CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>List of cognitive biases - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"11e89911-5eae-4154-8a7e-c696e6f264eb","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"List_of_cognitive_biases","wgTitle":"List of cognitive biases","wgCurRevisionId":1257959090,"wgRevisionId":1257959090,"wgArticleId":510791,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles to be expanded from July 2023","All articles to be expanded","All articles with failed verification","Articles with failed verification from February 2022","Articles with excerpts","Pages using div col with small parameter","Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link", "Commons category link is locally defined","Cognitive biases","Psychology lists","Behavioral finance","Cognitive science lists"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"List_of_cognitive_biases","wgRelevantArticleId":510791,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition": "interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q2607828","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.tablesorter.styles":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready", "ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.tablesorter","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cjquery.tablesorter.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="List of cognitive biases - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-List_of_cognitive_biases rootpage-List_of_cognitive_biases skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=List+of+cognitive+biases" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=List+of+cognitive+biases" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=List+of+cognitive+biases" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=List+of+cognitive+biases" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Belief,_decision-making_and_behavioral" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belief,_decision-making_and_behavioral"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Belief, decision-making and behavioral </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Belief,_decision-making_and_behavioral-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Belief, decision-making and behavioral subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Belief,_decision-making_and_behavioral-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anchoring_bias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anchoring_bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Anchoring bias </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anchoring_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Apophenia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apophenia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Apophenia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apophenia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Availability_heuristic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Availability_heuristic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Availability heuristic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Availability_heuristic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognitive_dissonance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive_dissonance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Cognitive dissonance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive_dissonance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Confirmation_bias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confirmation_bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Confirmation bias </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confirmation_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Egocentric_bias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egocentric_bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Egocentric bias </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egocentric_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extension_neglect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extension_neglect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Extension neglect </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extension_neglect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-False_priors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#False_priors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8 False priors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-False_priors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Framing_effect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Framing_effect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.9 Framing effect </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Framing_effect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logical_fallacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logical_fallacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.10 Logical fallacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logical_fallacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prospect_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prospect_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.11 Prospect theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prospect_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self-assessment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-assessment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.12 Self-assessment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-assessment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Truth_judgment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Truth_judgment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.13 Truth judgment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Truth_judgment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.14 Other </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.15 Social </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Association_fallacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Association_fallacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.15.1 Association fallacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Association_fallacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attribution_bias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attribution_bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.15.2 Attribution bias </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attribution_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conformity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conformity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.15.3 Conformity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conformity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ingroup_bias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ingroup_bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.15.4 Ingroup bias </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ingroup_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_social_biases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_social_biases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.15.5 Other social biases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_social_biases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Memory </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Memory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Memory subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Misattribution_of_memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Misattribution_of_memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Misattribution of memory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Misattribution_of_memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_memory_biases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_memory_biases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Other memory biases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_memory_biases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Footnotes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">List of cognitive biases</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 15 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-15" aria-hidden="true" > 15 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%85%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="قائمة الانحيازات المعرفية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قائمة الانحيازات المعرفية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%99hrif" title="Təhrif – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Təhrif" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llista_de_biaixos_cognitius" title="Llista de biaixos cognitius – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llista de biaixos cognitius" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liste_kognitiver_Verzerrungen" title="Liste kognitiver Verzerrungen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Liste kognitiver Verzerrungen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anexo:Sesgos_cognitivos" title="Anexo:Sesgos cognitivos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Anexo:Sesgos cognitivos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D8%B3%D9%88%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="فهرست سوگیری‌های شناختی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فهرست سوگیری‌های شناختی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80" title="संज्ञानात्मक पूर्वाग्रहों की सूची – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="संज्ञानात्मक पूर्वाग्रहों की सूची" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lista_b%C5%82%C4%99d%C3%B3w_poznawczych" title="Lista błędów poznawczych – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Lista błędów poznawczych" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lista_de_vieses_cognitivos" title="Lista de vieses cognitivos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Lista de vieses cognitivos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Список когнитивных искажений – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Список когнитивных искажений" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99" title="รายชื่อความเอนเอียงทางประชาน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="รายชื่อความเอนเอียงทางประชาน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85_%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C" title="Перелік когнітивних упереджень – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Перелік когнітивних упереджень" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%DB%81%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA_%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D9%81%DB%81%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="ذہنی تعصبات کی فہرست – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ذہنی تعصبات کی فہرست" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%8D%E7%9F%A5%E5%81%8F%E8%AA%A4%E4%B8%80%E8%A6%BD" title="認知偏誤一覽 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="認知偏誤一覽" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%8D%E7%9F%A5%E5%81%8F%E8%AA%A4%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="認知偏誤列表 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="認知偏誤列表" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2607828#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:List_of_cognitive_biases" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/List_of_cognitive_biases" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&oldid=1257959090" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=List_of_cognitive_biases&id=1257959090&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FList_of_cognitive_biases">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FList_of_cognitive_biases">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cognitive_biases" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2607828" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For common errors in <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">List of fallacies</a>.</div> <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive biases</a> are systematic patterns of deviation from norm and/or rationality in judgment. They are often studied in <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">behavioral economics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Although the reality of most of these biases is confirmed by <a href="/wiki/Reproducible" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproducible">reproducible</a> research,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> there are often controversies about how to classify these biases or how to explain them.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Several <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias#Common_theoretical_causes_of_some_cognitive_biases" title="Cognitive bias">theoretical causes are known for some cognitive biases</a>, which provides a classification of biases by their common generative mechanism (such as noisy information-processing<a href="#cite_note-HilbertPsychBul-5">[5]</a>). <a href="/wiki/Gerd_Gigerenzer" title="Gerd Gigerenzer">Gerd Gigerenzer</a> has criticized the framing of cognitive biases as errors in judgment, and favors interpreting them as arising from rational deviations from logical thought.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Explanations include information-processing rules (i.e., mental shortcuts), called <a href="/wiki/Heuristics_in_judgment_and_decision-making" class="mw-redirect" title="Heuristics in judgment and decision-making">heuristics</a>, that the brain uses to produce <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decisions</a> or judgments. Biases have a variety of forms and appear as cognitive ("cold") bias, such as mental noise,<a href="#cite_note-HilbertPsychBul-5">[5]</a> or motivational ("hot") bias, such as when beliefs are distorted by <a href="/wiki/Wishful_thinking" title="Wishful thinking">wishful thinking</a>. Both effects can be present at the same time.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> There are also controversies over some of these biases as to whether they count as useless or <a href="/wiki/Irrationality" title="Irrationality">irrational</a>, or whether they result in useful attitudes or behavior. For example, when getting to know others, people tend to ask <a href="/wiki/Leading_question" title="Leading question">leading questions</a> which seem biased towards confirming their assumptions about the person. However, this kind of <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a> has also been argued to be an example of <a href="/wiki/Social_skills" title="Social skills">social skill</a>; a way to establish a connection with the other person.<a href="#cite_note-dardenne-9">[9]</a> Although this research overwhelmingly involves human subjects, some findings that demonstrate bias have been found in non-human animals as well. For example, <a href="/wiki/Loss_aversion" title="Loss aversion">loss aversion</a> has been shown in monkeys and <a href="/wiki/Hyperbolic_discounting" title="Hyperbolic discounting">hyperbolic discounting</a> has been observed in rats, pigeons, and monkeys.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Belief,_decision-making_and_behavioral">Belief, decision-making and behavioral</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Belief, decision-making and behavioral">edit</a>]</div> These biases affect belief formation, reasoning processes, business and economic decisions, and human behavior in general. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anchoring_bias">Anchoring bias</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Anchoring bias">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anchoring_(cognitive_bias)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchoring (cognitive bias)">Anchoring (cognitive bias)</a></div> The anchoring bias, or focalism, is the tendency to rely too heavily—to "anchor"—on one trait or piece of information when making decisions (usually the first piece of information acquired on that subject).<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-iverson2008-12">[12]</a> Anchoring bias includes or involves the following: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_source_bias" title="Common source bias">Common source bias</a>, the tendency to combine or compare research studies from the same source, or from sources that use the same methodologies or data.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_(belief_revision)" title="Conservatism (belief revision)">Conservatism bias</a>, the tendency to insufficiently <a href="/wiki/Belief_revision" title="Belief revision">revise one's belief</a> when presented with new evidence.<a href="#cite_note-HilbertPsychBul-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-edwards1968-15">[15]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_fixedness" title="Functional fixedness">Functional fixedness</a>, a tendency limiting a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_instrument" title="Law of the instrument">Law of the instrument</a>, an over-reliance on a familiar tool or methods, ignoring or under-valuing alternative approaches. "If all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail."</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Apophenia">Apophenia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Apophenia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Apophenia" title="Apophenia">Apophenia</a></div> The tendency to perceive meaningful connections between unrelated things.<a href="#cite_note-skepdic-17">[17]</a> The following are types of apophenia: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clustering_illusion" title="Clustering illusion">Clustering illusion</a>, the tendency to overestimate the importance of small runs, streaks, or clusters in large samples of random data (that is, seeing phantom patterns).<a href="#cite_note-iverson2008-12">[12]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusory_correlation" title="Illusory correlation">Illusory correlation</a>, a tendency to inaccurately perceive a relationship between two unrelated events.<a href="#cite_note-h_and_b-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-19">[19]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pareidolia" title="Pareidolia">Pareidolia</a>, a tendency to perceive a vague and random stimulus (often an image or sound) as significant, e.g., seeing images of animals or faces in clouds, the <a href="/wiki/Man_in_the_Moon" title="Man in the Moon">man in the Moon</a>, and hearing non-existent <a href="/wiki/Hidden_message" title="Hidden message">hidden messages</a> on <a href="/wiki/Backmasking" title="Backmasking">records played in reverse</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">Causal Fallacy</a>, also called <a href="/wiki/Post_Hoc_Ergo_Propter_Hoc" class="mw-redirect" title="Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc">Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc</a> Fallacy, which attributes cause when there is only correlation or coincidence.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Availability_heuristic">Availability heuristic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Availability heuristic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Availability_heuristic" title="Availability heuristic">Availability heuristic</a></div> The availability heuristic (also known as the availability bias) is the tendency to overestimate the likelihood of events with greater "availability" in memory, which can be influenced by how recent the memories are or how unusual or emotionally charged they may be.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The availability heuristic includes or involves the following: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocentric_thinking" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropocentric thinking">Anthropocentric thinking</a>, the tendency to use human analogies as a basis for reasoning about other, less familiar, biological phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-Coley2012-21">[21]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism#Psychology" title="Anthropomorphism">Anthropomorphism</a> is characterization of animals, objects, and abstract concepts as possessing human traits, emotions, or intentions.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> The opposite bias, of not attributing feelings or thoughts to another person, is <a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">dehumanised perception</a>,<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> a type of <a href="/wiki/Objectification" title="Objectification">objectification</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attentional_bias" title="Attentional bias">Attentional bias</a>, the tendency of perception to be affected by recurring thoughts.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17201568-24">[24]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_illusion" title="Frequency illusion">Frequency illusion</a> or <a href="/wiki/Baader%E2%80%93Meinhof_phenomenon" class="mw-redirect" title="Baader–Meinhof phenomenon">Baader–Meinhof phenomenon</a>. The frequency illusion is that once something has been noticed then every instance of that thing is noticed, leading to the belief it has a high frequency of occurrence (a form of <a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">selection bias</a>).<a href="#cite_note-zwicky-25">[25]</a> The Baader–Meinhof phenomenon is the illusion where something that has recently come to one's attention suddenly seems to appear with improbable frequency shortly afterwards.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> It was named after an incidence of frequency illusion in which the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army_Faction" title="Red Army Faction">Baader–Meinhof Group</a> was mentioned.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_association_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Implicit association test">Implicit association</a>, where the speed with which people can match words depends on how closely they are associated.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salience_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Salience bias">Salience bias</a>, the tendency to focus on items that are more prominent or emotionally striking and ignore those that are unremarkable, even though this difference is often irrelevant by objective standards. See also <a href="/wiki/Von_Restorff_effect" title="Von Restorff effect">von Restorff effect</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">Selection bias</a>, which happens when the members of a <a href="/wiki/Sample_(statistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample (statistics)">statistical sample</a> are not chosen completely at random, which leads to the sample not being representative of the population.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivorship_bias" title="Survivorship bias">Survivorship bias</a>, which is concentrating on the people or things that "survived" some process and inadvertently overlooking those that did not because of their lack of visibility.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well_travelled_road_effect" title="Well travelled road effect">Well travelled road effect</a>, the tendency to underestimate the duration taken to traverse oft-travelled routes and overestimate the duration taken to traverse less familiar routes.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitive_dissonance">Cognitive dissonance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cognitive dissonance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">Cognitive dissonance</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">Cognitive dissonance</a> is the perception of contradictory information and the mental toll of it. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Normalcy_bias" title="Normalcy bias">Normalcy bias</a>, a form of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">cognitive dissonance</a>, is the refusal to plan for, or react to, a disaster which has never happened before.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effort_justification" title="Effort justification">Effort justification</a> is a person's tendency to attribute greater value to an outcome if they had to put effort into achieving it. This can result in more value being applied to an outcome than it actually has. An example of this is the <a href="/wiki/IKEA_effect" title="IKEA effect">IKEA effect</a>, the tendency for people to place a disproportionately high value on objects that they partially assembled themselves, such as furniture from <a href="/wiki/IKEA" title="IKEA">IKEA</a>, regardless of the quality of the end product.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Franklin_effect" title="Ben Franklin effect">Ben Franklin effect</a>, where a person who has performed a favor for someone is more likely to do another favor for that person than they would be if they had received a favor from that person.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Confirmation_bias">Confirmation bias</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Confirmation bias">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">Confirmation bias</a></div> Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, focus on and remember information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> There are multiple other cognitive biases which involve or are types of confirmation bias: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Backfire_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Backfire effect">Backfire effect</a>, a tendency to react to disconfirming evidence by strengthening one's previous beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-SannaSchwarz2002-32">[32]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congruence_bias" title="Congruence bias">Congruence bias</a>, the tendency to test hypotheses exclusively through direct testing, instead of testing possible alternative hypotheses.<a href="#cite_note-iverson2008-12">[12]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimenter%27s_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimenter's bias">Experimenter's</a> or <a href="/wiki/Expectation_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Expectation bias">expectation bias</a>, the tendency for experimenters to believe, certify, and publish data that agree with their expectations for the outcome of an experiment, and to disbelieve, discard, or downgrade the corresponding weightings for data that appear to conflict with those expectations.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_bias" title="Narrative bias">Narrative bias</a>, the tendency to construct, believe in, and trust individual narratives.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observer-expectancy_effect" title="Observer-expectancy effect">Observer-expectancy effect</a>, when a researcher expects a given result and therefore unconsciously manipulates an experiment or misinterprets data in order to find it (see also <a href="/wiki/Subject-expectancy_effect" title="Subject-expectancy effect">subject-expectancy effect</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_perception" title="Selective perception">Selective perception</a>, the tendency for expectations to affect perception.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semmelweis_reflex" title="Semmelweis reflex">Semmelweis reflex</a>, the tendency to reject new evidence that contradicts a paradigm.<a href="#cite_note-edwards1968-15">[15]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Egocentric_bias">Egocentric bias</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Egocentric bias">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Egocentric_bias" title="Egocentric bias">Egocentric bias</a></div> Egocentric bias is the tendency to rely too heavily on one's own perspective and/or have a different perception of oneself relative to others.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The following are forms of egocentric bias: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bias_blind_spot" title="Bias blind spot">Bias blind spot</a>, the tendency to see oneself as less biased than other people, or to be able to identify more cognitive biases in others than in oneself.<a href="#cite_note-blindspot-35">[35]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_consensus_effect" title="False consensus effect">False consensus effect</a>, the tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which others agree with them.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_uniqueness_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="False uniqueness bias">False uniqueness bias</a>, the tendency of people to see their projects and themselves as more singular than they actually are.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forer_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Forer effect">Forer effect</a> or <a href="/wiki/Barnum_effect" title="Barnum effect">Barnum effect</a>, the tendency for individuals to give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. This effect can provide a partial explanation for the widespread acceptance of some beliefs and practices, such as <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fortune_telling" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortune telling">fortune telling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Graphology" title="Graphology">graphology</a>, and some types of <a href="/wiki/Personality_test" title="Personality test">personality tests</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusion_of_asymmetric_insight" title="Illusion of asymmetric insight">Illusion of asymmetric insight</a>, where people perceive their knowledge of their peers to surpass their peers' knowledge of them.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusion_of_control" title="Illusion of control">Illusion of control</a>, the tendency to overestimate one's degree of influence over other external events.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusion_of_transparency" title="Illusion of transparency">Illusion of transparency</a>, the tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which their personal mental state is known by others, and to overestimate how well they understand others' personal mental states.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusion_of_validity" title="Illusion of validity">Illusion of validity</a>, the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's judgments, especially when available information is consistent or inter-correlated.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusory_superiority" title="Illusory superiority">Illusory superiority</a>, the tendency to overestimate one's desirable qualities, and underestimate undesirable qualities, relative to other people. (Also known as "Lake Wobegon effect", "better-than-average effect", or "superiority bias".)<a href="#cite_note-hoorens-42">[42]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_cynicism" title="Naïve cynicism">Naïve cynicism</a>, expecting more egocentric bias in others than in oneself.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism_(psychology)" title="Naïve realism (psychology)">Naïve realism</a>, the belief that we see reality as it really is—objectively and without bias; that the facts are plain for all to see; that rational people will agree with us; and that those who do not are either uninformed, lazy, irrational, or biased.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconfidence_effect" title="Overconfidence effect">Overconfidence effect</a>, a tendency to have excessive confidence in one's own answers to questions. For example, for certain types of questions, answers that people rate as "99% certain" turn out to be wrong 40% of the time.<a href="#cite_note-HilbertPsychBul-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planning_fallacy" title="Planning fallacy">Planning fallacy</a>, the tendency for people to underestimate the time it will take them to complete a given task.<a href="#cite_note-temporal-46">[46]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restraint_bias" title="Restraint bias">Restraint bias</a>, the tendency to overestimate one's ability to show restraint in the face of temptation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trait_ascription_bias" title="Trait ascription bias">Trait ascription bias</a>, the tendency for people to view themselves as relatively variable in terms of personality, behavior, and mood while viewing others as much more predictable.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-person_effect" title="Third-person effect">Third-person effect</a>, a tendency to believe that mass-communicated media messages have a greater effect on others than on themselves.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extension_neglect">Extension neglect</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Extension neglect">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Extension_neglect" title="Extension neglect">Extension neglect</a></div> Extension neglect occurs where the quantity of the sample size is not sufficiently taken into consideration when assessing the outcome, relevance or judgement. The following are forms of extension neglect: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Base_rate_fallacy" title="Base rate fallacy">Base rate fallacy</a> or base rate neglect, the tendency to ignore general information and focus on information only pertaining to the specific case, even when the general information is more important.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion_fade" title="Compassion fade">Compassion fade</a>, the tendency to behave more compassionately towards a small number of identifiable victims than to a large number of anonymous ones.<a href="#cite_note-comp-fade-48">[48]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conjunction_fallacy" title="Conjunction fallacy">Conjunction fallacy</a>, the tendency to assume that specific conditions are more probable than a more general version of those same conditions.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duration_neglect" title="Duration neglect">Duration neglect</a>, the neglect of the duration of an episode in determining its value.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbolic_discounting" title="Hyperbolic discounting">Hyperbolic discounting</a>, where discounting is the tendency for people to have a stronger preference for more immediate payoffs relative to later payoffs. Hyperbolic discounting leads to choices that are inconsistent over time—people make choices today that their future selves would prefer not to have made, despite using the same reasoning.<a href="#cite_note-Laibson1997QJE-51">[51]</a> Also known as current moment bias or present bias, and related to <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_inconsistency" title="Dynamic inconsistency">Dynamic inconsistency</a>. A good example of this is a study showed that when making food choices for the coming week, 74% of participants chose fruit, whereas when the food choice was for the current day, 70% chose chocolate.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insensitivity_to_sample_size" title="Insensitivity to sample size">Insensitivity to sample size</a>, the tendency to under-expect variation in small samples.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Less-is-better_effect" title="Less-is-better effect">Less-is-better effect</a>, the tendency to prefer a smaller set to a larger set judged separately, but not jointly.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neglect_of_probability" title="Neglect of probability">Neglect of probability</a>, the tendency to completely disregard probability when making a decision under uncertainty.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scope_neglect" title="Scope neglect">Scope neglect</a> or scope insensitivity, the tendency to be insensitive to the size of a problem when evaluating it. For example, being willing to pay as much to save 2,000 children or 20,000 children.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-risk_bias" title="Zero-risk bias">Zero-risk bias</a>, the preference for reducing a small risk to zero over a greater reduction in a larger risk.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="False_priors">False priors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: False priors">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs expansion with: more of its biases. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. (July 2023)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> False priors are initial beliefs and knowledge which interfere with the unbiased evaluation of factual evidence and lead to incorrect conclusions. Biases based on false priors include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent_detection_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Agent detection bias">Agent detection bias</a>, the inclination to presume the purposeful intervention of a sentient or intelligent <a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">agent</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automation_bias" title="Automation bias">Automation bias</a>, the tendency to depend excessively on automated systems which can lead to erroneous automated information overriding correct decisions.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender bias">Gender bias</a>, a widespread<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> set of implicit biases that discriminate against a gender. For example, the assumption that women are less suited to jobs requiring high intellectual ability.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] Or the assumption that people or animals are male in the absence of any indicators of gender.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_overperception_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual overperception bias">Sexual overperception bias</a>, the tendency to overestimate sexual interest of another person in oneself, and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_underperception_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual underperception bias">sexual underperception bias</a>, the tendency to underestimate it.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotyping" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereotyping">Stereotyping</a>, expecting a member of a group to have certain characteristics without having actual information about that individual.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconscious_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconscious bias">Unconscious bias</a> or implicit bias, the underlying attitudes and stereotypes that people unconsciously attribute to another person or group of people that affect how they understand and engage with them. Many researchers suggest that unconscious bias occurs automatically as the brain makes quick judgments and extrapolations based on past experiences and background.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_are_wonderful_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Women are wonderful effect">Women are wonderful effect</a>, a tendency to associate more positive attributes with women than with men.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Framing_effect">Framing effect</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Framing effect">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Framing_effect_(psychology)" title="Framing effect (psychology)">Framing effect (psychology)</a></div> The framing effect is the tendency to draw different conclusions from the same information, depending on how that information is presented. Forms of the framing effect include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contrast_effect" title="Contrast effect">Contrast effect</a>, the enhancement or reduction of a certain stimulus's perception when compared with a recently observed, contrasting object.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decoy_effect" title="Decoy effect">Decoy effect</a>, where preferences for either option A or B change in favor of option B when option C is presented, which is completely dominated by option B (inferior in all respects) and partially dominated by option A.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Default_effect" title="Default effect">Default effect</a>, the tendency to favor the default option when given a choice between several options.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denomination_effect" title="Denomination effect">Denomination effect</a>, the tendency to spend more money when it is denominated in small amounts (e.g., coins) rather than large amounts (e.g., bills).<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distinction_bias" title="Distinction bias">Distinction bias</a>, the tendency to view two options as more dissimilar when evaluating them simultaneously than when evaluating them separately.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Domain_neglect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Domain neglect (page does not exist)">Domain neglect</a> bias, the tendency to neglect relevant domain knowledge while solving interdisciplinary problems.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Context_neglect_bias&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Context neglect bias (page does not exist)">Context neglect bias</a>, the tendency to neglect the human context of technological challenges <a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logical_fallacy">Logical fallacy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Logical fallacy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">Fallacy</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berkson%27s_paradox" title="Berkson's paradox">Berkson's paradox</a>, the tendency to misinterpret statistical experiments involving conditional probabilities.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escalation_of_commitment" title="Escalation of commitment">Escalation of commitment</a>, irrational escalation, or <a href="/wiki/Sunk_cost_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunk cost fallacy">sunk cost fallacy</a>, where people justify increased investment in a decision, based on the cumulative prior investment, despite new evidence suggesting that the decision was probably wrong.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=G._I._Joe_fallacy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="G. I. Joe fallacy (page does not exist)">G. I. Joe fallacy</a>, the tendency to think that knowing about cognitive bias is enough to overcome it.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambler%27s_fallacy" title="Gambler's fallacy">Gambler's fallacy</a>, the tendency to think that future probabilities are altered by past events, when in reality they are unchanged. The fallacy arises from an erroneous conceptualization of the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_large_numbers" title="Law of large numbers">law of large numbers</a>. For example, "I've flipped heads with this coin five times consecutively, so the chance of tails coming out on the sixth flip is much greater than heads."<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot-hand_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot-hand fallacy">Hot-hand fallacy</a> (also known as "hot hand phenomenon" or "hot hand"), the belief that a person who has experienced success with a random event has a greater chance of further success in additional attempts.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plan_continuation_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Plan continuation bias">Plan continuation bias</a>, failure to recognize that the original plan of action is no longer appropriate for a changing situation or for a situation that is different from anticipated.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subadditivity_effect" title="Subadditivity effect">Subadditivity effect</a>, the tendency to judge the probability of the whole to be less than the probabilities of the parts.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-saving_bias" title="Time-saving bias">Time-saving bias</a>, a tendency to underestimate the time that could be saved (or lost) when increasing (or decreasing) from a relatively low speed, and to overestimate the time that could be saved (or lost) when increasing (or decreasing) from a relatively high speed.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-sum_thinking" title="Zero-sum thinking">Zero-sum bias</a>, where a situation is incorrectly perceived to be like a zero-sum game (i.e., one person gains at the expense of another).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prospect_theory">Prospect theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Prospect theory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prospect_theory" title="Prospect theory">Prospect theory</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Risk_aversion_(psychology)" title="Risk aversion (psychology)">Risk aversion (psychology)</a></div> The following relate to prospect theory: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity_effect" title="Ambiguity effect">Ambiguity effect</a>, the tendency to avoid options for which the probability of a favorable outcome is unknown.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disposition_effect" title="Disposition effect">Disposition effect</a>, the tendency to sell an asset that has accumulated in value and resist selling an asset that has declined in value.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dread_aversion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dread aversion (page does not exist)">Dread aversion</a>, just as losses yield double the emotional impact of gains, dread yields double the emotional impact of savouring.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endowment_effect" title="Endowment effect">Endowment effect</a>, the tendency for people to demand much more to give up an object than they would be willing to pay to acquire it.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_aversion" title="Loss aversion">Loss aversion</a>, where the perceived disutility of giving up an object is greater than the utility associated with acquiring it.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> (see also <a href="/wiki/Sunk_cost_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunk cost fallacy">Sunk cost fallacy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudocertainty_effect" title="Pseudocertainty effect">Pseudocertainty effect</a>, the tendency to make risk-averse choices if the expected outcome is positive, but make risk-seeking choices to avoid negative outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_quo_bias" title="Status quo bias">Status quo bias</a>, the tendency to hold to the current situation rather than any alternative situation, to avoid risk and loss (loss aversion).<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Has been shown to affect various important economic decisions, for example, a choice of car insurance or electrical service.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_justification" title="System justification">System justification</a>, the tendency to defend and bolster the status quo. Existing social, economic, and political arrangements tend to be preferred, and alternatives disparaged, sometimes even at the expense of individual and collective self-interest.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-assessment">Self-assessment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Self-assessment">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect" title="Dunning–Kruger effect">Dunning–Kruger effect</a>, the tendency for unskilled individuals to overestimate their own ability and the tendency for experts to underestimate their own ability.<a href="#cite_note-Unskilled_and_unaware_of_it:_how_di-78">[78]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot-cold_empathy_gap" title="Hot-cold empathy gap">Hot-cold empathy gap</a>, the tendency to underestimate the influence of <a href="/wiki/Hot-cold_empathy_gap#Visceral_factors" title="Hot-cold empathy gap">visceral drives</a> on one's attitudes, preferences, and behaviors.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard%E2%80%93easy_effect" title="Hard–easy effect">Hard–easy effect</a>, the tendency to overestimate one's ability to accomplish hard tasks, and underestimate one's ability to accomplish easy tasks.<a href="#cite_note-HilbertPsychBul-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusion_of_explanatory_depth" title="Illusion of explanatory depth">Illusion of explanatory depth</a>, the tendency to believe that one understands a topic much better than one actually does.<a href="#cite_note-Edge2017-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rozenblit2002-84">[84]</a> The effect is strongest for explanatory knowledge, whereas people tend to be better at self-assessments for procedural, narrative, or factual knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-Rozenblit2002-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mills2004-85">[85]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impostor_Syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Impostor Syndrome">Impostor Syndrome</a>, a psychological occurrence in which an individual doubts their skills, talents, or accomplishments and has a persistent internalized fear of being exposed as a fraud. Also known as impostor phenomenon.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Objectivity_illusion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Objectivity illusion (page does not exist)">Objectivity illusion</a>, the phenomena where people tend to believe that they are more objective and unbiased than others. This bias can apply to itself – where people are able to see when others are affected by the objectivity illusion, but unable to see it in themselves. See also <a href="/wiki/Bias_blind_spot" title="Bias blind spot">bias blind spot</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Truth_judgment">Truth judgment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Truth judgment">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belief_bias" title="Belief bias">Belief bias</a>, an effect where someone's evaluation of the logical strength of an argument is biased by the perceived plausibility of a conclusion or alignment with one's current beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusory_truth_effect" title="Illusory truth effect">Illusory truth effect</a>, the tendency to believe that a statement is true if it is <a href="/wiki/Fluency_heuristic" title="Fluency heuristic">easier to process</a>, or if it has been <a href="/wiki/Processing_fluency" title="Processing fluency">stated multiple times</a>, regardless of its actual veracity. These are specific cases of <a href="/wiki/Truthiness" title="Truthiness">truthiness</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyme_as_reason_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhyme as reason effect">Rhyme as reason effect</a>, where rhyming statements are perceived as more truthful.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_validation" title="Subjective validation">Subjective validation</a>, where statements are perceived as true if a subject's belief demands it to be true. Also assigns perceived connections between coincidences. (Compare <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a>.)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Other">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Name </th> <th scope="col">Description </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Action_bias" title="Action bias">Action bias</a> </td> <td>The tendency for someone to act when faced with a problem even when inaction would be more effective, or to act when no evident problem exists.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Additive_bias" title="Additive bias">Additive bias</a> </td> <td>The tendency to solve problems through addition, even when subtraction is a better approach.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Attribute_substitution" title="Attribute substitution">Attribute substitution</a> </td> <td>Occurs when a judgment has to be made (of a target attribute) that is computationally complex, and instead a more easily calculated heuristic attribute is substituted. This substitution is thought of as taking place in the automatic intuitive judgment system, rather than the more self-aware reflective system. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Curse_of_knowledge" title="Curse of knowledge">Curse of knowledge</a> </td> <td>When better-informed people find it extremely difficult to think about problems from the perspective of lesser-informed people.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Declinism" title="Declinism">Declinism</a> </td> <td>The predisposition to view the past favorably (<a href="/wiki/Rosy_retrospection" title="Rosy retrospection">rosy retrospection</a>) and future negatively.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/End-of-history_illusion" title="End-of-history illusion">End-of-history illusion</a> </td> <td>The age-independent belief that one will change less in the future than one has in the past.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style>Exaggerated expectation </td> <td>The tendency to expect or predict more extreme outcomes than those outcomes that actually happen.<a href="#cite_note-HilbertPsychBul-5">[5]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Form function attribution bias </td> <td>In <a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93robot_interaction" title="Human–robot interaction">human–robot interaction</a>, the tendency of people to make systematic errors when interacting with a robot. People may base their expectations and perceptions of a robot on its appearance (form) and attribute functions which do not necessarily mirror the true functions of the robot.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fundamental pain bias </td> <td>The tendency for people to believe they accurately report their own pain levels while holding the paradoxical belief that others exaggerate it.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hedonic recall bias </td> <td>The tendency for people who are satisfied with their wage to overestimate how much they earn, and vice versa, for people who are unsatisfied with their wage to underestimate it.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight bias</a> </td> <td>Sometimes called the "I-knew-it-all-along" effect, or the "Hindsight is 20/20" effect, is the tendency to see past events as having been predictable<a href="#cite_note-hindsight-99">[99]</a> before they happened. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Impact_bias" title="Impact bias">Impact bias</a> </td> <td>The tendency to overestimate the length or the intensity of the impact of future feeling states.<a href="#cite_note-temporal-46">[46]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Information_bias_(psychology)" title="Information bias (psychology)">Information bias</a> </td> <td>The tendency to seek information even when it cannot affect action.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Interoceptive bias, <a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Hungry_judge_effect" title="Hungry judge effect">Hungry judge effect</a> </td> <td>The tendency for sensory input about the body itself to affect one's judgement about external, unrelated circumstances. (As for example, in parole judges who are more lenient when fed and rested.)<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mere_exposure_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Mere exposure effect">Mere exposure effect</a> or familiarity principle (in social psychology) </td> <td>The tendency to express undue liking for things or acceptance of propaganda merely because of familiarity with or repeated exposure to them.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Money_illusion" title="Money illusion">Money illusion</a> </td> <td>The tendency to concentrate on the nominal value (face value) of money rather than its value in terms of purchasing power.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Moral_credential" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral credential">Moral credential</a> effect </td> <td>Occurs when someone who does something good gives themselves permission to be less good in the future. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Non-adaptive_choice_switching&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Non-adaptive choice switching (page does not exist)">Non-adaptive choice switching</a> </td> <td>After experiencing a bad outcome with a decision problem, the tendency to avoid the choice previously made when faced with the same decision problem again, even though the choice was optimal. Also known as "once bitten, twice shy" or "hot stove effect".<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Omission_bias" title="Omission bias">Omission bias</a> </td> <td>The tendency to judge harmful actions (commissions) as worse, or less moral, than equally harmful inactions (omissions).<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Optimism_bias" title="Optimism bias">Optimism bias</a> </td> <td>The tendency to be over-optimistic, underestimating greatly the probability of undesirable outcomes and overestimating favorable and pleasing outcomes (see also <a href="/wiki/Wishful_thinking" title="Wishful thinking">wishful thinking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Valence_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Valence effect">valence effect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Valence_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Valence effect">positive outcome bias</a>, and compare <a href="/wiki/Pessimism_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Pessimism bias">pessimism bias</a>).<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ostrich_effect" title="Ostrich effect">Ostrich effect</a> </td> <td>Ignoring an obvious negative situation. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Outcome_bias" title="Outcome bias">Outcome bias</a> </td> <td>The tendency to judge a decision by its eventual outcome instead of the quality of the decision at the time it was made. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pessimism_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Pessimism bias">Pessimism bias</a> </td> <td>The tendency for some people, especially those with <a href="/wiki/Psychological_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological depression">depression</a>, to overestimate the likelihood of negative things happening to them. (compare <a href="/wiki/Optimism_bias" title="Optimism bias">optimism bias</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Present_bias" title="Present bias">Present bias</a> </td> <td>The tendency of people to give stronger weight to payoffs that are closer to the present time when considering trade-offs between two future moments.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Plant_blindness" title="Plant blindness">Plant blindness</a> </td> <td>The tendency to ignore plants in their environment and a failure to recognize and appreciate the utility of plants to life on earth.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prevention_bias&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prevention bias (page does not exist)">Prevention bias</a> </td> <td>When investing money to protect against risks, decision makers perceive that a dollar spent on prevention buys more security than a dollar spent on timely detection and response, even when investing in either option is equally effective.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Probability_matching" title="Probability matching">Probability matching</a> </td> <td>Sub-optimal matching of the probability of choices with the probability of reward in a stochastic context. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pro-innovation_bias" title="Pro-innovation bias">Pro-innovation bias</a> </td> <td>The tendency to have an excessive optimism towards an invention or innovation's usefulness throughout society, while often failing to identify its limitations and weaknesses. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Projection_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Projection bias">Projection bias</a> </td> <td>The tendency to overestimate how much one's future selves will share one's current preferences, thoughts and values, thus leading to sub-optimal choices.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-TroPLoS-116">[116]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Proportionality_bias" title="Proportionality bias">Proportionality bias</a> </td> <td>Our innate tendency to assume that big events have big causes, may also explain our tendency to accept conspiracy theories.<a href="#cite_note-leman2007-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-buckley2015-118">[118]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Recency_illusion" title="Recency illusion">Recency illusion</a> </td> <td>The illusion that a phenomenon one has noticed only recently is itself recent. Often used to refer to linguistic phenomena; the illusion that a word or language usage that one has noticed only recently is an innovation when it is, in fact, long-established (see also <a href="#Frequency_illusion">frequency illusion</a>). Also <a href="/wiki/Recency_bias" title="Recency bias">recency bias</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">cognitive bias</a> that favors recent events over historic ones. A <a href="/wiki/Memory_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory bias">memory bias</a>, recency bias gives "greater importance to the most recent event",<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> such as the final lawyer's closing argument a jury hears before being dismissed to deliberate. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Systematic bias </td> <td>Judgement that arises when targets of differentiating judgement become subject to effects of regression that are not equivalent.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Risk_compensation" title="Risk compensation">Risk compensation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Peltzman_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Peltzman effect">Peltzman effect</a> </td> <td>The tendency to take greater risks when perceived safety increases. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Surrogation" title="Surrogation">Surrogation</a> </td> <td>Losing sight of the strategic construct that a measure is intended to represent, and subsequently acting as though the measure is the construct of interest. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teleological_bias&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Teleological bias (page does not exist)">Teleological bias</a> </td> <td>The tendency to engage in overgeneralized ascriptions of purpose to entities and events that did not arise from goal-directed action, design, or selection based on functional effects.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Turkey_illusion" title="Turkey illusion">Turkey illusion</a> </td> <td>Absence of expectation of sudden trend breaks in continuous developments </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"> Unit bias </td> <td>The standard suggested amount of consumption (e.g., food serving size) is perceived to be appropriate, and a person would consume it all even if it is too much for this particular person.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Value selection bias </td> <td>The tendency to rely on existing numerical data when reasoning in an unfamiliar context, even if calculation or numerical manipulation is required.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Weber%E2%80%93Fechner_law" title="Weber–Fechner law">Weber–Fechner law</a> </td> <td>Difficulty in comparing small differences in large quantities. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social">Social</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Social">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Association_fallacy">Association fallacy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Association fallacy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Association_fallacy" title="Association fallacy">Association fallacy</a></div> Association fallacies include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority_bias" title="Authority bias">Authority bias</a>, the tendency to attribute greater accuracy to the opinion of an authority figure (unrelated to its content) and be more influenced by that opinion.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheerleader_effect" title="Cheerleader effect">Cheerleader effect</a>, the tendency for people to appear more attractive in a group than in isolation.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halo_effect" title="Halo effect">Halo effect</a>, the tendency for a person's positive or negative traits to "spill over" from one personality area to another in others' perceptions of them (see also <a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness_stereotype" title="Physical attractiveness stereotype">physical attractiveness stereotype</a>).<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness_stereotype" title="Physical attractiveness stereotype">Physical attractiveness stereotype</a>, the tendency to assume people who are physically attractive also possess intelligence, good judgment, or other desirable personality traits.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Attribution_bias">Attribution bias</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Attribution bias">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Attribution_bias" title="Attribution bias">Attribution bias</a></div> Attribution bias includes: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor-observer_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Actor-observer bias">Actor-observer bias</a>, the tendency for explanations of other individuals' behaviors to overemphasize the influence of their personality and underemphasize the influence of their situation (see also <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" title="Fundamental attribution error">Fundamental attribution error</a>), and for explanations of one's own behaviors to do the opposite (that is, to overemphasize the influence of our situation and underemphasize the influence of our own personality).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_attribution_hypothesis" title="Defensive attribution hypothesis">Defensive attribution hypothesis</a>, a tendency to attribute more blame to a harm-doer as the outcome becomes more severe or as personal or situational <a href="/wiki/Similarity_(psychology)#Social_psychological_approaches" title="Similarity (psychology)">similarity</a> to the victim increases.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrinsic_incentives_bias" title="Extrinsic incentives bias">Extrinsic incentives bias</a>, an exception to the fundamental attribution error, where people view others as having (situational) extrinsic motivations and (dispositional) intrinsic motivations for oneself</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" title="Fundamental attribution error">Fundamental attribution error</a>, the tendency for people to overemphasize personality-based explanations for behaviors observed in others while under-emphasizing the role and power of situational influences on the same behavior<a href="#cite_note-TroPLoS-116">[116]</a> (see also actor-observer bias, <a href="/wiki/Group_attribution_error" title="Group attribution error">group attribution error</a>, positivity effect, and <a href="/wiki/Negativity_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Negativity effect">negativity effect</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Sutherland_2007_138–139-129">[129]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_attribution_error" title="Group attribution error">Group attribution error</a>, the biased belief that the characteristics of an individual group member are reflective of the group as a whole or the tendency to assume that group decision outcomes reflect the preferences of group members, even when information is available that clearly suggests otherwise.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostile_attribution_bias" title="Hostile attribution bias">Hostile attribution bias</a>, the tendency to interpret others' behaviors as having hostile intent, even when the behavior is ambiguous or benign.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentionality_bias" title="Intentionality bias">Intentionality bias</a>, the tendency to judge human action to be intentional rather than accidental.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just-world_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Just-world hypothesis">Just-world hypothesis</a>, the tendency for people to want to believe that the world is fundamentally just, causing them to rationalize an otherwise inexplicable injustice as deserved by the victim(s).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_luck" title="Moral luck">Moral luck</a>, the tendency for people to ascribe greater or lesser moral standing based on the outcome of an event.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puritanical_bias" title="Puritanical bias">Puritanical bias</a>, the tendency to attribute cause of an undesirable outcome or wrongdoing by an individual to a moral deficiency or lack of self-control rather than taking into account the impact of broader societal determinants .<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-serving_bias" title="Self-serving bias">Self-serving bias</a>, the tendency to claim more responsibility for successes than failures. It may also manifest itself as a tendency for people to evaluate ambiguous information in a way beneficial to their interests (see also <a href="/wiki/Group-serving_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Group-serving bias">group-serving bias</a>).<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_attribution_error" title="Ultimate attribution error">Ultimate attribution error</a>, similar to the fundamental attribution error, in this error a person is likely to make an internal attribution to an entire group instead of the individuals within the group.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conformity">Conformity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Conformity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">Conformity</a></div> Conformity is involved in the following: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_bias" title="Affinity bias">Affinity bias</a>, the tendency to be favorably biased toward people most like ourselves.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Availability_cascade" title="Availability cascade">Availability cascade</a>, a self-reinforcing process in which a <a href="/wiki/Collective_belief" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective belief">collective belief</a> gains more and more plausibility through its increasing repetition in public discourse (or "repeat something long enough and it will become true").<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Availability_heuristic" title="Availability heuristic">availability heuristic</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandwagon_effect" title="Bandwagon effect">Bandwagon effect</a>, the tendency to do (or believe) things because many other people do (or believe) the same. Related to <a href="/wiki/Groupthink" title="Groupthink">groupthink</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herd_behavior" title="Herd behavior">herd behavior</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><a href="/wiki/Courtesy_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Courtesy bias">Courtesy bias</a>, the tendency to give an opinion that is more socially correct than one's true opinion, so as to avoid offending anyone.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groupthink" title="Groupthink">Groupthink</a>, the psychological <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomenon</a> that occurs within a <a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">group of people</a> in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a> outcome. Group members try to minimize conflict and reach a consensus decision without <a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">critical evaluation</a> of alternative viewpoints by actively suppressing dissenting viewpoints, and by isolating themselves from outside influences.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groupshift" title="Groupshift">Groupshift</a>, the tendency for decisions to be more risk-seeking or risk-averse than the group as a whole, if the group is already biased in that direction</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priming_(psychology)" title="Priming (psychology)">Priming</a>, the positive or negative effect of a rapidly presented stimulus (priming stimulus) on the processing of a second stimulus (target stimulus) that appears shortly after.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_desirability_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Social desirability bias">Social desirability bias</a>, the tendency to over-report socially desirable characteristics or behaviours in oneself and under-report socially undesirable characteristics or behaviours.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> See also: <a href="#Courtesy_bias">§ Courtesy bias</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Truth bias">Truth bias</a> is people's inclination towards believing, to some degree, the communication of another person, regardless of whether or not that person is actually lying or being untruthful.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-139">[139]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ingroup_bias">Ingroup bias</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Ingroup bias">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ingroup_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingroup bias">Ingroup bias</a></div> Ingroup bias is the tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others they perceive to be members of their own groups. It is related to the following: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Not_invented_here" title="Not invented here">Not invented here</a>, an aversion to contact with or use of products, research, standards, or knowledge developed outside a group.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outgroup_homogeneity_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Outgroup homogeneity bias">Outgroup homogeneity bias</a>, where individuals see members of other groups as being relatively less varied than members of their own group.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_social_biases">Other social biases</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Other social biases">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col" style="width: 12em;">Name </th> <th scope="col">Description </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Assumed_similarity_bias&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Assumed similarity bias (page does not exist)">Assumed similarity bias</a> </td> <td>Where an individual assumes that others have more traits in common with them than those others actually do.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Outgroup_favoritism" title="Outgroup favoritism">Outgroup favoritism</a> </td> <td>When some socially disadvantaged groups will express favorable attitudes (and even preferences) toward social, cultural, or ethnic groups other than their own.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pygmalion_effect" title="Pygmalion effect">Pygmalion effect</a> </td> <td>The phenomenon whereby others' expectations of a target person affect the target person's performance. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Reactance_(psychology)" title="Reactance (psychology)">Reactance</a> </td> <td>The urge to do the opposite of what someone wants one to do out of a need to resist a perceived attempt to constrain one's freedom of choice (see also <a href="/wiki/Reverse_psychology" title="Reverse psychology">Reverse psychology</a>). </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Reactive_devaluation" title="Reactive devaluation">Reactive devaluation</a> </td> <td>Devaluing proposals only because they purportedly originated with an adversary. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Social_comparison_bias" title="Social comparison bias">Social comparison bias</a> </td> <td>The tendency, when making decisions, to favour potential candidates who do not compete with one's own particular strengths.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Shared_information_bias" title="Shared information bias">Shared information bias</a> </td> <td>The tendency for group members to spend more time and energy discussing information that all members are already familiar with (i.e., shared information), and less time and energy discussing information that only some members are aware of (i.e., unshared information).<a href="#cite_note-F-144">[144]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Worse-than-average_effect" title="Worse-than-average effect">Worse-than-average effect</a> </td> <td>A tendency to believe ourselves to be worse than others at tasks which are difficult.<a href="#cite_note-Kruger,_J._1999-145">[145]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Memory">Memory </h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Memory">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>, a memory bias is a <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">cognitive bias</a> that either enhances or impairs the recall of a <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a> (either the chances that the memory will be recalled at all, or the amount of time it takes for it to be recalled, or both), or that alters the content of a reported memory. There are many types of memory bias, including: <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Misattribution_of_memory">Misattribution of memory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Misattribution of memory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Misattribution_of_memory" title="Misattribution of memory">Misattribution of memory</a></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><div class="excerpt"> In <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Misattribution_of_memory" title="Misattribution of memory">misattribution of memory</a> or source misattribution is the misidentification of the origin of a <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a> by the person making the <a href="/wiki/Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">memory recall</a>. Misattribution is likely to occur when individuals are unable to monitor and control the influence of their attitudes, toward their judgments, at the time of retrieval.<a href="#cite_note-Misattribution_of_memory_Payne-146">[146]</a> Misattribution is divided into three components: <a href="/wiki/Cryptomnesia" title="Cryptomnesia">cryptomnesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/False_memories" class="mw-redirect" title="False memories">false memories</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Source-monitoring_error" title="Source-monitoring error">source confusion</a>. It was originally noted as one of <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Schacter" title="Daniel Schacter">Daniel Schacter</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Seven_Sins_of_Memory" title="The Seven Sins of Memory">seven sins of memory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Misattribution_of_memory_Schacter-147">[147]</a></div></div> The misattributions include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryptomnesia" title="Cryptomnesia">Cryptomnesia</a>, where a memory is mistaken for novel thought or imagination, because there is no subjective experience of it being a memory.<a href="#cite_note-schacter-148">[148]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_memory" title="False memory">False memory</a>, where imagination is mistaken for a memory.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cryptomnesia" title="Social cryptomnesia">Social cryptomnesia</a>, a failure by people and society in general to remember the origin of a change, in which people know that a change has occurred in society, but forget how this change occurred; that is, the steps that were taken to bring this change about, and who took these steps. This has led to reduced social credit towards the minorities who made major sacrifices that led to a change in societal values.<a href="#cite_note-Butera_2018-149">[149]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misattribution_of_memory#Source_confusion" title="Misattribution of memory">Source confusion</a>, episodic memories are confused with other information, creating distorted memories.<a href="#cite_note-Lieberman2011-150">[150]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suggestibility#External" title="Suggestibility">Suggestibility</a>, where ideas suggested by a questioner are mistaken for memory.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Perky_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Perky effect">Perky effect</a>, where real images can influence imagined images, or be misremembered as imagined rather than real</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_memory_biases">Other memory biases</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Other memory biases">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col" style="width:12em;">Name </th> <th scope="col">Description </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Availability_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Availability bias">Availability bias</a> </td> <td>Greater likelihood of recalling recent, nearby, or otherwise immediately available examples, and the imputation of importance to those examples over others. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bizarreness_effect" title="Bizarreness effect">Bizarreness effect</a> </td> <td>Bizarre material is better remembered than common material. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Boundary_extension" title="Boundary extension">Boundary extension</a> </td> <td>Remembering the background of an image as being larger or more expansive than the foreground<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Childhood_amnesia" title="Childhood amnesia">Childhood amnesia</a> </td> <td>The retention of few memories from before the age of four. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Choice-supportive_bias" title="Choice-supportive bias">Choice-supportive bias</a> </td> <td>The tendency to remember one's choices as better than they actually were.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">Confirmation bias</a> </td> <td>The tendency to search for, interpret, or recall information in a way that confirms one's beliefs or hypotheses. See also under <a href="#Confirmation_bias">§ Confirmation bias</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509">Conservatism or Regressive bias </td> <td>Tendency to remember high values and high likelihoods/probabilities/frequencies as lower than they actually were and low ones as higher than they actually were. Based on the evidence, memories are not extreme enough.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-Experimental_Psychology_1523-154">[154]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509">Consistency bias </td> <td>Incorrectly remembering one's past attitudes and behaviour as resembling present attitudes and behaviour.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509">Continued influence effect </td> <td>Misinformation continues to influence memory and reasoning about an event, despite the misinformation having been corrected.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cf." title="Cf.">cf.</a> <a href="/wiki/Misinformation_effect" title="Misinformation effect">misinformation effect</a>, where the original memory is affected by incorrect information received later. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cue-dependent_forgetting" title="Cue-dependent forgetting">Context effect</a> </td> <td>That cognition and memory are dependent on context, such that out-of-context memories are more difficult to retrieve than in-context memories (e.g., recall time and accuracy for a work-related memory will be lower at home, and vice versa). </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cross-race_effect" title="Cross-race effect">Cross-race effect</a> </td> <td>The tendency for people of one race to have difficulty identifying members of a race other than their own. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Egocentric_bias" title="Egocentric bias">Egocentric bias</a> </td> <td>Recalling the past in a self-serving manner, e.g., remembering one's exam grades as being better than they were, or remembering a caught fish as bigger than it really was. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Euphoric_recall" title="Euphoric recall">Euphoric recall</a> </td> <td>The tendency of people to remember past experiences in a positive light, while overlooking negative experiences associated with that event. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fading_affect_bias" title="Fading affect bias">Fading affect bias</a> </td> <td>A bias in which the emotion associated with unpleasant memories fades more quickly than the emotion associated with positive events.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Generation_effect" title="Generation effect">Generation effect</a> (Self-generation effect) </td> <td>That self-generated information is remembered best. For instance, people are better able to recall memories of statements that they have generated than similar statements generated by others. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Gender differences in eyewitness memory </td> <td>The tendency for a witness to remember more details about someone of the same gender. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Google_effect" title="Google effect">Google effect</a> </td> <td>The tendency to forget information that can be found readily online by using Internet search engines. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight bias</a> ("I-knew-it-all-along" effect) </td> <td>The inclination to see past events as having been predictable. </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509">Humor effect </td> <td>That humorous items are more easily remembered than non-humorous ones, which might be explained by the distinctiveness of humor, the increased cognitive processing time to understand the humor, or the emotional arousal caused by the humor.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Illusory_correlation" title="Illusory correlation">Illusory correlation</a> </td> <td>Inaccurately seeing a relationship between two events related by coincidence.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> See also under {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Section_link" title="Template:Section link">Section link</a>}}: required section parameter(s) missing </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Illusory_truth_effect" title="Illusory truth effect">Illusory truth effect</a> (Illusion-of-truth effect) </td> <td>People are more likely to identify as true statements those they have previously heard (even if they cannot consciously remember having heard them), regardless of the actual validity of the statement. In other words, a person is more likely to believe a familiar statement than an unfamiliar one. See also under {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Section_link" title="Template:Section link">Section link</a>}}: required section parameter(s) missing </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lag effect </td> <td>The phenomenon whereby learning is greater when studying is spread out over time, as opposed to studying the same amount of time in a single session. See also <a href="/wiki/Spacing_effect" title="Spacing effect">spacing effect</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Leveling_and_sharpening" title="Leveling and sharpening">Leveling and sharpening</a> </td> <td>Memory distortions introduced by the loss of details in a recollection over time, often concurrent with sharpening or selective recollection of certain details that take on exaggerated significance in relation to the details or aspects of the experience lost through leveling. Both biases may be reinforced over time, and by repeated recollection or re-telling of a memory.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Levels-of-processing_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Levels-of-processing effect">Levels-of-processing effect</a> </td> <td>That different methods of encoding information into memory have different levels of effectiveness.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509">List-length effect </td> <td>A smaller percentage of items are remembered in a longer list, but as the length of the list increases, the absolute number of items remembered increases as well.<a href="#cite_note-memcog-162">[162]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Memory_inhibition" title="Memory inhibition">Memory inhibition</a> </td> <td>Being shown some items from a list makes it harder to retrieve the other items (e.g., Slamecka, 1968). </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_effect" title="Misinformation effect">Misinformation effect</a> </td> <td>Memory becoming less accurate because of interference from post-event information.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cf." title="Cf.">cf.</a> <a href="/wiki/Continued_influence_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Continued influence effect">continued influence effect</a>, where misinformation about an event, despite later being corrected, continues to influence memory about the event. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Modality_effect" title="Modality effect">Modality effect</a> </td> <td>That memory recall is higher for the last items of a list when the list items were received via speech than when they were received through writing. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/State-dependent_memory" title="State-dependent memory">Mood-congruent memory bias</a> (state-dependent memory) </td> <td>The improved recall of information congruent with one's current mood. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Negativity_bias" title="Negativity bias">Negativity bias</a> or Negativity effect </td> <td>Psychological phenomenon by which humans have a greater <a href="/wiki/Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">recall</a> of unpleasant memories compared with positive memories.<a href="#cite_note-Haizlip-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-TroPLoS-116">[116]</a> (see also actor-observer bias, <a href="/wiki/Group_attribution_error" title="Group attribution error">group attribution error</a>, positivity effect, and <a href="/wiki/Negativity_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Negativity effect">negativity effect</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Sutherland_2007_138–139-129">[129]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Next-in-line_effect" title="Next-in-line effect">Next-in-line effect</a> </td> <td>When taking turns speaking in a group using a predetermined order (e.g. going clockwise around a room, taking numbers, etc.) people tend to have diminished recall for the words of the person who spoke immediately before them.<a href="#cite_note-Weiten2007-165">[165]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Part-list_cueing_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Part-list cueing effect">Part-list cueing effect</a> </td> <td>That being shown some items from a list and later retrieving one item causes it to become harder to retrieve the other items.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Peak%E2%80%93end_rule" title="Peak–end rule">Peak–end rule</a> </td> <td>That people seem to perceive not the sum of an experience but the average of how it was at its peak (e.g., pleasant or unpleasant) and how it ended. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Persistence </td> <td>The unwanted recurrence of memories of a <a href="/wiki/Psychological_trauma" title="Psychological trauma">traumatic event</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Picture_superiority_effect" title="Picture superiority effect">Picture superiority effect</a> </td> <td>The notion that concepts that are learned by viewing pictures are more easily and frequently recalled than are concepts that are learned by viewing their written word form counterparts.<a href="#cite_note-shepard-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-McBride-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-defeyter-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-whitehouse-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-ally_gold-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-curran-172">[172]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Placement bias </td> <td>Tendency to remember ourselves to be better than others at tasks at which we rate ourselves above average (also <a href="/wiki/Illusory_superiority" title="Illusory superiority">Illusory superiority</a> or <a href="/wiki/Overconfidence_effect#Better-than-average_effects" title="Overconfidence effect">Better-than-average effect</a>)<a href="#cite_note-Unskilled_and_unaware_of_it:_how_di-78">[78]</a> and tendency to remember ourselves to be worse than others at tasks at which we rate ourselves below average (also <a href="/wiki/Worse-than-average_effect" title="Worse-than-average effect">Worse-than-average effect</a>).<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Positivity effect (<a href="/wiki/Socioemotional_selectivity_theory" title="Socioemotional selectivity theory">Socioemotional selectivity theory</a>) </td> <td>That older adults favor positive over negative information in their memories. See also <a href="/wiki/Euphoric_recall" title="Euphoric recall">euphoric recall</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Primacy_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Primacy effect">Primacy effect</a> </td> <td>Where an item at the beginning of a list is more easily recalled. A form of <a href="/wiki/Serial_position_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial position effect">serial position effect</a>. See also <a href="/wiki/Recency_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Recency effect">recency effect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suffix_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffix effect">suffix effect</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509">Processing difficulty effect </td> <td>That information that takes longer to read and is thought about more (processed with more difficulty) is more easily remembered.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Levels-of-processing_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Levels-of-processing effect">levels-of-processing effect</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Recency_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Recency effect">Recency effect</a> </td> <td>A form of <a href="/wiki/Serial_position_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial position effect">serial position effect</a> where an item at the end of a list is easier to recall. This can be disrupted by the <a href="/wiki/Suffix_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffix effect">suffix effect</a>. See also <a href="/wiki/Primacy_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Primacy effect">primacy effect</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Reminiscence_bump" title="Reminiscence bump">Reminiscence bump</a> </td> <td>The recalling of more personal events from adolescence and early adulthood than personal events from other lifetime periods.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Repetition_blindness" title="Repetition blindness">Repetition blindness</a> </td> <td>Unexpected difficulty in remembering more than one instance of a visual sequence </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rosy_retrospection" title="Rosy retrospection">Rosy retrospection</a> </td> <td>The remembering of the past as having been better than it really was. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saying_is_believing_effect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saying is believing effect (page does not exist)">Saying is believing effect</a> </td> <td>Communicating a socially tuned message to an audience can lead to a bias of identifying the tuned message as one's own thoughts.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Self-reference_effect" title="Self-reference effect">Self-relevance effect</a> </td> <td>That memories relating to the self are better recalled than similar information relating to others. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Serial_position_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial position effect">Serial position effect</a> </td> <td>That items near the end of a sequence are the easiest to recall, followed by the items at the beginning of a sequence; items in the middle are the least likely to be remembered.<a href="#cite_note-serial_position-177">[177]</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Recency_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Recency effect">recency effect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Primacy_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Primacy effect">primacy effect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suffix_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffix effect">suffix effect</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Spacing_effect" title="Spacing effect">Spacing effect</a> </td> <td>That information is better recalled if exposure to it is repeated over a long span of time rather than a short one. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Spotlight_effect" title="Spotlight effect">Spotlight effect</a> </td> <td>The tendency to overestimate the amount that other people notice one's appearance or behavior. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Stereotype bias or stereotypical bias </td> <td>Memory distorted towards stereotypes (e.g., racial or gender). </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509">Suffix effect </td> <td>Diminishment of the <a href="/wiki/Recency_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Recency effect">recency effect</a> because a sound item is appended to the list that the subject is not required to recall.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-PittEdwards2003-179">[179]</a> A form of <a href="/wiki/Serial_position_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial position effect">serial position effect</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cf." title="Cf.">Cf.</a> <a href="/wiki/Recency_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Recency effect">recency effect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Primacy_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Primacy effect">primacy effect</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Subadditivity_effect" title="Subadditivity effect">Subadditivity effect</a> </td> <td>The tendency to estimate that the likelihood of a remembered event is less than the sum of its (more than two) mutually exclusive components.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tachypsychia" class="mw-redirect" title="Tachypsychia">Tachypsychia</a> </td> <td>When time perceived by the individual either lengthens, making events appear to slow down, or contracts.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Telescoping_effect" title="Telescoping effect">Telescoping effect</a> </td> <td>The tendency to displace recent events backwards in time and remote events forward in time, so that recent events appear more remote, and remote events, more recent. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Testing_effect" title="Testing effect">Testing effect</a> </td> <td>The fact that one more easily recall information one has read by rewriting it instead of rereading it.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> Frequent testing of material that has been committed to memory improves memory recall. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tip_of_the_tongue" title="Tip of the tongue">Tip of the tongue</a> phenomenon </td> <td>When a subject is able to recall parts of an item, or related information, but is frustratingly unable to recall the whole item. This is thought to be an instance of "blocking" where multiple similar memories are being recalled and interfere with each other.<a href="#cite_note-schacter-148">[148]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509">Travis syndrome </td> <td>Overestimating the significance of the present.<a href="#cite_note-travis-183">[183]</a> It is related to <a href="/wiki/Chronological_snobbery" title="Chronological snobbery">chronological snobbery</a> with possibly an <a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">appeal to novelty</a> <a href="/wiki/Logical_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical fallacy">logical fallacy</a> being part of the bias. </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509">Verbatim effect </td> <td>That the "gist" of what someone has said is better remembered than the verbatim wording.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> This is because memories are representations, not exact copies. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Von_Restorff_effect" title="Von Restorff effect">von Restorff effect</a> </td> <td>That an item that sticks out is more likely to be remembered than other items.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Zeigarnik_effect" title="Zeigarnik effect">Zeigarnik effect</a> </td> <td>That uncompleted or interrupted tasks are remembered better than completed ones. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/28px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/42px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/56px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-small" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abilene_paradox" title="Abilene paradox">Abilene paradox</a> – False consensus due to communication failure</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_forecasting" title="Affective forecasting">Affective forecasting</a> – Predicting someone's future emotions (affect)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">Anecdotal evidence</a> – Evidence relying on personal testimony</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attribution_(psychology)" title="Attribution (psychology)">Attribution (psychology)</a> – The process by which individuals explain the causes of behavior and events</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_swan_theory" title="Black swan theory">Black swan theory</a> – Theory of response to surprise events</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronostasis" title="Chronostasis">Chronostasis</a> – Distortion in the perception of time</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_distortion" title="Cognitive distortion">Cognitive distortion</a> – Exaggerated or irrational thought pattern</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_mechanism" title="Defence mechanism">Defence mechanism</a> – Unconscious psychological mechanism</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysrationalia" title="Dysrationalia">Dysrationalia</a> – Inability to think and behave rationally despite adequate intelligence</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear,_uncertainty,_and_doubt" title="Fear, uncertainty, and doubt">Fear, uncertainty, and doubt</a> – Tactic used to influence opinion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heuristics_in_judgment_and_decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Heuristics in judgment and decision making">Heuristics in judgment and decision making</a> – Simple strategies or mental processes involved in making quick decisionsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_public_relations-related_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Index of public relations-related articles">Index of public relations-related articles</a> – Overview of and topical guide to public relationsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions" title="List of common misconceptions">List of common misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">List of fallacies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_maladaptive_schemas" title="List of maladaptive schemas">List of maladaptive schemas</a> – List on psychotherapy topic</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychological_effects" title="List of psychological effects">List of psychological effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media bias</a> – Bias within the mass media</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind_projection_fallacy" title="Mind projection fallacy">Mind projection fallacy</a> – Informal fallacy that the way one sees the world reflects the way the world really is</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motivated_reasoning" title="Motivated reasoning">Motivated reasoning</a> – Using emotionally-biased reasoning to produce justifications or make decisions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observational_error" title="Observational error">Observational error</a>, also known as Systematic bias – Difference between a measured value of a quantity and its true value</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_public_relations" title="Outline of public relations">Outline of public relations</a> – Overview of and topical guide to public relations</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_thought" title="Outline of thought">Outline of thought</a> – Overview of and topical guide to thought</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollyanna_principle" title="Pollyanna principle">Pollyanna principle</a> – Tendency to remember pleasant things better</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">Positive feedback</a> – Feedback loop that increases an initial small effect</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> – Communication used to influence opinion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publication_bias" title="Publication bias">Publication bias</a> – Higher probability of publishing results showing a significant finding</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recall_bias" title="Recall bias">Recall bias</a> – Type of cognitive bias</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-handicapping" title="Self-handicapping">Self-handicapping</a> – Cognitive strategy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow" title="Thinking, Fast and Slow">Thinking, Fast and Slow</a> – 2011 book by Daniel Kahneman</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Footnotes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHaseltonNettleAndrews2005" class="citation book cs1">Haselton MG, Nettle D, Andrews PW (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/comm/haselton/papers/downloads/handbookevpsych.pdf">"The evolution of cognitive bias"</a> (PDF). In Buss DM (ed.). The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc. pp. 724–746.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+cognitive+bias&rft.btitle=The+Handbook+of+Evolutionary+Psychology&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&rft.pages=724-746&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons+Inc&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Haselton&rft.aufirst=MG&rft.au=Nettle%2C+D&rft.au=Andrews%2C+PW&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sscnet.ucla.edu%2Fcomm%2Fhaselton%2Fpapers%2Fdownloads%2Fhandbookevpsych.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.psychologicalscience.org/tag/cognitive-bias">"Cognitive Bias – Association for Psychological Science"</a>. www.psychologicalscience.org. Retrieved 2018-10-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.psychologicalscience.org&rft.atitle=Cognitive+Bias+%E2%80%93+Association+for+Psychological+Science&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychologicalscience.org%2Ftag%2Fcognitive-bias&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2018" class="citation journal cs1">Thomas O (2018-01-19). "Two decades of cognitive bias research in entrepreneurship: What do we know and where do we go from here?". Management Review Quarterly. 68 (2): 107–143. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11301-018-0135-9">10.1007/s11301-018-0135-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2198-1620">2198-1620</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148611312">148611312</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Management+Review+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Two+decades+of+cognitive+bias+research+in+entrepreneurship%3A+What+do+we+know+and+where+do+we+go+from+here%3F&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=107-143&rft.date=2018-01-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A148611312%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2198-1620&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11301-018-0135-9&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=O&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoughertyGettysOgden1999" class="citation journal cs1">Dougherty MR, Gettys CF, Ogden EE (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bsos.umd.edu/psyc/dougherty/PDF%20articles/Dougherty,Gettys&Ogden,1999.pdf">"MINERVA-DM: A memory processes model for judgments of likelihood"</a> (PDF). Psychological Review. 106 (1): 180–209. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-295x.106.1.180">10.1037/0033-295x.106.1.180</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Review&rft.atitle=MINERVA-DM%3A+A+memory+processes+model+for+judgments+of+likelihood&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=180-209&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0033-295x.106.1.180&rft.aulast=Dougherty&rft.aufirst=MR&rft.au=Gettys%2C+CF&rft.au=Ogden%2C+EE&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bsos.umd.edu%2Fpsyc%2Fdougherty%2FPDF%2520articles%2FDougherty%2CGettys%26Ogden%2C1999.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HilbertPsychBul-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HilbertPsychBul_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HilbertPsychBul_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HilbertPsychBul_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HilbertPsychBul_5-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HilbertPsychBul_5-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HilbertPsychBul_5-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHilbert2012" class="citation journal cs1">Hilbert M (March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2011-27261-001">"Toward a synthesis of cognitive biases: how noisy information processing can bias human decision making"</a>. Psychological Bulletin. 138 (2): 211–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0025940">10.1037/a0025940</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22122235">22122235</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Toward+a+synthesis+of+cognitive+biases%3A+how+noisy+information+processing+can+bias+human+decision+making&rft.volume=138&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=211-37&rft.date=2012-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fa0025940&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22122235&rft.aulast=Hilbert&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsycnet.apa.org%2Fpsycinfo%2F2011-27261-001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGigerenzer2006" class="citation book cs1">Gigerenzer G (2006). "Bounded and Rational". In Stainton RJ (ed.). Contemporary Debates in Cognitive Science. Blackwell. p. 129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1304-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1304-5"><bdi>978-1-4051-1304-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bounded+and+Rational&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Debates+in+Cognitive+Science&rft.pages=129&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-1304-5&rft.aulast=Gigerenzer&rft.aufirst=G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacCoun1998" class="citation journal cs1">MacCoun RJ (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~maccoun/MacCoun_AnnualReview98.pdf">"Biases in the interpretation and use of research results"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Psychology" title="Annual Review of Psychology">Annual Review of Psychology</a>. 49 (1): 259–287. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.psych.49.1.259">10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.259</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15012470">15012470</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Biases+in+the+interpretation+and+use+of+research+results&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=259-287&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.psych.49.1.259&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15012470&rft.aulast=MacCoun&rft.aufirst=RJ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsocrates.berkeley.edu%2F~maccoun%2FMacCoun_AnnualReview98.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNickerson1998" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raymond_S._Nickerson" title="Raymond S. Nickerson">Nickerson RS</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psy2.ucsd.edu/~mckenzie/nickersonConfirmationBias.pdf">"Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises"</a> (PDF). Review of General Psychology. 2 (2): 175–220 [198]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F1089-2680.2.2.175">10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8508954">8508954</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+General+Psychology&rft.atitle=Confirmation+Bias%3A+A+Ubiquitous+Phenomenon+in+Many+Guises&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=175-220+198&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F1089-2680.2.2.175&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8508954%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Nickerson&rft.aufirst=RS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsy2.ucsd.edu%2F~mckenzie%2FnickersonConfirmationBias.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-dardenne-9"><a href="#cite_ref-dardenne_9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDardenneLeyens1995" class="citation journal cs1">Dardenne B, Leyens JP (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/handle/2268/28639">"Confirmation Bias as a Social Skill"</a>. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 21 (11): 1229–1239. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F01461672952111011">10.1177/01461672952111011</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146709087">146709087</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Personality+and+Social+Psychology+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Confirmation+Bias+as+a+Social+Skill&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1229-1239&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F01461672952111011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146709087%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dardenne&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Leyens%2C+JP&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Forbi.ulg.ac.be%2Fhandle%2F2268%2F28639&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexanderBrown2010" class="citation journal cs1">Alexander WH, Brown JW (June 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3005720">"Hyperbolically discounted temporal difference learning"</a>. Neural Computation. 22 (6): 1511–1527. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fneco.2010.08-09-1080">10.1162/neco.2010.08-09-1080</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3005720">3005720</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20100071">20100071</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neural+Computation&rft.atitle=Hyperbolically+discounted+temporal+difference+learning&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1511-1527&rft.date=2010-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3005720%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20100071&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Fneco.2010.08-09-1080&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=WH&rft.au=Brown%2C+JW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3005720&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhangLewisPellonColeman2007" class="citation conference cs1">Zhang Y, Lewis M, Pellon M, Coleman P (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaai.org/Papers/Symposia/Fall/2007/FS-07-04/FS07-04-017.pdf">A Preliminary Research on Modeling Cognitive Agents for Social Environments in Multi-Agent Systems</a> (PDF). 2007 AAAI Fall Symposium: Emergent agents and socialities: Social and organizational aspects of intelligence. Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence. pp. 116–123.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=conference&rft.jtitle=Association+for+the+Advancement+of+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.atitle=A+Preliminary+Research+on+Modeling+Cognitive+Agents+for+Social+Environments+in+Multi-Agent+Systems&rft.pages=116-123&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Y&rft.au=Lewis%2C+M&rft.au=Pellon%2C+M&rft.au=Coleman%2C+P&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aaai.org%2FPapers%2FSymposia%2FFall%2F2007%2FFS-07-04%2FFS07-04-017.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-iverson2008-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-iverson2008_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-iverson2008_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-iverson2008_12-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIversonBrooksHoldnack2008" class="citation book cs1">Iverson GL, Brooks BL, Holdnack JA (2008). "Misdiagnosis of Cognitive Impairment in Forensic Neuropsychology". In Heilbronner RL (ed.). Neuropsychology in the Courtroom: Expert Analysis of Reports and Testimony. New York: Guilford Press. p. 248. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59385-634-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59385-634-2"><bdi>978-1-59385-634-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Misdiagnosis+of+Cognitive+Impairment+in+Forensic+Neuropsychology&rft.btitle=Neuropsychology+in+the+Courtroom%3A+Expert+Analysis+of+Reports+and+Testimony&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=248&rft.pub=Guilford+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-59385-634-2&rft.aulast=Iverson&rft.aufirst=GL&rft.au=Brooks%2C+BL&rft.au=Holdnack%2C+JA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimDaniel2020" class="citation journal cs1">Kim M, Daniel JL (2020-01-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15309576.2019.1657915">"Common Source Bias, Key Informants, and Survey-Administrative Linked Data for Nonprofit Management Research"</a>. Public Performance & Management Review. 43 (1): 232–256. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15309576.2019.1657915">10.1080/15309576.2019.1657915</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1530-9576">1530-9576</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:203468837">203468837</a>. Retrieved 23 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Public+Performance+%26+Management+Review&rft.atitle=Common+Source+Bias%2C+Key+Informants%2C+and+Survey-Administrative+Linked+Data+for+Nonprofit+Management+Research&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=232-256&rft.date=2020-01-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A203468837%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1530-9576&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F15309576.2019.1657915&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Daniel%2C+JL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F15309576.2019.1657915&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuCharme1970" class="citation journal cs1">DuCharme WW (1970). "Response bias explanation of conservative human inference". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 85 (1): 66–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0029546">10.1037/h0029546</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2060%2F19700009379">2060/19700009379</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Psychology&rft.atitle=Response+bias+explanation+of+conservative+human+inference&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=66-74&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2060%2F19700009379&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0029546&rft.aulast=DuCharme&rft.aufirst=WW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-edwards1968-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-edwards1968_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-edwards1968_15-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards1968" class="citation book cs1">Edwards W (1968). "Conservatism in human information processing". In Kleinmuntz B (ed.). Formal representation of human judgment. New York: Wiley. pp. 17–52.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Conservatism+in+human+information+processing&rft.btitle=Formal+representation+of+human+judgment&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=17-52&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://psychologenie.com/what-does-functional-fixedness-mean-in-psychology">"The Psychology Guide: What Does Functional Fixedness Mean?"</a>. PsycholoGenie. Retrieved 2018-10-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PsycholoGenie&rft.atitle=The+Psychology+Guide%3A+What+Does+Functional+Fixedness+Mean%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpsychologenie.com%2Fwhat-does-functional-fixedness-mean-in-psychology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-skepdic-17"><a href="#cite_ref-skepdic_17-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarroll" class="citation web cs1">Carroll RT. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://skepdic.com/apophenia.html">"apophenia"</a>. The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved 17 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Skeptic%27s+Dictionary&rft.atitle=apophenia&rft.aulast=Carroll&rft.aufirst=RT&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fskepdic.com%2Fapophenia.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-h_and_b-18"><a href="#cite_ref-h_and_b_18-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTverskyKahneman1974" class="citation journal cs1">Tversky A, Kahneman D (September 1974). "Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases". Science. 185 (4157): 1124–1131. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974Sci...185.1124T">1974Sci...185.1124T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.185.4157.1124">10.1126/science.185.4157.1124</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17835457">17835457</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143452957">143452957</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Judgment+under+Uncertainty%3A+Heuristics+and+Biases&rft.volume=185&rft.issue=4157&rft.pages=1124-1131&rft.date=1974-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.185.4157.1124&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143452957%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17835457&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1974Sci...185.1124T&rft.aulast=Tversky&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Kahneman%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-19"><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_19-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiedler1991" class="citation journal cs1">Fiedler K (1991). "The tricky nature of skewed frequency tables: An information loss account of distinctiveness-based illusory correlations". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 60 (1): 24–36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.60.1.24">10.1037/0022-3514.60.1.24</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+tricky+nature+of+skewed+frequency+tables%3A+An+information+loss+account+of+distinctiveness-based+illusory+correlations&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=24-36&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0022-3514.60.1.24&rft.aulast=Fiedler&rft.aufirst=K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwarzBlessStrackKlumpp1991" class="citation journal cs1">Schwarz N, Bless H, Strack F, Klumpp G, Rittenauer-Schatka H, Simons A (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140209175640/http://osil.psy.ua.edu:16080/~Rosanna/Soc_Inf/week4/availability.pdf">"Ease of Retrieval as Information: Another Look at the Availability Heuristic"</a> (PDF). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 61 (2): 195–202. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.61.2.195">10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.195</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://osil.psy.ua.edu:16080/~Rosanna/Soc_Inf/week4/availability.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 9 February 2014. Retrieved 19 Oct 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Ease+of+Retrieval+as+Information%3A+Another+Look+at+the+Availability+Heuristic&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=195-202&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0022-3514.61.2.195&rft.aulast=Schwarz&rft.aufirst=N&rft.au=Bless%2C+H&rft.au=Strack%2C+F&rft.au=Klumpp%2C+G&rft.au=Rittenauer-Schatka%2C+H&rft.au=Simons%2C+A&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fosil.psy.ua.edu%3A16080%2F~Rosanna%2FSoc_Inf%2Fweek4%2Favailability.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coley2012-21"><a href="#cite_ref-Coley2012_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColeyTanner2012" class="citation journal cs1">Coley JD, Tanner KD (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3433289">"Common origins of diverse misconceptions: cognitive principles and the development of biology thinking"</a>. CBE: Life Sciences Education. 11 (3): 209–215. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1187%2Fcbe.12-06-0074">10.1187/cbe.12-06-0074</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3433289">3433289</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22949417">22949417</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CBE%3A+Life+Sciences+Education&rft.atitle=Common+origins+of+diverse+misconceptions%3A+cognitive+principles+and+the+development+of+biology+thinking&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=209-215&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3433289%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22949417&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1187%2Fcbe.12-06-0074&rft.aulast=Coley&rft.aufirst=JD&rft.au=Tanner%2C+KD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3433289&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livescience.com/6141-real-reason-dress-pets-people.html">"The Real Reason We Dress Pets Like People"</a>. Live Science. 3 March 2010. Retrieved 2015-11-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Live+Science&rft.atitle=The+Real+Reason+We+Dress+Pets+Like+People&rft.date=2010-03-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2F6141-real-reason-dress-pets-people.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrisFiske2011" class="citation journal cs1">Harris LT, Fiske ST (January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3915417">"Dehumanized Perception: A Psychological Means to Facilitate Atrocities, Torture, and Genocide?"</a>. Zeitschrift für Psychologie. 219 (3): 175–181. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1027%2F2151-2604%2Fa000065">10.1027/2151-2604/a000065</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3915417">3915417</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24511459">24511459</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Psychologie&rft.atitle=Dehumanized+Perception%3A+A+Psychological+Means+to+Facilitate+Atrocities%2C+Torture%2C+and+Genocide%3F&rft.volume=219&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=175-181&rft.date=2011-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3915417%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24511459&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1027%2F2151-2604%2Fa000065&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=LT&rft.au=Fiske%2C+ST&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3915417&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid17201568-24"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid17201568_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBar-HaimLamyPergaminBakermans-Kranenburg2007" class="citation journal cs1">Bar-Haim Y, Lamy D, Pergamin L, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van IJzendoorn MH (January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://people.socsci.tau.ac.il/mu/dominiquelamy/files/2014/08/Bar-Haim_et_2007.pdf">"Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: a meta-analytic study"</a> (PDF). Psychological Bulletin. 133 (1): 1–24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-2909.133.1.1">10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17201568">17201568</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2861872">2861872</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Threat-related+attentional+bias+in+anxious+and+nonanxious+individuals%3A+a+meta-analytic+study&rft.volume=133&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-24&rft.date=2007-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2861872%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17201568&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0033-2909.133.1.1&rft.aulast=Bar-Haim&rft.aufirst=Y&rft.au=Lamy%2C+D&rft.au=Pergamin%2C+L&rft.au=Bakermans-Kranenburg%2C+MJ&rft.au=van+IJzendoorn%2C+MH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpeople.socsci.tau.ac.il%2Fmu%2Fdominiquelamy%2Ffiles%2F2014%2F08%2FBar-Haim_et_2007.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-zwicky-25"><a href="#cite_ref-zwicky_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZwicky2005" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Zwicky" title="Arnold Zwicky">Zwicky A</a> (2005-08-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/002386.html">"Just Between Dr. Language and I"</a>. Language Log.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Language+Log&rft.atitle=Just+Between+Dr.+Language+and+I&rft.date=2005-08-07&rft.aulast=Zwicky&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fitre.cis.upenn.edu%2F~myl%2Flanguagelog%2Farchives%2F002386.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellows2006" class="citation web cs1">Bellows A (March 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.damninteresting.com/the-baader-meinhof-phenomenon/">"The Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon"</a>. Damn Interesting. Retrieved 2020-02-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Damn+Interesting&rft.atitle=The+Baader-Meinhof+Phenomenon&rft.date=2006-03&rft.aulast=Bellows&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.damninteresting.com%2Fthe-baader-meinhof-phenomenon%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKershner2015" class="citation web cs1">Kershner K (20 March 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://science.howstuffworks.com/life/inside-the-mind/human-brain/baader-meinhof-phenomenon.htm">"What's the Baader-Meinhof phenomenon?"</a>. howstuffworks.com. Retrieved 15 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=howstuffworks.com&rft.atitle=What%27s+the+Baader-Meinhof+phenomenon%3F&rft.date=2015-03-20&rft.aulast=Kershner&rft.aufirst=K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscience.howstuffworks.com%2Flife%2Finside-the-mind%2Fhuman-brain%2Fbaader-meinhof-phenomenon.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.twincities.com/2007/02/23/the-baader-meinhof-phenomenon-or-the-joy-of-juxtaposition-responsorial-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23/">"The Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon? Or: The Joy Of Juxtaposition?"</a>. twincities.com. <a href="/wiki/St._Paul_Pioneer_Press" title="St. Paul Pioneer Press">St. Paul Pioneer Press</a>. 23 February 2007. Retrieved October 20, 2020. <q>As you might guess, the phenomenon is named after an incident in which I was talking to a friend about the Baader-Meinhof gang (and this was many years after they were in the news). The next day, my friend phoned me and referred me to an article in that day's newspaper in which the Baader-Meinhof gang was mentioned.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=twincities.com&rft.atitle=The+Baader-Meinhof+Phenomenon%3F+Or%3A+The+Joy+Of+Juxtaposition%3F&rft.date=2007-02-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.twincities.com%2F2007%2F02%2F23%2Fthe-baader-meinhof-phenomenon-or-the-joy-of-juxtaposition-responsorial-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23-23%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Michael I. Norton, Daniel Mochon, Dan Ariely (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Publication%20Files/11-091.pdf">The "IKEA Effect": When Labor Leads to Love</a>. Harvard Business School </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLebowitz2016" class="citation news cs1">Lebowitz S (2 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.businessinsider.in/Harness-the-power-of-the-Ben-Franklin-Effect-to-get-someone-to-like-you/articleshow/55757370.cms">"Harness the power of the 'Ben Franklin Effect' to get someone to like you"</a>. Business Insider. Retrieved 2018-10-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&rft.atitle=Harness+the+power+of+the+%27Ben+Franklin+Effect%27+to+get+someone+to+like+you&rft.date=2016-12-02&rft.aulast=Lebowitz&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.in%2FHarness-the-power-of-the-Ben-Franklin-Effect-to-get-someone-to-like-you%2Farticleshow%2F55757370.cms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOswaldGrosjean2004" class="citation book cs1">Oswald ME, Grosjean S (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cognitiveillusio0000unse/page/79">"Confirmation Bias"</a>. In Pohl RF (ed.). Cognitive Illusions: A Handbook on Fallacies and Biases in Thinking, Judgement and Memory. Hove, UK: Psychology Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cognitiveillusio0000unse/page/79">79–96</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84169-351-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84169-351-4"><bdi>978-1-84169-351-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55124398">55124398</a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Confirmation+Bias&rft.btitle=Cognitive+Illusions%3A+A+Handbook+on+Fallacies+and+Biases+in+Thinking%2C+Judgement+and+Memory&rft.place=Hove%2C+UK&rft.pages=79-96&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55124398&rft.isbn=978-1-84169-351-4&rft.aulast=Oswald&rft.aufirst=ME&rft.au=Grosjean%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcognitiveillusio0000unse%2Fpage%2F79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SannaSchwarz2002-32"><a href="#cite_ref-SannaSchwarz2002_32-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSannaSchwarzStocker2002" class="citation journal cs1">Sanna LJ, Schwarz N, Stocker SL (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nifc.gov/PUBLICATIONS/acc_invest_march2010/speakers/4DebiasBackfires.pdf">"When debiasing backfires: Accessible content and accessibility experiences in debiasing hindsight"</a> (PDF). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 28 (3): 497–502. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.387.5964">10.1.1.387.5964</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0278-7393.28.3.497">10.1037/0278-7393.28.3.497</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0278-7393">0278-7393</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12018501">12018501</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Psychology%3A+Learning%2C+Memory%2C+and+Cognition&rft.atitle=When+debiasing+backfires%3A+Accessible+content+and+accessibility+experiences+in+debiasing+hindsight.&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=497-502&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.387.5964%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft.issn=0278-7393&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12018501&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0278-7393.28.3.497&rft.aulast=Sanna&rft.aufirst=LJ&rft.au=Schwarz%2C+N&rft.au=Stocker%2C+SL&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nifc.gov%2FPUBLICATIONS%2Facc_invest_march2010%2Fspeakers%2F4DebiasBackfires.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeng2006" class="citation journal cs1">Jeng M (2006). "A selected history of expectation bias in physics". American Journal of Physics. 74 (7): 578–583. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0508199">physics/0508199</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006AmJPh..74..578J">2006AmJPh..74..578J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.2186333">10.1119/1.2186333</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119491123">119491123</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=A+selected+history+of+expectation+bias+in+physics&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=578-583&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fphysics%2F0508199&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119491123%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.2186333&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006AmJPh..74..578J&rft.aulast=Jeng&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchacterGilbertWegner2011" class="citation book cs1">Schacter DL, Gilbert DT, Wegner DM (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=emAyzTNy1cUC">Psychology</a> (2nd ed.). Macmillan. p. 254. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4292-3719-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4292-3719-2"><bdi>978-1-4292-3719-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology&rft.pages=254&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4292-3719-2&rft.aulast=Schacter&rft.aufirst=DL&rft.au=Gilbert%2C+DT&rft.au=Wegner%2C+DM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DemAyzTNy1cUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-blindspot-35"><a href="#cite_ref-blindspot_35-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProninKugler2007" class="citation journal cs1">Pronin E, Kugler MB (July 2007). "Valuing thoughts, ignoring behavior: The introspection illusion as a source of the bias blind spot". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 43 (4): 565–578. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jesp.2006.05.011">10.1016/j.jesp.2006.05.011</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-1031">0022-1031</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Valuing+thoughts%2C+ignoring+behavior%3A+The+introspection+illusion+as+a+source+of+the+bias+blind+spot&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=565-578&rft.date=2007-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jesp.2006.05.011&rft.issn=0022-1031&rft.aulast=Pronin&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Kugler%2C+MB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarksMiller1987" class="citation journal cs1">Marks G, Miller N (1987). "Ten years of research on the false-consensus effect: An empirical and theoretical review". Psychological Bulletin. 102 (1): 72–90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-2909.102.1.72">10.1037/0033-2909.102.1.72</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Ten+years+of+research+on+the+false-consensus+effect%3A+An+empirical+and+theoretical+review&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=72-90&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0033-2909.102.1.72&rft.aulast=Marks&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Miller%2C+N&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/social-psychology/social-cognition/false-uniqueness-bias/">"False Uniqueness Bias (Social Psychology) – IResearchNet"</a>. 2016-01-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=False+Uniqueness+Bias+%28Social+Psychology%29+%E2%80%93+IResearchNet&rft.date=2016-01-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsychology.iresearchnet.com%2Fsocial-psychology%2Fsocial-cognition%2Ffalse-uniqueness-bias%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psych.fullerton.edu/mbirnbaum/psych101/barnum_demo.htm">"The Barnum Demonstration"</a>. psych.fullerton.edu. Retrieved 2018-10-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=psych.fullerton.edu&rft.atitle=The+Barnum+Demonstration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsych.fullerton.edu%2Fmbirnbaum%2Fpsych101%2Fbarnum_demo.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProninKrugerSavitskyRoss2001" class="citation journal cs1">Pronin E, Kruger J, Savitsky K, Ross L (October 2001). "You don't know me, but I know you: the illusion of asymmetric insight". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 81 (4): 639–656. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.81.4.639">10.1037/0022-3514.81.4.639</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11642351">11642351</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=You+don%27t+know+me%2C+but+I+know+you%3A+the+illusion+of+asymmetric+insight&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=639-656&rft.date=2001-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0022-3514.81.4.639&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11642351&rft.aulast=Pronin&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Kruger%2C+J&rft.au=Savitsky%2C+K&rft.au=Ross%2C+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1999" class="citation journal cs1">Thompson SC (1999). "Illusions of Control: How We Overestimate Our Personal Influence". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 8 (6): 187–190. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-8721.00044">10.1111/1467-8721.00044</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0963-7214">0963-7214</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20182602">20182602</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145714398">145714398</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Directions+in+Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=Illusions+of+Control%3A+How+We+Overestimate+Our+Personal+Influence&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=187-190&rft.date=1999&rft.issn=0963-7214&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145714398%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20182602%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-8721.00044&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=SC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDierkesAntalChildNonaka2003" class="citation book cs1">Dierkes M, Antal AB, Child J, Nonaka I (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JRd7RZzzw_wC&pg=PA22">Handbook of Organizational Learning and Knowledge</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829582-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829582-2"><bdi>978-0-19-829582-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved 9 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Organizational+Learning+and+Knowledge&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-829582-2&rft.aulast=Dierkes&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Antal%2C+AB&rft.au=Child%2C+J&rft.au=Nonaka%2C+I&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJRd7RZzzw_wC%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hoorens-42"><a href="#cite_ref-hoorens_42-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoorens1993" class="citation journal cs1">Hoorens V (1993). "Self-enhancement and Superiority Biases in Social Comparison". European Review of Social Psychology. 4 (1): 113–139. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14792779343000040">10.1080/14792779343000040</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Review+of+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Self-enhancement+and+Superiority+Biases+in+Social+Comparison&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=113-139&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14792779343000040&rft.aulast=Hoorens&rft.aufirst=V&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamsAdams1960" class="citation journal cs1">Adams PA, Adams JK (December 1960). "Confidence in the recognition and reproduction of words difficult to spell". The American Journal of Psychology. 73 (4): 544–552. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1419942">10.2307/1419942</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1419942">1419942</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13681411">13681411</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Confidence+in+the+recognition+and+reproduction+of+words+difficult+to+spell&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=544-552&rft.date=1960-12&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13681411&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1419942%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1419942&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=PA&rft.au=Adams%2C+JK&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoffrage2004" class="citation book cs1">Hoffrage U (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cognitiveillusio0000unse">"Overconfidence"</a>. In Pohl R (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cognitiveillusio0000unse">Cognitive Illusions: a handbook on fallacies and biases in thinking, judgement and memory</a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84169-351-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84169-351-4"><bdi>978-1-84169-351-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Overconfidence&rft.btitle=Cognitive+Illusions%3A+a+handbook+on+fallacies+and+biases+in+thinking%2C+judgement+and+memory&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-84169-351-4&rft.aulast=Hoffrage&rft.aufirst=U&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcognitiveillusio0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSutherland2007">Sutherland 2007</a>, pp. 172–178 </li> <li id="cite_note-temporal-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-temporal_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-temporal_46-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSannaSchwarz2004" class="citation journal cs1">Sanna LJ, Schwarz N (July 2004). "Integrating temporal biases: the interplay of focal thoughts and accessibility experiences". Psychological Science. 15 (7): 474–481. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0956-7976.2004.00704.x">10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00704.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15200632">15200632</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10998751">10998751</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=Integrating+temporal+biases%3A+the+interplay+of+focal+thoughts+and+accessibility+experiences&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=474-481&rft.date=2004-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10998751%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15200632&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.0956-7976.2004.00704.x&rft.aulast=Sanna&rft.aufirst=LJ&rft.au=Schwarz%2C+N&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaron1994">Baron 1994</a>, pp. 224–228 </li> <li id="cite_note-comp-fade-48"><a href="#cite_ref-comp-fade_48-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVästfjällSlovicMayorgaPeters2014" class="citation journal cs1">Västfjäll D, Slovic P, Mayorga M, Peters E (18 June 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4062481">"Compassion fade: affect and charity are greatest for a single child in need"</a>. PLOS ONE. 9 (6): e100115. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PLoSO...9j0115V">2014PLoSO...9j0115V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0100115">10.1371/journal.pone.0100115</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4062481">4062481</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24940738">24940738</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Compassion+fade%3A+affect+and+charity+are+greatest+for+a+single+child+in+need&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=e100115&rft.date=2014-06-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4062481%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24940738&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0100115&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PLoSO...9j0115V&rft.aulast=V%C3%A4stfj%C3%A4ll&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Slovic%2C+P&rft.au=Mayorga%2C+M&rft.au=Peters%2C+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4062481&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisk2004" class="citation book cs1">Fisk JE (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cognitiveillusio0000unse/page/23">"Conjunction fallacy"</a>. In Pohl RF (ed.). Cognitive Illusions: A Handbook on Fallacies and Biases in Thinking, Judgement and Memory. Hove, UK: Psychology Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cognitiveillusio0000unse/page/23">23–42</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84169-351-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84169-351-4"><bdi>978-1-84169-351-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55124398">55124398</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Conjunction+fallacy&rft.btitle=Cognitive+Illusions%3A+A+Handbook+on+Fallacies+and+Biases+in+Thinking%2C+Judgement+and+Memory&rft.place=Hove%2C+UK&rft.pages=23-42&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55124398&rft.isbn=978-1-84169-351-4&rft.aulast=Fisk&rft.aufirst=JE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcognitiveillusio0000unse%2Fpage%2F23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Barbara L. Fredrickson and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman" title="Daniel Kahneman">Daniel Kahneman</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pages.ucsd.edu/~nchristenfeld/Happiness_Readings_files/Class%209%20-%20Fredrickson%201993.pdf">Duration Neglect in Retrospective Evaluations of Affective Episodes</a>. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 65 (1) pp. 45–55. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170808092231/http://pages.ucsd.edu/~nchristenfeld/Happiness_Readings_files/Class%209%20-%20Fredrickson%201993.pdf">Archived</a> 2017-08-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Laibson1997QJE-51"><a href="#cite_ref-Laibson1997QJE_51-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaibson1997" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Laibson" title="David Laibson">Laibson D</a> (1997). "Golden Eggs and Hyperbolic Discounting". <a href="/wiki/Quarterly_Journal_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quarterly Journal of Economics">Quarterly Journal of Economics</a>. 112 (2): 443–477. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.337.3544">10.1.1.337.3544</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F003355397555253">10.1162/003355397555253</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:763839">763839</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Journal+of+Economics&rft.atitle=Golden+Eggs+and+Hyperbolic+Discounting&rft.volume=112&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=443-477&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.337.3544%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A763839%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F003355397555253&rft.aulast=Laibson&rft.aufirst=D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaron1994">Baron 1994</a>, p. 353 </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoddardRoudsariWyatt2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Katrina_A._B._Goddard" class="mw-redirect" title="Katrina A. B. Goddard">Goddard K</a>, Roudsari A, Wyatt JC (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NsbaN_fXRe4C&pg=PA17">"Automation Bias – A Hidden Issue for Clinical Decision Support System Use"</a>. International Perspectives in Health Informatics. Studies in Health Technology and Informatics. Vol. 164. IOS Press. pp. 17–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3233%2F978-1-60750-709-3-17">10.3233/978-1-60750-709-3-17</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Automation+Bias+%E2%80%93+A+Hidden+Issue+for+Clinical+Decision+Support+System+Use&rft.btitle=International+Perspectives+in+Health+Informatics&rft.series=Studies+in+Health+Technology+and+Informatics&rft.pages=17-22&rft.pub=IOS+Press.&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3233%2F978-1-60750-709-3-17&rft.aulast=Goddard&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Roudsari%2C+A&rft.au=Wyatt%2C+JC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNsbaN_fXRe4C%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdr.undp.org/en/GSNI">Tackling social norms: a game changer for gender inequalities</a> (Gender Social Norms Index). 2020 Human Development Perspectives. United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 2020-06-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Tackling+social+norms%3A+a+game+changer+for+gender+inequalities&rft.series=2020+Human+Development+Perspectives&rft.pub=United+Nations+Development+Programme&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhdr.undp.org%2Fen%2FGSNI&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBianLeslieCimpian2018" class="citation journal cs1">Bian L, Leslie SJ, Cimpian A (December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Famp0000427">"Evidence of bias against girls and women in contexts that emphasize intellectual ability"</a>. The American Psychologist. 73 (9): 1139–1153. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Famp0000427">10.1037/amp0000427</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30525794">30525794</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Evidence+of+bias+against+girls+and+women+in+contexts+that+emphasize+intellectual+ability&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1139-1153&rft.date=2018-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Famp0000427&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30525794&rft.aulast=Bian&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Leslie%2C+SJ&rft.au=Cimpian%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1037%252Famp0000427&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamilton1991" class="citation journal cs1">Hamilton MC (1991). "Masculine Bias in the Attribution of Personhood: People = Male, Male = People". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 15 (3): 393–402. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1471-6402.1991.tb00415.x">10.1111/j.1471-6402.1991.tb00415.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0361-6843">0361-6843</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143533483">143533483</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychology+of+Women+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Masculine+Bias+in+the+Attribution+of+Personhood%3A+People+%3D+Male%2C+Male+%3D+People&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=393-402&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143533483%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0361-6843&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1471-6402.1991.tb00415.x&rft.aulast=Hamilton&rft.aufirst=MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vanderbilt.edu/diversity/unconscious-bias/">"Unconscious Bias"</a>. Vanderbilt University. Retrieved 2020-11-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vanderbilt+University&rft.atitle=Unconscious+Bias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vanderbilt.edu%2Fdiversity%2Funconscious-bias%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlous1993">Plous 1993</a>, pp. 38–41 </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/complexity-and-uncertainty/0/steps/1882">"Evolution and cognitive biases: the decoy effect"</a>. FutureLearn. Retrieved 2018-10-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FutureLearn&rft.atitle=Evolution+and+cognitive+biases%3A+the+decoy+effect&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.futurelearn.com%2Fcourses%2Fcomplexity-and-uncertainty%2F0%2Fsteps%2F1882&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.influenceatwork.com/inside-influence-report/how-to-use-and-improve-actions-through-enhanced-defaults/">"The Default Effect: How to Leverage Bias and Influence Behavior"</a>. Influence at Work. 2012-01-11. Retrieved 2018-10-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Default+Effect%3A+How+to+Leverage+Bias+and+Influence+Behavior&rft.date=2012-01-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.influenceatwork.com%2Finside-influence-report%2Fhow-to-use-and-improve-actions-through-enhanced-defaults%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=104063298">Why We Spend Coins Faster Than Bills</a> by Chana Joffe-Walt. All Things Considered, 12 May 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHseeZhang2004" class="citation journal cs1">Hsee CK, Zhang J (May 2004). "Distinction bias: misprediction and mischoice due to joint evaluation". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 86 (5): 680–695. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.484.9171">10.1.1.484.9171</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.86.5.680">10.1037/0022-3514.86.5.680</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15161394">15161394</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Distinction+bias%3A+misprediction+and+mischoice+due+to+joint+evaluation&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=680-695&rft.date=2004-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.484.9171%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15161394&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0022-3514.86.5.680&rft.aulast=Hsee&rft.aufirst=CK&rft.au=Zhang%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikeHazzan2022" class="citation journal cs1">Mike K, Hazzan O (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9941067">"What Is Common to Transportation and Health in Machine Learning Education? The Domain Neglect Bias"</a>. IEEE Transactions on Education. 66 (3): 226–233. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTE.2022.3218013">10.1109/TE.2022.3218013</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-9359">0018-9359</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:253402007">253402007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Education&rft.atitle=What+Is+Common+to+Transportation+and+Health+in+Machine+Learning+Education%3F+The+Domain+Neglect+Bias&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=226-233&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A253402007%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0018-9359&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FTE.2022.3218013&rft.aulast=Mike&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Hazzan%2C+O&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F9941067&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBinah-PollakHazzanMikeHacohen2024" class="citation journal cs1">Binah-Pollak, Avital; Hazzan, Orit; Mike, Koby; Hacohen, Ronit Lis (2024-01-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12444-7">"Anthropological thinking in data science education: Thinking within context"</a>. Education and Information Technologies. 29 (11): 14245–14260. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10639-023-12444-7">10.1007/s10639-023-12444-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-7608">1573-7608</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Education+and+Information+Technologies&rft.atitle=Anthropological+thinking+in+data+science+education%3A+Thinking+within+context&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=14245-14260&rft.date=2024-01-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10639-023-12444-7&rft.issn=1573-7608&rft.aulast=Binah-Pollak&rft.aufirst=Avital&rft.au=Hazzan%2C+Orit&rft.au=Mike%2C+Koby&rft.au=Hacohen%2C+Ronit+Lis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs10639-023-12444-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brilliant.org/wiki/berksons-paradox/">"Berkson's Paradox | Brilliant Math & Science Wiki"</a>. brilliant.org. Retrieved 2018-10-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=brilliant.org&rft.atitle=Berkson%27s+Paradox+%7C+Brilliant+Math+%26+Science+Wiki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrilliant.org%2Fwiki%2Fberksons-paradox%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKristalSantos" class="citation cs2">Kristal AS, Santos LR, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hbs.edu/ris/Publication%20Files/21-084_436ebba8-c832-4922-bb6e-49d000a77df3.pdf">G.I. Joe Phenomena: Understanding the Limits of Metacognitive Awareness on Debiasing</a> (PDF), Harvard Business School</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=G.I.+Joe+Phenomena%3A+Understanding+the+Limits+of+Metacognitive+Awareness+on+Debiasing&rft.pub=Harvard+Business+School&rft.aulast=Kristal&rft.aufirst=AS&rft.au=Santos%2C+LR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hbs.edu%2Fris%2FPublication%2520Files%2F21-084_436ebba8-c832-4922-bb6e-49d000a77df3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInvestopedia_Staff2006" class="citation news cs1">Investopedia Staff (2006-10-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/g/gamblersfallacy.asp">"Gambler's Fallacy/Monte Carlo Fallacy"</a>. Investopedia. Retrieved 2018-10-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Investopedia&rft.atitle=Gambler%27s+Fallacy%2FMonte+Carlo+Fallacy&rft.date=2006-10-29&rft.au=Investopedia+Staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.investopedia.com%2Fterms%2Fg%2Fgamblersfallacy.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuccio2011" class="citation journal cs1">Tuccio W (2011-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15394%2Fjaaer.2011.1640">"Heuristics to Improve Human Factors Performance in Aviation"</a>. Journal of Aviation/Aerospace Education & Research. 20 (3). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15394%2Fjaaer.2011.1640">10.15394/jaaer.2011.1640</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2329-258X">2329-258X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Aviation%2FAerospace+Education+%26+Research&rft.atitle=Heuristics+to+Improve+Human+Factors+Performance+in+Aviation&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2011-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15394%2Fjaaer.2011.1640&rft.issn=2329-258X&rft.aulast=Tuccio&rft.aufirst=W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.15394%252Fjaaer.2011.1640&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Baron, J. (in preparation). Thinking and Deciding, 4th edition. New York: Cambridge University Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaron1994">Baron 1994</a>, p. 372 </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_MezaDawson2018" class="citation ssrn cs1">de Meza D, Dawson C (January 24, 2018). "Wishful Thinking, Prudent Behavior: The Evolutionary Origin of Optimism, Loss Aversion and Disappointment Aversion". <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3108432">3108432</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+Research+Network&rft.atitle=Wishful+Thinking%2C+Prudent+Behavior%3A+The+Evolutionary+Origin+of+Optimism%2C+Loss+Aversion+and+Disappointment+Aversion&rft.date=2018-01-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D3108432%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=de+Meza&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Dawson%2C+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawsonJohnson2021" class="citation ssrn cs1">Dawson C, Johnson SG (8 April 2021). "Dread Aversion and Economic Preferences". <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3822640">3822640</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+Research+Network&rft.atitle=Dread+Aversion+and+Economic+Preferences&rft.date=2021-04-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D3822640%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Dawson&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Johnson%2C+SG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFKahnemanKnetschThaler1991">Kahneman, Knetsch & Thaler 1991</a>, p. 193) Richard Thaler coined the term "endowment effect." </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFKahnemanKnetschThaler1991">Kahneman, Knetsch & Thaler 1991</a>, p. 193) Daniel Kahneman, together with Amos Tversky, coined the term "loss aversion." </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHardman2009">Hardman 2009</a>, p. 137 </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKahnemanKnetschThaler1991">Kahneman, Knetsch & Thaler 1991</a>, p. 193 </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaron1994">Baron 1994</a>, p. 382 </li> <li id="cite_note-Unskilled_and_unaware_of_it:_how_di-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Unskilled_and_unaware_of_it:_how_di_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Unskilled_and_unaware_of_it:_how_di_78-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrugerDunning1999" class="citation journal cs1">Kruger J, Dunning D (December 1999). "Unskilled and unaware of it: how difficulties in recognizing one's own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 77 (6): 1121–1134. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.64.2655">10.1.1.64.2655</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.77.6.1121">10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1121</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10626367">10626367</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2109278">2109278</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Unskilled+and+unaware+of+it%3A+how+difficulties+in+recognizing+one%27s+own+incompetence+lead+to+inflated+self-assessments&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1121-1134&rft.date=1999-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.64.2655%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2109278%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10626367&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0022-3514.77.6.1121&rft.aulast=Kruger&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Dunning%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_BovenLoewensteinDunningNordgren2013" class="citation book cs1">Van Boven L, Loewenstein G, Dunning D, Nordgren LF (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160528200926/http://psych.colorado.edu/~vanboven/VanBoven/Publications_files/VanBovenAdvancesVol48.pdf">"Changing Places: A Dual Judgment Model of Empathy Gaps in Emotional Perspective Taking"</a> (PDF). In Zanna MP, Olson JM (eds.). Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. Vol. 48. Academic Press. pp. 117–171. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-407188-9.00003-X">10.1016/B978-0-12-407188-9.00003-X</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-407188-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-407188-9"><bdi>978-0-12-407188-9</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psych.colorado.edu/~vanboven/VanBoven/Publications_files/VanBovenAdvancesVol48.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2016-05-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Changing+Places%3A+A+Dual+Judgment+Model+of+Empathy+Gaps+in+Emotional+Perspective+Taking&rft.btitle=Advances+in+Experimental+Social+Psychology&rft.pages=117-171&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-12-407188-9.00003-X&rft.isbn=978-0-12-407188-9&rft.aulast=Van+Boven&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Loewenstein%2C+G&rft.au=Dunning%2C+D&rft.au=Nordgren%2C+LF&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsych.colorado.edu%2F~vanboven%2FVanBoven%2FPublications_files%2FVanBovenAdvancesVol48.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLichtensteinFischhoff1977" class="citation journal cs1">Lichtenstein S, Fischhoff B (1977). "Do those who know more also know more about how much they know?". Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. 20 (2): 159–183. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0030-5073%2877%2990001-0">10.1016/0030-5073(77)90001-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Organizational+Behavior+and+Human+Performance&rft.atitle=Do+those+who+know+more+also+know+more+about+how+much+they+know%3F&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=159-183&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0030-5073%2877%2990001-0&rft.aulast=Lichtenstein&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Fischhoff%2C+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerkle2009" class="citation journal cs1">Merkle EC (February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3758%2FPBR.16.1.204">"The disutility of the hard-easy effect in choice confidence"</a>. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 16 (1): 204–213. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3758%2FPBR.16.1.204">10.3758/PBR.16.1.204</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19145033">19145033</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychonomic+Bulletin+%26+Review&rft.atitle=The+disutility+of+the+hard-easy+effect+in+choice+confidence&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=204-213&rft.date=2009-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3758%2FPBR.16.1.204&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19145033&rft.aulast=Merkle&rft.aufirst=EC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3758%252FPBR.16.1.204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJuslinWinmanOlsson2000" class="citation journal cs1">Juslin P, Winman A, Olsson H (April 2000). "Naive empiricism and dogmatism in confidence research: a critical examination of the hard-easy effect". Psychological Review. 107 (2): 384–396. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-295x.107.2.384">10.1037/0033-295x.107.2.384</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10789203">10789203</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Review&rft.atitle=Naive+empiricism+and+dogmatism+in+confidence+research%3A+a+critical+examination+of+the+hard-easy+effect&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=384-396&rft.date=2000-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0033-295x.107.2.384&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10789203&rft.aulast=Juslin&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Winman%2C+A&rft.au=Olsson%2C+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edge2017-83"><a href="#cite_ref-Edge2017_83-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaytz2022" class="citation web cs1">Waytz A (26 January 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.edge.org/response-detail/27117">"2017 : What scientific term or concept ought to be more widely known?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Edge.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Edge.org">Edge.org</a>. Retrieved 26 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Edge.org&rft.atitle=2017+%3A+What+scientific+term+or+concept+ought+to+be+more+widely+known%3F&rft.date=2022-01-26&rft.aulast=Waytz&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.edge.org%2Fresponse-detail%2F27117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rozenblit2002-84">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rozenblit2002_84-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rozenblit2002_84-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRozenblitKeil2002" class="citation journal cs1">Rozenblit L, Keil F (September 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3062901">"The misunderstood limits of folk science: an illusion of explanatory depth"</a>. Cognitive Science. 26 (5). Wiley: 521–562. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15516709cog2605_1">10.1207/s15516709cog2605_1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3062901">3062901</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21442007">21442007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognitive+Science&rft.atitle=The+misunderstood+limits+of+folk+science%3A+an+illusion+of+explanatory+depth&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=521-562&rft.date=2002-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3062901%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21442007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1207%2Fs15516709cog2605_1&rft.aulast=Rozenblit&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Keil%2C+F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3062901&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mills2004-85"><a href="#cite_ref-Mills2004_85-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillsKeil2004" class="citation journal cs1">Mills CM, Keil FC (January 2004). "Knowing the limits of one's understanding: the development of an awareness of an illusion of explanatory depth". Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 87 (1). Elsevier BV: 1–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jecp.2003.09.003">10.1016/j.jecp.2003.09.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14698687">14698687</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Child+Psychology&rft.atitle=Knowing+the+limits+of+one%27s+understanding%3A+the+development+of+an+awareness+of+an+illusion+of+explanatory+depth&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-32&rft.date=2004-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jecp.2003.09.003&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14698687&rft.aulast=Mills&rft.aufirst=CM&rft.au=Keil%2C+FC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/imposter-syndrome">"Imposter Syndrome | Psychology Today"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Imposter+Syndrome+%26%23124%3B+Psychology+Today&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychologytoday.com%2Fus%2Fbasics%2Fimposter-syndrome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.apa.org/objectivity-illusion">"Objectivity illusion"</a>. APA Dictionary of Psychology. Washington, DC: <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a>. n.d. Retrieved 2022-01-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Objectivity+illusion&rft.btitle=APA+Dictionary+of+Psychology&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=American+Psychological+Association&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.apa.org%2Fobjectivity-illusion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlauerMuschNaumer2000" class="citation journal cs1">Klauer KC, Musch J, Naumer B (October 2000). "On belief bias in syllogistic reasoning". Psychological Review. 107 (4): 852–884. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-295X.107.4.852">10.1037/0033-295X.107.4.852</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11089409">11089409</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Review&rft.atitle=On+belief+bias+in+syllogistic+reasoning&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=852-884&rft.date=2000-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0033-295X.107.4.852&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11089409&rft.aulast=Klauer&rft.aufirst=KC&rft.au=Musch%2C+J&rft.au=Naumer%2C+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thedecisionlab.com/biases/action-bias/">"Why do we prefer doing something to doing nothing"</a>. The Decision Lab. 30 September 2021. Retrieved 30 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Decision+Lab&rft.atitle=Why+do+we+prefer+doing+something+to+doing+nothing&rft.date=2021-09-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthedecisionlab.com%2Fbiases%2Faction-bias%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPattZeckhauser2000" class="citation journal cs1">Patt A, Zeckhauser R (July 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FA%3A1026517309871">"Action Bias and Environmental Decisions"</a>. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty. 21: 45–72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1026517309871">10.1023/A:1026517309871</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154662174">154662174</a>. Retrieved 30 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Risk+and+Uncertainty&rft.atitle=Action+Bias+and+Environmental+Decisions&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=45-72&rft.date=2000-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1026517309871&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154662174%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Patt&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Zeckhauser%2C+R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1023%252FA%253A1026517309871&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGupta2021" class="citation news cs1">Gupta S (7 April 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/psychology-numbers-people-add-default-subtract-better">"People add by default even when subtraction makes more sense"</a>. Science News. Retrieved 10 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+News&rft.atitle=People+add+by+default+even+when+subtraction+makes+more+sense&rft.date=2021-04-07&rft.aulast=Gupta&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencenews.org%2Farticle%2Fpsychology-numbers-people-add-default-subtract-better&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamsConverseHalesKlotz2021" class="citation journal cs1">Adams GS, Converse BA, Hales AH, Klotz LE (April 2021). "People systematically overlook subtractive changes". Nature. 592 (7853): 258–261. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021Natur.592..258A">2021Natur.592..258A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-021-03380-y">10.1038/s41586-021-03380-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33828317">33828317</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233185662">233185662</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=People+systematically+overlook+subtractive+changes&rft.volume=592&rft.issue=7853&rft.pages=258-261&rft.date=2021-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-021-03380-y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A233185662%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33828317&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021Natur.592..258A&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=GS&rft.au=Converse%2C+BA&rft.au=Hales%2C+AH&rft.au=Klotz%2C+LE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAckerman2003" class="citation book cs1">Ackerman MS, ed. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sharingexpertise0000unse/page/7">Sharing expertise beyond knowledge management</a> (online ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sharingexpertise0000unse/page/7">7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-01195-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-01195-2"><bdi>978-0-262-01195-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sharing+expertise+beyond+knowledge+management&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=7&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-262-01195-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsharingexpertise0000unse%2Fpage%2F7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuartz" class="citation cs2">Quartz SR, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edge.org/response-detail/26669">The State Of The World Isn't Nearly As Bad As You Think</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edge_Foundation,_Inc." title="Edge Foundation, Inc.">Edge Foundation, Inc.</a>, retrieved 2016-02-17</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+State+Of+The+World+Isn%27t+Nearly+As+Bad+As+You+Think&rft.pub=Edge+Foundation%2C+Inc.&rft.aulast=Quartz&rft.aufirst=SR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fedge.org%2Fresponse-detail%2F26669&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuoidbachGilbertWilson2013" class="citation journal cs1">Quoidbach J, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Gilbert_(psychologist)" title="Daniel Gilbert (psychologist)">Gilbert DT</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Wilson" title="Timothy Wilson">Wilson TD</a> (January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130113214951/http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~dtg/Quoidbach%20et%20al%202013.pdf">"The end of history illusion"</a> (PDF). Science. 339 (6115): 96–98. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013Sci...339...96Q">2013Sci...339...96Q</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1229294">10.1126/science.1229294</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23288539">23288539</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39240210">39240210</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~dtg/Quoidbach%20et%20al%202013.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2013-01-13. <q>Young people, middle-aged people, and older people all believed they had changed a lot in the past but would change relatively little in the future.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+end+of+history+illusion&rft.volume=339&rft.issue=6115&rft.pages=96-98&rft.date=2013-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1229294&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A39240210%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23288539&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013Sci...339...96Q&rft.aulast=Quoidbach&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Gilbert%2C+DT&rft.au=Wilson%2C+TD&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wjh.harvard.edu%2F~dtg%2FQuoidbach%2520et%2520al%25202013.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaringWatanabeVelonakiTossell2018" class="citation journal cs1">Haring KS, Watanabe K, Velonaki M, Tossell CC, Finomore V (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTCDS.2018.2851569">"FFAB-The Form Function Attribution Bias in Human Robot Interaction"</a>. IEEE Transactions on Cognitive and Developmental Systems. 10 (4): 843–851. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTCDS.2018.2851569">10.1109/TCDS.2018.2851569</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54459747">54459747</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Cognitive+and+Developmental+Systems&rft.atitle=FFAB-The+Form+Function+Attribution+Bias+in+Human+Robot+Interaction&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=843-851&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FTCDS.2018.2851569&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A54459747%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Haring&rft.aufirst=KS&rft.au=Watanabe%2C+K&rft.au=Velonaki%2C+M&rft.au=Tossell%2C+CC&rft.au=Finomore%2C+V&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1109%252FTCDS.2018.2851569&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKara-Yakoubian2022" class="citation web cs1">Kara-Yakoubian M (2022-07-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.psypost.org/2022/07/psychologists-uncover-evidence-of-a-fundamental-pain-bias-63613">"Psychologists uncover evidence of a fundamental pain bias"</a>. PsyPost. Retrieved 2022-11-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PsyPost&rft.atitle=Psychologists+uncover+evidence+of+a+fundamental+pain+bias&rft.date=2022-07-29&rft.aulast=Kara-Yakoubian&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psypost.org%2F2022%2F07%2Fpsychologists-uncover-evidence-of-a-fundamental-pain-bias-63613&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrati2017" class="citation journal cs1">Prati A (2017). "Hedonic recall bias. Why you should not ask people how much they earn". Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization. 143: 78–97. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jebo.2017.09.002">10.1016/j.jebo.2017.09.002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Behavior+%26+Organization&rft.atitle=Hedonic+recall+bias.+Why+you+should+not+ask+people+how+much+they+earn&rft.volume=143&rft.pages=78-97&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jebo.2017.09.002&rft.aulast=Prati&rft.aufirst=A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hindsight-99"><a href="#cite_ref-hindsight_99-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPohl2004" class="citation book cs1">Pohl RF (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cognitiveillusio0000unse/page/363">"Hindsight Bias"</a>. In Pohl RF (ed.). Cognitive Illusions: A Handbook on Fallacies and Biases in Thinking, Judgement and Memory. Hove, UK: Psychology Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cognitiveillusio0000unse/page/363">363–378</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84169-351-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84169-351-4"><bdi>978-1-84169-351-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55124398">55124398</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hindsight+Bias&rft.btitle=Cognitive+Illusions%3A+A+Handbook+on+Fallacies+and+Biases+in+Thinking%2C+Judgement+and+Memory&rft.place=Hove%2C+UK&rft.pages=363-378&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55124398&rft.isbn=978-1-84169-351-4&rft.aulast=Pohl&rft.aufirst=RF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcognitiveillusio0000unse%2Fpage%2F363&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaron1994">Baron 1994</a>, pp. 258–259 </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDanzigerLevavAvnaim-Pesso2011" class="citation journal cs1">Danziger S, Levav J, Avnaim-Pesso L (April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3084045">"Extraneous factors in judicial decisions"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 108 (17): 6889–6892. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PNAS..108.6889D">2011PNAS..108.6889D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1018033108">10.1073/pnas.1018033108</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3084045">3084045</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21482790">21482790</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Extraneous+factors+in+judicial+decisions&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=17&rft.pages=6889-6892&rft.date=2011-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3084045%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21482790&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1018033108&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011PNAS..108.6889D&rft.aulast=Danziger&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Levav%2C+J&rft.au=Avnaim-Pesso%2C+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3084045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZamanDe_PeuterVan_DiestVan_den_Bergh2016" class="citation journal cs1">Zaman J, De Peuter S, Van Diest I, Van den Bergh O, Vlaeyen JW (November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/549865">"Interoceptive cues predicting exteroceptive events"</a>. International Journal of Psychophysiology. 109: 100–106. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijpsycho.2016.09.003">10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2016.09.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27616473">27616473</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Psychophysiology&rft.atitle=Interoceptive+cues+predicting+exteroceptive+events&rft.volume=109&rft.pages=100-106&rft.date=2016-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ijpsycho.2016.09.003&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27616473&rft.aulast=Zaman&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=De+Peuter%2C+S&rft.au=Van+Diest%2C+I&rft.au=Van+den+Bergh%2C+O&rft.au=Vlaeyen%2C+JW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flirias.kuleuven.be%2Fhandle%2F123456789%2F549865&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrettSimmons2015" class="citation journal cs1">Barrett LF, Simmons WK (July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4731102">"Interoceptive predictions in the brain"</a>. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 16 (7): 419–429. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn3950">10.1038/nrn3950</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4731102">4731102</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26016744">26016744</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Interoceptive+predictions+in+the+brain&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=419-429&rft.date=2015-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4731102%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26016744&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrn3950&rft.aulast=Barrett&rft.aufirst=LF&rft.au=Simmons%2C+WK&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4731102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDamasio1996" class="citation journal cs1">Damasio AR (October 1996). "The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of the prefrontal cortex". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 351 (1346): 1413–1420. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.1996.0125">10.1098/rstb.1996.0125</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8941953">8941953</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1841280">1841280</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+somatic+marker+hypothesis+and+the+possible+functions+of+the+prefrontal+cortex&rft.volume=351&rft.issue=1346&rft.pages=1413-1420&rft.date=1996-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1841280%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8941953&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.1996.0125&rft.aulast=Damasio&rft.aufirst=AR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBornsteinCrave-Lemley2004" class="citation book cs1">Bornstein RF, Crave-Lemley C (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cognitiveillusio0000unse/page/215">"Mere exposure effect"</a>. In Pohl RF (ed.). Cognitive Illusions: A Handbook on Fallacies and Biases in Thinking, Judgement and Memory. Hove, UK: Psychology Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cognitiveillusio0000unse/page/215">215–234</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84169-351-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84169-351-4"><bdi>978-1-84169-351-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55124398">55124398</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mere+exposure+effect&rft.btitle=Cognitive+Illusions%3A+A+Handbook+on+Fallacies+and+Biases+in+Thinking%2C+Judgement+and+Memory&rft.place=Hove%2C+UK&rft.pages=215-234&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55124398&rft.isbn=978-1-84169-351-4&rft.aulast=Bornstein&rft.aufirst=RF&rft.au=Crave-Lemley%2C+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcognitiveillusio0000unse%2Fpage%2F215&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShafirDiamondTversky2000" class="citation book cs1">Shafir E, Diamond P, Tversky A (2000). "Money Illusion". In Kahneman D, Tversky A (eds.). Choices, values, and frames. Cambridge University Press. pp. 335–355. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62749-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62749-8"><bdi>978-0-521-62749-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Money+Illusion&rft.btitle=Choices%2C+values%2C+and+frames&rft.pages=335-355&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62749-8&rft.aulast=Shafir&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Diamond%2C+P&rft.au=Tversky%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcattoCosulichFerrante2015" class="citation journal cs1">Marcatto F, Cosulich A, Ferrante D (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4476096">"Once bitten, twice shy: Experienced regret and non-adaptive choice switching"</a>. PeerJ. 3: e1035. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7717%2Fpeerj.1035">10.7717/peerj.1035</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4476096">4476096</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26157618">26157618</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PeerJ&rft.atitle=Once+bitten%2C+twice+shy%3A+Experienced+regret+and+non-adaptive+choice+switching&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=e1035&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4476096%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26157618&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7717%2Fpeerj.1035&rft.aulast=Marcatto&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Cosulich%2C+A&rft.au=Ferrante%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4476096&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaron1994">Baron 1994</a>, p. 386 </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaron1994">Baron 1994</a>, p. 44 </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHardman2009">Hardman 2009</a>, p. 104 </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'DonoghueRabin1999" class="citation journal cs1">O'Donoghue T, Rabin M (1999). "Doing it now or later". American Economic Review. 89 (1): 103–124. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Faer.89.1.103">10.1257/aer.89.1.103</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5115877">5115877</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Economic+Review&rft.atitle=Doing+it+now+or+later&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=103-124&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2Faer.89.1.103&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5115877%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=O%27Donoghue&rft.aufirst=T&rft.au=Rabin%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalasMomsen2014" class="citation journal cs1">Balas B, Momsen JL (September 2014). Holt EA (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4152205">"Attention "blinks" differently for plants and animals"</a>. CBE: Life Sciences Education. 13 (3): 437–443. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1187%2Fcbe.14-05-0080">10.1187/cbe.14-05-0080</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4152205">4152205</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25185227">25185227</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CBE%3A+Life+Sciences+Education&rft.atitle=Attention+%22blinks%22+differently+for+plants+and+animals&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=437-443&rft.date=2014-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4152205%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25185227&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1187%2Fcbe.14-05-0080&rft.aulast=Balas&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Momsen%2C+JL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4152205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSafiBrowneNaini2021" class="citation journal cs1">Safi R, Browne GJ, Naini AJ (2021). "Mis-spending on information security measures: Theory and experimental evidence". International Journal of Information Management. 57 (102291): 102291. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijinfomgt.2020.102291">10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2020.102291</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232041220">232041220</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Information+Management&rft.atitle=Mis-spending+on+information+security+measures%3A+Theory+and+experimental+evidence.&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=102291&rft.pages=102291&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ijinfomgt.2020.102291&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A232041220%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Safi&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Browne%2C+GJ&rft.au=Naini%2C+AJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHseeHastie2006" class="citation journal cs1">Hsee CK, Hastie R (January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://maelko.typepad.com/DecisionAndExperience.pdf">"Decision and experience: why don't we choose what makes us happy?"</a> (PDF). Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 10 (1): 31–37. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.178.7054">10.1.1.178.7054</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tics.2005.11.007">10.1016/j.tics.2005.11.007</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16318925">16318925</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12262319">12262319</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150420205315/http://maelko.typepad.com/DecisionAndExperience.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2015-04-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Cognitive+Sciences&rft.atitle=Decision+and+experience%3A+why+don%27t+we+choose+what+makes+us+happy%3F&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=31-37&rft.date=2006-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.178.7054%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12262319%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16318925&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tics.2005.11.007&rft.aulast=Hsee&rft.aufirst=CK&rft.au=Hastie%2C+R&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmaelko.typepad.com%2FDecisionAndExperience.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrofimova1999" class="citation journal cs1">Trofimova I (October 1999). "An investigation of how people of different age, sex, and temperament estimate the world". Psychological Reports. 85 (2): 533–552. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2466%2Fpr0.1999.85.2.533">10.2466/pr0.1999.85.2.533</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10611787">10611787</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8335544">8335544</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Reports&rft.atitle=An+investigation+of+how+people+of+different+age%2C+sex%2C+and+temperament+estimate+the+world&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=533-552&rft.date=1999-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8335544%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10611787&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2466%2Fpr0.1999.85.2.533&rft.aulast=Trofimova&rft.aufirst=I&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TroPLoS-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TroPLoS_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TroPLoS_116-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TroPLoS_116-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrofimova2014" class="citation journal cs1">Trofimova I (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3903487">"Observer bias: an interaction of temperament traits with biases in the semantic perception of lexical material"</a>. PLOS ONE. 9 (1): e85677. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PLoSO...985677T">2014PLoSO...985677T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0085677">10.1371/journal.pone.0085677</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3903487">3903487</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24475048">24475048</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Observer+bias%3A+an+interaction+of+temperament+traits+with+biases+in+the+semantic+perception+of+lexical+material&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=e85677&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3903487%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24475048&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0085677&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PLoSO...985677T&rft.aulast=Trofimova&rft.aufirst=I&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3903487&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-leman2007-117"><a href="#cite_ref-leman2007_117-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemanCinnirella2007" class="citation journal cs1">Leman PJ, Cinnirella M (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pure.royalholloway.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/a-major-event-has-a-major-cause-evidence-for-the-role-of-heuristics-in-reasoning-about-conspiracy-theories(2ad8342b-f5ca-4791-b988-ae70fbfdb4b3).html">"A major event has a major cause: Evidence for the role of heuristics in reasoning about conspiracy theories"</a>. Social Psychological Review. 9 (2): 18–28. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.53841%2Fbpsspr.2007.9.2.18">10.53841/bpsspr.2007.9.2.18</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245126866">245126866</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Psychological+Review&rft.atitle=A+major+event+has+a+major+cause%3A+Evidence+for+the+role+of+heuristics+in+reasoning+about+conspiracy+theories&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=18-28&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.53841%2Fbpsspr.2007.9.2.18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A245126866%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Leman&rft.aufirst=PJ&rft.au=Cinnirella%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpure.royalholloway.ac.uk%2Fportal%2Fen%2Fpublications%2Fa-major-event-has-a-major-cause-evidence-for-the-role-of-heuristics-in-reasoning-about-conspiracy-theories%282ad8342b-f5ca-4791-b988-ae70fbfdb4b3%29.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-buckley2015-118"><a href="#cite_ref-buckley2015_118-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuckley2015" class="citation journal cs1">Buckley T (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-do-some-people-believe-in-conspiracy-theories/">"Why Do Some People Believe in Conspiracy Theories?"</a>. Scientific American Mind. 26 (4): 72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamericanmind0715-72a">10.1038/scientificamericanmind0715-72a</a>. Retrieved 26 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American+Mind&rft.atitle=Why+Do+Some+People+Believe+in+Conspiracy+Theories%3F&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=72&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamericanmind0715-72a&rft.aulast=Buckley&rft.aufirst=T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fwhy-do-some-people-believe-in-conspiracy-theories%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201024151714/https://www.imcusa.org/blogpost/334056/136102/721-Use-Cognitive-Biases-to-Your-Advantage#:~:text=Recency%20Bias%20%2D%20giving%20greater%20importance,made%20has%20a%20slight%20advantage)">"Use Cognitive Biases to Your Advantage, Institute for Management Consultants, #721, December 19, 2011"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imcusa.org/blogpost/334056/136102/721-Use-Cognitive-Biases-to-Your-Advantage#:~:text=Recency%20Bias%20%2D%20giving%20greater%20importance,made%20has%20a%20slight%20advantage)">the original</a> on October 24, 2020. Retrieved April 15, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Use+Cognitive+Biases+to+Your+Advantage%2C+Institute+for+Management+Consultants%2C+%23721%2C+December+19%2C+2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imcusa.org%2Fblogpost%2F334056%2F136102%2F721-Use-Cognitive-Biases-to-Your-Advantage%23%3A~%3Atext%3DRecency%2520Bias%2520%252D%2520giving%2520greater%2520importance%2Cmade%2520has%2520a%2520slight%2520advantage%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiedlerUnkelbach2014" class="citation journal cs1">Fiedler K, Unkelbach C (2014-10-01). "Regressive Judgment: Implications of a Universal Property of the Empirical World". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 23 (5): 361–367. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0963721414546330">10.1177/0963721414546330</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0963-7214">0963-7214</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146376950">146376950</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Directions+in+Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=Regressive+Judgment%3A+Implications+of+a+Universal+Property+of+the+Empirical+World&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=361-367&rft.date=2014-10-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146376950%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0963-7214&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0963721414546330&rft.aulast=Fiedler&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Unkelbach%2C+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelemenRottmanSeston2013" class="citation journal cs1">Kelemen D, Rottman J, Seston R (2013). "Professional Physical Scientists Display Tenacious Teleological Tendencies: Purpose-Based Reasoning as a Cognitive Default". Journal of Experimental Psychology:General. 142 (4): 1074–1083. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0030399">10.1037/a0030399</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23067062">23067062</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Psychology%3AGeneral&rft.atitle=Professional+Physical+Scientists+Display+Tenacious+Teleological+Tendencies%3A+Purpose-Based+Reasoning+as+a+Cognitive+Default&rft.volume=142&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1074-1083&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fa0030399&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23067062&rft.aulast=Kelemen&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Rottman%2C+J&rft.au=Seston%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelemenRosset2009" class="citation journal cs1">Kelemen D, Rosset E (2009). "The Human Function Compunction: teleological explanation in adults". Cognition. 111 (1): 138–143. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cognition.2009.01.001">10.1016/j.cognition.2009.01.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19200537">19200537</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2569743">2569743</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognition&rft.atitle=The+Human+Function+Compunction%3A+teleological+explanation+in+adults&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=138-143&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2569743%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19200537&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cognition.2009.01.001&rft.aulast=Kelemen&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Rosset%2C+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/11/051121163748.htm">"Penn Psychologists Believe 'Unit Bias' Determines The Acceptable Amount To Eat"</a>. ScienceDaily (November 21, 2005) </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTalboySchneider2022" class="citation journal cs1">Talboy A, Schneider S (2022-03-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8970303">"Reference Dependence in Bayesian Reasoning: Value Selection Bias, Congruence Effects, and Response Prompt Sensitivity"</a>. Frontiers in Psychology. 13: 729285. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2022.729285">10.3389/fpsyg.2022.729285</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8970303">8970303</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35369253">35369253</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychology&rft.atitle=Reference+Dependence+in+Bayesian+Reasoning%3A+Value+Selection+Bias%2C+Congruence+Effects%2C+and+Response+Prompt+Sensitivity&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=729285&rft.date=2022-03-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8970303%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35369253&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2022.729285&rft.aulast=Talboy&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Schneider%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8970303&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTalboySchneider2018" class="citation journal cs1">Talboy AN, Schneider SL (December 2018). "Focusing on what matters: Restructuring the presentation of Bayesian reasoning problems". Journal of Experimental Psychology. Applied. 24 (4): 440–458. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fxap0000187">10.1037/xap0000187</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30299128">30299128</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52943395">52943395</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Psychology.+Applied&rft.atitle=Focusing+on+what+matters%3A+Restructuring+the+presentation+of+Bayesian+reasoning+problems&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=440-458&rft.date=2018-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A52943395%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30299128&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fxap0000187&rft.aulast=Talboy&rft.aufirst=AN&rft.au=Schneider%2C+SL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilgram1963" class="citation journal cs1">Milgram S (October 1963). "Behavioral Study of Obedience". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 67 (4): 371–378. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0040525">10.1037/h0040525</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14049516">14049516</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18309531">18309531</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Abnormal+Psychology&rft.atitle=Behavioral+Study+of+Obedience&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=371-378&rft.date=1963-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18309531%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14049516&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0040525&rft.aulast=Milgram&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalkerVul2014" class="citation journal cs1">Walker D, Vul E (January 2014). "Hierarchical encoding makes individuals in a group seem more attractive". Psychological Science. 25 (1): 230–235. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0956797613497969">10.1177/0956797613497969</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24163333">24163333</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16309135">16309135</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=Hierarchical+encoding+makes+individuals+in+a+group+seem+more+attractive&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=230-235&rft.date=2014-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16309135%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24163333&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0956797613497969&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Vul%2C+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaron1994">Baron 1994</a>, p. 275 </li> <li id="cite_note-Sutherland_2007_138–139-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sutherland_2007_138–139_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sutherland_2007_138–139_129-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSutherland2007">Sutherland 2007</a>, pp. 138–139 </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonGraham2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Anderson KB, Graham LM (2007). "Hostile Attribution Bias". Encyclopedia of Social Psychology. Sage Publications, Inc. pp. 446–447. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412956253">10.4135/9781412956253</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-1670-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-1670-7"><bdi>978-1-4129-1670-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hostile+Attribution+Bias&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Social+Psychology&rft.pages=446-447&rft.pub=Sage+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412956253&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-1670-7&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=KB&rft.au=Graham%2C+LM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosset2008" class="citation journal cs1">Rosset E (2008-09-01). "It's no accident: Our bias for intentional explanations". Cognition. 108 (3): 771–780. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cognition.2008.07.001">10.1016/j.cognition.2008.07.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0010-0277">0010-0277</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18692779">18692779</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16559459">16559459</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognition&rft.atitle=It%27s+no+accident%3A+Our+bias+for+intentional+explanations&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=771-780&rft.date=2008-09-01&rft.issn=0010-0277&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16559459%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18692779&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cognition.2008.07.001&rft.aulast=Rosset&rft.aufirst=E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKokkoris2020" class="citation journal cs1">Kokkoris M (2020-01-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hbr.org/2020/01/the-dark-side-of-self-control">"The Dark Side of Self-Control"</a>. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Business+Review&rft.atitle=The+Dark+Side+of+Self-Control&rft.date=2020-01-16&rft.aulast=Kokkoris&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhbr.org%2F2020%2F01%2Fthe-dark-side-of-self-control&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlous1993">Plous 1993</a>, p. 185 </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuranSunstein1998" class="citation journal cs1">Kuran T, Sunstein CR (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1036&context=public_law_and_legal_theory">"Availability Cascades and Risk Regulation"</a>. Stanford Law Review. 51 (4): 683–768. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1229439">10.2307/1229439</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1229439">1229439</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3941373">3941373</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Availability+Cascades+and+Risk+Regulation&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=683-768&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3941373%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1229439%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1229439&rft.aulast=Kuran&rft.aufirst=T&rft.au=Sunstein%2C+CR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchicagounbound.uchicago.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1036%26context%3Dpublic_law_and_legal_theory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColman2003" class="citation book cs1">Colman A (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofpsyc00colm_0/page/77">Oxford Dictionary of Psychology</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofpsyc00colm_0/page/77">77</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280632-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280632-1"><bdi>978-0-19-280632-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+Psychology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280632-1&rft.aulast=Colman&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdictionaryofpsyc00colm_0%2Fpage%2F77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCiccarelliWhite2014" class="citation book cs1">Ciccarelli S, White J (2014). Psychology (4th ed.). Pearson Education, Inc. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-97335-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-97335-4"><bdi>978-0-205-97335-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology&rft.pages=62&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Pearson+Education%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-205-97335-4&rft.aulast=Ciccarelli&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=White%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaltonOrtegren2011" class="citation journal cs1">Dalton D, Ortegren M (2011). "Gender differences in ethics research: The importance of controlling for the social desirability response bias". Journal of Business Ethics. 103 (1): 73–93. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10551-011-0843-8">10.1007/s10551-011-0843-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144155599">144155599</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Business+Ethics&rft.atitle=Gender+differences+in+ethics+research%3A+The+importance+of+controlling+for+the+social+desirability+response+bias&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=73-93&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10551-011-0843-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144155599%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dalton&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Ortegren%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCornackParks1986" class="citation journal cs1">McCornack S, Parks M (1986). "Deception Detection and Relationship Development: The Other Side of Trust". <a href="/wiki/Annals_of_the_International_Communication_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Annals of the International Communication Association">Annals of the International Communication Association</a>. 9: 377–389. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F23808985.1986.11678616">10.1080/23808985.1986.11678616</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+International+Communication+Association&rft.atitle=Deception+Detection+and+Relationship+Development%3A+The+Other+Side+of+Trust&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=377-389&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F23808985.1986.11678616&rft.aulast=McCornack&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Parks%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-139"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_139-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevine2014" class="citation journal cs1">Levine T (2014). "Truth-Default Theory (TDT): A Theory of Human Deception and Deception Detection". Journal of Language and Social Psychology. 33: 378–392. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0261927X14535916">10.1177/0261927X14535916</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146916525">146916525</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Language+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Truth-Default+Theory+%28TDT%29%3A+A+Theory+of+Human+Deception+and+Deception+Detection&rft.volume=33&rft.pages=378-392&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0261927X14535916&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146916525%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Levine&rft.aufirst=T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlous1993">Plous 1993</a>, p. 206 </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.apa.org/assumed-similarity-bias">"Assumed similarity bias"</a>. APA Dictionary of Psychology. Washington, DC: <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a>. n.d. Retrieved 2022-01-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Assumed+similarity+bias&rft.btitle=APA+Dictionary+of+Psychology&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=American+Psychological+Association&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.apa.org%2Fassumed-similarity-bias&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv13qfw6w.6">"Intellectual Precursors, Major Postulates, and Practical Relevance of System Justification Theory"</a>, A Theory of System Justification, Harvard University Press, pp. 49–69, 2020-07-14, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv13qfw6w.6">10.2307/j.ctv13qfw6w.6</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:243130432">243130432</a>, retrieved 2023-12-05</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=A+Theory+of+System+Justification&rft.atitle=Intellectual+Precursors%2C+Major+Postulates%2C+and+Practical+Relevance+of+System+Justification+Theory&rft.pages=49-69&rft.date=2020-07-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv13qfw6w.6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A243130432%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv13qfw6w.6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarciaSongTesser2010" class="citation journal cs1">Garcia SM, Song H, Tesser A (November 2010). "Tainted recommendations: The social comparison bias". Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. 113 (2): 97–101. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.obhdp.2010.06.002">10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.06.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0749-5978">0749-5978</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Organizational+Behavior+and+Human+Decision+Processes&rft.atitle=Tainted+recommendations%3A+The+social+comparison+bias&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=97-101&rft.date=2010-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.obhdp.2010.06.002&rft.issn=0749-5978&rft.aulast=Garcia&rft.aufirst=SM&rft.au=Song%2C+H&rft.au=Tesser%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bps-research-digest.blogspot.com/2010/10/social-comparison-bias-or-why-we.html">"The Social Comparison Bias – or why we recommend new candidates who don't compete with our own strengths"</a>. BPS Research Digest. 2010-10-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BPS+Research+Digest&rft.atitle=The+Social+Comparison+Bias+%E2%80%93+or+why+we+recommend+new+candidates+who+don%27t+compete+with+our+own+strengths&rft.date=2010-10-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbps-research-digest.blogspot.com%2F2010%2F10%2Fsocial-comparison-bias-or-why-we.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-F-144"><a href="#cite_ref-F_144-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForsyth2009" class="citation book cs1">Forsyth DR (2009). Group Dynamics (5th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Group+Dynamics&rft.place=Pacific+Grove%2C+CA&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Brooks%2FCole&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Forsyth&rft.aufirst=DR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kruger,_J._1999-145"><a href="#cite_ref-Kruger,_J._1999_145-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKruger1999" class="citation journal cs1">Kruger J (August 1999). "Lake Wobegon be gone! The "below-average effect" and the egocentric nature of comparative ability judgments". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 77 (2): 221–232. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.77.2.221">10.1037/0022-3514.77.2.221</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10474208">10474208</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=Lake+Wobegon+be+gone%21+The+%22below-average+effect%22+and+the+egocentric+nature+of+comparative+ability+judgments&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=221-232&rft.date=1999-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0022-3514.77.2.221&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10474208&rft.aulast=Kruger&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Misattribution_of_memory_Payne-146"><a href="#cite_ref-Misattribution_of_memory_Payne_146-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayneChengGovorunStewart2005" class="citation journal cs1">Payne BK, Cheng CM, Govorun O, Stewart BD (September 2005). "An inkblot for attitudes: affect misattribution as implicit measurement". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 89 (3): 277–293. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.392.4775">10.1.1.392.4775</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.89.3.277">10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.277</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16248714">16248714</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=An+inkblot+for+attitudes%3A+affect+misattribution+as+implicit+measurement&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=277-293&rft.date=2005-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.392.4775%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16248714&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0022-3514.89.3.277&rft.aulast=Payne&rft.aufirst=BK&rft.au=Cheng%2C+CM&rft.au=Govorun%2C+O&rft.au=Stewart%2C+BD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Misattribution_of_memory_Schacter-147"><a href="#cite_ref-Misattribution_of_memory_Schacter_147-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchacter2001" class="citation book cs1">Schacter DL (2001). The Seven Sins of Memory. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Seven+Sins+of+Memory&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Company&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Schacter&rft.aufirst=DL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-schacter-148">^ <a href="#cite_ref-schacter_148-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-schacter_148-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchacter1999" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Schacter" title="Daniel Schacter">Schacter, Daniel Lawrence</a> (March 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://semanticscholar.org/paper/379468e541ac77a984ef5bf8c69d70a4824473e5">"The Seven Sins of Memory: Insights from psychology and cognitive neuroscience"</a>. The American Psychologist. 54 (3): 182–203. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066X.54.3.182">10.1037/0003-066X.54.3.182</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10199218">10199218</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14882268">14882268</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=The+Seven+Sins+of+Memory%3A+Insights+from+psychology+and+cognitive+neuroscience.&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=182-203&rft.date=1999-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14882268%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10199218&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0003-066X.54.3.182&rft.aulast=Schacter&rft.aufirst=Daniel+Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsemanticscholar.org%2Fpaper%2F379468e541ac77a984ef5bf8c69d70a4824473e5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Butera_2018-149"><a href="#cite_ref-Butera_2018_149-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButeraLevineVernet2009" class="citation book cs1">Butera F, Levine JM, Vernet J (August 2009). "Influence without credit: How successful minorities respond to social cryptomnesia". Coping with Minority Status. Cambridge University Press. pp. 311–332. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511804465.015">10.1017/cbo9780511804465.015</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-80446-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-80446-5"><bdi>978-0-511-80446-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Influence+without+credit%3A+How+successful+minorities+respond+to+social+cryptomnesia&rft.btitle=Coping+with+Minority+Status&rft.pages=311-332&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511804465.015&rft.isbn=978-0-511-80446-5&rft.aulast=Butera&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Levine%2C+JM&rft.au=Vernet%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lieberman2011-150"><a href="#cite_ref-Lieberman2011_150-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLieberman2011" class="citation book cs1">Lieberman DA (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mJsV-Vr8Q6sC&pg=PA432">Human Learning and Memory</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 432. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-50253-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-50253-5"><bdi>978-1-139-50253-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Learning+and+Memory&rft.pages=432&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-139-50253-5&rft.aulast=Lieberman&rft.aufirst=DA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmJsV-Vr8Q6sC%26pg%3DPA432&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDunnSiddiquiBrown2014" class="citation journal cs1">McDunn BA, Siddiqui AP, Brown JM (April 2014). "Seeking the boundary of boundary extension". Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 21 (2): 370–375. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3758%2Fs13423-013-0494-0">10.3758/s13423-013-0494-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23921509">23921509</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2876131">2876131</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychonomic+Bulletin+%26+Review&rft.atitle=Seeking+the+boundary+of+boundary+extension&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=370-375&rft.date=2014-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2876131%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23921509&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3758%2Fs13423-013-0494-0&rft.aulast=McDunn&rft.aufirst=BA&rft.au=Siddiqui%2C+AP&rft.au=Brown%2C+JM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatherShafirJohnson2000" class="citation journal cs1">Mather M, Shafir E, Johnson MK (March 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.matherlab.com/s/Matheretal2000.pdf">"Misremembrance of options past: source monitoring and choice"</a> (PDF). Psychological Science. 11 (2): 132–138. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-9280.00228">10.1111/1467-9280.00228</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11273420">11273420</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2468289">2468289</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090117084058/http://www.usc.edu/projects/matherlab/pdfs/Matheretal2000.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2009-01-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=Misremembrance+of+options+past%3A+source+monitoring+and+choice&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=132-138&rft.date=2000-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2468289%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11273420&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-9280.00228&rft.aulast=Mather&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Shafir%2C+E&rft.au=Johnson%2C+MK&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.matherlab.com%2Fs%2FMatheretal2000.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-153"><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_153-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAttneave1953" class="citation journal cs1">Attneave F (August 1953). "Psychological probability as a function of experienced frequency". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 46 (2): 81–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0057955">10.1037/h0057955</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13084849">13084849</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Psychology&rft.atitle=Psychological+probability+as+a+function+of+experienced+frequency&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=81-86&rft.date=1953-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0057955&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13084849&rft.aulast=Attneave&rft.aufirst=F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Experimental_Psychology_1523-154"><a href="#cite_ref-Experimental_Psychology_1523_154-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFischhoffSlovicLichtenstein1977" class="citation journal cs1">Fischhoff B, Slovic P, Lichtenstein S (1977). "Knowing with certainty: The appropriateness of extreme confidence". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 3 (4): 552–564. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0096-1523.3.4.552">10.1037/0096-1523.3.4.552</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54888532">54888532</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Psychology%3A+Human+Perception+and+Performance&rft.atitle=Knowing+with+certainty%3A+The+appropriateness+of+extreme+confidence&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=552-564&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0096-1523.3.4.552&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A54888532%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Fischhoff&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Slovic%2C+P&rft.au=Lichtenstein%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCacioppo2002" class="citation book cs1">Cacioppo J (2002). Foundations in social neuroscience. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 130–132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53195-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53195-5"><bdi>978-0-262-53195-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+in+social+neuroscience&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=130-132&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-262-53195-5&rft.aulast=Cacioppo&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCacciatore2021" class="citation journal cs1">Cacciatore MA (April 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8053916">"Misinformation and public opinion of science and health: Approaches, findings, and future directions"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 118 (15): e1912437117. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021PNAS..11812437C">2021PNAS..11812437C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1912437117">10.1073/pnas.1912437117</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8053916">8053916</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33837143">33837143</a>. p. 4: <q>The CIE refers to the tendency for information that is initially presented as true, but later revealed to be false, to continue to affect memory and reasoning</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Misinformation+and+public+opinion+of+science+and+health%3A+Approaches%2C+findings%2C+and+future+directions&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=e1912437117&rft.date=2021-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8053916%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33837143&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1912437117&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021PNAS..11812437C&rft.aulast=Cacciatore&rft.aufirst=MA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8053916&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt1994" class="citation journal cs1">Schmidt SR (July 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160315061220/http://facstaff.uww.edu/eamond/road/Research/GenderJokes(DK1)/References%20and%20info/Effects%20of%20Humor%20on%20Sentence%20Memory.pdf">"Effects of humor on sentence memory"</a> (PDF). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 20 (4): 953–967. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0278-7393.20.4.953">10.1037/0278-7393.20.4.953</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8064254">8064254</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://facstaff.uww.edu/eamond/road/Research/GenderJokes%28DK1%29/References%20and%20info/Effects%20of%20Humor%20on%20Sentence%20Memory.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2016-03-15. Retrieved 2015-04-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Psychology%3A+Learning%2C+Memory%2C+and+Cognition&rft.atitle=Effects+of+humor+on+sentence+memory&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=953-967&rft.date=1994-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0278-7393.20.4.953&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8064254&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=SR&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffacstaff.uww.edu%2Feamond%2Froad%2FResearch%2FGenderJokes%2528DK1%2529%2FReferences%2520and%2520info%2FEffects%2520of%2520Humor%2520on%2520Sentence%2520Memory.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt2003" class="citation journal cs1">Schmidt SR (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.niu.edu/jskowronski/publications/WalkerSkowronskiThompson2003.pdf">"Life Is Pleasant – and Memory Helps to Keep It That Way!"</a> (PDF). Review of General Psychology. 7 (2): 203–210. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F1089-2680.7.2.203">10.1037/1089-2680.7.2.203</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43179740">43179740</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+General+Psychology&rft.atitle=Life+Is+Pleasant+%E2%80%93+and+Memory+Helps+to+Keep+It+That+Way%21&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=203-210&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F1089-2680.7.2.203&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43179740%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=SR&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.niu.edu%2Fjskowronski%2Fpublications%2FWalkerSkowronskiThompson2003.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiedler1991" class="citation journal cs1">Fiedler K (1991). "The tricky nature of skewed frequency tables: An information loss account of distinctiveness-based illusory correlations". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 60 (1): 24–36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.60.1.24">10.1037/0022-3514.60.1.24</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+and+Social+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+tricky+nature+of+skewed+frequency+tables%3A+An+information+loss+account+of+distinctiveness-based+illusory+correlations&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=24-36&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0022-3514.60.1.24&rft.aulast=Fiedler&rft.aufirst=K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoriatGoldsmithPansky2000" class="citation journal cs1">Koriat A, Goldsmith M, Pansky A (2000). "Toward a psychology of memory accuracy". <a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Psychology" title="Annual Review of Psychology">Annual Review of Psychology</a>. 51 (1): 481–537. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.psych.51.1.481">10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.481</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10751979">10751979</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Toward+a+psychology+of+memory+accuracy&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=481-537&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.psych.51.1.481&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10751979&rft.aulast=Koriat&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Goldsmith%2C+M&rft.au=Pansky%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> Craik & Lockhart, 1972 </li> <li id="cite_note-memcog-162"><a href="#cite_ref-memcog_162-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinnellDennis2011" class="citation journal cs1">Kinnell A, Dennis S (February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3758%2Fs13421-010-0007-6">"The list length effect in recognition memory: an analysis of potential confounds"</a>. Memory & Cognition. 39 (2): 348–63. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3758%2Fs13421-010-0007-6">10.3758/s13421-010-0007-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21264573">21264573</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memory+%26+Cognition&rft.atitle=The+list+length+effect+in+recognition+memory%3A+an+analysis+of+potential+confounds&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=348-63&rft.date=2011-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3758%2Fs13421-010-0007-6&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21264573&rft.aulast=Kinnell&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Dennis%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3758%252Fs13421-010-0007-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiten2010" class="citation book cs1">Weiten W (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sILajOhJpOsC&pg=PA338">Psychology: Themes and Variations</a>. Cengage Learning. p. 338. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-60197-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-60197-5"><bdi>978-0-495-60197-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology%3A+Themes+and+Variations&rft.pages=338&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-495-60197-5&rft.aulast=Weiten&rft.aufirst=W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsILajOhJpOsC%26pg%3DPA338&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haizlip-164"><a href="#cite_ref-Haizlip_164-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaizlipMaySchorlingWilliams2012" class="citation journal cs1">Haizlip J, May N, Schorling J, Williams A, Plews-Ogan M (September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FACM.0b013e3182628f03">"Perspective: the negativity bias, medical education, and the culture of academic medicine: why culture change is hard"</a>. Academic Medicine. 87 (9): 1205–1209. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FACM.0b013e3182628f03">10.1097/ACM.0b013e3182628f03</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22836850">22836850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Academic+Medicine&rft.atitle=Perspective%3A+the+negativity+bias%2C+medical+education%2C+and+the+culture+of+academic+medicine%3A+why+culture+change+is+hard&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1205-1209&rft.date=2012-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2FACM.0b013e3182628f03&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22836850&rft.aulast=Haizlip&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=May%2C+N&rft.au=Schorling%2C+J&rft.au=Williams%2C+A&rft.au=Plews-Ogan%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1097%252FACM.0b013e3182628f03&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weiten2007-165"><a href="#cite_ref-Weiten2007_165-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiten2007" class="citation book cs1">Weiten W (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vv1vvlIEXG0C&pg=PA260">Psychology: Themes and Variations</a>. Cengage Learning. p. 260. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-09303-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-09303-9"><bdi>978-0-495-09303-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology%3A+Themes+and+Variations&rft.pages=260&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-495-09303-9&rft.aulast=Weiten&rft.aufirst=W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVv1vvlIEXG0C%26pg%3DPA260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlamecka1968" class="citation journal cs1">Slamecka NJ (April 1968). "An examination of trace storage in free recall". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 76 (4): 504–513. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0025695">10.1037/h0025695</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5650563">5650563</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Psychology&rft.atitle=An+examination+of+trace+storage+in+free+recall&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=504-513&rft.date=1968-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fh0025695&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5650563&rft.aulast=Slamecka&rft.aufirst=NJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-shepard-167"><a href="#cite_ref-shepard_167-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShepard1967" class="citation journal cs1">Shepard RN (1967). "Recognition memory for words, sentences, and pictures". Journal of Learning and Verbal Behavior. 6: 156–163. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0022-5371%2867%2980067-7">10.1016/s0022-5371(67)80067-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Learning+and+Verbal+Behavior&rft.atitle=Recognition+memory+for+words%2C+sentences%2C+and+pictures&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=156-163&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0022-5371%2867%2980067-7&rft.aulast=Shepard&rft.aufirst=RN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McBride-168"><a href="#cite_ref-McBride_168-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcBrideDosher2002" class="citation journal cs1">McBride DM, Dosher BA (2002). "A comparison of conscious and automatic memory processes for picture and word stimuli: a process dissociation analysis". Consciousness and Cognition. 11 (3): 423–460. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs1053-8100%2802%2900007-7">10.1016/s1053-8100(02)00007-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12435377">12435377</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2813053">2813053</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Consciousness+and+Cognition&rft.atitle=A+comparison+of+conscious+and+automatic+memory+processes+for+picture+and+word+stimuli%3A+a+process+dissociation+analysis&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=423-460&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2813053%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12435377&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs1053-8100%2802%2900007-7&rft.aulast=McBride&rft.aufirst=DM&rft.au=Dosher%2C+BA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-defeyter-169"><a href="#cite_ref-defeyter_169-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDefetyerRussoMcPartlin2009" class="citation journal cs1">Defetyer MA, Russo R, McPartlin PL (2009). "The picture superiority effect in recognition memory: a developmental study using the response signal procedure". Cognitive Development. 24 (3): 265–273. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cogdev.2009.05.002">10.1016/j.cogdev.2009.05.002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognitive+Development&rft.atitle=The+picture+superiority+effect+in+recognition+memory%3A+a+developmental+study+using+the+response+signal+procedure&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=265-273&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cogdev.2009.05.002&rft.aulast=Defetyer&rft.aufirst=MA&rft.au=Russo%2C+R&rft.au=McPartlin%2C+PL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-whitehouse-170"><a href="#cite_ref-whitehouse_170-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitehouseMayberyDurkin2006" class="citation journal cs1">Whitehouse AJ, Maybery MT, Durkin K (2006). "The development of the picture-superiority effect". British Journal of Developmental Psychology. 24 (4): 767–773. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1348%2F026151005X74153">10.1348/026151005X74153</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Developmental+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+development+of+the+picture-superiority+effect&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=767-773&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1348%2F026151005X74153&rft.aulast=Whitehouse&rft.aufirst=AJ&rft.au=Maybery%2C+MT&rft.au=Durkin%2C+K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ally_gold-171"><a href="#cite_ref-ally_gold_171-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllyGoldBudson2009" class="citation journal cs1">Ally BA, Gold CA, Budson AE (January 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2763351">"The picture superiority effect in patients with Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment"</a>. Neuropsychologia. 47 (2): 595–598. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuropsychologia.2008.10.010">10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.10.010</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2763351">2763351</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18992266">18992266</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuropsychologia&rft.atitle=The+picture+superiority+effect+in+patients+with+Alzheimer%27s+disease+and+mild+cognitive+impairment&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=595-598&rft.date=2009-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2763351%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18992266&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neuropsychologia.2008.10.010&rft.aulast=Ally&rft.aufirst=BA&rft.au=Gold%2C+CA&rft.au=Budson%2C+AE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2763351&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-curran-172"><a href="#cite_ref-curran_172-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurranDoyle2011" class="citation journal cs1">Curran T, Doyle J (May 2011). "Picture superiority doubly dissociates the ERP correlates of recollection and familiarity". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 23 (5): 1247–1262. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fjocn.2010.21464">10.1162/jocn.2010.21464</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20350169">20350169</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6568038">6568038</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cognitive+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Picture+superiority+doubly+dissociates+the+ERP+correlates+of+recollection+and+familiarity&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1247-1262&rft.date=2011-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6568038%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20350169&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Fjocn.2010.21464&rft.aulast=Curran&rft.aufirst=T&rft.au=Doyle%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Kruger, J. (1999). Lake Wobegon be gone! The "below-average effect" and the egocentric nature of comparative ability judgments" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77(2), </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'BrienMyers1985" class="citation journal cs1">O'Brien EJ, Myers JL (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.umass.edu/umop/vol9/iss1/7">"When comprehension difficulty improves memory for text"</a>. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 11 (1): 12–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0278-7393.11.1.12">10.1037/0278-7393.11.1.12</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:199928680">199928680</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Psychology%3A+Learning%2C+Memory%2C+and+Cognition&rft.atitle=When+comprehension+difficulty+improves+memory+for+text&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=12-21&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0278-7393.11.1.12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A199928680%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=O%27Brien&rft.aufirst=EJ&rft.au=Myers%2C+JL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.umass.edu%2Fumop%2Fvol9%2Fiss1%2F7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Rubin, Wetzler & Nebes, 1986; Rubin, Rahhal & Poon, 1998 </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiangLinSouma2021" class="citation journal cs1">Liang, Tingchang; Lin, Zhao; Souma, Toshihiko (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8494462">"How Group Perception Affects What People Share and How People Feel: The Role of Entitativity and Epistemic Trust in the "Saying-Is-Believing" Effect"</a>. Frontiers in Psychology. 12: 728864. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2021.728864">10.3389/fpsyg.2021.728864</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8494462">8494462</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34630240">34630240</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychology&rft.atitle=How+Group+Perception+Affects+What+People+Share+and+How+People+Feel%3A+The+Role+of+Entitativity+and+Epistemic+Trust+in+the+%22Saying-Is-Believing%22+Effect&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=728864&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8494462%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34630240&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2021.728864&rft.aulast=Liang&rft.aufirst=Tingchang&rft.au=Lin%2C+Zhao&rft.au=Souma%2C+Toshihiko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8494462&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-serial_position-177"><a href="#cite_ref-serial_position_177-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartinCarlsonBuskist2007" class="citation book cs1">Martin GN, Carlson NR, Buskist W (2007). Psychology (3rd ed.). Pearson Education. pp. 309–310. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-273-71086-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-273-71086-8"><bdi>978-0-273-71086-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psychology&rft.pages=309-310&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-273-71086-8&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=GN&rft.au=Carlson%2C+NR&rft.au=Buskist%2C+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> Morton, Crowder & Prussin, 1971 </li> <li id="cite_note-PittEdwards2003-179"><a href="#cite_ref-PittEdwards2003_179-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPittEdwards2003" class="citation book cs1">Pitt I, Edwards AD (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zQ10cPSz1lMC&pg=PA26">Design of Speech-Based Devices: A Practical Guide</a>. Springer. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85233-436-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85233-436-9"><bdi>978-1-85233-436-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Design+of+Speech-Based+Devices%3A+A+Practical+Guide&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-85233-436-9&rft.aulast=Pitt&rft.aufirst=I&rft.au=Edwards%2C+AD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzQ10cPSz1lMC%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTverskyKoehler1994" class="citation journal cs1">Tversky A, Koehler DJ (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170109023244/http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~dkoehler/reprints/support_theory.pdf">"Support theory: A nonextensional representation of subjective probability"</a> (PDF). Psychological Review. 101 (4): 547–567. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-295X.101.4.547">10.1037/0033-295X.101.4.547</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~dkoehler/reprints/support_theory.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2017-01-09. Retrieved 2021-12-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Review&rft.atitle=Support+theory%3A+A+nonextensional+representation+of+subjective+probability&rft.volume=101&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=547-567&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0033-295X.101.4.547&rft.aulast=Tversky&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Koehler%2C+DJ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arts.uwaterloo.ca%2F~dkoehler%2Freprints%2Fsupport_theory.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStetsonFiestaEagleman2007" class="citation journal cs1">Stetson C, Fiesta MP, Eagleman DM (December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2110887">"Does time really slow down during a frightening event?"</a>. PLOS ONE. 2 (12): e1295. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PLoSO...2.1295S">2007PLoSO...2.1295S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0001295">10.1371/journal.pone.0001295</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2110887">2110887</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18074019">18074019</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Does+time+really+slow+down+during+a+frightening+event%3F&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=e1295&rft.date=2007-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2110887%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18074019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0001295&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007PLoSO...2.1295S&rft.aulast=Stetson&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Fiesta%2C+MP&rft.au=Eagleman%2C+DM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2110887&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein2010" class="citation book cs1">Goldstein ED (2010-06-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9TUIAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA231">Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research and Everyday Experience</a>. Cengage Learning. p. 231. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-133-00912-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-133-00912-2"><bdi>978-1-133-00912-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cognitive+Psychology%3A+Connecting+Mind%2C+Research+and+Everyday+Experience&rft.pages=231&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2010-06-21&rft.isbn=978-1-133-00912-2&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=ED&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9TUIAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-travis-183"><a href="#cite_ref-travis_183-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.standard.co.uk/news/not-everyone-is-in-such-awe-of-the-internet-6383970.html">"Not everyone is in such awe of the internet"</a>. Evening Standard. 2011-03-23. Retrieved 28 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Evening+Standard&rft.atitle=Not+everyone+is+in+such+awe+of+the+internet&rft.date=2011-03-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.standard.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fnot-everyone-is-in-such-awe-of-the-internet-6383970.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> Poppenk, Walia, Joanisse, Danckert, & Köhler, 2006 </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVon_Restorff1933" class="citation journal cs1">Von Restorff H (1933). "Über die Wirkung von Bereichsbildungen im Spurenfeld (The effects of field formation in the trace field)"". Psychological Research. 18 (1): 299–342. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf02409636">10.1007/bf02409636</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145479042">145479042</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Research&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+die+Wirkung+von+Bereichsbildungen+im+Spurenfeld+%28The+effects+of+field+formation+in+the+trace+field%29%22.&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=299-342&rft.date=1933&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf02409636&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145479042%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Von+Restorff&rft.aufirst=H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaron1994" class="citation book cs1">Baron J (1994). Thinking and deciding (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43732-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43732-5"><bdi>978-0-521-43732-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thinking+and+deciding&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-43732-5&rft.aulast=Baron&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardman2009" class="citation book cs1">Hardman D (2009). Judgment and decision making: psychological perspectives. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2398-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2398-3"><bdi>978-1-4051-2398-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judgment+and+decision+making%3A+psychological+perspectives&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-2398-3&rft.aulast=Hardman&rft.aufirst=D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKahnemanKnetschThaler1991" class="citation journal cs1">Kahneman D, Knetsch JL, Thaler RH (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.5.1.193">"Anomalies: The Endowment Effect, Loss Aversion, and Status Quo Bias"</a>. The Journal of Economic Perspectives. 5 (1): 193–206. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.5.1.193">10.1257/jep.5.1.193</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Anomalies%3A+The+Endowment+Effect%2C+Loss+Aversion%2C+and+Status+Quo+Bias&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=193-206&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2Fjep.5.1.193&rft.aulast=Kahneman&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Knetsch%2C+JL&rft.au=Thaler%2C+RH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1257%252Fjep.5.1.193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlous1993" class="citation book cs1">Plous S (1993). The Psychology of Judgment and Decision Making. New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-050477-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-050477-6"><bdi>978-0-07-050477-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Psychology+of+Judgment+and+Decision+Making&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-07-050477-6&rft.aulast=Plous&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSutherland2007" class="citation book cs1">Sutherland S (2007). Irrationality. Pinter & Martin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-905177-07-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-905177-07-3"><bdi>978-1-905177-07-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Irrationality&rft.pub=Pinter+%26+Martin&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-905177-07-3&rft.aulast=Sutherland&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaron2000" class="citation book cs1">Baron J (2000). Thinking and deciding (3rd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65030-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65030-4"><bdi>978-0-521-65030-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thinking+and+deciding&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-65030-4&rft.aulast=Baron&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBishopTrout2004" class="citation book cs1">Bishop MA, Trout JD (2004). Epistemology and the Psychology of Human Judgment. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516229-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516229-5"><bdi>978-0-19-516229-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epistemology+and+the+Psychology+of+Human+Judgment&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-516229-5&rft.aulast=Bishop&rft.aufirst=MA&rft.au=Trout%2C+JD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilovich1993" class="citation book cs1">Gilovich T (1993). How We Know What Isn't So: The Fallibility of Human Reason in Everyday Life. New York: The Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-911706-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-911706-4"><bdi>978-0-02-911706-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+We+Know+What+Isn%27t+So%3A+The+Fallibility+of+Human+Reason+in+Everyday+Life&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Free+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-02-911706-4&rft.aulast=Gilovich&rft.aufirst=T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilovichGriffinKahneman2002" class="citation book cs1">Gilovich T, Griffin D, Kahneman D (2002). Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79679-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79679-8"><bdi>978-0-521-79679-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heuristics+and+biases%3A+The+psychology+of+intuitive+judgment&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-79679-8&rft.aulast=Gilovich&rft.aufirst=T&rft.au=Griffin%2C+D&rft.au=Kahneman%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenwald1980" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Greenwald" title="Anthony Greenwald">Greenwald AG</a> (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.washington.edu/agg/pdf/Gwald_AmPsychologist_1980.OCR.pdf">"The Totalitarian Ego: Fabrication and Revision of Personal History"</a> (PDF). American Psychologist. 35 (7): 603–618. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066x.35.7.603">10.1037/0003-066x.35.7.603</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-066X">0003-066X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=The+Totalitarian+Ego%3A+Fabrication+and+Revision+of+Personal+History&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=603-618&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0003-066x.35.7.603&rft.issn=0003-066X&rft.aulast=Greenwald&rft.aufirst=AG&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.washington.edu%2Fagg%2Fpdf%2FGwald_AmPsychologist_1980.OCR.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKahnemanSlovicTversky1982" class="citation journal cs1">Kahneman D, Slovic P, Tversky A (1982). "Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases". Science. 185 (4157). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 1124–1131. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974Sci...185.1124T">1974Sci...185.1124T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.185.4157.1124">10.1126/science.185.4157.1124</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-28414-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-28414-1"><bdi>978-0-521-28414-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17835457">17835457</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143452957">143452957</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Judgment+under+Uncertainty%3A+Heuristics+and+Biases&rft.volume=185&rft.issue=4157&rft.pages=1124-1131&rft.date=1982&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143452957%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1974Sci...185.1124T&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17835457&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.185.4157.1124&rft.isbn=978-0-521-28414-1&rft.aulast=Kahneman&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Slovic%2C+P&rft.au=Tversky%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPohl2017" class="citation book cs1">Pohl RF (2017). Cognitive illusions: Intriguing phenomena in thinking, judgment and memory (2nd ed.). London and New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-90341-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-90341-8"><bdi>978-1-138-90341-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cognitive+illusions%3A+Intriguing+phenomena+in+thinking%2C+judgment+and+memory&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-138-90341-8&rft.aulast=Pohl&rft.aufirst=RF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchacter1999" class="citation journal cs1">Schacter DL (March 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130513010136/http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~scanlab/papers/2003_Schacter_SevenSinsSelf.pdf">"The seven sins of memory. Insights from psychology and cognitive neuroscience"</a> (PDF). The American Psychologist. 54 (3): 182–203. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066X.54.3.182">10.1037/0003-066X.54.3.182</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10199218">10199218</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14882268">14882268</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~scanlab/papers/2003_Schacter_SevenSinsSelf.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on May 13, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=The+seven+sins+of+memory.+Insights+from+psychology+and+cognitive+neuroscience&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=182-203&rft.date=1999-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14882268%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10199218&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0003-066X.54.3.182&rft.aulast=Schacter&rft.aufirst=DL&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wjh.harvard.edu%2F~scanlab%2Fpapers%2F2003_Schacter_SevenSinsSelf.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTetlock2005" class="citation book cs1">Tetlock PE (2005). Expert Political Judgment: how good is it? how can we know?. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12302-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12302-8"><bdi>978-0-691-12302-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Expert+Political+Judgment%3A+how+good+is+it%3F+how+can+we+know%3F&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-691-12302-8&rft.aulast=Tetlock&rft.aufirst=PE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVirineTrumper2007" class="citation book cs1">Virine L, Trumper M (2007). Project Decisions: The Art and Science. Vienna, VA: Management Concepts. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56726-217-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56726-217-9"><bdi>978-1-56726-217-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Project+Decisions%3A+The+Art+and+Science&rft.place=Vienna%2C+VA&rft.pub=Management+Concepts&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-56726-217-9&rft.aulast=Virine&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Trumper%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+cognitive+biases" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Memory_biases" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Memory biases">Memory biases</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biases" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biases" title="Template:Biases"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biases" title="Template talk:Biases"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biases" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biases"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biases" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Biases</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive biases</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acquiescence_bias" title="Acquiescence bias">Acquiescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity_effect" title="Ambiguity effect">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_bias" title="Affinity bias">Affinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anchoring_(cognitive_bias)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchoring (cognitive bias)">Anchoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attentional_bias" title="Attentional bias">Attentional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attribution_bias" title="Attribution bias">Attribution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93observer_asymmetry" title="Actor–observer asymmetry">Actor–observer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" title="Fundamental attribution error">Correspondence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authority_bias" title="Authority bias">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automation_bias" title="Automation bias">Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Availability_heuristic" title="Availability heuristic">Availability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mean_world_syndrome" title="Mean world syndrome">Mean world</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief_bias" title="Belief bias">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_blind_spot" title="Bias blind spot">Blind spot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choice-supportive_bias" title="Choice-supportive bias">Choice-supportive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escalation_of_commitment" title="Escalation of commitment">Commitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">Confirmation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_perception" title="Selective perception">Selective perception</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion_fade" title="Compassion fade">Compassion fade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congruence_bias" title="Congruence bias">Congruence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_bias" title="Cultural bias">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declinism" title="Declinism">Declinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distinction_bias" title="Distinction bias">Distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect" title="Dunning–Kruger effect">Dunning–Kruger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egocentric_bias" title="Egocentric bias">Egocentric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curse_of_knowledge" title="Curse of knowledge">Curse of knowledge</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_bias" title="Emotional bias">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrinsic_incentives_bias" title="Extrinsic incentives bias">Extrinsic incentives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fading_affect_bias" title="Fading affect bias">Fading affect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_effect_(psychology)" title="Framing effect (psychology)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_illusion" title="Frequency illusion">Frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frog_pond_effect" title="Frog pond effect">Frog pond effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halo_effect" title="Halo effect">Halo effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horn_effect" title="Horn effect">Horn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostile_attribution_bias" title="Hostile attribution bias">Hostile attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_bias" title="Impact bias">Impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_stereotype" title="Implicit stereotype">Implicit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentionality_bias" title="Intentionality bias">Intentionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusion_of_transparency" title="Illusion of transparency">Illusion of transparency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mean_world_syndrome" title="Mean world syndrome">Mean world syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mere-exposure_effect" title="Mere-exposure effect">Mere-exposure effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_bias" title="Narrative bias">Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negativity_bias" title="Negativity bias">Negativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalcy_bias" title="Normalcy bias">Normalcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omission_bias" title="Omission bias">Omission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimism_bias" title="Optimism bias">Optimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Out-group_homogeneity" title="Out-group homogeneity">Out-group homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outcome_bias" title="Outcome bias">Outcome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precision_bias" title="Precision bias">Precision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Present_bias" title="Present bias">Present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-innovation_bias" title="Pro-innovation bias">Pro-innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proximity_bias" title="Proximity bias">Proximity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Response_bias" title="Response bias">Response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restraint_bias" title="Restraint bias">Restraint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-serving_bias" title="Self-serving bias">Self-serving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_comparison_bias" title="Social comparison bias">Social comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence_bias" title="Social influence bias">Social influence bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spotlight_effect" title="Spotlight effect">Spotlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_quo_bias" title="Status quo bias">Status quo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attribute_substitution" title="Attribute substitution">Substitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-saving_bias" title="Time-saving bias">Time-saving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trait_ascription_bias" title="Trait ascription bias">Trait ascription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey_illusion" title="Turkey illusion">Turkey illusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Von_Restorff_effect" title="Von Restorff effect">von Restorff effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-risk_bias" title="Zero-risk bias">Zero-risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias_in_animals" title="Cognitive bias in animals">In animals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bias_(statistics)" title="Bias (statistics)">Statistical biases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bias_of_an_estimator" title="Bias of an estimator">Estimator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forecast_bias" title="Forecast bias">Forecast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_user_bias" title="Healthy user bias">Healthy user</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_bias_(epidemiology)" title="Information bias (epidemiology)">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_bias_(psychology)" title="Information bias (psychology)">Psychological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_time_bias" title="Lead time bias">Lead time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Length_time_bias" title="Length time bias">Length time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participation_bias" title="Participation bias">Non-response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observer_bias" title="Observer bias">Observer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omitted-variable_bias" title="Omitted-variable bias">Omitted-variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participation_bias" title="Participation bias">Participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recall_bias" title="Recall bias">Recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_bias" title="Sampling bias">Sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">Selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-selection_bias" title="Self-selection bias">Self-selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social-desirability_bias" title="Social-desirability bias">Social desirability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectrum_bias" title="Spectrum bias">Spectrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivorship_bias" title="Survivorship bias">Survivorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Systematic error">Systematic error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">Systemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verification_bias" title="Verification bias">Verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_bias" title="Wet bias">Wet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other biases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basking_in_reflected_glory" title="Basking in reflected glory">Basking in reflected glory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9formation_professionnelle" title="Déformation professionnelle">Déformation professionnelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_bias" title="Funding bias">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FUTON_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="FUTON bias">FUTON</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_bias" title="Inductive bias">Inductive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_bias" title="Infrastructure bias">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inherent_bias" title="Inherent bias">Inherent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_in_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Bias in education">In education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liking_gap" title="Liking gap">Liking gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/False_balance" title="False balance">False balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_news_media_and_the_Vietnam_War" title="United States news media and the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias_in_South_Asia" title="Media bias in South Asia">South Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias_in_the_United_States" title="Media bias in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_the_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Media coverage of the Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_portrayal_of_the_Ukrainian_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Media portrayal of the Ukrainian crisis">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_bias" title="Political bias">Political bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publication_bias" title="Publication bias">Publication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reporting_bias" title="Reporting bias">Reporting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_hat_bias" title="White hat bias">White hat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bias reduction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias_mitigation" title="Cognitive bias mitigation">Cognitive bias mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debiasing" title="Debiasing">Debiasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)" title="Heuristic (psychology)">Heuristics in judgment and decision-making</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Lists: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">General</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Memory_biases">Memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Disinformation_and_misinformation" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Misinformation" title="Template:Misinformation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Misinformation" title="Template talk:Misinformation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Misinformation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Misinformation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Disinformation_and_misinformation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">Disinformation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Misinformation" title="Misinformation">misinformation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Types</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_radicalization" title="Algorithmic radicalization">Algorithmic radicalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_facts" title="Alternative facts">Alternative facts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_lie" title="Big lie">Big lie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_picking" title="Cherry picking">Cherry picking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_reporting" title="Circular reporting">Circular reporting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive bias</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">List of cognitive biases</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">Conspiracy theory</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_conspiracy_theories" title="List of conspiracy theories">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denialism" title="Denialism">Denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_attack" title="Disinformation attack">Disinformation attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublespeak" title="Doublespeak">Doublespeak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphemistic_misspeaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphemistic misspeaking">Euphemistic misspeaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factoid" title="Factoid">Factoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news">Fake news</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_website" title="Fake news website">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fake_news_websites" title="List of fake news websites">list of websites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lying_press" title="Lying press">Lying press</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">Fallacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">List of fallacies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_accusation" title="False accusation">False accusation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">False dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">False flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear,_uncertainty,_and_doubt" title="Fear, uncertainty, and doubt">Fear, uncertainty, and doubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firehose_of_falsehood" title="Firehose of falsehood">Firehose of falsehood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgery_as_covert_operation" title="Forgery as covert operation">Forgery as covert operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaslighting" title="Gaslighting">Gaslighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-truth" title="Half-truth">Half-truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoax" title="Hoax">Hoax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infodemic" title="Infodemic">Infodemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_manipulation" title="Internet manipulation">Internet manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipulation_(psychology)" title="Manipulation (psychology)">Manipulation (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_culture" title="Media culture">Media culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">Media manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potemkin_village" title="Potemkin village">Potemkin village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-truth_politics" title="Post-truth politics">Post-truth politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memetic_warfare" title="Memetic warfare">Memetic warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">Military deception</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_propaganda" title="Black propaganda">black propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterpropaganda" title="Counterpropaganda">counterpropaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-sponsored_Internet_propaganda" title="State-sponsored Internet propaganda">State-sponsored Internet propaganda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quote mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabrication_(science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fabrication (science)">Scientific fabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smear_campaign" title="Smear campaign">Smearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_bot" title="Social bot">Social bot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthiness" title="Truthiness">Truthiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_legends_and_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban legends and myths">Urban legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whataboutism" title="Whataboutism">Whataboutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_journalism" title="Yellow journalism">Yellow journalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Books_and_documentaries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Books and documentaries</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_(book)" title="Disinformation (book)">Disinformation by Ion Mihai Pacepa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dezinformatsia_(book)" title="Dezinformatsia (book)">Dezinformatsia: Active Measures in Soviet Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_KGB_and_Soviet_Disinformation" title="The KGB and Soviet Disinformation">The KGB and Soviet Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who%27s_Who_in_the_CIA" title="Who's Who in the CIA">Who's Who in the CIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchants_of_Doubt" title="Merchants of Doubt">Merchants of Doubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Truth:_Disinformation_and_the_Cost_of_Fake_News" title="After Truth: Disinformation and the Cost of Fake News">After Truth: Disinformation and the Cost of Fake News</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Examples" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Examples</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda_Triangle" title="Bermuda Triangle">Bermuda Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State_propaganda_war" title="Congo Free State propaganda war">Congo Free State propaganda war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Climate change denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_energy_suppression_conspiracy_theory" title="Free energy suppression conspiracy theory">Free energy suppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_denial" title="Genocide denial">Genocide denial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminati" title="Illuminati">Illuminati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Jewish_conspiracy" title="International Jewish conspiracy">International Jewish conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_in_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" title="Misinformation in the Israel–Hamas war">Misinformation in the Israel–Hamas war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Order_(conspiracy_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Order (conspiracy theory)">New World Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_mercury" title="Red mercury">Red mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reptilian_conspiracy_theory" title="Reptilian conspiracy theory">Reptilians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rothschild_family#Conspiracy_theories" title="Rothschild family">Rothschilds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_tension" title="Strategy of tension">Strategy of tension</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Health" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_related_to_5G_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Misinformation related to 5G technology">5G</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_governments" title="COVID-19 misinformation by governments">by governments</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebola_misinformation" title="Ebola misinformation">Ebola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" title="HIV/AIDS denialism">HIV/AIDS denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_illness_denial" title="Mental illness denial">Mental illness denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_related_to_abortion" title="Misinformation related to abortion">Misinformation related to abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation" title="Vaccine misinformation">Vaccines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-vaccine_activism" title="Anti-vaccine activism">anti-vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccines_and_autism" title="Vaccines and autism">autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy" title="COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy">COVID-19</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_fluoridation_controversy" title="Water fluoridation controversy">Water fluoridation controversy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Operations_and_events_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Operations and events by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Canada</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Jihadunspun.com" title="Jihadunspun.com">Jihadunspun.com</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">China</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_information_operations_and_information_warfare" title="Chinese information operations and information warfare">Chinese information operations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/50_Cent_Party" title="50 Cent Party">50 Cent Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare_by_China" title="Cyberwarfare by China">cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Pink" title="Little Pink">Little Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Water_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Water Army">Internet Water Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PLA_Unit_61398" title="PLA Unit 61398">PLA Unit 61398</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spamouflage" title="Spamouflage">Spamouflage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_China" title="COVID-19 misinformation by China">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Times" title="Global Times">Global Times</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Czechoslovakia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Neptune_(espionage)" title="Operation Neptune (espionage)">Operation Neptune</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funkspiel" title="Funkspiel">Funkspiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Propaganda in Nazi Germany">Propaganda in Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth_of_the_clean_Wehrmacht" title="Myth of the clean Wehrmacht">Myth of the clean Wehrmacht</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">India</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_in_India" title="Fake news in India">Fake news in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godi-media" class="mw-redirect" title="Godi-media">Godi-media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paid_news_in_India" title="Paid news in India">Paid news in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpIndia" title="OpIndia">OpIndia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Israel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Team_Jorge" title="Team Jorge">Team Jorge</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Korea</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_Agency_Network_of_Korea" title="Voluntary Agency Network of Korea">Voluntary Agency Network of Korea</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kuwait</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Fintas_Group" title="Fintas Group">Fintas Group</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mexico</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1abot" title="Peñabot">Peñabots</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philippines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_in_the_Philippines" title="COVID-19 misinformation in the Philippines">COVID-19 misinformation in the Philippines</a> (<a href="/wiki/ChinaAngVirus_disinformation_campaign" title="ChinaAngVirus disinformation campaign">ChinaAngVirus disinformation campaign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_in_the_Philippines" title="Fake news in the Philippines">Fake news in the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_distortion_regarding_Ferdinand_Marcos" title="Historical distortion regarding Ferdinand Marcos">Historical distortion regarding Ferdinand Marcos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_disinformation" title="Russian disinformation">Russia</a> / Soviet Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_disinformation" title="Soviet disinformation">Soviet era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active Measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-1000_battleship" title="K-1000 battleship">K-1000 battleship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_INFEKTION" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation INFEKTION">Operation INFEKTION</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Toucan_(KGB)" title="Operation Toucan (KGB)">Operation Toucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seat_12" title="Seat 12">Seat 12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_influence_on_the_peace_movement" title="Soviet influence on the peace movement">Soviet influence on the peace movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Army_Field_Manual_30-31B" title="U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B">U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Useful_idiot" title="Useful idiot">Useful idiot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_disinformation_in_the_post-Soviet_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian disinformation in the post-Soviet era">Post-Soviet era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare_by_Russia" title="Cyberwarfare by Russia">Cyberwarfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2007_cyberattacks_on_Estonia" title="2007 cyberattacks on Estonia">on Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberattacks_during_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Cyberattacks during the Russo-Georgian War">during the Russo-Georgian War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_information_war_against_Ukraine" title="Russian information war against Ukraine">Information war against Ukraine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li>On US elections <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2016_United_States_elections" title="Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2018_United_States_elections" title="Russian interference in the 2018 United States elections">2018</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2020_United_States_elections" title="Russian interference in the 2020 United States elections">2020</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2016_Brexit_referendum" title="Russian interference in the 2016 Brexit referendum">2016 Brexit referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Institute_for_Strategic_Studies" title="Russian Institute for Strategic Studies">Russian Institute for Strategic Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Research_Agency" title="Internet Research Agency">Trolls from Olgino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_web_brigades" title="Russian web brigades">Web brigades</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism_in_South_Africa" title="HIV/AIDS denialism in South Africa">HIV/AIDS denialism</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turkey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_Turkey" title="Conspiracy theories in Turkey">Conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_censorship_and_disinformation_during_the_Gezi_Park_protests" title="Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests">Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AK_Trolls" title="AK Trolls">AK Trolls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United Kingdom</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bell_Pottinger" title="Bell Pottinger">Bell Pottinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-Cross_System" title="Double-Cross System">Double-Cross System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clockwork_Orange_(plot)" title="Clockwork Orange (plot)">Clockwork Orange plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euromyth" title="Euromyth">Euromyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancet_MMR_autism_fraud" title="Lancet MMR autism fraud">Lancet MMR autism fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Mass_Appeal" title="Operation Mass Appeal">Operation Mass Appeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_Warfare_Division" title="Psychological Warfare Division">Psychological Warfare Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinoviev_letter" title="Zinoviev letter">Zinoviev letter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1995_CIA_disinformation_controversy" title="1995 CIA disinformation controversy">1995 CIA disinformation controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempts_to_overturn_the_2020_United_States_presidential_election" title="Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election">Attempts to overturn the 2020 election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_United_States_politics" title="Conspiracy theories in United States politics">Conspiracy theories</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/9/11_conspiracy_theories" title="9/11 conspiracy theories">9/11 conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_Kennedy_assassination_conspiracy_theory" title="CIA Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory">CIA Kennedy assassination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QAnon" title="QAnon">QAnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting_conspiracy_theories" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting conspiracy theories">Sandy Hook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 misinformation by the United States">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_in_the_United_States" title="Fake news in the United States">Fake news</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_websites_in_the_United_States" title="Fake news websites in the United States">online</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_denial_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Election denial movement in the United States">Election denial movement in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Freedom_Fighter%27s_Manual" title="The Freedom Fighter's Manual">The Freedom Fighter's Manual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habbush_letter" title="Habbush letter">Habbush letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Operations_Roadmap" title="Information Operations Roadmap">Information Operations Roadmap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter_boxes_in_schools_hoax" title="Litter boxes in schools hoax">Litter boxes in schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Atta%27s_alleged_Prague_connection" title="Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection">Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger_uranium_forgeries" title="Niger uranium forgeries">Niger uranium forgeries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_industry_playbook" title="Tobacco industry playbook">Tobacco industry playbook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Shocker" title="Operation Shocker">Operation Shocker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_rain" title="Yellow rain">Yellow rain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Venezuela</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Bolivarian_Army_of_Trolls" title="Bolivarian Army of Trolls">Bolivarian Army of Trolls</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vietnam</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_brigades" title="Public opinion brigades">Public opinion brigades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_47" class="mw-redirect" title="Force 47">Force 47</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Opposition" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Opposition</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fact-checking" title="Fact-checking">Fact-checking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fact-checking_website" class="mw-redirect" title="Fact-checking website">Fact-checking website</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active_Measures_Working_Group" title="Active Measures Working Group">Active Measures Working Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter_disinformation_unit" title="Counter disinformation unit">Counter disinformation unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter_Misinformation_Team" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter Misinformation Team">Counter Misinformation Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countering_Foreign_Propaganda_and_Disinformation_Act" title="Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act">Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Disinformation_Project" title="The Disinformation Project">The Disinformation Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_StratCom_Task_Force" title="East StratCom Task Force">East StratCom Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FactCheck.org" title="FactCheck.org">FactCheck.org</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Fact" title="Full Fact">Full Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logically_(company)" title="Logically (company)">Logically</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NewsGuard" title="NewsGuard">NewsGuard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PolitiFact" title="PolitiFact">PolitiFact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snopes" title="Snopes">Snopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/StopFake" title="StopFake">StopFake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Information_Agency" title="United States Information Agency">United States Information Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USAFacts" title="USAFacts">USAFacts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_memory" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Memory" title="Template:Memory"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Memory" title="Template talk:Memory"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Memory" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Memory"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_memory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Human memory">Human memory</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">Encoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_(memory)" title="Storage (memory)">Storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">Recall</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_consolidation" title="Memory consolidation">Consolidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_memory" title="Neuroanatomy of memory">Neuroanatomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sensory_memory" title="Sensory memory">Sensory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Echoic_memory" title="Echoic memory">Echoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eidetic_memory" title="Eidetic memory">Eidetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyewitness_memory" title="Eyewitness memory">Eyewitness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptic_memory" title="Haptic memory">Haptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconic_memory" title="Iconic memory">Iconic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_learning" title="Motor learning">Motor learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_memory" title="Visual memory">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Short-term_memory" title="Short-term memory">Short-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Magical_Number_Seven,_Plus_or_Minus_Two" title="The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two">The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">Working memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">Long-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_recall" class="mw-redirect" title="Active recall">Active recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autobiographical_memory" title="Autobiographical memory">Autobiographical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Explicit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Declarative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">Episodic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_memory" title="Semantic memory">Semantic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flashbulb_memory" title="Flashbulb memory">Flashbulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperthymesia" title="Hyperthymesia">Hyperthymesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_memory" title="Implicit memory">Implicit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaningful_learning" title="Meaningful learning">Meaningful learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal-event_memory" title="Personal-event memory">Personal-event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_memory" title="Procedural memory">Procedural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rote_learning" title="Rote learning">Rote learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_retention" title="Selective retention">Selective retention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tip_of_the_tongue" title="Tip of the tongue">Tip of the tongue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Forgetting" title="Forgetting">Forgetting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amnesia" title="Amnesia">Amnesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterograde_amnesia" title="Anterograde amnesia">anterograde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_amnesia" title="Childhood amnesia">childhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthypnotic_amnesia" title="Posthypnotic amnesia">post-hypnotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_amnesia" title="Post-traumatic amnesia">post-traumatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_amnesia" title="Dissociative amnesia">dissociative (psychogenic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrograde_amnesia" title="Retrograde amnesia">retrograde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_amnesia" title="Selective amnesia">selective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transient_global_amnesia" title="Transient global amnesia">transient global</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_theory" title="Decay theory">Decay theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgetting_curve" title="Forgetting curve">Forgetting curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interference_theory" title="Interference theory">Interference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_erasure" title="Memory erasure">Memory erasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_inhibition" title="Memory inhibition">Memory inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motivated_forgetting" title="Motivated forgetting">Motivated forgetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repressed_memory" title="Repressed memory">Repressed memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrieval-induced_forgetting" title="Retrieval-induced forgetting">Retrieval-induced forgetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon_focus" title="Weapon focus">Weapon focus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Memory_error" title="Memory error">Memory errors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confabulation" title="Confabulation">Confabulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptomnesia" title="Cryptomnesia">Cryptomnesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagination_inflation" title="Imagination inflation">Imagination inflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memory_biases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of memory biases">Memory biases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misattribution_of_memory" title="Misattribution of memory">Misattribution of memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_effect" title="Misinformation effect">Misinformation effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source-monitoring_error" title="Source-monitoring error">Source-monitoring error</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/False_memory" title="False memory">False memory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deese%E2%80%93Roediger%E2%80%93McDermott_paradigm" title="Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm">Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_memory_syndrome" title="False memory syndrome">False memory syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_implantation" title="Memory implantation">Memory implantation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lost_in_the_mall_technique" title="Lost in the mall technique">Lost in the mall technique</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">Recovered-memory therapy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Methods_used_to_study_memory" title="Methods used to study memory">Research methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exceptional_memory" title="Exceptional memory">Exceptional memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_tests_of_memory" title="Indirect tests of memory">Indirect tests of memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_disorder" title="Memory disorder">Memory disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_memory" title="Collective memory">Collective memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_memory" title="Politics of memory">Politics of memory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_memory" title="Cultural memory">Cultural memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_social_interactions" title="Memory and social interactions">Memory and social interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactive_memory" title="Transactive memory">Transactive memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_aging" title="Memory and aging">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_memory" title="Art of memory">Art of memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chunking_(psychology)" title="Chunking (psychology)">chunking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_alcohol_on_memory" title="Effects of alcohol on memory">Effects of alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise#Memory" title="Neurobiological effects of physical exercise">Effects of exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_and_memory" title="Emotion and memory">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_improvement" title="Memory improvement">Memory improvement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrition_and_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrition and memory">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_and_memory" title="Sleep and memory">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_trauma" title="Memory and trauma">Trauma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_sport" title="Memory sport">Memory sport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Memory_Championships" title="World Memory Championships">World Memory Championships</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shas_Pollak" title="Shas Pollak">Shas Pollak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absent-mindedness" title="Absent-mindedness">Absent-mindedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_model" title="Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model">Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context-dependent_memory" title="Context-dependent memory">Context-dependent</a> and <a href="/wiki/State-dependent_memory" title="State-dependent memory">state-dependent</a> memory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_memory" title="Childhood memory">Childhood memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exosomatic_memory" title="Exosomatic memory">Exosomatic memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_recall" title="Free recall">Free recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate-term_memory" title="Intermediate-term memory">Intermediate-term memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_memory" title="Involuntary memory">Involuntary memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flashback_(psychology)" title="Flashback (psychology)">flashbacks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levels_of_Processing_model" title="Levels of Processing model">Levels of Processing model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamemory" title="Metamemory">Metamemory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_memory" title="Muscle memory">Muscle memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priming_(psychology)" title="Priming (psychology)">Priming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intertrial_priming" title="Intertrial priming">intertrial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prospective_memory" title="Prospective memory">Prospective</a> and <a href="/wiki/Retrospective_memory" title="Retrospective memory">retrospective</a> memory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Seven_Sins_of_Memory" title="The Seven Sins of Memory">The Seven Sins of Memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Atkinson" title="Richard C. Atkinson">Richard C. Atkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Bjork" title="Robert A. Bjork">Robert A. Bjork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Ceci" title="Stephen J. Ceci">Stephen J. Ceci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Clancy" title="Susan Clancy">Susan Clancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Ebbinghaus" title="Hermann Ebbinghaus">Hermann Ebbinghaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Goldman-Rakic" title="Patricia Goldman-Rakic">Patricia Goldman-Rakic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Izquierdo" title="Ivan Izquierdo">Ivan Izquierdo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcia_K._Johnson" title="Marcia K. Johnson">Marcia K. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Loftus" title="Elizabeth Loftus">Elizabeth Loftus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Loftus" title="Geoffrey Loftus">Geoffrey Loftus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_McGaugh" title="James McGaugh">James McGaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Maguire" title="Eleanor Maguire">Eleanor Maguire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George Armitage Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brenda_Milner" title="Brenda Milner">Brenda Milner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Nadel" title="Lynn Nadel">Lynn Nadel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Roediger_III" title="Henry L. Roediger III">Henry L. Roediger III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Schacter" title="Daniel Schacter">Daniel Schacter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Shiffrin" title="Richard Shiffrin">Richard Shiffrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_P._Shimamura" title="Arthur P. Shimamura">Arthur P. Shimamura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susumu_Tonegawa" title="Susumu Tonegawa">Susumu Tonegawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Treisman" title="Anne Treisman">Anne Treisman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Stickgold" title="Robert Stickgold">Robert Stickgold</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Patients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Molaison" title="Henry Molaison">HM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_Cochrane" title="Kent Cochrane">KC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_N.A." title="Patient N.A.">NA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Wearing" title="Clive Wearing">Clive Wearing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Hancock" title="Jonathan Hancock">Jonathan Hancock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_R._McHugh" title="Paul R. McHugh">Paul R. McHugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominic_O%27Brien" title="Dominic O'Brien">Dominic O'Brien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Pridmore" title="Ben Pridmore">Ben Pridmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmos_Rossellius" title="Cosmos Rossellius">Cosmos Rossellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andriy_Slyusarchuk" title="Andriy Slyusarchuk">Andriy Slyusarchuk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/28px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/42px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/56px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&oldid=1257959090">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&oldid=1257959090</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cognitive_biases" title="Category:Cognitive biases">Cognitive biases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Psychology_lists" title="Category:Psychology lists">Psychology lists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Behavioral_finance" title="Category:Behavioral finance">Behavioral finance</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cognitive_science_lists" title="Category:Cognitive science lists">Cognitive science lists</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_to_be_expanded_from_July_2023" title="Category:Articles to be expanded from July 2023">Articles to be expanded from July 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_to_be_expanded" title="Category:All articles to be expanded">All articles to be expanded</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_failed_verification" title="Category:All articles with failed verification">All articles with failed verification</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_failed_verification_from_February_2022" title="Category:Articles with failed verification from February 2022">Articles with failed verification from February 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_excerpts" title="Category:Articles with excerpts">Articles with excerpts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_div_col_with_small_parameter" title="Category:Pages using div col with small parameter">Pages using div col with small parameter</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_displaying_short_descriptions_of_redirect_targets_via_Module:Annotated_link" title="Category:Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_locally_defined" title="Category:Commons category link is locally defined">Commons category link is locally defined</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 17 November 2024, at 11:37 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_cognitive_biases&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-57488d5c7d-5b7jj","wgBackendResponseTime":180,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.647","walltime":"2.947","ppvisitednodes":{"value":14830,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":479958,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":3527,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":12,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":23,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":682906,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2538.478 1 -total"," 54.14% 1374.455 1 Template:Reflist"," 23.10% 586.370 101 Template:Cite_journal"," 15.20% 385.868 29 Template:Annotated_link"," 12.70% 322.436 38 Template:Cite_book"," 6.81% 172.986 16 Template:Harvnb"," 4.86% 123.316 4 Template:Navbox"," 3.77% 95.680 1 Template:Biases"," 3.47% 88.203 18 Template:Cite_web"," 3.47% 88.125 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.738","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":27512835,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAckerman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdamsAdams1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdamsConverseHalesKlotz2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlexanderBrown2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllyGoldBudson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndersonGraham2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAttneave1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBalasMomsen2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBar-HaimLamyPergaminBakermans-Kranenburg2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaron1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaron2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarrettSimmons2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBellows2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBianLeslieCimpian2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBinah-PollakHazzanMikeHacohen2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBishopTrout2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBornsteinCrave-Lemley2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuckley2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFButeraLevineVernet2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCacciatore2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCacioppo2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarroll\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCiccarelliWhite2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColeyTanner2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurranDoyle2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaltonOrtegren2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDamasio1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDanzigerLevavAvnaim-Pesso2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDardenneLeyens1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDawsonJohnson2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDefetyerRussoMcPartlin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDierkesAntalChildNonaka2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoughertyGettysOgden1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuCharme1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwards1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFiedler1991\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFiedlerUnkelbach2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFischhoffSlovicLichtenstein1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisk2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForsyth2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarciaSongTesser2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGigerenzer2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilovich1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilovichGriffinKahneman2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoddardRoudsariWyatt2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldstein2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenwald1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGupta2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaizlipMaySchorlingWilliams2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamilton1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHardman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaringWatanabeVelonakiTossell2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrisFiske2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaseltonNettleAndrews2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHilbert2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoffrage2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoorens1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHseeHastie2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHseeZhang2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInvestopedia_Staff2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIversonBrooksHoldnack2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeng2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJuslinWinmanOlsson2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKahnemanKnetschThaler1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKahnemanSlovicTversky1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKara-Yakoubian2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelemenRosset2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelemenRottmanSeston2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKershner2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKimDaniel2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKinnellDennis2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlauerMuschNaumer2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKokkoris2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoriatGoldsmithPansky2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKristalSantos\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKruger1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrugerDunning1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuranSunstein1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaibson1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLebowitz2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemanCinnirella2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevine2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiangLinSouma2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLichtensteinFischhoff1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLieberman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacCoun1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarcattoCosulichFerrante2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarksMiller1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartinCarlsonBuskist2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatherShafirJohnson2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcBrideDosher2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCornackParks1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDunnSiddiquiBrown2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerkle2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMikeHazzan2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilgram1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillsKeil2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNickerson1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;BrienMyers1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;DonoghueRabin1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOswaldGrosjean2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPattZeckhauser2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPittEdwards2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlous1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPohl2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPohl2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrati2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProninKrugerSavitskyRoss2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProninKugler2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuartz\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuoidbachGilbertWilson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosset2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRozenblitKeil2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSafiBrowneNaini2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSannaSchwarz2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSannaSchwarzStocker2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchacter1999\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSchacterGilbertWegner2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidt1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidt2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwarzBlessStrackKlumpp1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShafirDiamondTversky2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShepard1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlamecka1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStetsonFiestaEagleman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSutherland2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTalboySchneider2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTalboySchneider2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTetlock2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrofimova1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrofimova2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuccio2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTverskyKahneman1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTverskyKoehler1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_BovenLoewensteinDunningNordgren2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVirineTrumper2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVon_Restorff1933\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVästfjällSlovicMayorgaPeters2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalkerVul2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaytz2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeiten2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeiten2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitehouseMayberyDurkin2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZamanDe_PeuterVan_DiestVan_den_Bergh2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhangLewisPellonColeman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZwicky2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_MezaDawson2018\"] = 1,\n [\"Memory_biases\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 29,\n [\"Biases\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite APA Dictionary of Psychology\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite SSRN\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 37,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 100,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 18,\n [\"Commons category-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Disinformation\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Excerpt\"] = 1,\n [\"Expand section\"] = 1,\n [\"Failed verification\"] = 1,\n [\"For\"] = 1,\n [\"Google books\"] = 7,\n [\"Harv\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 16,\n [\"Main\"] = 15,\n [\"Memory\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Slink\"] = 4,\n [\"Vanchor\"] = 12,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","320","17.8"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","220","12.2"],["?","180","10.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","140","7.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","120","6.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","80","4.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","80","4.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","60","3.3"],["getmetatable \u003Cmw.lua:66\u003E","60","3.3"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","60","3.3"],["[others]","480","26.7"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-57488d5c7d-j26gr","timestamp":"20241128015624","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"List of cognitive biases","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q2607828","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q2607828","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-03-07T18:18:10Z","dateModified":"2024-11-17T11:37:32Z","headline":"Wikimedia list article"}</script> </body> </html>