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aria-controls="toc-Languages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Languages subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Macro-Bai_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Macro-Bai_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Macro-Bai languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Macro-Bai_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Chinese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mandarin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mandarin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Mandarin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mandarin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Northeastern_and_Beijing_Mandarin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northeastern_and_Beijing_Mandarin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Northeastern and Beijing Mandarin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northeastern_and_Beijing_Mandarin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jilu_Mandarin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jilu_Mandarin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Jilu Mandarin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jilu_Mandarin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jiaoliao_Mandarin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jiaoliao_Mandarin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Jiaoliao Mandarin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jiaoliao_Mandarin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_Plains_and_Lanyin_Mandarin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_Plains_and_Lanyin_Mandarin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.4</span> <span>Central Plains and Lanyin Mandarin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_Plains_and_Lanyin_Mandarin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.5</span> <span>Jin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southwestern_Mandarin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southwestern_Mandarin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.6</span> <span>Southwestern Mandarin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southwestern_Mandarin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Huai" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Huai"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.7</span> <span>Huai</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Huai-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Yue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hakka" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hakka"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Hakka</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hakka-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Min" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Min"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Min</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Min-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Wu</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hui" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hui"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Hui</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hui-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Gan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Xiang" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Xiang"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Xiang</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Xiang-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Internal classification</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Internal_classification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Internal classification subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Internal_classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Points_of_contention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Points_of_contention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Points of contention</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Points_of_contention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Southern_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Southern China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southern_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northern_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Northern China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northern_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationships_between_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationships_between_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Relationships between groups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationships_between_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-A_quantitative_study" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_quantitative_study"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>A quantitative study</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_quantitative_study-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_comparison" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_comparison"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Internal comparison</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Internal_comparison-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Internal comparison subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Internal_comparison-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Writing_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Writing system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indirect_object_marking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indirect_object_marking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Indirect object marking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indirect_object_marking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classifiers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classifiers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Classifiers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classifiers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demonstratives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demonstratives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.3</span> <span>Demonstratives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demonstratives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Sinitic languages</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lling%C3%BCes_sin%C3%ADtiques" title="Llingües sinítiques – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llingües sinítiques" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B9" title="চৈনিক ভাষাসমূহ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="চৈনিক ভাষাসমূহ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A0n-g%C3%BA-cho%CC%8Dk" title="Hàn-gú-cho̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hàn-gú-cho̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitauro_yeSinitiki" title="Mitauro yeSinitiki – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Mitauro yeSinitiki" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguas_sin%C3%ADticas" title="Lenguas siníticas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenguas siníticas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="زبان‌های چینی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان‌های چینی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_sin%C3%ADticas" title="Linguas siníticas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Linguas siníticas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EA%B5%AD%EC%96%B4%ED%8C%8C" title="중국어파 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중국어파" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasao_a_Sinitiko" title="Sasao a Sinitiko – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Sasao a Sinitiko" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumpun_bahasa_Sinitik" title="Rumpun bahasa Sinitik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rumpun bahasa Sinitik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingue_sinitiche" title="Lingue sinitiche – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingue sinitiche" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A1ng-ng%E1%B9%B3%CC%84-c%C5%ADk" title="Háng-ngṳ̄-cŭk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Háng-ngṳ̄-cŭk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B7%E3%83%8A%E8%AA%9E%E6%B4%BE" title="シナ語派 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="シナ語派" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinittisk" title="Sinittisk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sinittisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinittiske_spr%C3%A5k" title="Sinittiske språk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sinittiske språk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADnguas_sin%C3%ADticas" title="Línguas siníticas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Línguas siníticas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Sinitic languages" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Синитички језици – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Синитички језици" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mga_wikang_Sinitiko" title="Mga wikang Sinitiko – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mga wikang Sinitiko" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87in_dilleri" title="Çin dilleri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çin dilleri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Китайські мови – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Китайські мови" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%BA" title="چینی زبانیں – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="چینی زبانیں" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%E1%BB%AF_t%E1%BB%99c_H%C3%A1n" title="Ngữ tộc Hán – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngữ tộc Hán" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Branch of Sino-Tibetan languages</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the sociolinguistic treatment of Chinese, see <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Varieties of Chinese</a>. For other languages spoken in China, see <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">Languages of China</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: salmon;">Sinitic</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: salmon;">Chinese</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographic<br />distribution</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">North Asia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data">Sinitic peoples</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Linguistic classification</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a><ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:15px;padding-left:0"><li><b>Sinitic</b></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Proto-language</th><td class="infobox-data">Proto-Sinitic</td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subdivisions</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Bai_languages" title="Macro-Bai languages">Macro-Bai</a> (?)</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: salmon;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-5" title="ISO 639-5">ISO 639-5</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/zhx" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:zhx">zhx</a></code></samp></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/sini1245">sini1245</a></code></samp>  <span class="nowrap">(Sinitic)</span><br /><samp><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/macr1275">macr1275</a></samp>  <span class="nowrap">(Macro-Bai)</span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_sinitic_languages_full-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Map_of_sinitic_languages_full-en.svg/300px-Map_of_sinitic_languages_full-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Map_of_sinitic_languages_full-en.svg/450px-Map_of_sinitic_languages_full-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Map_of_sinitic_languages_full-en.svg/600px-Map_of_sinitic_languages_full-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2219" data-file-height="1759" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;">Map of Sinitic languages in China</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Sinitic languages</b><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">汉语族</span>; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">漢語族</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Hànyǔ zú</span></i>), often synonymous with the <b>Chinese languages</b>, are a <a href="/wiki/Language_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Language group">group</a> of East Asian <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic languages</a> that constitute a major branch of the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_language_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Tibetan language family">Sino-Tibetan language family</a>. It is frequently proposed that there is a primary split between the Sinitic languages and the rest of the family (the <a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burman languages</a>). This view is rejected by some researchers<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_Driem2001351_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_Driem2001351-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but has found phylogenetic support among others.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagartJacquesLaiRyder2019_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESagartJacquesLaiRyder2019-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Macro-Bai_languages" title="Macro-Bai languages">Macro-Bai languages</a>, whose classification is difficult, may be an offshoot of <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> and thus Sinitic;<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> otherwise, Sinitic is defined only by the many <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a> unified by a shared historical background, and usage of the term "Sinitic" may reflect the linguistic view that <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> constitutes a family of distinct languages, rather than variants of a single language.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Population">Population</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Population"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Over 91% of the Chinese population speaks a Sinitic language.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approximately 1.52 billion people are speakers of the Chinese macrolanguage, of whom about three-quarters speak a Mandarin variety. Estimates of the number of global speakers of Sinitic branches as of 2018–2019, both native and non-native, are listed below:<sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Branch</th> <th>Speakers </th> <th><abbr title="percent">pct.</abbr> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a></td> <td>1,118,584,040 </td> <td><span data-sort-value="7001734970708837652♠" style="display:none"></span>73.50% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a></td> <td>85,576,570 </td> <td><span data-sort-value="7000562284728403553♠" style="display:none"></span>5.62% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></td> <td>81,817,790 </td> <td><span data-sort-value="7000537587494202315♠" style="display:none"></span>5.38% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a></td> <td>75,633,810 </td> <td><span data-sort-value="7000496955373579193♠" style="display:none"></span>4.97% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a></td> <td>47,100,000 </td> <td><span data-sort-value="7000309472682859425♠" style="display:none"></span>3.09% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></td> <td>44,065,190 </td> <td><span data-sort-value="7000289532326327182♠" style="display:none"></span>2.90% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a></td> <td>37,400,000 </td> <td><span data-sort-value="7000245738393608121♠" style="display:none"></span>2.46% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a></td> <td>22,200,000 </td> <td><span data-sort-value="7000145866105296799♠" style="display:none"></span>1.46% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Huizhou</a></td> <td>5,380,000 </td> <td><span data-sort-value="6999353495336259810♠" style="display:none"></span>0.35% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pinghua_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinghua Chinese">Pinghua</a></td> <td>4,130,000 </td> <td><span data-sort-value="6999271363520214315♠" style="display:none"></span>0.27% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dungan_language" title="Dungan language">Dungan</a></td> <td>56,300 </td> <td><span data-sort-value="6997369921699468909♠" style="display:none"></span>0.004% </td></tr> <tr> <th>Total </th> <th>1,521,943,700 </th> <th>100% </th></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Languages">Languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_varieties_of_Chinese" title="List of varieties of Chinese">List of varieties of Chinese</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ChineseInST.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/ChineseInST.svg/220px-ChineseInST.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/ChineseInST.svg/330px-ChineseInST.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/ChineseInST.svg/440px-ChineseInST.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="330" /></a><figcaption>L1 speakers of Chinese and other Sino-Tibetan languages according to <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>Dialectologist <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Jerry Norman</a> estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible Sinitic languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman200372_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200372-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They form a <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a> in which differences generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though there are also some sharp boundaries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988189–190_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988189–190-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sinitic languages can be divided into Macro-Bai languages and Chinese languages, and the following is one of many potential ways of subdividing these languages. Some varieties, such as <a href="/wiki/Shaozhou_Tuhua" title="Shaozhou Tuhua">Shaozhou Tuhua</a>, are hard to classify and thus are not included in the following briefs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Macro-Bai_languages">Macro-Bai languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Macro-Bai languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This is a language family first proposed by linguist <a href="/wiki/Zhengzhang_Shangfang" title="Zhengzhang Shangfang">Zhengzhang Shangfang</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was expanded to include Longjia and Luren.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It likely split off from the rest of Sinitic during the <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The languages included are all considered minority languages in China and are spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Southwest_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwest China">Southwest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The languages are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai-Long_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Cai-Long languages">Cai-Long</a>: <a href="/wiki/Caijia" class="mw-redirect" title="Caijia">Caijia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr>, <a href="/wiki/Luren_language" title="Luren language">Luren</a><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li></ul> <p>All other Sinitic languages henceforth would be considered Chinese. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese">Chinese</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Chinese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Chinese branch of the family is classified into at least seven main families. These families are classified based on five main evolutionary criteria:<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>The evolution of the historical fully muddy (<span lang="zh-Hans">全浊</span>; <span lang="zh-Hant">全濁</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">quánzhuó</span></i>) initials</li> <li>The distribution of rimes across the four tone qualities, as conditioned by voicing and aspiration of initials</li> <li>The evolution of the checked (<span lang="zh">入</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">rù</span></i>) tone category</li> <li>The loss or retention of coda position plosives and nasals</li> <li>The palatalisation of the <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">jiàn</i></span> initial (<span lang="zh">見母</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">jiànmǔ</span></i>) in front of high vowels</li></ol> <p>The varieties within one family may not be mutually intelligible with each other. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Wenzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Wenzhou dialect">Wenzhounese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ningbo_dialect" title="Ningbo dialect">Ningbonese</a> are not highly mutually intelligible. The <a href="/wiki/Language_Atlas_of_China" title="Language Atlas of China">Language Atlas of China</a> identifies ten groups:<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Hui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinghua Chinese">Pinghua</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaozhou_Tuhua" title="Shaozhou Tuhua">Tuhua</a></li></ul> <p>with Jin, Hui, Pinghua, and Tuhua not part of the seven traditional groups. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mandarin">Mandarin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mandarin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Varieties of Mandarin are used in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Regions" title="Western Regions">Western Regions</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Southwest_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwest China">Southwest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huguang" title="Huguang">Huguang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plains</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by around three-quarters of the Sinitic-speaking population.<sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, the prestige variety has always been Mandarin, which is still reflected today in <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Standard Chinese is now an official language of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Re-population efforts, such as that of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> in the Southwest, tended to involve Mandarin speakers.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Classification of Mandarin lects has undergone several significant changes, though nowadays it is commonly divided as such, based on the distribution of the historical checked tone:<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Mandarin" title="Northeastern Mandarin">Northeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Mandarin_(division_of_Mandarin)" title="Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)">Beijing</a> (sometimes considered part of Northeastern)<sup id="cite_ref-ne_beijing_1_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ne_beijing_1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ne_beijing_2_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ne_beijing_2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiao-Liao_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jiao-Liao Mandarin">Jiaoliao</a> (sometimes "Peninsular")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji-Lu_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ji-Lu Mandarin">Jilu</a> (sometimes "Northern")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_Mandarin" title="Central Plains Mandarin">Central Plains</a> (or "Zhongyuan")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lan-Yin_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lan-Yin Mandarin">Lanyin</a> (sometimes "Northwestern" and considered part of Central Plains)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a> (often considered a top-level group due to the <a href="/wiki/Language_Atlas_of_China" title="Language Atlas of China">Language Atlas of China</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern</a> (sometimes "Upper Yangtse")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jianghuai_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jianghuai Mandarin">Jianghuai</a> (or "Lower Yangtze", sometimes "Huai", "Southern" or "Southeastern")<sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>as well as other lects, which do not neatly fall into these categories, such as Mandarin <a href="/wiki/Junhua" class="mw-redirect" title="Junhua">Junhua</a> varieties. </p><p>Varieties of Mandarin can be defined by their universally lost -m final, low number of tones, and smaller inventory of <a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">classifiers</a>, among other features. Mandarin lects also often have rhotic <a href="/wiki/Erhua" title="Erhua">erhua</a> rimes, though the amount of its use may vary between lects.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Loss of checked tone is an often cited criterion for Mandarin languages, though lects such as Yangzhounese and Taiyuannese show otherwise. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"></th> <th colspan="7">Mandarin</th> <th colspan="4">Non-Mandarin</th> <th rowspan="2">Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <th>Beijing</th> <th>Jinan</th> <th>Zhengzhou</th> <th>Xi'an</th> <th>Taiyuan</th> <th>Chengdu</th> <th>Nanjing</th> <th>Guangzhou</th> <th>Meizhou</th> <th>Xiamen</th> <th>Anyi </th></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">音</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">in</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iẽ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iən</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iẽ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iəŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">in</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">in</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iɐm</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">im</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">im</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">im</span></td> <td>'sound' </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">心</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɕin</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɕiẽ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">siən</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɕiẽ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɕiəŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɕin</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sin</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sɐm</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sim</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">sim</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɕim</span></td> <td>'heart' </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Northeastern_and_Beijing_Mandarin">Northeastern and Beijing Mandarin</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Northeastern and Beijing Mandarin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Northeastern Mandarin is spoken in <a href="/wiki/Heilongjiang" title="Heilongjiang">Heilongjiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jilin" title="Jilin">Jilin</a>, most of <a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Liaoning</a> and northeastern <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>, whereas Beijing Mandarin is spoken in northern <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>, most of <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, parts of <a href="/wiki/Tianjin" title="Tianjin">Tianjin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two families' most notable features are the heavy use of <a href="/wiki/Rhotic_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhotic vowel">rhotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Erhua" title="Erhua">erhua</a> and seemingly random distribution of the dark checked tone, and generally having four tones with the contours of high flat, rising, dipping, and falling. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Tone contour of historically dark checked tone (<span lang="zh">陰入</span>) characters </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"></th> <th colspan="4">Northeastern/Beijing</th> <th colspan="5">Other</th> <th rowspan="2">Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <th>Harbin</th> <th>Changchun</th> <th>Shenyang</th> <th>Beijing</th> <th>Heyuan</th> <th>Chaozhou</th> <th>Suzhou</th> <th>Hefei</th> <th>Wuhan </th></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">客</span></td> <td>˨˩˧</td> <td>˥˧</td> <td>˨˩˧</td> <td>˥˧</td> <td>˥</td> <td>˨˩</td> <td>˥˥</td> <td>˥</td> <td>˨˩˧</td> <td>'guest' </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">八</span></td> <td>˦˦</td> <td>˦˦</td> <td>˧˧</td> <td>˥˥</td> <td>˥</td> <td>˨˩</td> <td>˥˥</td> <td>˥</td> <td>˨˩˧</td> <td>'eight' </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">北</span></td> <td>˨˩˧</td> <td>˨˩˧</td> <td>˨˩˧</td> <td>˨˩˧</td> <td>˥</td> <td>˨˩</td> <td>˥˥</td> <td>˥</td> <td>˨˩˧</td> <td>'north' </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Northeastern Mandarin, especially in Heilongjiang, contains many loanwords from Russian.<sup id="cite_ref-harbin_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harbin-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th>Term</th> <th>Pronunciation</th> <th>Meaning</th> <th>Origin </th></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">卜留克</span></td> <td><i><span lang="zh-Latn">bǔliúkè</span></i></td> <td>'<a href="/wiki/Rutabaga" title="Rutabaga">rutabaga</a>'</td> <td><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">брюква</span></span> <i>bryukva</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">馬神</span></td> <td><i><span lang="zh-Latn">mǎshén</span></i></td> <td>'machine'</td> <td><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">машина</span></span> <i>mashina</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">巴籬子</span></td> <td><i><span lang="zh-Latn">bālízi</span></i></td> <td>'jail'</td> <td><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">полиция</span></span> <i>politsiya</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Northeastern Mandarin lects can be divided into three main groups, namely Hafu (including <a href="/wiki/Harbin_dialect" title="Harbin dialect">Harbinnese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Changchun_dialect" title="Changchun dialect">Changchunnese</a>), Jishen (including <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jilin_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jilin dialect (page does not exist)">Jilinnese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shenyang_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Shenyang dialect">Shenyangnese</a>), and Heisong. Notably, the extinct <a href="/wiki/Taz_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Taz language">Taz language</a> of <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> is also a Northeastern Mandarin language. Beijing is sometimes included in Northeastern Mandarin due to its distribution of the historical dark checked tone,<sup id="cite_ref-ne_beijing_1_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ne_beijing_1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ne_beijing_2_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ne_beijing_2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though is listed as its own group by others, often due to its more regular light checked tones.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jilu_Mandarin">Jilu Mandarin</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Jilu Mandarin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jilu Mandarin is spoken in southern Hebei and western <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is often represented with <a href="/wiki/Jinan_dialect" title="Jinan dialect">Jinannese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notable cities that use Jilu Mandarin lects include <a href="/wiki/Cangzhou" title="Cangzhou">Cangzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shijiazhuang" title="Shijiazhuang">Shijiazhuang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jinan" title="Jinan">Jinan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baoding" title="Baoding">Baoding</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Characteristically Jilu Mandarin features include merging the dark checked into the dark level tone, the light checked into light level or departing based on the <a href="/wiki/Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">manner of articulation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Initial_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Initial (linguistics)">initial</a>, and vowel breaking in <i>tong</i> rime series' (<span lang="zh">通攝</span>) checked-tone words, among other features. </p><p>Jilu Mandarin can be classified into Baotang, Shiji, Canghui and Zhangli.<sup id="cite_ref-mandarin_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mandarin-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhangli is of note due to its preservation of a separate checked tone. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jiaoliao_Mandarin">Jiaoliao Mandarin</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Jiaoliao Mandarin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jiaoliao.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Jiaoliao.png/220px-Jiaoliao.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="345" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Jiaoliao.png/330px-Jiaoliao.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Jiaoliao.png/440px-Jiaoliao.png 2x" data-file-width="1394" data-file-height="2187" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of Jiaoliao Mandarin varieties</figcaption></figure> <p>Jiaoliao Mandarin is spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Shandong_Peninsula" title="Shandong Peninsula">Jiaodong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liaodong_Peninsula" title="Liaodong Peninsula">Liaodong Peninsulae</a>, which includes the cities of <a href="/wiki/Dalian" title="Dalian">Dalian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qingdao" title="Qingdao">Qingdao</a>, as well as several prefectures along the China-Korea border.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like Jilu Mandarin, its light checked tone is merged into light level or departing based on the manner of articulation of the initial, though its dark checked is merged into the rising. Its <i><span lang="zh-Latn">rì</span></i> initial (<span lang="zh">日母</span>) terms are pronounced with a <a href="/wiki/Null_initial" class="mw-redirect" title="Null initial">null initial</a> (apart from open <i><span lang="zh-Latn">zhǐ</span></i> rime series (<span lang="zh">止攝開口</span>) finals), unlike the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʐ/</span> of Northern and Beijing Mandarin.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Based on, for example, the pronunciation of the <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">palatalized</a> <i><span lang="zh-Latn">jiàn</span></i> initial (<span lang="zh">見母</span>),<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jiaoliao Mandarin can be divided into Qingzhou, Denglian and Gaihuan areas.<sup id="cite_ref-mandarin_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mandarin-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>Yantai</th> <th>Weihai</th> <th>Qingdao</th> <th>Dalian</th> <th>Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">交</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ciau</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ciau</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tɕiɔ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tɕiɔ</span></td> <td>'to hand in' </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">見</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">cian</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">cian</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tɕiã</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tɕiɛ̃</span></td> <td>'to see' </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Central_Plains_and_Lanyin_Mandarin">Central Plains and Lanyin Mandarin</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Central Plains and Lanyin Mandarin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Central Plains Mandarin is spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Zhongyuan" title="Zhongyuan">Central Plains</a> of <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a>, southwestern <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a> and northern <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a>, as well as most of <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Ningxia" title="Ningxia">Ningxia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a> and southern <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, in famous cities such as <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng" title="Kaifeng">Kaifeng</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhengzhou" title="Zhengzhou">Zhengzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xuzhou" title="Xuzhou">Xuzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xining" title="Xining">Xining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lanzhou" title="Lanzhou">Lanzhou</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Central Plains Mandarin lects merge the historical checked tones with a lesser muddy (<span lang="zh">次濁</span>) and clear (<span lang="zh">清</span>) initial together with the rising tone, and those with a fully muddy (<span lang="zh">全濁</span>) initial are merged with the light level tone.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lanyin Mandarin, spoken in northern Ningxia, parts of Gansu, and northern Xinjiang, is sometimes grouped with Central Plains Mandarin due to its merged lesser light and dark checked tones, though it is realised as a departing tone. </p><p>Subdivision of Central Plains Mandarin is not fully agreed upon, though one possible subdivision sees 13 divisions, namely Xuhuai, Zhengkai, Luosong, Nanlu, Yanhe, Shangfu, Xinbeng, Luoxiang, Fenhe, Guanzhong, Qinlong, Longzhong and Nanjiang.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lanyin Mandarin, on the other hand, is divided as Jincheng, Yinwu, Hexi, and Beijiang. The <a href="/wiki/Dungan_language" title="Dungan language">Dungan language</a> is a collection of Central Plains Mandarin varieties spoken in the former <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jin">Jin</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Jin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jinyufen_qu.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Jinyufen_qu.png/220px-Jinyufen_qu.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Jinyufen_qu.png/330px-Jinyufen_qu.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Jinyufen_qu.png/440px-Jinyufen_qu.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="646" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of Jin varieties</figcaption></figure> <p>Jin is spoken in most of <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>, western <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a> and central <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> often represented by <a href="/wiki/Taiyuan_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiyuan dialect">Taiyuannese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was first proposed as a lect separate from the rest of Mandarin by <a href="/wiki/Li_Rong_(linguist)" title="Li Rong (linguist)">Li Rong</a>, where it was proposed as lects in and around Shanxi with a checked tone, though this stance is not without disagreement.<sup id="cite_ref-gailun_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gailun-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jin varieties also often has disyllabic words derived from syllable splitting (分音詞), through the infixation of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/(u)əʔ<span class="wrap"> </span>l/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">笨</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pəŋ꜄</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">→</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">薄</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pəʔ꜇</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">愣</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ləŋ꜄</p></div><p style="display: none;">笨 {} 薄愣</p><p style="display: none;">pəŋ꜄ → pəʔ꜇ ləŋ꜄</p><p style="clear: left;">'stupid'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">滾</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">꜂kʊŋ</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">→</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">骨</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kuəʔ꜆</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">攏</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">꜂lʊŋ</p></div><p style="display: none;">滾 {} 骨攏</p><p style="display: none;">꜂kʊŋ → kuəʔ꜆ ꜂lʊŋ</p><p style="clear: left;">'to roll'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>As per the Language Atlas by Li, Jin is divided into Dabao, Zhanghu, Wutai, Lüliang, Bingzhou, Shangdang, Hanxin, and Zhiyan branches.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Southwestern_Mandarin">Southwestern Mandarin</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Southwestern Mandarin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spoken in <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>, most of <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a>, most of <a href="/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a> and bordering parts of <a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Kokang" title="Kokang">Kokang</a> of Myanmar and parts of northern <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, Southwestern Mandarin speakers take up the most area and population of all Mandarinic language groups, and would be the eighth most spoken language in the world if separated from the rest of Mandarin.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Southwestern Mandarinic tends to not have <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">retroflex consonants</a>, and merges all checked tone categories together. Except for <a href="/wiki/Minjiang_dialect" title="Minjiang dialect">Minchi</a>, which has a standalone checked category, the checked tone is merged with another category. Representative lects include <a href="/wiki/Wuhan_dialect" title="Wuhan dialect">Wuhannese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sichuanese (language)">Sichuanese</a>, and sometimes <a href="/wiki/Kunming_dialect" title="Kunming dialect">Kunmingnese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Southwestern Mandarin tends to be split into Chuanqian, Xishu, Chuanxi, Yunnan, Huguang and Guiliu branches. Minchi is sometimes separated as a remnant of Old Shu.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Huai">Huai</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Huai"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dialect_Map_of_Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Dialect_Map_of_Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin.png/220px-Dialect_Map_of_Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Dialect_Map_of_Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin.png/330px-Dialect_Map_of_Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Dialect_Map_of_Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin.png/440px-Dialect_Map_of_Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin.png 2x" data-file-width="16001" data-file-height="16001" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of Huai varieties</figcaption></figure> <p>Huai is spoken in central <a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a>, far western and eastern <a href="/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a> and most of <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to its preservation of a checked tone, some linguists believe that Huai ought to be treated as a top-level group, like Jin. Representative lects tend to be <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_dialect" title="Nanjing dialect">Nanjingnese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hefei_dialect" title="Hefei dialect">Hefeinese</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yangzhou_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yangzhou dialect (page does not exist)">Yangzhounese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Huai of Nanjing has likely served as a national prestige during the Ming and Qing periods,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though not all linguists support this viewpoint.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Language Atlas divides Huai into Tongtai, Huangxiao, and Hongchao areas, with the latter further split into Ninglu and Huaiyang. Tongtai, being geographically located furthest west, has the most significant Wu influence, such as in its distribution of historical voiced plosive series.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hangzhou_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hangzhou-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"></th> <th colspan="2">Tongtai</th> <th colspan="4">Non-Tongtai </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nantong</th> <th>Taizhou</th> <th>Yangzhou</th> <th>Hangzhou</th> <th>Fuzhou</th> <th>Huizhou </th></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">地</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰi</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰi</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ti</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">di</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tei</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ti</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">病</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pʰeŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pʰiŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pin</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">biŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">paŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">piaŋ</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yue">Yue</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Yue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ping_and_Yue_dialect_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Ping_and_Yue_dialect_map.svg/330px-Ping_and_Yue_dialect_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Ping_and_Yue_dialect_map.svg/495px-Ping_and_Yue_dialect_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Ping_and_Yue_dialect_map.svg/660px-Ping_and_Yue_dialect_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="323" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of Yue varieties (including Pinghua)</figcaption></figure> <p>Yue Chinese is spoken by around 84 million people,<sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in western <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>, eastern <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Hainan_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Hainan province">Hainan</a>, as well as overseas communities such as <a href="/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur" title="Kuala Lumpur">Kuala Lumpur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vancouver" title="Vancouver">Vancouver</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Famous lects such as <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taishan_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Taishan dialect">Taishanese</a> belong to this family.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yue Chinese lects generally possess <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">long-short distinctions</a> in their vowels, which is reflected in their almost universally split dark-checked and often split light-checked tones. They generally also tend to preserve all three checked plosive finals and three nasal finals. The status of Pinghua is uncertain, and some believe its two groups, Northern and Southern, should be listed under Yue,<sup id="cite_ref-guangxi_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guangxi-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though some reject this standpoint.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Checked tone contours in Yue lects </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Tone</th> <th colspan="2">Dark</th> <th colspan="2">Light </th></tr> <tr> <th>Short</th> <th>Long</th> <th>Short</th> <th>Long </th></tr> <tr> <th>Examples</th> <th><span lang="zh">北</span></th> <th><span lang="zh">八</span></th> <th><span lang="zh">入</span></th> <th><span lang="zh">白</span> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Guangzhou </th> <td>˥˥</td> <td>˧˧</td> <td colspan="2">˨˨ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Hong Kong </th> <td>˥˥</td> <td>˧˧</td> <td colspan="2">˨˨ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dongguan </th> <td>˦˦</td> <td>˨˨˦</td> <td colspan="2">˨˨ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Shiqi </th> <td>˥</td> <td colspan="3">˧ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Taishan </th> <td>˥˥</td> <td>˧˧</td> <td colspan="2">˨˩ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Bobai </th> <td>˥˥</td> <td>˧˧</td> <td colspan="2">˨˨ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Yulin </th> <td>˥</td> <td>˧</td> <td>˨</td> <td>˨˩ </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Yue is generally split into <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a> (which itself contains <a href="/wiki/Yuehai_Yue" title="Yuehai Yue">Yuehai</a>, Xiangshan, and <a href="/wiki/Guan-Bao_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Guan-Bao dialect">Guanbao</a>), <a href="/wiki/Siyi_Yue" title="Siyi Yue">Siyi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaoyang_Yue" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaoyang Yue">Gaoyang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qin-Lian_Yue" class="mw-redirect" title="Qin-Lian Yue">Qinlian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wu-Hua_Yue" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu-Hua Yue">Wuhua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goulou_Yue" title="Goulou Yue">Goulou</a> (which includes <a href="/wiki/Luo-Guang_Yue" class="mw-redirect" title="Luo-Guang Yue">Luoguang</a>), <a href="/wiki/Yong-Xun_Yue" class="mw-redirect" title="Yong-Xun Yue">Yongxun</a> and the two Pinghua branches.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Siyi is generally agreed to be the most divergent, and Goulou is believed to be the one which is closest related to Pinghua.<sup id="cite_ref-guangxi_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guangxi-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hakka">Hakka</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Hakka"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hakka Chinese is a direct result of several migration waves from Northern China to the South,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is spoken in eastern <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>, parts of <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, western <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a>, as well as scattered points in the rest of Guangdong, <a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hainan_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Hainan province">Hainan</a>, along with overseas communities such as in <a href="/wiki/West_Kalimantan" title="West Kalimantan">West Kalimantan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bangka_Belitung_Islands" title="Bangka Belitung Islands">Bangka Belitung Islands</a> in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, by an estimated total of 44 million people.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some believe that Hakka is closely related to other groups, such as Gan, Yue, or Tongtai.<sup id="cite_ref-gan_hakka_1_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gan_hakka_1-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gan_hakka_2_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gan_hakka_2-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hakka varieties generally have no voiced plosive initials and preserve the historical <i><span lang="zh-Latn">rì</span></i> initial (<span lang="zh">日母</span>) as an n-like sound.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-meixian_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meixian-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Realization of the historical <i><span lang="zh-Latn">rì</span></i> initial in Hakka </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>Meizhou</th> <th>Changting</th> <th>Hsinchu</th> <th>Hong Kong</th> <th>Yudu </th></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">人</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ȵin</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">neŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ȵin</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><sup>ŋ</sup>ɡin</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">niẽ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">日</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ȵit</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ni</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ȵit</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><sup>ŋ</sup>ɡit</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">nie</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Hakka can be divided into Yuetai, Hailu, Yuebei, Yuexi, Tingzhou, Ninglong, Yuxin and Tonggui.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Meixian_dialect" title="Meixian dialect">Meizhounese</a> is often used as the representative variety of Hakka.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_27-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Min">Min</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Min"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Min_Languages.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Min_Languages.svg/220px-Min_Languages.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Min_Languages.svg/330px-Min_Languages.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Min_Languages.svg/440px-Min_Languages.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1550" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of Min varieties in mainland China, Hainan and Taiwan</figcaption></figure> <p>Min Chinese is a direct descendant of Old Chinese, and is spoken in <a href="/wiki/Chaoshan" title="Chaoshan">Chaoshan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhanjiang" title="Zhanjiang">Zhanjiang</a> of <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hainan" title="Hainan">Hainan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, most of <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>, by around 76 million people.<sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to significant amounts of migration, many people in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> are also able of speaking Min varieties. Lects such as <a href="/wiki/Teochew_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Teochew dialect">Teoswa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hainanese" title="Hainanese">Hainanese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwanese</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Hokchiu</a> are all Min varieties.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since Min descended from Old Chinese rather than Middle Chinese, it has some features that would be out of place in other varieties. For instance, some words with the <i><span lang="zh-Latn">cheng</span></i> initial (<span lang="zh">澄母</span>) are not affricates in Min. This, interestingly, has led to many languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inuktitut_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Inuktitut language">Inuktitut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_language" title="Māori language">Māori</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telugu_language" title="Telugu language">Telugu</a>, loaning the Sinitic word for 'tea' (<span lang="zh">茶</span>) with a plosive. Min varieties also have a very large number of words with <a href="/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings_of_Chinese_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters">literary pronunciations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Selection of reflexes of the <i><span lang="zh-Latn">cheng</span></i> initial </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"></th> <th colspan="7">Min</th> <th colspan="3">Non-Min </th></tr> <tr> <th>Fuzhou</th> <th>Quanzhou</th> <th>Chaozhou</th> <th>Putian</th> <th>Jian'ou</th> <th>Haikou</th> <th>Leizhou</th> <th>Lanzhou</th> <th>Guiyang</th> <th>Changsha </th></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">茶</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ta</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">te</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">te</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tɒ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ta</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʔdɛ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">te</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʂʰa</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tsʰa</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tsa</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">陳</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tiŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tan</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰiŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tɛŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">teiŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʔdaŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">taŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʂʰən</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tsʰən</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tsən</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Min can primarily be split into Coastal and Inland Min varieties. The former contains the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a> branches of Quanzhang (Hokkien), Chaoshan (Teoswa), <a href="/wiki/Datian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Datian dialect">Datian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhongshan dialect">Zhongshan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern Min</a> branches of Houguan and Funing, Qionglei Min, as well as <a href="/wiki/Puxian_Min" class="mw-redirect" title="Puxian Min">Puxian Min</a>, whereas the latter includes <a href="/wiki/Northern_Min" title="Northern Min">Northern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Min" title="Central Min">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaojiang_Min" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaojiang Min">Shaojiang Min</a>. Shaojiang Min acts as a transitional area between Min, Gan, and Hakka.<sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gailun_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gailun-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wu">Wu</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Wu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Varieties_of_of_the_Wu_Chinese_(English).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Varieties_of_of_the_Wu_Chinese_%28English%29.png/220px-Varieties_of_of_the_Wu_Chinese_%28English%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Varieties_of_of_the_Wu_Chinese_%28English%29.png/330px-Varieties_of_of_the_Wu_Chinese_%28English%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Varieties_of_of_the_Wu_Chinese_%28English%29.png/440px-Varieties_of_of_the_Wu_Chinese_%28English%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of Wu varieties</figcaption></figure> <p>Wu Chinese is spoken in most of <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a>, parts of southern <a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a> and eastern <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a> by around 82 million people.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wu_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many large cities in the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_Delta" title="Yangtze Delta">Yangtze Delta</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Suzhou" title="Suzhou">Suzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Changzhou" title="Changzhou">Changzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ningbo" title="Ningbo">Ningbo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a>, use a Wu variety. Wu varieties generally have a fricative initial in their negators, a three-way plosive distinction, as well as a checked coda preserved as a <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>, except for Oujiang lects, where it has become <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">vowel length</a>, and Xuanzhou.<sup id="cite_ref-wu_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hangzhou_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hangzhou-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>An example of a tripartite division of plosives </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>Shanghai</th> <th>Suzhou</th> <th>Changzhou</th> <th>Shaoxing</th> <th>Ningbo</th> <th>Taizhou</th> <th>Wenzhou</th> <th>Jinhua</th> <th>Lishui</th> <th>Quzhou </th></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">通</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰoŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰoŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰoŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰoŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰoŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰoŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰoŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰoŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰɔŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰaŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">東</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">toŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">toŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">toŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">toŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">toŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">toŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">toŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">toŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tɔŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">taŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">同</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">doŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">doŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">doŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">doŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">doŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">doŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">doŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">doŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dɔŋ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">daŋ</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhounese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wenzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Wenzhou dialect">Wenzhounese</a> are usually used as representatives of Wu.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_27-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wu Chinese varieties generally have a massive number of vowels, which rivals even <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-shanghai_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shanghai-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-suzhou_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-suzhou-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Jinhui_dialect" title="Jinhui dialect">Dondac variety</a> has been observed to have 20 phonemic monophthongal vowels, according to one analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Qian_Nairong" title="Qian Nairong">Qian Nairong</a> divides Wu into <a href="/wiki/Taihu_Wu" title="Taihu Wu">Taihu</a> (or Northern Wu), <a href="/wiki/Taizhou_dialect" title="Taizhou dialect">Taizhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oujiang_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Oujiang Wu">Oujiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chuqu_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Chuqu Wu">Chuqu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jinhua_dialect" title="Jinhua dialect">Wuzhou</a>. Northern Wu is further divided into Piling, Suhujia, Tiaoxi, Linshao, Yongjiang, and Hangzhou, though Hangzhou's classification is unclear.<sup id="cite_ref-hangzhou_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hangzhou-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wu_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wu-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hui">Hui</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Hui"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Huizhou Chinese is spoken in western <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Jingdezhen" title="Jingdezhen">Jingdezhen</a>, by around 5 million people.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is identified as a top-level group by the Language Atlas, though some linguists believe in other theories, such as it being a Gan-influenced Wu variety, due to an identifiable basis of Old Wu features.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hui varieties are phonologically diverse, and some features are shared with Wu, such as the simplification of diphthongs.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hui can be divided into Jishe, Xiuyi, Qiwu, Jingzhan and Yanzhou branches, with Tunxinese and Jixinese being representatives. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gan">Gan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Gan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gan Chinese is spoken in northern and central <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a>, parts of <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a> and eastern <a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a>, by 22 million people,<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sometimes believed to be related to Hakka.<sup id="cite_ref-gan_hakka_1_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gan_hakka_1-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gan_hakka_2_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gan_hakka_2-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gan varieties tend to not <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">palatalize</a> terms with the <i><span lang="zh-Latn">jian</span></i> initial (<span lang="zh">見母</span>) and have an f-like initial in closed <i><span lang="zh-Latn">xiao</span></i> and <i><span lang="zh-Latn">xia</span></i> initial (<span lang="zh">合口曉匣兩母</span>) terms, among other features.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Pronunciation of terms with a <i><span lang="zh-Latn">xia</span></i> or <span lang="zh">xiao</span> initial and closed medial in Gan </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>Nanchang</th> <th>Yichun</th> <th>Ji'an</th> <th>Fuzhou</th> <th>Yingtan </th></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">灰</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ϕɨi</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">fi</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">fei</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">fai</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">fɛi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">胡</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ϕu</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">fu</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">fu</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">fu</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">fu</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Gan can also be divided into Northern and Southern groups. The Northern group was formed during the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>, whereas the Southern group was developed based on Northern Gan.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Language Atlas sees Gan divided into Changdu, Yiliu, Jicha, Fuguang, Yingyi, Datong, Dongsui, Huaiyue, and Leizi branches.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nanchang_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang dialect">Nanchangnese</a> is often chosen as the representative.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_27-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shaojiang Min is identified to be influenced or even closely related to Fuguang Gan.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Xiang">Xiang</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Xiang"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Classification_of_Xiang_2005_Bao.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Classification_of_Xiang_2005_Bao.png/220px-Classification_of_Xiang_2005_Bao.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Classification_of_Xiang_2005_Bao.png/330px-Classification_of_Xiang_2005_Bao.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Classification_of_Xiang_2005_Bao.png/440px-Classification_of_Xiang_2005_Bao.png 2x" data-file-width="860" data-file-height="860" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of Xiang varieties in Hunan and Guangxi</figcaption></figure> <p>Xiang Chinese is spoken in central and western <a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a> and nearby parts of <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a> by an estimated 37 million people.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to migrations, Xiang can be split into New and Old Xiang groups, with Old Xiang having fewer Mandarin-influenced features.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-other_11-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Xiang varieties have universally lost their checked codas, but the majority of them still have a unique preserved checked tone contour. Most also have a three-way plosive distinction, like Wu varieties.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One way of dividing Xiang varieties sees five distinct families, namely Changyi, Hengzhou, Louzhao, Chenxu, and Yongzhou.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Changsha_dialect" title="Changsha dialect">Changshanese</a> and one of <a href="/wiki/Shuangfeng_dialect" title="Shuangfeng dialect">Shuangfengnese</a> or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Loudi_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Loudi dialect (page does not exist)">Loudinese</a> are usually taken as Xiang representatives.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_27-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Internal_classification">Internal classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Internal classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_origin_and_spread_of_the_Sino-Tibetan_language_family.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_origin_and_spread_of_the_Sino-Tibetan_language_family.png/220px-The_origin_and_spread_of_the_Sino-Tibetan_language_family.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_origin_and_spread_of_the_Sino-Tibetan_language_family.png/330px-The_origin_and_spread_of_the_Sino-Tibetan_language_family.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_origin_and_spread_of_the_Sino-Tibetan_language_family.png/440px-The_origin_and_spread_of_the_Sino-Tibetan_language_family.png 2x" data-file-width="2851" data-file-height="1910" /></a><figcaption>After applying the linguistic comparative method to the database of comparative linguistic data developed by <a href="/wiki/Laurent_Sagart" title="Laurent Sagart">Laurent Sagart</a> in 2019 to identify sound correspondences and establish cognates, phylogenetic methods are used to infer relationships among these languages and estimate the age of their origin and homeland.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagartJacquesLaiRyder201910319–10320_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESagartJacquesLaiRyder201910319–10320-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The traditional, dialectological classification of Chinese languages is based on the evolution of the sound categories of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a>. Little comparative work has been done (the usual way of reconstructing the relationships between languages), and little is known about mutual intelligibility. Even within the dialectological classification, details are disputed, such as the establishment in the 1980s of three new top-level groups: <a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Huizhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pinghua" title="Pinghua">Pinghua</a>, although Pinghua is itself a pair of languages and Huizhou maybe half a dozen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201041–53,_55–56_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201041–53,_55–56-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYan20069–18,_61–69,_222_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYan20069–18,_61–69,_222-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Like Bai, the <a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a> languages are commonly thought to have split off directly from <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMei1970?_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMei1970?-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The evidence for this split is that all Sinitic languages apart from the Min group can fit into the structure of the <i><a href="/wiki/Qieyun" title="Qieyun">Qieyun</a></i>, a 7th-century <a href="/wiki/Rime_dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Rime dictionary">rime dictionary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19843_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank19843-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this view is not universally accepted. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Points_of_contention">Points of contention</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Points of contention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like many other language families, Sinitic languages have had problems with classification. The following are a few examples. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Southern_China">Southern China</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Southern China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Traditionally, the <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou_dialect" title="Hangzhou dialect">lect of urban Hangzhou</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Xiang" title="New Xiang">New Xiang</a> of eastern <a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a> are not considered Mandarin.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, linguists such as Richard VanNess Simmons and Zhou Zhenhe have observed that these two varieties possess more qualifying features of <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a> languages.<sup id="cite_ref-hangzhou_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hangzhou-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, the vowels of the second division of the <i><span lang="zh-Latn">jia</span></i> (<span lang="zh">假</span>) initial is often raised and backed in Wu and Xiang, while they are not in Hangzhounese and New Xiang. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"></th> <th colspan="3">Traditionally Mandarin</th> <th colspan="4">Traditionally Wu</th> <th colspan="2">Traditionally Xiang</th> <th rowspan="2">Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijing</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_dialect" title="Nanjing dialect">Nanjing</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Nantong_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nantong dialect">Nantong</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghai</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhou</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Wenzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Wenzhou dialect">Wenzhou</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Hangzhou_dialect" title="Hangzhou dialect">Hangzhou</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Changsha_dialect" title="Changsha dialect">Changsha</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Shuangfeng_dialect" title="Shuangfeng dialect">Shuangfeng</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">花</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">xua</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">xuɑ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">xuo</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ho</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ho</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʰo</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">hua</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">fa</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">xo</span></td> <td>'flower' </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">瓜</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kua</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kuɑ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kuo</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ko</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ko</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ko</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kua</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kua</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ko</span></td> <td>'melon' </td></tr> <tr> <td><span lang="zh">下</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɕia</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɕiɑ</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">xo</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɦo</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɦo</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɦo</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ia</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">xa</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɣo</span></td> <td>'down' </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Nantongnese has heavy Wu influence, which has led to it also having raised and backed vowels. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Danzhou_dialect" title="Danzhou dialect">Danzhounese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maihua" class="mw-redirect" title="Maihua">Maihua</a> are both traditionally considered <a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a> lects.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent research, however, has noted that these are both are more likely unclassified.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201073_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurpaska201073-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maihua, for example, may be a Yue-<a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a>-<a href="/wiki/Hainanese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hainanese language">Hainanese Min</a> mixed language.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dongjiang Bendihua (<span lang="zh">東江本地話</span>) is spoken in and around <a href="/wiki/Huizhou" title="Huizhou">Huizhou</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heyuan" title="Heyuan">Heyuan</a>. Its classification has always been unclear, though the most common standpoint is that it is considered Hakka.<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Northern_China">Northern China</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Northern China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The variety spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Ganyu_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganyu District">Ganyu District</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lianyungang" title="Lianyungang">Lianyungang</a> (<span lang="zh">贛榆話</span>) is listed as a variety of <a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_Mandarin" title="Central Plains Mandarin">Central Plains Mandarin</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Language_Atlas_of_China" title="Language Atlas of China">Language Atlas of China</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-atlas_21-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though its tonal distribution is more similar to <a href="/wiki/Jiao-Liao_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jiao-Liao Mandarin">Peninsular Mandarin</a> varieties.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationships_between_groups">Relationships between groups</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Relationships between groups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Jerry Norman</a> classified the traditional seven dialect groups into three larger groups: Northern (Mandarin), Central (Wu, Gan, and Xiang), and Southern (Hakka, Yue, and Min). He argued that the Southern Group is derived from a standard used in the Yangtze valley during the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (206 BC – 220 AD), which he called Old Southern Chinese, while the Central group was transitional between the Northern and Southern groups.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988182–183_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988182–183-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <a href="/wiki/Dialect_boundaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialect boundaries">dialect boundaries</a>, such as between Wu and Min, are particularly abrupt, while others, such as between Mandarin and Xiang or between Min and Hakka, are much less clearly defined.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988189–190_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988189–190-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars account for the transitional nature of the central varieties in terms of <a href="/wiki/Wave_model" title="Wave model">wave models</a>. Iwata argues that innovations have been transmitted from the north across the <a href="/wiki/Huai_River" title="Huai River">Huai River</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin" title="Lower Yangtze Mandarin">Lower Yangtze Mandarin</a> area and from there southeast to the Wu area and westwards along the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a> valley and thence to southwestern areas, leaving the hills of the southeast largely untouched.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIwata2010102–108_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIwata2010102–108-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_quantitative_study">A quantitative study</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: A quantitative study"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 2007 study compared fifteen major urban dialects on the objective criteria of <a href="/wiki/Lexical_similarity" title="Lexical similarity">lexical similarity</a> and regularity of sound correspondences, and subjective criteria of intelligibility and similarity. Most of these criteria show a top-level split with Northern, <a href="/wiki/New_Xiang" title="New Xiang">New Xiang</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a> in one group and <a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a> (samples at Fuzhou, Xiamen, Chaozhou), <a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a> in the other group. The exception was phonological regularity, where the one Gan dialect (<a href="/wiki/Nanchang_Gan" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang Gan">Nanchang Gan</a>) was in the Southern group and very close to <a href="/wiki/Meixian_dialect" title="Meixian dialect">Meixian Hakka</a>, and the deepest phonological difference was between <a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhounese</a> (the southernmost Wu dialect) and all other dialects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETangVan_Heuven20071025_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETangVan_Heuven20071025-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The study did not find clear splits within the Northern and Central areas:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETangVan_Heuven20071025_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETangVan_Heuven20071025-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Changsha (New Xiang) was always within the Mandarin group. No Old Xiang dialect was in the sample.</li> <li>Taiyuan (<a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a> or Shanxi) and Hankou (Wuhan, Hubei) were subjectively perceived as relatively different from other Northern dialects but were very close in mutual intelligibility. Objectively, Taiyuan had substantial phonological divergence but little lexical divergence.</li> <li>Chengdu (Sichuan) was somewhat divergent lexically but very little on the other measures.</li></ul> <p>The two <a href="/wiki/Wu_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu dialect">Wu dialects</a> (Wenzhou and Suzhou) occupied an intermediate position, closer to the Northern/New Xiang/Gan group in lexical similarity and strongly closer in subjective intelligibility but closer to Min/Hakka/Yue in phonological regularity and subjective similarity, except that Wenzhou was farthest from all other dialects in phonological regularity. The two Wu dialects were close to each other in lexical similarity and subjective similarity but not in mutual intelligibility, where Suzhou was closer to Northern/Xiang/Gan than to Wenzhou.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETangVan_Heuven20071025_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETangVan_Heuven20071025-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Southern subgroup, Hakka and Yue grouped closely together on the three lexical and subjective measures but not in phonological regularity. The Min dialects showed high divergence, with Min Fuzhou (<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern Min</a>) grouped only weakly with the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a> dialects of <a href="/wiki/Amoy_dialect" title="Amoy dialect">Xiamen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teochew_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Teochew dialect">Chaozhou</a> on the two objective criteria and was slightly closer to Hakka and Yue on the subjective criteria.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETangVan_Heuven20071025_73-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETangVan_Heuven20071025-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Internal_comparison">Internal comparison</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Internal comparison"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following section will be dedicated to comparing non-Bai and non-Cai–Long Sinitic languages. Though all stem from Old Chinese, they have all developed differences with each other. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Writing_system">Writing system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Writing system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pa-khek-le_Kau-hoe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="POJ inscription" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Pa-khek-le_Kau-hoe.jpg/220px-Pa-khek-le_Kau-hoe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Pa-khek-le_Kau-hoe.jpg/330px-Pa-khek-le_Kau-hoe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Pa-khek-le_Kau-hoe.jpg/440px-Pa-khek-le_Kau-hoe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption>An example of Hokkien written exclusively in the Latin alphabet.</figcaption></figure> <p>Typographically, the vast majority of Sinitic languages use <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Sinographs</a>. However, some varieties, such as <a href="/wiki/Dungan_language" title="Dungan language">Dungan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a>, have alternative scripts, namely <a href="/wiki/Cyrillization_of_Chinese" title="Cyrillization of Chinese">Cyrillic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabets</a>. Even between varieties which use Sinographs, characters are repurposed or invented to cover for the difference in vocabulary. Examples include <span lang="zh">靚</span>; 'pretty' in Yue,<sup id="cite_ref-guangzhou_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guangzhou-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span lang="zh">𠊎</span>; 'I', 'me' in Hakka,<sup id="cite_ref-meixian_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meixian-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span lang="zh">即</span>; 'this' in Hokkien,<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span lang="zh">覅</span>; 'to not want' in Wu,<sup id="cite_ref-shanghai_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shanghai-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span lang="zh">莫</span>; 'do not' in Xiang, and <span lang="zh">嘎</span>; 'ill-tempered' in Mandarin.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-harbin_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harbin-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Note that both traditional and simplified characters can be used to write any lect. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonology">Phonology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Phonologically speaking, though all Sinitic languages possess <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tones</a>, their contours and the total number of tones vary wildly, from <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>, which can be analysed to have only two tones,<sup id="cite_ref-shanghai_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shanghai-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to <a href="/wiki/Bobai_dialect" title="Bobai dialect">Bobainese</a>, which has ten.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sinitic languages also vary wildly in their phonological inventories and phonotactics. Take for instance <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mɭɤŋ/</span> (<span lang="zh">門兒</span>; 'door (diminutive)') seen in Pingdingnese,<sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʃɦɻʷəi/</span> (<span lang="zh">水</span>; 'water') of Xuanzhounese,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which both show syllables which do not follow the (single) consonant-glide-vowel-consonant syllable structure of more well-known lects. Tone sandhi is also a feature which not all lects share. Cantonese, for instance, only has a very weak system,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas Wu varieties not only have complex, intricate systems, which affect almost all syllables, but also uses it to mark for grammatical <a href="/wiki/Part_of_speech" title="Part of speech">part of speech</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-shanghai_50-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shanghai-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-suzhou_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-suzhou-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Take for instance, this simplified analysis of Suzhounese tone sandhi:<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="display:inline-table"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Unchecked Tone Sandhi </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>chain length →<br />↓ 1st char tone cat </th> <th>2 char </th> <th>3 char </th> <th>4 char </th></tr> <tr> <th>dark level (1) </th> <td>˦ ꜉ </td> <td>˦ ˦ ꜉ </td> <td>˦ ˦ ˦ ꜉ </td></tr> <tr> <th>light level (2) </th> <td>˨ ˧ </td> <td>˨ ˧ ꜊ </td> <td>˨ ˧ ˦ ꜉ </td></tr> <tr> <th>rising (3) </th> <td>˥ ˩ </td> <td>˥ ˩ ꜌ </td> <td>˥ ˩ ˩ ꜌ </td></tr> <tr> <th>dark departing (5) </th> <td>˥˨ ˧ </td> <td>˥˨ ˧ ꜊ </td> <td>˥˨ ˧ ˦ ꜉ </td></tr> <tr> <th>light departing (6) </th> <td>˨˧ ˩ </td> <td>˨˧ ˩ ꜌ </td> <td>˨˧ ˩ ˩ ꜌ </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> <div style="display:inline-table"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Checked tone sandhi </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">chain length → </th> <th rowspan="2">2 char </th> <th rowspan="2">3 char </th> <th rowspan="2">4 char </th></tr> <tr> <th>2nd char<br />tone cat </th> <th>1st char<br />darkness </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">level (1, 2) </th> <th>dark (7) </th> <td>˦ ˨˧ </td> <td>˦ ˨˧ ꜊ </td> <td>˦ ˨˧ ˦ ꜉ </td></tr> <tr> <th>light (8) </th> <td>˨ ˧ </td> <td>˨ ˧ ꜊ </td> <td>˨ ˧ ˦ ꜉ </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">rising (3) </th> <th>dark (7) </th> <td>˥ ˥˩ </td> <td>˥ ˥˩ ꜌ </td> <td>˥ ˥˩ ˩ ꜌ </td></tr> <tr> <th>light (8) </th> <td>˨ ˥˩ </td> <td>˨ ˥˩ ꜌ </td> <td>˨ ˥˩ ˩ ꜌ </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">departing (5, 6) </th> <th>dark (7) </th> <td>˥ ˥˨˧ </td> <td>˥ ˥˨ ˧ </td> <td>˥ ˥˨ ˨ ˧ </td></tr> <tr> <th>light (8) </th> <td>˨ ˥˨˧ </td> <td>˨ ˥˨ ˧ </td> <td>˨ ˥˨ ˨ ˧ </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">checked (7, 8) </th> <th>dark (7) </th> <td>˦ ˦ </td> <td>˦ ˦ ꜉ </td> <td>˦ ˦ ˦ ˨ </td></tr> <tr> <th>light (8) </th> <td>˧ ˦ </td> <td>˧ ˦ ꜉ </td> <td>˧ ˦ ˨ ꜋ </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grammar">Grammar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Disregarding phonology, grammar is the feature of Sinitic languages which differ the most. The majority of Sinitic languages do not possess tenses, though exceptions include Northern Wu lects such as Shanghainese and <a href="/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhounese</a>, though it is largely breaking down in Shanghainese due to Mandarin influence.<sup id="cite_ref-suzhou_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-suzhou-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sinitic languages generally also have no case marking, though lects such as Linxianese and Hengshannese do possess case particles, with the latter expressing it through tone change.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sinitic languages generally have SVO word order and possess classifiers. </p><p>Verb usage may be different between Sinitic languages. Notice the double verb marking seen in lects such as <a href="/wiki/Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijingese</a>, in these sentences meaning "today I go to Guangzhou":<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>Beijingese:</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">今天</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Jīntiān</p><p style="margin: 0px;">today</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">我</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wǒ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular">1sg</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">到</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dào</p><p style="margin: 0px;">arrive</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">廣州</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Guǎngzhōu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Guangzhou</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">去</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">qù</p><p style="margin: 0px;">go</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;">(<a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>)</p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><p style="display: none;">{今天} 我到 {廣州} 去</p><p style="display: none;">{Jīntiān} wǒ dào {Guǎngzhōu} qù</p><p style="display: none;">today 1sg arrive Guangzhou go</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>Wuxinese:</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">今阿</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">cin<sup>1</sup>-a<sup>1</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">today</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">我</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ngeu<sup>4</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular">1sg</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">廣州</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kuaon<sup>3</sup>-cieu<sup>1</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">Guangzhou</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">去</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">chi<sup>5</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">go</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;">(<a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Wugniu</a>)</p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><p style="display: none;">{今阿} 我 {廣州} 去</p><p style="display: none;">{cin1-a1} ngeu4 {kuaon3-cieu1} chi5</p><p style="display: none;">today 1sg Guangzhou go</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indirect_object_marking">Indirect object marking</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Indirect object marking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sinitic languages tend to vary greatly in how they mark indirect objects. The area which varies tends to be the placement of the indirect and direct objects.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mandarinic, Xiang, Hui, and Min languages often place the indirect object (IO) before the direct object (DO). Some lects have switched to IO-DO structure due to Mandarin influence, such as <a href="/wiki/Nanchang_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang dialect">Nanchangese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a>, though Shanghainese also has the alternative word order. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>Beijingese:</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">他</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tā</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">給</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gěi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">give</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">了</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">le</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PERF</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">我</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wǒ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">一</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yī</p><p style="margin: 0px;">one</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">盒</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hé</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">糖。</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">táng</p><p style="margin: 0px;">sweets</p></div><p style="display: none;">他給了我一盒糖。</p><p style="display: none;">tā gěi le wǒ yī hé táng</p><p style="display: none;">3SG give PERF 1SG one CL sweets</p><p style="clear: left;">"He gave me a box of sweets."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>Taiyuanese:</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">給</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kei<sup>53</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">give</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">我</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɣə<sup>53</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">一</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">iəʔ<sup>2</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">one</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">本</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pəŋ<sup>53</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">書。</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">su<sup>11</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">book</p></div><p style="display: none;">給我一本書。</p><p style="display: none;">kei53 ɣə53 iəʔ2 pəŋ53 su11</p><p style="display: none;">give 1SG one CL book</p><p style="clear: left;">"Give me a book."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>Changshanese:</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">媽媽</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ma<sup>33</sup> ma</p><p style="margin: 0px;">ma</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">誒，</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ei</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="specifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SPEC</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">把</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pa<sup>41</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">give</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">我</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋo<sup>41</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">兩</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lian<sup>41</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">two</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">塊</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kʰuai<sup>41</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">錢</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɕiɛ̃<sup>13</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">money</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">咯。</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="specifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SPEC</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">{媽媽} 誒，把我兩塊錢咯。</p><p style="display: none;">{ma33 ma} ei pa41 ŋo41 lian41 kʰuai41 tɕiɛ̃13 lo</p><p style="display: none;">ma SPEC give 1SG two CL money SPEC</p><p style="clear: left;">"Mama, give me two dollars please."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>Nanchangese:</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">你人</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">꜂n len</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="polite register" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">接</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">꜀tɕia</p><p style="margin: 0px;">lend</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">了</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">le</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PERF</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">佢</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">꜂tɕie</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">三</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">꜀san</p><p style="margin: 0px;">three</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">隻</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tsaʔ꜆</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">鍋。</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">꜀wo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">pot</p></div><p style="display: none;">{你人} 接了佢三隻鍋。</p><p style="display: none;">{꜂n len} ꜀tɕia le ꜂tɕie ꜀san tsaʔ꜆ ꜀wo</p><p style="display: none;">2SG.POL lend PERF 3SG three CL pot</p><p style="clear: left;">"You lent him three pots."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>On the other hand, Gan, Wu, Hakka, and Yue languages tend to place the DO in front of the IO. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>Yichunnese:</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">我</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ŋo<sup>34</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">得</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tɛ<sup>42</sup>⁻<sup>33</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">give</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">本</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pun<sup>42</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">書</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɕy<sup>34</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">book</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">你。</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ȵi<sup>34</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">我得本書你。</p><p style="display: none;">ŋo34 tɛ42⁻33 pun42 ɕy34 ȵi34</p><p style="display: none;">1SG give CL book 2SG</p><p style="clear: left;">"I give a book to you."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>Shanghainese (<a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Wugniu</a>):</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">撥</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">peq</p><p style="margin: 0px;">give</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">對</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">te</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">鞋子</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gha - tsy</p><p style="margin: 0px;">shoe</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">我。</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ngu</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">撥對 {鞋子} 我。</p><p style="display: none;">peq te {gha - tsy} ngu</p><p style="display: none;">give CL shoe 1SG</p><p style="clear: left;">"Give me a pair of shoes."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>Yining Pinghua:</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">分</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">fɐn<sup>34</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">give</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">個</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ko<sup>33</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">梨子</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">lɐi<sup>31</sup> tsə<sup>53</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">pear</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">你。</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nə<sup>53</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">分個 {梨子} 你。</p><p style="display: none;">fɐn34 ko33 {lɐi31 tsə53} nə53</p><p style="display: none;">give CL pear 2SG</p><p style="clear: left;">"I'll give you a pear."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div>Hong Kong Hakka (<i>Lau's Romanization</i>):<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">分</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bín</p><p style="margin: 0px;">give</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">塊</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kuài</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">麪包</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mèn báu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">bread</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">𠊎。</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ngāi</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">分塊 {麪包} 𠊎。</p><p style="display: none;">bín kuài {mèn báu} ngāi</p><p style="display: none;">give CL bread 1SG</p><p style="clear: left;">"Give me a piece of bread."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Classifiers">Classifiers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Classifiers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like other East Asian languages such as <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>, Sinitic languages have a system of <a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">classifers</a>, however, use of classifiers vary greatly in features such as <a href="/wiki/Definiteness" title="Definiteness">definiteness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Cantonese, for instance, they can be used to mark possession, which is rare in Sinitic while common in Southeast Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">我</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ngo<sup>5</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">本</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bun<sup>2</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="classifier" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">書</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">syu<sup>1</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">book</p></div><p style="display: none;">我本書</p><p style="display: none;">ngo5 bun2 syu1</p><p style="display: none;">1SG CL book</p><p style="clear: left;">'my book'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p><span lang="zh">個</span> and <span lang="zh">隻</span> are the most common generic classifiers cross-linguistically.<sup id="cite_ref-other_11-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-other-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As previously mentioned, Mandarinic languages tend to have fewer classifiers whereas the Southern non-Mandarinic varieties tend to have more.<sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Demonstratives">Demonstratives</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Demonstratives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sinitic languages can vary greatly in their system of <a href="/wiki/Demonstratives" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstratives">demonstratives</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Standard_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Mandarin">Standard Mandarin</a> and other Northeastern varieties have a two-way system: <span lang="zh">這</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">zhè</span></i> (proximal) and <span lang="zh">那</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">nà</span></i> (distal), but this is not the only system found in Sinitic languages. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Wuhan_dialect" title="Wuhan dialect">Wuhannese</a> has a neutral demonstrative, which can be used regardless of the distance to the deictic center.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar systems are found in Northern Wu lects such as Suzhounese and <a href="/wiki/Ningbo_dialect" title="Ningbo dialect">Ningbonese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-suzhou_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-suzhou-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><sup id="cite_ref-wuhan_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wuhan-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nɤ<sup>35</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="demonstrative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">是</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sɿ<sup>35</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="copula" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COP</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">生</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sən<sup>55</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">unripe</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">的</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ti</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="patient-like argument of canonical transitive verb">P</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">，</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p><p style="margin: 0px;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;"><sup id="cite_ref-wuhan_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wuhan-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nɤ<sup>35</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="demonstrative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DEM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">是</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sɿ<sup>35</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="copula" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COP</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">熟</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">səu<sup>213</sup></p><p style="margin: 0px;">ripe</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">的</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ti</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="patient-like argument of canonical transitive verb">P</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;"><sup id="cite_ref-wuhan_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wuhan-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 是生的， <sup id="cite_ref-wuhan_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wuhan-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 是熟的</p><p style="display: none;">nɤ35 sɿ35 sən55 ti {} nɤ35 sɿ35 səu213 ti</p><p style="display: none;">DEM COP unripe P {} DEM COP ripe P</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>In the above sentence, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/nɤ³⁵/</span> can be translated as both 'this' and 'that'. Though Wuhannese has this system of a one-term neutral system, it also has a two-way proximal-distal system. This is the same for most other lects with a one-term system. </p><p>Even within two-way systems, which is the most common system, terms could have developed to mean the opposite distance from the deitic center. Cantonese <span lang="zh">嗰</span>; <i><span lang="yue-Latn-jyutping">go²</span></i> (distal) and Shanghainese <span lang="zh">搿</span>; <i><span lang="yue-Latn-jyutping">geq</span></i> (proximal) are both etymologically from <span lang="zh">個</span>, for instance.<sup id="cite_ref-guangzhou_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guangzhou-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-shanghai_50-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shanghai-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many Sinitic languages have three-way systems, but the three distances are not always the same ones. For instance, whereas Guangshan Mandarin has a person-oriented proximal, medial, and distal system, Xinyu Gan has a distance-oriented close, proximal, and distal system. Gan especially has many varieties with a three-way system, sometimes even marked with tone and vowel length rather than just changing the term used.<sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A small number of varieties possess even four- or five-term demonstrative systems. Take for instance the following:<sup id="cite_ref-diversity_22-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" cellpadding="5"> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>Dongxiang</th> <th>Zhangshu </th></tr> <tr> <th>Close </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">꜀ko</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kọ꜆</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Proximal </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">꜁ko</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ko꜆</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Distal </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">꜀e</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">꜃hɛ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Yonder </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">꜁e</span></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">꜃hɛ̣</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>These two lects use tone change and vowel length respectively to distinguish between the four demonstratives. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From Late Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Sīnae</i></span>, 'the Chinese', probably from Arabic <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ṣīn</i></span> 'China', from the Chinese dynastic name <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a>. (<i><a href="/wiki/OED" class="mw-redirect" title="OED">OED</a></i>). In 1982, <a href="/wiki/Paul_K._Benedict" title="Paul K. Benedict">Paul K. Benedict</a> proposed a subgroup of Sino-Tibetan called "Sinitic" comprising <a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a> and Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2005107_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2005107-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The precise affiliation of Bai remains uncertain<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2005122_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2005122-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the term <i>Sinitic</i> is usually used as a synonym for Chinese, especially when viewed as a language family rather than as a language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair19913_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair19913-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="#CITEREFEnfield2003">Enfield (2003</a>:69) and <a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas (1997)</a> for examples. The Chinese terms often translated as 'language' and 'dialect' do not correspond well to those translations. These are <span lang="zh">語言</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">yǔyán</span></i>, corresponding to <a href="/wiki/Macrolanguage" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrolanguage">macrolanguage</a> or <a href="/wiki/Language_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Language cluster">language cluster</a>, which is used for Chinese itself; <span lang="zh">方言</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">fāngyán</span></i>, which separates mutually unintelligible languages within a <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">yǔyán</i></span>; and <span lang="zh">土語</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">tǔyǔ</span></i> or <span lang="zh">土話</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">tǔhuà</span></i>, which corresponds better to the familiar Western linguistic use of 'dialect'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley20121_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley20121-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wuhan-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wuhan_88-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wuhan_88-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">This term was not assigned a character.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2005107-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2005107_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWang2005">Wang (2005)</a>, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2005122-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2005122_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWang2005">Wang (2005)</a>, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair19913-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair19913_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMair1991">Mair (1991)</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_Driem2001351-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_Driem2001351_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvan_Driem2001">van Driem (2001)</a>, p. 351.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFZhangYanPanJin2019" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, Menghan; Yan, Shi; Pan, Wuyun; Jin, Li (2019). "Phylogenetic evidence for Sino-Tibetan origin in northern China in the Late Neolithic". <i>Nature</i>. <b>569</b> (7754): 112–115. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019Natur.569..112Z">2019Natur.569..112Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-019-1153-z">10.1038/s41586-019-1153-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31019300">31019300</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129946000">129946000</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Phylogenetic+evidence+for+Sino-Tibetan+origin+in+northern+China+in+the+Late+Neolithic&rft.volume=569&rft.issue=7754&rft.pages=112-115&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129946000%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019Natur.569..112Z&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-019-1153-z&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31019300&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Menghan&rft.au=Yan%2C+Shi&rft.au=Pan%2C+Wuyun&rft.au=Jin%2C+Li&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESagartJacquesLaiRyder2019-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESagartJacquesLaiRyder2019_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSagartJacquesLaiRyder2019">Sagart et al. (2019)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvan_Driem2001">van Driem (2001</a>:403) states "<span style="font-weight:normal; font-style:normal"><span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">Bái</i></span></span> ... may form a constituent of Sinitic, albeit one heavily influenced by Lolo–Burmese."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley20121-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBradley20121_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley2012">Bradley (2012)</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-other-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-other_11-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChanChappellLi2017" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Chan, Sin-Wai; Chappell, Hilary; Li, Lan (2017). "Mandarin and other Sinitic languages". <i>Routledge Encyclopedia of the Chinese language</i>. Oxford: Routledge. pp. 605–628.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mandarin+and+other+Sinitic+languages&rft.btitle=Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+the+Chinese+language&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=605-628&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Sin-Wai&rft.au=Chappell%2C+Hilary&rft.au=Li%2C+Lan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ethnologue_china-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ethnologue_china_12-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/chinese">"Chinese"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chinese&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethnologue.com%2Fsubgroups%2Fchinese&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman200372-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman200372_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman2003">Norman (2003)</a>, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman1988189–190-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988189–190_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorman1988189–190_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorman1988">Norman (1988)</a>, pp. 189–190.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhengzhang2010" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zhengzhang, Shangfang (2010). <bdi lang="zh">蔡家话白语关系及词根比较</bdi>. <bdi lang="zh">研究之乐</bdi> (in Chinese) (2). Shanghai Educational Publishing House: 389–400.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%E8%94%A1%E5%AE%B6%E8%AF%9D%E7%99%BD%E8%AF%AD%E5%85%B3%E7%B3%BB%E5%8F%8A%E8%AF%8D%E6%A0%B9%E6%AF%94%E8%BE%83&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=389-400&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Zhengzhang&rft.aufirst=Shangfang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF貴州省民族識別工作隊語言組1984" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">貴州省民族識別工作隊語言組 (1984). <bdi lang="zh">蔡家的語言</bdi> (in Chinese).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E8%94%A1%E5%AE%B6%E7%9A%84%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&rft.date=1984&rft.au=%E8%B2%B4%E5%B7%9E%E7%9C%81%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E8%AD%98%E5%88%A5%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C%E9%9A%8A%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E7%B5%84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF貴州省民族識別工作隊1984" class="citation book cs1">貴州省民族識別工作隊 (1984). <i>南龍人（南京-龍家）族別問題調查報告</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%8D%97%E9%BE%8D%E4%BA%BA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%AC-%E9%BE%8D%E5%AE%B6%EF%BC%89%E6%97%8F%E5%88%A5%E5%95%8F%E9%A1%8C%E8%AA%BF%E6%9F%A5%E5%A0%B1%E5%91%8A&rft.date=1984&rft.au=%E8%B2%B4%E5%B7%9E%E7%9C%81%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E8%AD%98%E5%88%A5%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C%E9%9A%8A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGong2015" class="citation journal cs1">Gong, Xun (6 November 2015). "How Old is the Chinese in Bái?". Paris.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=How+Old+is+the+Chinese+in+B%C3%A1i%3F&rft.date=2015-11-06&rft.aulast=Gong&rft.aufirst=Xun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>貴州省志民族志</i>. Guiyang: 貴州民族出版社. 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E8%B2%B4%E5%B7%9E%E7%9C%81%E5%BF%97+%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%BF%97&rft.place=Guiyang&rft.pub=%E8%B2%B4%E5%B7%9E%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXuZhao1984" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Xu, Lin; Zhao, Yansun (1984). <bdi lang="zh">白语简志</bdi> (in Chinese). 民族印刷廠.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E7%99%BD%E8%AF%AD%E7%AE%80%E5%BF%97&rft.pub=%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%8D%B0%E5%88%B7%E5%BB%A0&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Xu&rft.aufirst=Lin&rft.au=Zhao%2C+Yansun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-atlas-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-28"><sup><i><b>ac</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-29"><sup><i><b>ad</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlas_21-30"><sup><i><b>ae</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2012" class="citation book cs1">Li, Rong (2012). <i>中國語言地圖集</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%9C%B0%E5%9C%96%E9%9B%86&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Rong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-diversity-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-diversity_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-diversity_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-diversity_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-diversity_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-diversity_22-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-diversity_22-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-diversity_22-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-diversity_22-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-diversity_22-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-diversity_22-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-diversity_22-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChappell2015" class="citation book cs1">Chappell, Hilary M. 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Old Shanghainese as Found in the Book Huyu Bian Shang<i>)</i>. Shanghai: The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E3%80%8A%E5%BE%9E%E3%80%88%E6%BB%AC%E8%AA%9E%E4%BE%BF%E5%95%86%E3%80%89%E6%89%80%E8%A6%8B%E7%9A%84%E8%80%81%E4%B8%8A%E6%B5%B7%E8%A9%B1%E6%99%82%E6%85%8B%E3%80%8B+%28Tenses+and+Aspects%3F+Old+Shanghainese+as+Found+in+the+Book+Huyu+Bian+Shang%29&rft.place=Shanghai&rft.pub=The+Chinese+University+of+Hong+Kong+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Qian%2C+Nairong+%28%E9%8C%A2%E4%B9%83%E6%A6%AE%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2021" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, Qiang (2021). 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<a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Jacques" title="Guillaume Jacques">Jacques, Guillaume</a>; Lai, Yunfan; Ryder, Robin; Thouzeau, Valentin; Greenhill, Simon J.; List, Johann-Mattis (2019), "Dated language phylogenies shed light on the history of Sino-Tibetan", <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>, <b>116</b> (21): 10317–10322, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1817972116">10.1073/pnas.1817972116</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6534992">6534992</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31061123">31061123</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Dated+language+phylogenies+shed+light+on+the+history+of+Sino-Tibetan&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=10317-10322&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6534992%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31061123&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1817972116&rft.aulast=Sagart&rft.aufirst=Laurent&rft.au=Jacques%2C+Guillaume&rft.au=Lai%2C+Yunfan&rft.au=Ryder%2C+Robin&rft.au=Thouzeau%2C+Valentin&rft.au=Greenhill%2C+Simon+J.&rft.au=List%2C+Johann-Mattis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/05/190506151822.htm">"Origin of Sino-Tibetan language family revealed by new research"</a>. <i>ScienceDaily</i> (Press release). May 6, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Origin+of+Sino-Tibetan+language+family+revealed+by+new+research&rft.date=2019-05-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2019%2F05%2F190506151822.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinitic_languages&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley2012" class="citation cs2">Bradley, David (2012), "Languages and Language Families in China", in Rint Sybesma (ed.), <i>Encyclopedia of Chinese Language and Linguistics.</i>, Brill</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Languages+and+Language+Families+in+China&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Chinese+Language+and+Linguistics.&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnfield2003" class="citation cs2">Enfield, N. J. (2003), <i>Linguistics Epidemiology: Semantics and Language Contact in Mainland Southeast Asia</i>, Psychology Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415297435" title="Special:BookSources/0415297435"><bdi>0415297435</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linguistics+Epidemiology%3A+Semantics+and+Language+Contact+in+Mainland+Southeast+Asia&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0415297435&rft.aulast=Enfield&rft.aufirst=N.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHannas1997" class="citation cs2">Hannas, W. (1997), <i>Asia's Orthographic Dilemma</i>, University of Hawaii Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/082481892X" title="Special:BookSources/082481892X"><bdi>082481892X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia%27s+Orthographic+Dilemma&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=082481892X&rft.aulast=Hannas&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIwata2010" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Iwata, Ray (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.raco.cat/index.php/Dialectologia/article/download/242105/324717">"Chinese Geolinguistics: History, Current Trend and Theoretical Issues"</a>, <i>Dialectologia</i>, Special issue I: 97–121.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialectologia&rft.atitle=Chinese+Geolinguistics%3A+History%2C+Current+Trend+and+Theoretical+Issues&rft.volume=Special+issue+I&rft.pages=97-121&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Iwata&rft.aufirst=Ray&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.raco.cat%2Findex.php%2FDialectologia%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F242105%2F324717&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJiangOuyangZou2007" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jiang, Huo 江荻; Ouyang, Jueya 欧阳觉亚; Zou, Heyan 邹嘉彦 (2007), "Hǎinán Shěng Sānyà Shì Màihuà yīnxì" <bdi lang="zh">海南省三亚市迈话音系</bdi>, <i>Fāngyán</i> <bdi lang="zh">方言</bdi> (in Chinese), <b>2007</b> (1): 23–34</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=F%C4%81ngy%C3%A1n&rft.atitle=H%C7%8Ein%C3%A1n+Sh%C4%9Bng+S%C4%81ny%C3%A0+Sh%C3%AC+M%C3%A0ihu%C3%A0+y%C4%ABnx%C3%AC+%E6%B5%B7%E5%8D%97%E7%9C%81%E4%B8%89%E4%BA%9A%E5%B8%82%E8%BF%88%E8%AF%9D%E9%9F%B3%E7%B3%BB&rft.volume=2007&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=23-34&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Jiang&rft.aufirst=Huo+%E6%B1%9F%E8%8D%BB&rft.au=Ouyang%2C+Jueya+%E6%AC%A7%E9%98%B3%E8%A7%89%E4%BA%9A&rft.au=Zou%2C+Heyan+%E9%82%B9%E5%98%89%E5%BD%A6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurpaska2010" class="citation cs2">Kurpaska, Maria (2010), <i>Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects"</i>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Gruyter">Walter de Gruyter</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-021914-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-021914-2"><bdi>978-3-11-021914-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Language%28s%29%3A+A+Look+Through+the+Prism+of+%22The+Great+Dictionary+of+Modern+Chinese+Dialects%22&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-11-021914-2&rft.aulast=Kurpaska&rft.aufirst=Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMair1991" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Victor_H._Mair" title="Victor H. Mair">Mair, Victor H.</a> (1991), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp029_chinese_dialect.pdf">"What Is a Chinese 'Dialect/Topolect'? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i>, <b>29</b>: 1–31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Platonic+Papers&rft.atitle=What+Is+a+Chinese+%27Dialect%2FTopolect%27%3F+Reflections+on+Some+Key+Sino-English+Linguistic+terms&rft.volume=29&rft.pages=1-31&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Mair&rft.aufirst=Victor+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsino-platonic.org%2Fcomplete%2Fspp029_chinese_dialect.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMei1970" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Mei_Tsu-lin" title="Mei Tsu-lin">Mei, Tsu-lin</a> (1970), "Tones and prosody in Middle Chinese and the origin of the rising tone", <i>Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies</i>, <b>30</b>: 86–110, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2718766">10.2307/2718766</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718766">2718766</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Journal+of+Asiatic+Studies&rft.atitle=Tones+and+prosody+in+Middle+Chinese+and+the+origin+of+the+rising+tone&rft.volume=30&rft.pages=86-110&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2718766&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2718766%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mei&rft.aufirst=Tsu-lin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1988" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Norman, Jerry</a> (1988), <i>Chinese</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29653-3"><bdi>978-0-521-29653-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29653-3&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)" title="Jerry Norman (sinologist)">Norman, Jerry</a> (2003), "The Chinese dialects: Phonology", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.), <i>The Sino-Tibetan languages</i>, Routledge, pp. 72–83, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1129-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1129-1"><bdi>978-0-7007-1129-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Chinese+dialects%3A+Phonology&rft.btitle=The+Sino-Tibetan+languages&rft.pages=72-83&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1129-1&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulleyblank1984" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Edwin_G._Pulleyblank" title="Edwin G. Pulleyblank">Pulleyblank, Edwin G.</a> (1984), <i>Middle Chinese: A study in Historical Phonology</i>, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0192-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0192-8"><bdi>978-0-7748-0192-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middle+Chinese%3A+A+study+in+Historical+Phonology&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-0192-8&rft.aulast=Pulleyblank&rft.aufirst=Edwin+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTangVan_Heuven2007" class="citation cs2">Tang, Chaoju; Van Heuven, Vincent J. (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/2317748.pdf">"Predicting mutual intelligibility in chinese dialects from subjective and objective linguistic similarity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Interlingüística</i>, <b>17</b>: 1019–1028.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Interling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica&rft.atitle=Predicting+mutual+intelligibility+in+chinese+dialects+from+subjective+and+objective+linguistic+similarity&rft.volume=17&rft.pages=1019-1028&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Tang&rft.aufirst=Chaoju&rft.au=Van+Heuven%2C+Vincent+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdialnet.unirioja.es%2Fdescarga%2Farticulo%2F2317748.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThurgood2003" class="citation cs2">Thurgood, Graham (2003), "The subgroup of the Tibeto-Burman languages: The interaction between language contact, change, and inheritance", in Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5MeWSTQ7F44C"><i>The Sino-Tibetan languages</i></a>, Routledge, pp. 3–21, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1129-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1129-1"><bdi>978-0-7007-1129-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+subgroup+of+the+Tibeto-Burman+languages%3A+The+interaction+between+language+contact%2C+change%2C+and+inheritance&rft.btitle=The+Sino-Tibetan+languages&rft.pages=3-21&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1129-1&rft.aulast=Thurgood&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5MeWSTQ7F44C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Driem2001" class="citation cs2">van Driem, George (2001), <i>Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region</i>, Brill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-10390-2" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-10390-2"><bdi>90-04-10390-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Languages+of+the+Himalayas%3A+An+Ethnolinguistic+Handbook+of+the+Greater+Himalayan+Region&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=90-04-10390-2&rft.aulast=van+Driem&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2005" class="citation cs2">Wang, Feng (2005), "On the genetic position of the Bai language", <i>Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale</i>, <b>34</b> (1): 101–127, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fclao.2005.1728">10.3406/clao.2005.1728</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cahiers+de+Linguistique+Asie+Orientale&rft.atitle=On+the+genetic+position+of+the+Bai+language&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=101-127&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fclao.2005.1728&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Feng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYan2006" class="citation cs2">Yan, Margaret Mian (2006), <i>Introduction to Chinese Dialectology</i>, LINCOM Europa, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-89586-629-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-89586-629-6"><bdi>978-3-89586-629-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Chinese+Dialectology&rft.pub=LINCOM+Europa&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-89586-629-6&rft.aulast=Yan&rft.aufirst=Margaret+Mian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASinitic+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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talk:Sino-Tibetan branches"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sino-Tibetan_branches" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sino-Tibetan branches"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sino-Tibetan_branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> branches</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh" title="Himachal Pradesh">Himachal</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Uttarakhand" title="Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/West_Himalayish_languages" title="West Himalayish languages">West Himalayish</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tamangic_languages" title="Tamangic languages">Tamangic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newaric_languages" title="Newaric languages">Newaric</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Newar_language" title="Newar language">Newar</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baram%E2%80%93Thangmi_languages" title="Baram–Thangmi languages">Baram–Thangmi</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kiranti_languages" title="Kiranti languages">Kiranti</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhimalish_languages" title="Dhimalish languages">Dhimalish</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhimal_language" title="Dhimal language">Dhimal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Toto_language" title="Toto language">Toto</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lhokpu_language" title="Lhokpu language">Lhokpu</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lepcha_language" title="Lepcha language">Lepcha</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Greater_Magaric" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Greater_Magaric_languages" title="Greater Magaric languages">Greater Magaric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magaric_languages" title="Magaric languages">Magaric</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Magar_language" title="Magar language">Magar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kham_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kham language">Kham</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chepangic_languages" title="Chepangic languages">Chepangic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chepang_language" title="Chepang language">Chepang</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhujel_language" title="Bhujel language">Bhujel</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raji%E2%80%93Raute_languages" title="Raji–Raute languages">Raji–Raute</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dura_language" title="Dura language">Dura</a></i>–<i><a href="/wiki/Tandrange_language" title="Tandrange language">Tandrange</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of Sino-Tibetan languages"><img alt="Map of Sino-Tibetan languages" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png/200px-Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png/300px-Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png/400px-Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png 2x" data-file-width="2115" data-file-height="2792" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arunachal_Pradesh" title="Arunachal Pradesh">Arunachal</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Bodish_languages" title="Bodish languages">Bodish</a></b> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Bodish_languages" title="East Bodish languages">East Bodish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tshangla_language" title="Tshangla language">Tshangla</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Basum_language" title="Basum language">Basum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nam_language" title="Nam language">Nam</a></i>?</li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gongduk_language" title="Gongduk language">Gongduk</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/%CA%BCOle_language" title="ʼOle language">ʼOle</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tani_languages" title="Tani languages">Tani</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamdo_languages" title="Chamdo languages">Chamdo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> and Indo-<br />Burmese border</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Karbi_language" title="Karbi language">Karbi</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kuki-Chin_languages" title="Kuki-Chin languages">Kuki-Chin</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mruic_languages" title="Mruic languages">Mruic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mru_language" title="Mru language">Mru</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anu-Hkongso_language" title="Anu-Hkongso language">Hkongso</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pyu_language_(Sino-Tibetan)" title="Pyu language (Sino-Tibetan)">Pyu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taman_language_(Myanmar)" title="Taman language (Myanmar)">Taman</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Naga_languages" title="Naga languages">Naga</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ao_languages" title="Ao languages">Ao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angami%E2%80%93Pochuri_languages" title="Angami–Pochuri languages">Angami–Pochuri</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangkhulic_languages" title="Tangkhulic languages">Tangkhulic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zemeic_languages" title="Zemeic languages">Zeme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sal_languages" title="Sal languages">Sal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boro%E2%80%93Garo_languages" title="Boro–Garo languages">Boro–Garo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konyak_languages" title="Konyak languages">Konyak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jingpho%E2%80%93Luish_languages" title="Jingpho–Luish languages">Jingpho–Luish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sinitic</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tujia_language" title="Tujia language">Tujia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nungish_languages" title="Nungish languages">Nungish</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Karenic_languages" title="Karenic languages">Karenic</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gong_language" title="Gong language">Gong</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kathu_language" title="Kathu language">Kathu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai%E2%80%93Long_languages" title="Cai–Long languages">Cai–Long</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Luren_language" title="Luren language">Luren</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Burmo-Qiangic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Burmo-Qiangic_languages" title="Burmo-Qiangic languages">Burmo-Qiangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Qiangic_languages" title="Qiangic languages">Qiangic</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gyalrongic_languages" title="Gyalrongic languages">Gyalrongic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ersuic_languages" title="Ersuic languages">Ersuic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naic_languages" title="Naic languages">Naic</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Lolo-Burmese_languages" title="Lolo-Burmese languages">Lolo-Burmese</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mondzish_languages" title="Mondzish languages">Mondzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmish_languages" title="Burmish languages">Burmish</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Loloish_languages" title="Loloish languages">Loloish</a></b></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Language_isolates_and_independent_language_families_in_Arunachal" class="mw-redirect" title="Language isolates and independent language families in Arunachal">Dubious</a> (possible<br /><a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">isolates</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Language_isolates_and_independent_language_families_in_Arunachal" class="mw-redirect" title="Language isolates and independent language families in Arunachal">Arunachal</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hrusish_languages" title="Hrusish languages">Hrusish</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hruso_language" title="Hruso language">Hruso</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mijiic_languages" title="Mijiic languages">Mijiic</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kho-Bwa_languages" title="Kho-Bwa languages">Kho-Bwa</a></b> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Puroik_language" title="Puroik language">Puroik</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miju_languages" title="Miju languages">Miju–Meyor</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Songlin_language" title="Songlin language">Songlin</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Greater_Siangic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Greater_Siangic_languages" title="Greater Siangic languages">Greater Siangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siangic_languages" title="Siangic languages">Siangic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Koro_language_(India)" title="Koro language (India)">Koro</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Milang_language" title="Milang language">Milang</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digaro_languages" title="Digaro languages">Idu–Taraon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed groupings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Central Tibeto-Burman languages">Central Tibeto-Burman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuki-Chin%E2%80%93Naga_languages" title="Kuki-Chin–Naga languages">Kuki-Chin–Naga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Bai_languages" title="Macro-Bai languages">Macro-Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahakiranti_languages" title="Mahakiranti languages">Mahakiranti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rung_languages" title="Rung languages">Rung</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burman</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Kanauri_languages" title="Tibeto-Kanauri languages">Tibeto-Kanauri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language" title="Proto-Sino-Tibetan language">Proto-Sino-Tibetan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Tibeto-Burman_language" title="Proto-Tibeto-Burman language">Proto-Tibeto-Burman</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Loloish_language" title="Proto-Loloish language">Proto-Loloish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Karenic_language" title="Proto-Karenic language">Proto-Karenic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Min" title="Proto-Min">Proto-Min</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Hakka" title="Proto-Hakka">Proto-Hakka</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><i>Italics</i> indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chinese_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_language" title="Template:Chinese language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_language" title="Template talk:Chinese language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chinese_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sinitic languages</a></b></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Major groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Mandarin" title="Northeastern Mandarin">Northeastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changchun_dialect" title="Changchun dialect">Changchun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harbin_dialect" title="Harbin dialect">Harbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shenyang_Mandarin" title="Shenyang Mandarin">Shenyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taz_dialect" title="Taz dialect">Taz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Mandarin_(division_of_Mandarin)" title="Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)">Beijing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_dialect" title="Beijing dialect">Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jilu_Mandarin" title="Jilu Mandarin">Jilu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_dialect" title="Tianjin dialect">Tianjin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinan_dialect" title="Jinan dialect">Jinan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jiaoliao_Mandarin" title="Jiaoliao Mandarin">Jiaoliao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dalian_dialect" title="Dalian dialect">Dalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingdao_dialect" title="Qingdao dialect">Qingdao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weihai_dialect" title="Weihai dialect">Weihai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_Mandarin" title="Central Plains Mandarin">Central Plains</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dongping_dialect" title="Dongping dialect">Dongping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangou_language" title="Gangou language">Gangou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanzhong_dialect" title="Guanzhong dialect">Guanzhong</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Xi'an dialect">Xi'an</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luoyang_dialect" title="Luoyang dialect">Luoyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuzhou_dialect" title="Xuzhou dialect">Xuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_language" title="Dungan language">Dungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Mandarin" title="Xinjiang Mandarin">Xinjiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Mandarin" title="Southwestern Mandarin">Southwestern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_dialects" title="Sichuanese dialects">Sichuanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengdu-Chongqing_dialect" title="Chengdu-Chongqing dialect">Chengdu–Chongqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minjiang_dialect" title="Minjiang dialect">Minjiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leshan_dialect" title="Leshan dialect">Leshan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renshou%E2%80%93Fushun_Mandarin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Renshou–Fushun Mandarin (page does not exist)">Renshou–Fushun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zigong_dialect" title="Zigong dialect">Zigong</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunming_dialect" title="Kunming dialect">Kunming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanping_dialect" title="Nanping dialect">Nanping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhan_dialect" title="Wuhan dialect">Wuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gui%E2%80%93Liu_Mandarin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gui–Liu Mandarin (page does not exist)">Gui–Liu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuming_Mandarin" title="Wuming Mandarin">Wuming</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Yangtze_Mandarin" title="Lower Yangtze Mandarin">Jianghuai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_dialect" title="Nanjing dialect">Nanjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantong_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nantong dialect">Nantong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanping_dialect" title="Nanping dialect">Nanping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lanyin_Mandarin" title="Lanyin Mandarin">Lanyin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lanzhou_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lanzhou dialect (page does not exist)">Lanzhou dialect</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%B0%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%9D" class="extiw" title="zh:兰州话">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urumqi_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Urumqi dialect (page does not exist)">Urumqi dialect</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E9%B2%81%E6%9C%A8%E9%BD%90%E8%AF%9D" class="extiw" title="zh:乌鲁木齐话">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Mandarin" title="Xinjiang Mandarin">Xinjiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Junjiahua" title="Junjiahua">Junjiahua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qinjiang_Mandarin" title="Qinjiang Mandarin">Qinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyami_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyami language">Gyami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jin_Chinese" title="Jin Chinese">Jin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhangjiakou%E2%80%93Hohhot_dialect" title="Zhangjiakou–Hohhot dialect">Zhangjiakou–Hohhot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhi-Yan_dialect" title="Zhi-Yan dialect">Zhi–Yan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taihu_Wu" title="Taihu Wu">Taihu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzhou_dialect" title="Suzhou dialect">Suzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuxi_dialect" title="Wuxi dialect">Wuxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changzhou_dialect" title="Changzhou dialect">Changzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangzhou_dialect" title="Hangzhou dialect">Hangzhou</a> (?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaoxing_dialect" title="Shaoxing dialect">Shaoxing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ningbo_dialect" title="Ningbo dialect">Ningbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinxiang_dialect" title="Jinxiang dialect">Jinxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangyin_dialect" title="Jiangyin dialect">Jiangyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadi_dialect" title="Shadi dialect">Shadi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_Wu" title="Taizhou Wu">Taizhou Wu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taizhou_dialect" title="Taizhou dialect">Taizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai_dialect" title="Tiantai dialect">Tiantai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Oujiang</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wenzhounese" title="Wenzhounese">Wenzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rui%27an_dialect" title="Rui'an dialect">Rui'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wencheng_dialect" title="Wencheng dialect">Wencheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wuzhou_Wu" title="Wuzhou Wu">Wuzhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jinhua_dialect" title="Jinhua dialect">Jinhua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chu%E2%80%93Qu_Wu" title="Chu–Qu Wu">Chu–Qu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quzhou_dialect" title="Quzhou dialect">Quzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiangshan_dialect" title="Jiangshan dialect">Jiangshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingtian_dialect" title="Qingtian dialect">Qingtian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Xuanzhou_Wu_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuanzhou Wu dialects">Xuanzhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuancheng_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuancheng dialect">Xuancheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_Chinese" title="Huizhou Chinese">Hui</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ji-She&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ji-She (page does not exist)">Ji-She</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%A9%E6%AD%99%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:绩歙片">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xiu-Yi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xiu-Yi (page does not exist)">Xiu-Yi</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%91%E9%BB%9F%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:休黟片">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qi-De&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qi-De (page does not exist)">Qi-De</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%81%E5%A9%BA%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:祁婺片">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yanzhou_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yanzhou dialect (page does not exist)">Yanzhou</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%8C%E5%8D%A0%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:旌占片">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jing-Zhan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jing-Zhan (page does not exist)">Jing-Zhan</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%A5%E5%B7%9E%E7%89%87" class="extiw" title="zh:严州片">zh</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gan_Chinese" title="Gan Chinese">Gan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chang%E2%80%93Du_Gan" title="Chang–Du Gan">Chang–Du</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanchang_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanchang dialect">Nanchang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi%E2%80%93Liu_Gan" title="Yi–Liu Gan">Yi–Liu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ying%E2%80%93Yi_Gan" title="Ying–Yi Gan">Ying–Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da%E2%80%93Tong_Gan" title="Da–Tong Gan">Da–Tong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Chinese" title="Xiang Chinese">Xiang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Xiang" title="New Xiang">Changyi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changsha_dialect" title="Changsha dialect">Changsha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Xiang" title="Old Xiang">Loushao</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shuangfeng_dialect" title="Shuangfeng dialect">Shuangfeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiangxiang_dialect" title="Xiangxiang dialect">Xiangxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wugang_dialect" title="Wugang dialect">Wugang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji%E2%80%93Xu_Xiang" title="Ji–Xu Xiang">Ji–Xu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong%E2%80%93Quan_Xiang" title="Yong–Quan Xiang">Yong–Quan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiyang_dialect" title="Qiyang dialect">Qiyang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Min_Chinese" title="Min Chinese">Min</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Min" title="Eastern Min">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Houguan_language_group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Houguan language group (page does not exist)">Houguan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuzhou_dialect" title="Fuzhou dialect">Fuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuqing_dialect" title="Fuqing dialect">Fuqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changle_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Changle dialect">Changle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_dialect" title="Gutian dialect">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsu_dialect" title="Matsu dialect">Matsu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fu%E2%80%93Ning_language_group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fu–Ning language group (page does not exist)">Fu–Ning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ningde_dialect" title="Ningde dialect">Ningde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fu%27an_dialect" title="Fu'an dialect">Fu'an</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manjiang_dialect" title="Manjiang dialect">Manjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longdu_dialect" title="Longdu dialect">Longdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanlang_dialect" title="Nanlang dialect">Nanlang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quanzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Quanzhou dialect">Quanzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhangzhou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhangzhou dialect">Zhangzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoy_dialect" title="Amoy dialect">Amoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chawan_dialect" title="Chawan dialect">Chawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Hokkien" title="Philippine Hokkien">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medan_Hokkien" title="Medan Hokkien">Pedan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penang_Hokkien" title="Penang Hokkien">Penang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Hokkien" title="Singaporean Hokkien">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Peninsular_Malaysian_Hokkien" title="Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien">Malaysian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Teochew_Min" title="Teochew Min">Teochew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swatow_dialect" title="Swatow dialect">Swatow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haklau_Min" title="Haklau Min">Haklau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_Min" title="Zhongshan Min">Zhongshan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanxiang_dialect" title="Sanxiang dialect">Sanxiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhenan_Min" title="Zhenan Min">Zhenan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longyan_Min" class="mw-redirect" title="Longyan Min">Longyan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Min" title="Northern Min">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jian%27ou_dialect" title="Jian'ou dialect">Jian'ou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jianyang_dialect" title="Jianyang dialect">Jianyang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Min" title="Central Min">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E2%80%93Xian_Min" title="Pu–Xian Min">Pu–Xian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shao%E2%80%93Jiang_Min" title="Shao–Jiang Min">Shao–Jiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leizhou_Min" title="Leizhou Min">Leizhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhanjiang_dialect" title="Zhanjiang dialect">Zhanjiang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hainanese" title="Hainanese">Hainan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wenchang_dialect" title="Wenchang dialect">Wenchang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haikou_dialect" title="Haikou dialect">Haikou</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Banqiao_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Banqiao dialect (page does not exist)">Banqiao</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Chinese" title="Hakka Chinese">Hakka</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meixian_dialect" title="Meixian dialect">Meixian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhua_dialect" title="Wuhua dialect">Wuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_dialect" title="Huizhou dialect">Huizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tingzhou_dialect" title="Tingzhou dialect">Tingzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changting_dialect" title="Changting dialect">Changting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hakka" title="Taiwanese Hakka">Taiwanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixian_dialect" title="Sixian dialect">Sixian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hailu_dialect" title="Hailu dialect">Hailu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raoping_Hakka" title="Raoping Hakka">Raoping</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yuehai_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuehai dialects">Yuehai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Guangzhou</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Cantonese" title="Hong Kong Cantonese">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Cantonese" title="Malaysian Cantonese">Malaysia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiguan_dialect" title="Xiguan dialect">Xiguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiujiang_dialect" title="Jiujiang dialect">Jiujiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiqi_dialect" title="Shiqi dialect">Shiqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weitou_dialect" title="Weitou dialect">Weitou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dapeng_dialect" title="Dapeng dialect">Dapeng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Siyi_Yue" title="Siyi Yue">Siyi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taishanese" title="Taishanese">Taishan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xinhui_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xinhui dialect (page does not exist)">Xinhui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gao%E2%80%93Yang_Yue" title="Gao–Yang Yue">Gao–Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulou_Yue" title="Goulou Yue">Goulou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu%E2%80%93Hua_Yue" title="Wu–Hua Yue">Wu–Hua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong%E2%80%93Xun_Yue" title="Yong–Xun Yue">Yong–Xun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo%E2%80%93Guang_Yue" title="Luo–Guang Yue">Luo–Guang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin%E2%80%93Lian_Yue" title="Qin–Lian Yue">Qin–Lian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pinghua" title="Pinghua">Pinghua</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua#Dialects" title="Pinghua">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tongdao_Pinghua" title="Tongdao Pinghua">Tongdao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younian_dialect" title="Younian dialect">Younian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinghua#Dialects" title="Pinghua">Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yongjiang_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yongjiang dialect (page does not exist)">Yongjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guandao_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guandao dialect (page does not exist)">Guandao</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rongjiang_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rongjiang dialect (page does not exist)">Rongjiang</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%">Unclassified</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaozhou_Tuhua" title="Shaozhou Tuhua">Shaozhou Tuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiangnan_Tuhua" title="Xiangnan Tuhua">Xiangnan Tuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badong_Yao_language" title="Badong Yao language">Badong Yao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danzhou_dialect" title="Danzhou dialect">Danzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mai_Chinese" title="Mai Chinese">Mai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/She_Chinese" title="She Chinese">Shehua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waxiang_Chinese" title="Waxiang Chinese">Waxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeheni_language" title="Yeheni language">Yeheni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huizhou_dialect" title="Huizhou dialect">Huizhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai%E2%80%93Long_languages" title="Cai–Long languages">Cai-Long</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luren_language" title="Luren language">Luren</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuanqing_people#Language" title="Chuanqing people">Laobeizi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/350px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="785" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/525px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg/700px-Map_of_sinitic_languages-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="920" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_national_standards_of_Chinese" title="Comparison of national standards of Chinese">Standard<br />forms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_Standard_Chinese" title="Sichuanese Standard Chinese">Sichuanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Mandarin" title="Taiwanese Mandarin">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine Mandarin">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Mandarin" title="Malaysian Mandarin">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Singaporean Mandarin">Singaporean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Singaporean_Mandarin" title="Standard Singaporean Mandarin">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singdarin" title="Singdarin">Singdarin</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakka" class="mw-redirect" title="Hakka">Hakka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Phonology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Chinese_phonology" title="Historical Chinese phonology">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese_phonology" title="Old Chinese phonology">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_National_Pronunciation" title="Old National Pronunciation">Old National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_phonology" title="Cantonese phonology">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien_phonology" title="Hokkien phonology">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wu_phonology" title="Northern Wu phonology">Northern Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese_phonology" title="Standard Chinese phonology">Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings_of_Chinese_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters">Literary and colloquial readings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Grammar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_numerals" title="Chinese numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_classifier" title="Chinese classifier">Classifiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_honorifics" title="Chinese honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_grammar" title="Cantonese grammar">Cantonese grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_grammar" title="Classical Chinese grammar">Classical grammar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Idioms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chengyu" title="Chengyu">Chengyu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xiehouyu" title="Xiehouyu">Xiehouyu</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_input_methods_for_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese input methods for computers">Input</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biaoxingma_method" title="Biaoxingma method">Biaoxingma</a></li> <li>Boshiamy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cangjie_input_method" title="Cangjie input method">Cangjie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Cangjie" title="Simplified Cangjie">Simplified</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CKC_Chinese_Input_System" title="CKC Chinese Input System">CKC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayi_method" title="Dayi method">Dayi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinyin_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin method">Pinyin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Google_Pinyin" title="Google Pinyin">Google</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Pinyin_IME" title="Microsoft Pinyin IME">Microsoft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogou_Pinyin" title="Sogou Pinyin">Sogou</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroke_count_method" title="Stroke count method">Stroke count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wubi_method" title="Wubi method">Wubi (Wang Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhengma_method" title="Zhengma method">ZhengMa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="History of the Chinese language">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han_Chinese" title="Eastern Han Chinese">Eastern Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Mandarin" title="Old Mandarin">Old Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(late_imperial_lingua_franca)" title="Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)">Middle Mandarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Min" title="Proto-Min">Proto-Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Hakka" title="Proto-Hakka">Proto-Hakka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%E2%80%93Shu_Chinese" title="Ba–Shu Chinese">Ba–Shu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gan_Chinese" title="History of Gan Chinese">Gan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%">Literary<br /> forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Official" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_of_Chinese_literary_culture" title="Adoption of Chinese literary culture">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanbun" title="Kanbun">in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese_in_Vietnam" title="Literary Chinese in Vietnam">in Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_vernacular_Chinese" title="Written vernacular Chinese">Vernacular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Written_Cantonese" title="Written Cantonese">Written Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_alphabets" title="Dungan alphabets">Written Dungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_Hokkien" title="Written Hokkien">Written Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sichuanese_characters" title="Sichuanese characters">Written Sichuanese</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #e0e0b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Logographic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">Logographic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Script_styles" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Script_styles" class="mw-redirect" title="Script styles">Script styles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clerical_script" title="Clerical script">Clerical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-cursive_script" title="Semi-cursive script">Semi-cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_script_(East_Asia)" title="Cursive script (East Asia)">Cursive</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified characters">Simplified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional characters">Traditional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_punctuation" title="Chinese punctuation">Punctuation</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Mainland Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-cell_Chinese_Braille" title="Two-cell Chinese Braille">Two-cell</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0eaea;;width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Phonetic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillization_of_Chinese" title="Cyrillization of Chinese">Cyrillization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_language#Writing_system" title="Dungan language">Dungan Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Chinese" title="Romanization of Chinese">Romanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gwoyeu_Romatzyh" title="Gwoyeu Romatzyh">Gwoyeu Romatzyh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Phonetic_Symbols_II" title="Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II">MPS II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_postal_romanization" title="Chinese postal romanization">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EFEO_Chinese_transcription" title="EFEO Chinese transcription">EFEO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lessing-Othmer" title="Lessing-Othmer">Lessing-Othmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Mandarin" title="Yale romanization of Mandarin">Yale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Bopomofo" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantonese Bopomofo">Cantonese Bopomofo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Phonetic_Symbols" title="Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols">Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_kana" title="Taiwanese kana">Taiwanese kana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hangul" title="Taiwanese Hangul">Taiwanese Hangul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiao%27erjing" title="Xiao'erjing">Xiao'erjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #e0e0b0;"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_varieties_of_Chinese" title="List of varieties of Chinese">List of varieties of Chinese</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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[\"CITEREFLin2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiu1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiu2001\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLiuPeng2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLu2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuo1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMair1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMei1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeng2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorman1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeng2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPulleyblank1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQian,_Nairong_(錢乃榮)2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQian1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQian2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQian2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQian2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichard_VanNess_Simmons1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSagart2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSagartJacquesLaiRyder2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShen2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSongCao\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSuLü1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSunChenXu2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTangVan_Heuven2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTao\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThurgood2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTsung2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWei1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWuTangChen2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXie2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXuZhao1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYe1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYin1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZeng2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhang1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhang1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhang2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhang2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhangYanPanJin2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZheng1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhengzhang1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhengzhang2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhou2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhouYou1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhu1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhu1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Driem2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF北京大學中國語言文學系1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF貴州省民族識別工作隊1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF貴州省民族識別工作隊語言組1984\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Abbr\"] = 1,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Chinese language\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 17,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 51,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 12,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite press 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