378 6.248 22.626 0l176-176c6.244-6.244 6.25-16.364.013-22.615l-223.5-224A15.999 15.999 0 00196.5 39.5H20zm56 96c0-13.255 10.745-24 24-24s24 10.745 24 24-10.745 24-24 24-24-10.745-24-24z"></path><path d="M259.515 43.015c4.686-4.687 12.284-4.687 16.97 0l228 228c4.686 4.686 4.686 12.284 0 16.97l-180 180c-4.686 4.687-12.284 4.687-16.97 0-4.686-4.686-4.686-12.284 0-16.97L479.029 279.5 259.515 59.985c-4.686-4.686-4.686-12.284 0-16.97z"></path></svg></span> <span id="keyword-papers"></span> </div></div></div><div class="inside-article"> <style> .pb-main{ border: solid 1px #ccc; border-top: none; margin-bottom: 20px; padding-bottom: 25px; background:#fff; } .author-main { border: solid 1px #ccc; border-top: none; margin-bottom: 20px; padding-bottom: 25px; background:#fff; } .publication-block { padding: 10px; margin-bottom: 10px; background-color: #f9f9f9; text-align: left; background: #FFF; border-bottom: solid 1px #ccc; margin-left: 15px; margin-right: 15px; } .publication-block h3 { margin: 0 0 10px; color: #000!important; } .publication-block a { font-size: 16px !important; line-height: 1em; font-weight: 600; text-transform: none; color: #000; padding: 0px; } .publication-block a:hover{ color: #227cdc; text-decoration:underline; } .article-scroll { max-height: 445px; overflow-y: auto; overflow-x: hidden; } ::-webkit-scrollbar-track { -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 0 6px rgba(0,0,0,0.3); background-color: #efefef; border-radius:30px; } ::-webkit-scrollbar { width: 6px; background-color: #efefef; border-radius:30px; } ::-webkit-scrollbar-thumb { background-color: #ababab; 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publicationBlock.innerHTML = publicationHTML; resultsContainer.appendChild(publicationBlock); }); } function displayKeywordPapers(keywords) { var resultsContainer = document.getElementById('keyword-papers'); resultsContainer.innerHTML = ''; if (!keywords || keywords.length === 0) { resultsContainer.innerHTML = '<p>No data found.</p>'; return; } var keywordHTML = ''; keywords.forEach((key, index) => { let key_replace = key.replace(/ /g, '-'); key_replace = key_replace.toLowerCase(); keywordHTML += `<a href="https://vaccine-studies.com/recent-publications/index/${key_replace}" target="_blank" title="${key} - publication list">${key}</a>`; if (index < keywords.length - 1) { keywordHTML += ', '; } }); resultsContainer.innerHTML = keywordHTML; } // Call the function with the PHP data var recent_papers = [ { "title": "Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 and risk factors for infection among children in Uganda: a serial cross-sectional study.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38947039", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Getting closer to an effective multi-stage malaria vaccine.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38880114", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Blood-stage malaria vaccine candidate RH5.1\/Matrix-M in healthy Tanzanian adults and children; an open-label, non-randomised, first-in-human, single-centre, phase 1b trial.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38880111", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Pharmacovigilance in Pregnancy Studies, Exposures and Outcomes Ascertainment, and Findings from Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Scoping Review.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38907172", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "A review on RNA interference studies in Anophelines to reveal candidate genes for malaria transmission blocking vaccine.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38866221", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "A new landscape for malaria vaccine development.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38935630", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "How to Accelerate Early Stage of Malaria Vaccine Development by Optimizing Functional Assays.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38932315", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "From multiplicity of infection to force of infection for sparsely sampled populations at high transmission.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38853963", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Identification of immunoreactive antigens by phage display cDNA screen.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38884473", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "A Pfs48\/45-based vaccine to block Plasmodium falciparum transmission: phase 1, open-label, clinical trial.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38649867", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Policy uptake and implementation of the RTS,S\/AS01 malaria vaccine in sub-Saharan African countries: status 2 years following the WHO recommendation.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38688566", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Design and Evaluation of Chimeric Circumsporozoite Protein-Based Malaria Vaccines.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38675734", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "A 3D organoid platform that supports liver-stage infection can be used to identify intrahepatic antimalarial drugs.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38770342", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Evaluation of the precision of the Plasmodium knowlesi growth inhibition assay for Plasmodium vivax Duffy-binding protein-based malaria vaccine development.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38704253", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Leveraging malaria vaccines and mRNA technology to tackle the global inequity in pharmaceutical research and production towards disease elimination.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38711053", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "The biology and pathogenesis of vivax malaria.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38749866", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Genetic diversity and natural selection of plasmodium vivax Merozoite surface protein 8 in global populations.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38759940", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Exploring malaria parasite surface proteins to devise highly immunogenic multi-epitope subunit vaccine for Plasmodium falciparum.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38797552", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Targeting Prohibitin 2-Hu-Hsp70A1A complex as a unique approach towards malaria vaccine development.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38812541", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Declining antibody affinity over time after human vaccination with a Plasmodium falciparum merozoite vaccine candidate.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38723177", "publishedDate": "2024" } ]; var keywordsArray = ["Malaria vaccine development","RTS","S\/AS01","monoclonal antibodies","vaccine efficacy","immunogenicity","malaria prevention","chemoprevention","immune responses","transcriptional profiling","systems biology"]; displayResults_recent(recent_papers); displayKeywordPapers(keywordsArray); // function stripslashes(str) { // if (typeof str === 'string') { // return str.replace(/\/g, ''); // } // } </script></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The last immunological concern to be discussed about malaria vaccine development is the issue of variation in the immunity to vaccination among populations. It is established that the immune context is dependent on such parameters as geographical region, age, and anemia. For instance, children from Tanzania and Mozambique have unique immune responses to the RTS/AS01 vaccine due to differences in the ontogeny of immune function. Knowledge of these variations is critical in the development of powerful vaccines to cover many populations and to determine the best immunization intervals for the best effect.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Subsequent works have also considered the possibility of applying transcriptional profiling to define correlates of protection and processes of immune responses induced by vaccines. Through the studies on PBMCs, researchers have been able to determine transcriptional profiles on protective immunity. These signatures give out potential biomarkers that will be of use in the improvised construction of better vaccines and enhanced progression of vaccine possibilities in clinical investigations.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Delay fractionated dose regimen is one of the strategies applied in the development of malaria vaccines. The rRTS, S/AS01 vaccine trial conducted on humans allowed the researchers to prove that giving malaria vaccine fractionally, though delaying it, was more effective as compared to the normal three doses. This approach increases the generation of functional Tfh cells and memory B cell responses. Therefore, improving the quality and durability of immunity. This research implies that the duration and frequency of administering the vaccine impact positively the vaccine’s ability to work against the disease.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The perpendicular use of systems biology concepts has given more understanding of the immune reactions generated by malaria vaccines. The integration of immunophenotyping with systems serology has allowed researchers to define the functional antigen-specific biomarkers that define protection. These studies underscore the need to go beyond simple seroprevalence data and to concentrate on the efficiency of the immune response, including antibody-dependent cellular cytolysis and Fc receptor binding. Understanding such functional characteristics is very important in the development of rightful vaccine training on malaria.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">In conclusion, the progress made regarding the approaches to vaccine development in the case of malaria is revolutionizing the sphere of malaria prevention. Some of these approaches include fine-tuning of the vaccines and mAbs, co-administration of vaccination and chemoprevention, and systems biology to accomplish the vision of a malaria-free society. Malaria vaccines can only be fully realized where there is further research and cooperation to combat these difficulties. Through this recalled work of malaria and the power of scientific innovation, the bright future without this burden is re-established.</span></p> <p></p> <h3><strong>References</strong></h3> <ol> <li>Flores-Garcia, Y., Wang, L.T., Park, M., Asady, B., Idris, A.H., Kisalu, N.K., Muñoz, C., Pereira, L.S., Francica, J.R., Seder, R.A. and Zavala, F., 2021. <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1010042">The P. falciparum CSP repeat region contains three distinct epitopes required for protection by antibodies in vivo.</a> <i>PLoS pathogens</i>, <i>17</i>(11), p.e1010042.</li> <li>Olotu, A., Fegan, G., Wambua, J., Nyangweso, G., Leach, A., Lievens, M., Kaslow, D.C., Njuguna, P., Marsh, K. and Bejon, P., 2016. <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1515257">Seven-year efficacy of RTS, S/AS01 malaria vaccine among young African children.</a> <i>New England Journal of Medicine</i>, <i>374</i>(26), pp.2519-2529.</li> <li>Raphemot, R., Posfai, D. and Derbyshire, E.R., 2016. <a href="https://www.jci.org/articles/view/82981">Current therapies and future possibilities for drug development against liver-stage malaria.</a> <i>The Journal of clinical investigation</i>, <i>126</i>(6), pp.2013-2020.</li> <li>Polhemus, M.E., Remich, S.A., Ogutu, B.R., Waitumbi, J.N., Otieno, L., Apollo, S., Cummings, J.F., Kester, K.E., Ockenhouse, C.F., Stewart, A. and Ofori-Anyinam, O., 2009. <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0006465">Evaluation of RTS, S/AS02A and RTS, S/AS01B in adults in a high malaria transmission area.</a> <i>PloS one</i>, <i>4</i>(7), p.e6465.</li> <li>Sidjanski, S. and Vanderberg, J.P., 1997. <a href="https://europepmc.org/article/med/9347958">Delayed migration of Plasmodium sporozoites from the mosquito bite site to the blood. </a><i>The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene</i>, <i>57</i>(4), pp.426-429.</li> <li>Stoute, J.A., Slaoui, M., Heppner, D.G., Momin, P., Kester, K.E., Desmons, P., Wellde, B.T., Garçon, N., Krzych, U., Marchand, M. and Ballou, W.R., 1997. <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199701093360202">A preliminary evaluation of a recombinant circumsporozoite protein vaccine against Plasmodium falciparum malaria.</a> <i>New England Journal of Medicine</i>, <i>336</i>(2), pp.86-91.</li> <li>Gordon, D.M., McGovern, T.W., Krzych, U., Cohen, J.C., Schneider, I., LaChance, R., Heppner, D.G., Yuan, G., Hollingdale, M., Slaoui, M. and Hauser, P., 1995. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jid/article-abstract/171/6/1576/803986">Safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy of a recombinantly produced Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein-hepatitis B surface antigen subunit vaccine.</a> <i>Journal of Infectious Diseases</i>, <i>171</i>(6), pp.1576-1585.</li> <li>Wagnew, Y., Hagos, T., Weldegerima, B. and Debie, A., 2021. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.2147/CEOR.S299050">Willingness to pay for childhood malaria vaccine among caregivers of under-five children in Northwest Ethiopia. </a><i>ClinicoEconomics and Outcomes Research</i>, pp.165-174.</li> </ol> <p></div></div> <div style="background: #f7f7f7;border: 1px solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.07);"> <div style="padding: 30px;"><div class="Adblock-main"> <div class="Adblock-head"> <h2>Top Experts on “<b style="color:#000;font-size:22px;">malaria vaccine</b>“</h2> </div> </div><div class="author-main"><div id="results_author"></div><div style="text-align: center;"><a class="register-button" href="https://vaccine-studies.com/expert-search" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Find experts on any field</a></div></div><div class="inside-article" style="background: none;border: none;box-shadow: none;margin-top: -70px;"> <style> .author-block { padding: 15px; 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", "email": "niraj.tolia@nih.gov", "slug_tail": "n-tolia" } }; //console.log(authors_data); displayResults_author(authors_data); var keywordsArray = ["Malaria vaccine development","RTS","S\/AS01","monoclonal antibodies","vaccine efficacy","immunogenicity","malaria prevention","chemoprevention","immune responses","transcriptional profiling","systems biology"]; displayKeywordAuthors(keywordsArray); </script></p> </div> <footer class="entry-meta" aria-label="Entry meta"> <span class="cat-links"><span class="gp-icon icon-categories"><svg viewBox="0 0 512 512" aria-hidden="true" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="1em" height="1em"><path d="M0 112c0-26.51 21.49-48 48-48h110.014a48 48 0 0143.592 27.907l12.349 26.791A16 16 0 00228.486 128H464c26.51 0 48 21.49 48 48v224c0 26.51-21.49 48-48 48H48c-26.51 0-48-21.49-48-48V112z" /></svg></span><span class="screen-reader-text">Categories </span><a href="https://vaccine-studies.com/archive/category/malaria-vaccine/" rel="category tag">Malaria 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