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Flares are commonly composed of a [[pyrotechnic composition]] based on [[magnesium]] or another hot-burning metal, with burning temperature equal to or hotter than engine exhaust. The aim is to make the infrared-guided missile seek out the heat signature from the flare rather than the aircraft's engines. [[File:Russian Knights Tkachenko tribute flight Mishin.jpg|thumb|[[Russian Knights]] fire their flares as a salute to [[Igor Tkachenko]].]] ==Tactics== In contrast to radar-[[Missile guidance|guided missiles]], IR-guided missiles are very difficult to find as they approach aircraft. They do not emit detectable radar, and they are generally fired from behind, directly toward the engines. In most cases, pilots have to rely on their wingmen to spot the missile's smoke trail and alert of a launch. Since IR-guided missiles have a shorter range than their radar-guided counterparts, good situational awareness of altitude and potential threats continues to be an effective defense. More advanced [[Electro-optics|electro-optical]] systems can detect missile launches automatically from the distinct thermal emissions of a missile's rocket motor. Once the presence of a "live" IR missile is indicated, flares are released by the aircraft in an attempt to [[decoy]] the missile. Some systems are automatic, while others require manual jettisoning of the flares. The aircraft would then pull away at a sharp angle from the flare (and the terminal trajectory of the missile) and reduce engine power in attempt to cool the thermal signature. Ideally the missile's seeker head is then confused by this change in temperature and flurry of new heat signatures, and starts to follow one of the flares rather than the aircraft. More modern IR-guided missiles have sophisticated on-board electronics and secondary electro-optical sensors that help discriminate between flares and targets, reducing the effectiveness of flares as a reactionary countermeasure. A newer procedure involves preemptively deploying flares in anticipation of a missile launch, which distorts the expected image of the target should one be let loose. This "pre-flaring" increases the chances that the missile then follows the flares or the open sky in between, rather than a part of the actual defender. ==Usage== Apart from military use, some civilian aircraft are also equipped with countermeasure flares, against [[terrorism]]: the [[Israel]]i airline [[El Al]], having been the target of the failed [[2002 Mombasa hotel bombing|2002 airliner attack]], in which [[shoulder-launched missile weapon|shoulder-launched]] surface-to-air missiles were fired at an airliner while taking off, began equipping its fleet with radar-based, automated flare release countermeasures from June 2004.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/meast/05/24/air.defense/ |title=Missile Defense for El Al Fleet |website=[[CNN]] |date=24 May 2004 |archive-date=27 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060827065554/http://edition.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/meast/05/24/air.defense/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=El Al Fits Fleet with Anti-Missile System |agency=[[Reuters]] |date=16 February 2006 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/travel/flights/2006-02-16-anti-missile-airline-system_x.htm |archive-date=19 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100919171428/https://www.usatoday.com/travel/flights/2006-02-16-anti-missile-airline-system_x.htm }}</ref> This caused concerns in some European countries, which proceeded to ban such aircraft from landing at their airports.<ref>{{cite web |last=Beck |first=Eldad |date=26 February 2006 |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3221013,00.html |title=Europe Objects to El Al's Anti-Missile Shield |website=[[Ynetnews]] |access-date=9 November 2024 }}</ref> On 18 June 2017, after an AIM-9X did not successfully track a targeted [[Syrian Air Force]] [[Su-22 Fitter]], US Navy Lt. Cmdr. Michael "Mob" Tremel flying a F/A-18E Super Hornet used an [[AMRAAM]] AAM to successfully destroy the enemy aircraft.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ziezulewicz |first=Geoff |title=The Inside Story of How a US Navy Pilot Shot Down a Syrian Jet |url=https://www.navytimes.com/news/your-navy/2018/09/10/the-inside-story-of-how-a-us-navy-pilot-shot-down-a-syrian-jet/ |website=Navy Times |access-date=11 February 2023 |date=10 September 2018 }}</ref> There is a theory that the Sidewinder is tested against American and not Soviet/Russian flares. The Sidewinder is used to rejecting American but not Soviet/Russian flares. Similar issues arose from the testing of the AIM-9P model. The missile would ignore American flares but go for Soviet ones due to these flares have "different burn time, intensity and separation."<ref>{{cite web |first=Kyle |last=Mizokami |title=How Did a 30-Year-Old Jet Dodge the Pentagon's Latest Missile? |url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/military/aviation/news/a27094/su-22-dodge-aim-9x-sidewinder/ |website=Popular Mechanics |access-date=10 March 2023 |date=27 June 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Dave |last=Majumdar |title=Why America's Mighty Military Doesn't Always Dominate the Battlefield |url=https://taskandpurpose.com/news/americas-mighty-military-doesnt-always-dominate-battlefield/ |website=Task and Purpose |access-date=10 March 2023 |date=26 June 2017 }}</ref> ==Decoying== [[File:C-130 Hercules 10.jpg|thumb|A C-130 Hercules deploying flares]] [[File:C-130 Hercules flare and CHAFF dispensers.JPEG|thumb|C-130 flare and [[Chaff (countermeasure)|chaff]] dispensers]] Flares burn at thousands of degrees Celsius, which is much hotter than the exhaust of a jet engine. IR missiles seek out the hotter flame, believing it to be an aircraft in [[afterburner]] or the beginning of the engine's exhaust source. As the more modern infrared seekers tend to have spectral sensitivity tailored to more closely match the emissions of airplanes and reject other sources (the so-called CCM, or [[Electronic counter-countermeasure|counter-countermeasure]]s), the modernized decoy flares have their emission spectrum optimized to also match the radiation of the airplane (mainly its engines and engine exhaust). In addition to spectral discrimination, the CCMs can include trajectory discrimination and detection of size of the radiation source. The newest generation of the [[FIM-92 Stinger]] uses a dual IR and [[Ultraviolet|UV]] seeker head, which allows for a redundant tracking solution, effectively negating the effectiveness of modern decoy flares (according to the [[United States Department of Defense|U.S. Department of Defense]]). While research and development in flare technology has produced an IR signature on the same wavelength as hot engine exhaust, modern flares still produce a notably (and immutably) different UV signature than an aircraft engine burning kerosene jet-fuel. [[File:HMS Dragon's Lynx Helicopter Firing Flares - Flickr - Defence Images.jpg|thumb|[[HMS Dragon (D35)|HMS ''Dragon'']]'s [[Westland Lynx]] helicopter fires flares during an exercise over the [[Type 45 destroyer]]]] == Materials used == [[File:Een Cougar tijdens nachtelijk flare-dispensing boven zee.jpg|thumb|A Dutch [[Eurocopter AS532 Cougar]] fires its flares during a night exercise.]] [[File:RIAS 2014 Polish MiG-29 01.jpg|thumb|[[Polish Air Force]] [[Mikoyan MiG-29|MiG-29]] at the 2014 Rome International Air Show]] [[File:391st Expeditionary Fighter Squadron - F-15E.jpg|thumb|upright|An [[McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle|F-15E Strike Eagle]] releasing flares]] For the infrared generating charge, two approaches are possible: pyrotechnic and [[pyrophoric]] as stored, chemical-energy-source IR-decoy flares contain [[pyrotechnic]] compositions, liquid or solid pyrophoric substances, or liquid or solid highly [[flammable]] substances.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ernst-Christian Koch |last=Koch |title=Pyrotechnic Countermeasures: II. Advanced Aerial Infrared Countermeasures |journal=Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics |volume=31 |issue=1 |date=February 2006 |doi=10.1002/prep.200600001 |pages=3–19 }}</ref> Upon ignition of the decoy flare, a strongly exothermal reaction is started, releasing infrared energy and visible smoke and flame, emission being dependent on the chemical nature of the payload used. There is a wide variety of calibres and shapes available for aerial decoy flares. Due to volume storage restrictions onboard platforms, many aircraft of American origin use square decoy flare cartridges. Nevertheless, cylindrical cartridges are also available onboard American aircraft, such as MJU 23/B on the [[B-1 Lancer]] or MJU-8A/B on the [[F/A-18 Hornet]]; however, these are used mainly onboard French aircraft and those of Russian origin (e.g. PPI-26 IW on the [[MiG 29]]). [[File:MJU-7AB.JPG|thumb|Schematic view of a MJU-7A/B decoy flare cartridge : anodised aluminium cartridge (1); an electrical impulse cartridge (2), providing both expulsion and, in some cases, direct ignition of the payload; a pusher plate acting as a safe&arm device (3); the payload (4) with first fire layer (5); the wrapping self-adhesive polyester reinforced aluminum foil (6); and a front washer (7).]] Square calibres and typical decoy flares: * 1x1x8 Inch e.g. M-206, MJU-61, ([[Magnesium/Teflon/Viton]] (MTV) based) M-211, M-212 (spectral flares) * 2x1x8 Inch e.g. MJU-7A/B (MTV based), MJU-59/B (spectral flare) * 2x2.5x8 Inch e.g. MJU-10/B (MTV based) Cylindrical calibres and typical decoy flares: * 2.5 Inch e.g. MJU-23/B (MTV based) * 1.5 Inch e.e. MJU 8 A/B (MTV based) * 1 Inch e.g. PPI 26 IW ===Pyrotechnic flares=== Pyrotechnic flares use a slow-burning fuel-oxidizer mixture that generates intense heat. [[Thermite]]-like mixtures (e.g. Magnesium/Teflon/Viton [MTV]), are common. Other combinations include [[ammonium perchlorate]]/[[anthracene]]/magnesium, or can be based on [[red phosphorus]]. To adjust the emission characteristics to match closer the spectrum of jet engines, charges on the base of [[double base propellant]]s. These compositions can avoid the metal content and achieve cleaner burning without the prominent smoke trail. ====Blackbody payloads==== Certain pyrotechnic compositions, for example MTV, give a great flame emission upon combustion and yield a temperature-dependent signature and can be understood as [[grey body|gray bodies]] of high [[emissivity]] (<math>e</math>~0.95). Such payloads are called [[blackbody]] payloads. Other payloads, like iron/potassium perchlorate pellets, only yield a low flame emission but also show temperature-dependent signature.<ref>J. Callaway, Expendable Infrared Radiating means, GB Patent 2 387 430, 2003, GB.</ref> Nevertheless, the lower combustion temperature as compared to MTV results in a lower amount of energy released in the short-wavelength IR range. Other blackbody payloads include ammonium perchlorate/anthracene/magnesium and hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene ([[HTPB]]) binder.<ref>{{cite patent |country=US |number=5834680 |invent1=Nielson, Daniel B. |invent2=Lester, Dean M. |title=Blackbody Decoy Flare Compositions for Thrusted Applications and Methods of Use |pubdate=1998-11-10 |fdate=1996-09-05 |pridate=1995-09-22 }}</ref> ====Spectrally balanced payloads==== [[File:LLU-2B flare.png|thumb|A sectional of the typical LLU-2B ground-illumination flare]] Other payloads provide large amounts of hot [[carbon dioxide]] upon combustion and thus provide a temperature-independent [[selective emission]] in the wavelength range between 3 and 5&nbsp;μm. Typical pyrotechnic payloads of this type resemble [[Whistle mix|whistling compositions]] and are often made up from [[potassium perchlorate]] and hydrogen lean organic fuels.<ref>J. Callaway, T. D. Sutlief, Infrared Emitting Decoy Flare, US Patent Application 2004/0011235 A1, 2004, GB.</ref> Other spectrally balanced payloads are made up similarly as [[double base propellants]] and contain [[nitrocellulose]] (NC), and other esters of nitric acid<ref>{{cite patent |invent1=R. Gaisbauer |invent2=V. Kadavanich |invent3=M. Fegg |invent4=C. Wagner  |title=Explosive Body |country=WO |number=2006/034746 |pubdate=2006 }}</ref> or [[nitro compound]]s as oxidizers such as [[hexanitroethane]] and nitro compounds and [[nitramine]]s as high-energy fuels.<ref>{{cite book |last=Koch |first=E.C. |title=Infrarotleuchtmasse |id=DE 1020040043991 |date=2006 |language=de }}</ref> ===Pyrophoric flares=== Pyrophoric flares work on the principle of ejecting a special pyrophoric material out of an airtight cartridge, usually using a [[gas generator]] (e.g. a small pyrotechnic charge or pressurized gas). The material then self-ignites in contact with air. The materials can be solid, e.g. iron platelets coated with [[Ultrafine particles|ultrafine]] [[aluminium]], or liquid, often [[organometallic]] compounds; e.g. alkyl aluminium compounds (e.g. [[triethylaluminium]]). Pyrophoric flares may have reduced effectiveness at high altitudes, due to lower air temperature and lower availability of oxygen; however oxygen can be co-ejected with the pyrophoric fuel.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ebeoglu |first1=Davut B. |last2=Martin |first2=C. W. |title=The Infrared Signature of Pyrophorics |url=http://stinet.dtic.mil/stinet/jsp/docread.jsp?K2DocKey=http%3A%2F%2Fstinet.dtic.mil%2Fstinet%2FXSLTServlet%3Fad%3DAD0921319%40tr0-search&Format=1F&Custom=&querytext=%28ad0921319+%3Cin%3E+ad%29&AD=AD0921319&TI=The+Infrared+Signature+of+Pyrophorics.&RD=May+01%2C+1974&DC=%26nbsp%3B+%26nbsp%3B+%26nbsp%3B+%26nbsp%3B+%26nbsp%3B+01+-+APPROVED+FOR+PUBLIC+RELEASE&XPC=&PAG=32+Pages%28s%29&MC=&PE= |publisher=Defense Technical Information Center |date=1 May 1974 |archive-date=3 March 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070303204744/http://stinet.dtic.mil/stinet/jsp/docread.jsp?K2DocKey=http%3A%2F%2Fstinet.dtic.mil%2Fstinet%2FXSLTServlet%3Fad%3DAD0921319%40tr0-search&Format=1F&Custom=&querytext=%28ad0921319+%3Cin%3E+ad%29&AD=AD0921319&TI=The+Infrared+Signature+of+Pyrophorics.&RD=May+01%2C+1974&DC=%26nbsp%3B+%26nbsp%3B+%26nbsp%3B+%26nbsp%3B+%26nbsp%3B+01+-+APPROVED+FOR+PUBLIC+RELEASE&XPC=&PAG=32+Pages%28s%29&MC=&PE= }}</ref> The advantage of alkyl aluminium and similar compounds is the high content of carbon and hydrogen, resulting in bright emission lines similar to spectral signature of burning jet fuel. Controlled content of solid combustion products, generating continuous [[black-body radiation]], allows further matching of emission characteristics to the net infrared emissions of fuel exhaust and hot engine components. The flames of pyrophoric fuels can also reach the size of several metres, in comparison with about less than one metre flame of MTV flares. The trajectory can be also influenced by tailoring the aerodynamic properties of the ejected containers.<ref>{{cite patent |country=CA |number=2027254 |title=Flame-Stabilized Pyrophoric IR Decoy Flare |pridate=1990-10-10 |pubdate=1992-04-11 |invent1=Halpin John L. |invent2=Verreault Maurice |invent3=Barton, Simon A. }}</ref> ===Highly flammable payloads=== These payloads contain red phosphorus as an energetic filler. The red phosphorus is mixed with organic binders to give brushable pastes that can be coated on thin [[polyimide]] platelets. The combustion of those platelets yields a temperature-dependent signature. Endergonic additives such as highly dispersed [[silica]] or [[alkali halides]] may further lower the combustion temperature.<ref>{{cite patent |invent1=H. Bannasch |invent2=M. Wegscheider |invent3=M. Fegg |invent4=H. Büsel |title=Spektrale Scheinzielanpassung und dazu verwendbare Flarewirkmasse |numberWO 95/05572 |pubdate=1995 |country=de }}</ref> ==See also== * [[Anti-aircraft]] * [[Anti-ballistic missile]] * [[Countermeasure]] * [[Electronic countermeasure]] ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== * {{Commons category-inline|Decoy flares}} [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Missile countermeasures]] [[Category:Pyrotechnics]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div class="mw-templatesUsedExplanation"><p><span id="templatesused">Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page<span class="posteditwindowhelplinks"> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Transclusion" title="Help:Transclusion">help</a>)</span>:</span> </p></div><ul> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Ambox" title="Template:Ambox">Template:Ambox</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Ambox&action=edit" title="Template:Ambox">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Citation/make_link" 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