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href="#Yajnavalkya_smriti_and_Grhyasutras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Yajnavalkya smriti and Grhyasutras</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yajnavalkya_smriti_and_Grhyasutras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Upanishads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Upanishads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Medieval Upanishads</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Upanishads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-Hindu_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-Hindu_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Non-Hindu texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-Hindu_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occupation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occupation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Occupation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Occupation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Occupation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Occupation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bali,_Indonesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bali,_Indonesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Bali, Indonesia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bali,_Indonesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Historical evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commentary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commentary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Commentary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commentary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>General and cited references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Shudra</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">46 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="শূদ্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="শূদ্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Шудры – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Шудры" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="शूद्र – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="शूद्र" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Shudra" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xudres" title="Xudres – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Xudres" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0%C3%BAdra" title="Šúdra – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Šúdra" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Shudra" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudr%C3%A1" title="Shudrá – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Shudrá" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Cudro" title="Ŝudro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ŝudro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="شودرا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شودرا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Shudra" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B6%E0%AB%82%E0%AA%A6%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0" title="શૂદ્ર – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="શૂદ્ર" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%88%98%EB%93%9C%EB%9D%BC" title="수드라 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="수드라" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="शूद्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="शूद्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudra" title="Sudra – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sudra" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABdra" title="Śūdra – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Śūdra" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%94" title="שודרה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שודרה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B6%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಶೂದ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಶೂದ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0udros" title="Šudros – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Šudros" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%BC" title="ശൂദ്രർ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ശൂദ്രർ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="शूद्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="शूद्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Shudra" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="शूद्र – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="शूद्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="शूद्र – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="शूद्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89%E3%83%A9" title="シュードラ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="シュードラ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudrlar" title="Shudrlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Shudrlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B0" title="ਸ਼ੂਦਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸ਼ੂਦਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ami mw-list-item"><a href="https://ami.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotolo" title="Sotolo – Amis" lang="ami" hreflang="ami" data-title="Sotolo" data-language-autonym="Pangcah" data-language-local-name="Amis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pangcah</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%B1" title="شودر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="شودر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Audra" title="Śudra – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Śudra" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudra" title="Sudra – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sudra" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casta_Sudra" title="Casta Sudra – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Casta Sudra" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Шудры – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Шудры" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Шудра – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Шудра" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83" title="शूद्रः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="शूद्रः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB_(%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%94)" title="ක්‍ෂුද්‍ර (හින්දු) – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ක්‍ෂුද්‍ර (හින්දු)" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Shudra" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0udra" title="Šudra – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Šudra" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Shudra" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="சூத்திரர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சூத்திரர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Шудра – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Шудра" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B6%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%81" title="శూద్రులు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="శూద్రులు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Шудри – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Шудри" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">One of four varnas (classes) in Hinduism</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Shudra_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Shudra (disambiguation)">Shudra (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-collapse:collapse; text-align:center"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Hinduism" title="Category:Hinduism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0.2em;background:#FFC569;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Om" title="Om"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/1_Om.svg/90px-1_Om.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/1_Om.svg/135px-1_Om.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/1_Om.svg/180px-1_Om.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="367" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist" style="padding-bottom:0.35em; border:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Mythology</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">Origins</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"><b>Historical</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion of the Indus Valley Civilization">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic Hinduism">Vedic Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_folk_religion" title="Dravidian folk religion">Dravidian folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_religions_in_India" title="Tribal religions in India">Tribal religions in India</a></li></ul> <p><b>Traditional</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Itihasa-Purana" title="Itihasa-Purana">Itihasa-Purana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic-Puranic_royal_genealogies" title="Epic-Puranic royal genealogies">Epic-Puranic royal genealogies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic-Puranic_chronology" title="Epic-Puranic chronology">Epic-Puranic chronology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sampradaya" title="Sampradaya">Sampradaya (Traditions)</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Major Sampradaya (Traditions)</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pancharatra" title="Pancharatra">Pancharatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapalika" title="Kapalika">Kapalika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashupata_Shaivism" title="Pashupata Shaivism">Pashupata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyabhijna" title="Pratyabhijna">Pratyabhijña</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smarta_tradition" title="Smarta tradition">Smartism</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><i><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">Other Sampradaya (Traditions)</a></i></div></dt></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_deities" title="Hindu deities">Deities</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Absolute Reality / Unifying Force</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Trimurti" title="Trimurti">Trimurti</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Tridevi" title="Tridevi">Tridevi</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshmi" title="Lakshmi">Lakshmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parvati" title="Parvati">Parvati</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Other major <a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">Devas</a> / <a href="/wiki/Devi" title="Devi">Devis</a></div></dt></dl> <dl><dd><i>Vedic Deities:</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tridasha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tridasha">Tridasha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adityas" title="Adityas">Adityas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudras" title="Rudras">Rudras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasus">Vasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashvins" title="Ashvins">Ashvins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahadevi" title="Mahadevi">Mahadevi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_deities" title="Rigvedic deities">Other Vedic Deities</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><i>Post-Vedic:</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avatar" title="Avatar">Avatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dashavatara" title="Dashavatara">Dashavatara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durga" title="Durga">Durga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navadurga" title="Navadurga">Navadurga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavidya" title="Mahavidya">Mahavidya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartikeya" title="Kartikeya">Kartikeya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganesha" title="Ganesha">Ganesha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanuman" title="Hanuman">Hanuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radha" title="Radha">Radha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakti" title="Shakti">Shakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sita" title="Sita">Sita</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Devata" title="Devata">Devatas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vishvakarma" title="Vishvakarma">Vishvakarma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kubera" title="Kubera">Kubera</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Concepts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Worldview</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_cosmology" title="Hindu cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Mythology</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Ontology</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tattva" title="Tattva">Tattvas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanmatras" title="Tanmatras">Subtle elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchikarana" title="Panchikarana">Panchikarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancha_Bhuta" title="Pancha Bhuta">Gross elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu%E1%B9%87a" title="Guṇa">Guṇas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purusha" title="Purusha">Purusha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prak%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Prakṛti">Prakṛti</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Para_Brahman" title="Para Brahman">Supreme reality</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nirguna_brahman" class="mw-redirect" title="Nirguna brahman">Nirguna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saguna_brahman" title="Saguna brahman">Saguna</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Om" title="Om">Om</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saccid%C4%81nanda" title="Saccidānanda">Saccidānanda</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">God</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ishvara" title="Ishvara">Ishvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">Devas</a> / <a href="/wiki/Devi" title="Devi">Devi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devata" title="Devata">Devatas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">God in Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_and_gender_in_Hinduism" title="God and gender in Hinduism">God and gender</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Puru%E1%B9%A3%C4%81rtha" title="Puruṣārtha">Puruṣārtha (Meaning of life)</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">Artha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/%C4%80%C5%9Brama_(stage)" title="Āśrama (stage)">Āśrama (Stages of life)</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">Brahmacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%E1%B9%9Bhastha" title="Gṛhastha">Gṛhastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%81naprastha" title="Vānaprastha">Vānaprastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sannyasa" title="Sannyasa">Sannyasa</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Three_Yogas" title="Three Yogas">Three paths to liberation</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhakti_yoga" title="Bhakti yoga">Bhakti yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jnana_yoga" title="Jnana yoga">Jnana yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_yoga" title="Karma yoga">Karma yoga</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Liberation</a></div></dt></dl> <dl><dd><i>Mokṣa-related topics:</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paramatman" title="Paramatman">Paramātman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(religion)" title="Maya (religion)">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Mind</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Ātman (self)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C4%81tman_(Hinduism)" title="Anātman (Hinduism)">Anātman (non-self)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_bodies_doctrine" title="Three bodies doctrine">Sūkṣma śarīra (subtle body)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antahkarana" title="Antahkarana">Antaḥkaraṇa (mental organs)</a><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Hinduism)" title="Prajñā (Hinduism)">Prajña (wisdom)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda_(Hindu_philosophy)" title="Ānanda (Hindu philosophy)">Ānanda (happiness)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viveka" title="Viveka">Viveka (discernment)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vairagya" title="Vairagya">Vairagya (dispassion)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samatva" title="Samatva">Sama (equanimity)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)#Hinduism" title="Temperance (virtue)">Dama (temperance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uparati" title="Uparati">Uparati (self-settledness)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titiksha" title="Titiksha">Titiksha (forbearance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Hinduism" title="Faith in Hinduism">Shraddha (faith)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam%C4%81dh%C4%81na" title="Samādhāna">Samadhana (concentration)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arishadvargas" title="Arishadvargas">Arishadvargas (six enemies)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahamkara" title="Ahamkara">Ahamkara (attachment)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Ethics</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion#Hindu_ethics" title="Ethics in religion">Niti śastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamas" title="Yamas">Yamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niyama" title="Niyama">Niyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achourya" title="Achourya">Achourya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-possession" title="Non-possession">Aparigraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">Brahmacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)#Hinduism" title="Temperance (virtue)">Damah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion#Hinduism" title="Compassion">Dayā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrodha" title="Akrodha">Akrodha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arjava" title="Arjava">Arjava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santosha" title="Santosha">Santosha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapas_(Indian_religions)" title="Tapas (Indian religions)">Tapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sv%C4%81dhy%C4%81ya" title="Svādhyāya">Svādhyāya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaucha" title="Shaucha">Shaucha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitahara" title="Mitahara">Mitahara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81stra_pram%C4%81%E1%B9%87am_in_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism">Sources of dharma</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">Epistemology</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pratyaksha" title="Pratyaksha">Pratyakṣa (perception)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pramana#Anumāṇa" title="Pramana">Anumāṇa (inference)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upam%C4%81%E1%B9%87a" class="mw-redirect" title="Upamāṇa">Upamāṇa (comparison, analogy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pramana#Arthāpatti" title="Pramana">Arthāpatti (postulation, presumption)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pramana#Anupalabdi" title="Pramana">Anupalabdi (non-perception, negation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabda" title="Shabda">Śabda (word, testimony)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Practices</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Worship_in_Hinduism" title="Worship in Hinduism">Worship</a>, sacrifice, and charity</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puja_(Hinduism)" title="Puja (Hinduism)">Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arti_(Hinduism)" title="Arti (Hinduism)">Ārtī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_in_Hinduism" title="Prayer in Hinduism">Prarthana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple" title="Hindu temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murti" title="Murti">Murti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">Bhakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japa" title="Japa">Japa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhajan" title="Bhajan">Bhajana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirtan" title="Kirtan">Kīrtana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajna" title="Yajna">Yajna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homa_(ritual)" title="Homa (ritual)">Homa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarpana" title="Tarpana">Tarpana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vrata" title="Vrata">Vrata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pr%C4%81ya%C5%9Bcitta" title="Prāyaścitta">Prāyaścitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirtha_(Hinduism)" title="Tirtha (Hinduism)">Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yatra" title="Yatra">Yatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites_in_India" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites in India">Tirthadana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matha" title="Matha">Matha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_classical_dance" title="Indian classical dance">Nritta-Nritya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sev%C4%81" title="Sevā">Sevā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exorcism_in_Hinduism" title="Exorcism in Hinduism">Exorcism</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Meditation</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tapas_(Indian_religions)" title="Tapas (Indian religions)">Tapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Hinduism" title="Dhyana in Hinduism">Dhyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam%C4%81dh%C4%81na" title="Samādhāna">Samādhāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nididhy%C4%81sana" title="Nididhyāsana">Nididhyāsana</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sadhu" title="Sadhu">Sadhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogi" title="Yogi">Yogi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogini" title="Yogini">Yogini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asana" title="Asana">Asana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81dhan%C4%81" title="Sādhanā">Sādhanā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatha_yoga" title="Hatha yoga">Hatha yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jnana_yoga" title="Jnana yoga">Jnana yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhakti_yoga" title="Bhakti yoga">Bhakti yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_yoga" title="Karma yoga">Karma yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81ja_yoga" title="Rāja yoga">Rāja yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kundalini_yoga" title="Kundalini yoga">Kundalini yoga</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_art" title="Hindu art">Arts</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bharatanatyam" title="Bharatanatyam">Bharatanatyam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathak" title="Kathak">Kathak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathakali" title="Kathakali">Kathakali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuchipudi" title="Kuchipudi">Kuchipudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipuri_dance" title="Manipuri dance">Manipuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohiniyattam" title="Mohiniyattam">Mohiniyattam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odissi" title="Odissi">Odissi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sattriya" title="Sattriya">Sattriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Mela" title="Bhagavata Mela">Bhagavata Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakshagana" title="Yakshagana">Yakshagana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dandiya_Raas" title="Dandiya Raas">Dandiya Raas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnatic_music" title="Carnatic music">Carnatic music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandav_Lila" title="Pandav Lila">Pandav Lila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalaripayattu" title="Kalaripayattu">Kalaripayattu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silambam" title="Silambam">Silambam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adimurai" title="Adimurai">Adimurai</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Samskara_(rite_of_passage)" title="Samskara (rite of passage)">Rites of passage</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garbhadhana" title="Garbhadhana">Garbhadhana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumsavana" title="Pumsavana">Pumsavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumsavana_Simantonayana" title="Pumsavana Simantonayana">Pumsavana Simantonayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simantonnayana" title="Simantonnayana">Simantonnayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jatakarma" title="Jatakarma">Jatakarma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81makara%E1%B9%87a" title="Nāmakaraṇa">Nāmakaraṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nishkramana" title="Nishkramana">Nishkramana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annaprashana" title="Annaprashana">Annaprashana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chudakarana" title="Chudakarana">Chudakarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karnavedha" title="Karnavedha">Karnavedha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidy%C4%81ra%E1%B9%83bha%E1%B9%83" title="Vidyāraṃbhaṃ">Vidyāraṃbhaṃ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanayana" title="Upanayana">Upanayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keshanta" title="Keshanta">Keshanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritu_Kala_Samskaram" title="Ritu Kala Samskaram">Ritushuddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samavartanam" title="Samavartanam">Samavartanam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_wedding" title="Hindu wedding">Vivaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antyesti" title="Antyesti">Antyesti</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_festivals" title="List of Hindu festivals">Festivals</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diwali" title="Diwali">Diwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holi" title="Holi">Holi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maha_Shivaratri" title="Maha Shivaratri">Maha Shivaratri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navaratri" title="Navaratri">Navaratri</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durga_Puja" title="Durga Puja">Durga Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramlila" title="Ramlila">Ramlila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayadashami" title="Vijayadashami">Vijayadashami-Dussehra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raksha_Bandhan" title="Raksha Bandhan">Raksha Bandhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganesh_Chaturthi" title="Ganesh Chaturthi">Ganesh Chaturthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasant_Panchami" title="Vasant Panchami">Vasant Panchami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rama_Navami" title="Rama Navami">Rama Navami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishna_Janmashtami" title="Krishna Janmashtami">Janmashtami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onam" title="Onam">Onam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makar_Sankranti" title="Makar Sankranti">Makar Sankranti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbh_Mela" title="Kumbh Mela">Kumbh Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pongal_(festival)" title="Pongal (festival)">Pongal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugadi" title="Ugadi">Ugadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisakhi" title="Vaisakhi">Vaisakhi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bihu" title="Bihu">Bihu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puthandu" title="Puthandu">Puthandu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishu" title="Vishu">Vishu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratha_Yatra_(Puri)" title="Ratha Yatra (Puri)">Ratha Yatra</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Philosophical schools</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Astika" class="mw-redirect" title="Astika">Six Astika schools</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_(philosophy)" title="Yoga (philosophy)">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Achintya Bheda Abheda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Svabhavika_Bhedabheda" class="mw-redirect" title="Svabhavika Bhedabheda">Svabhavika Bhedabheda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Akshar_Purushottam_Darshan" title="Akshar Purushottam Darshan">Akshar Purushottam Darshan</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Other schools</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_gurus_and_sants" title="List of Hindu gurus and sants">Gurus, Rishi, Philosophers</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">Ancient</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saptarshi" title="Saptarshi">Saptarshi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vashistha" class="mw-redirect" title="Vashistha">Vashistha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashyapa" title="Kashyapa">Kashyapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atri" title="Atri">Atri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamadagni" title="Jamadagni">Jamadagni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya_Sutras" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyaya Sutras">Gotama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishvamitra" title="Vishvamitra">Vishvamitra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharadwaja" class="mw-redirect" title="Bharadwaja">Bharadwaja</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agastya" title="Agastya">Agastya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiras" title="Angiras">Angiras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Aruni">Aruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashtavakra" title="Ashtavakra">Ashtavakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaimini" title="Jaimini">Jaimini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanada_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanada (philosopher)">Kanada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapila" title="Kapila">Kapila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patanjali" title="Patanjali">Patanjali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prashastapada" title="Prashastapada">Prashastapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raikva" title="Raikva">Raikva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyakama_Jabala" class="mw-redirect" title="Satyakama Jabala">Satyakama Jabala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valmiki" title="Valmiki">Valmiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyasa" title="Vyasa">Vyasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajnavalkya" title="Yajnavalkya">Yajnavalkya</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akka_Mahadevi" title="Akka Mahadevi">Akka Mahadevi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allama_Prabhu" title="Allama Prabhu">Allama Prabhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvars" title="Alvars">Alvars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basava" title="Basava">Basava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaitanya_Mahaprabhu" title="Chaitanya Mahaprabhu">Chaitanya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramdas_Kathiababa" title="Ramdas Kathiababa">Ramdas Kathiababa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakradhar_Swami" title="Chakradhar Swami">Chakradhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changdev" class="mw-redirect" title="Changdev">Chāngadeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dadu_Dayal" title="Dadu Dayal">Dadu Dayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eknath" title="Eknath">Eknath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangesha_Upadhyaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Gangesha Upadhyaya">Gangesha Upadhyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorakshanath" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorakshanath">Gorakshanatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haridasa_Thakur" title="Haridasa Thakur">Haridasa Thakur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hith_Harivansh_Mahaprabhu" title="Hith Harivansh Mahaprabhu">Harivansh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagannatha_Dasa_(Odia_poet)" title="Jagannatha Dasa (Odia poet)">Jagannatha Dasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayanta_Bhatta" title="Jayanta Bhatta">Jayanta Bhatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayatirtha" title="Jayatirtha">Jayatīrtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiva_Goswami" title="Jiva Goswami">Jiva Goswami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B1%C4%81ne%C5%9Bvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Jñāneśvar">Jñāneśvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabir" title="Kabir">Kabir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanaka_Dasa" title="Kanaka Dasa">Kanaka Dasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81rila_Bha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa" title="Kumārila Bhaṭṭa">Kumārila Bhaṭṭa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhus%C5%ABdana_Sarasvat%C4%AB" title="Madhusūdana Sarasvatī">Madhusūdana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhvacharya" title="Madhvacharya">Madhva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsyendranath" class="mw-redirect" title="Matsyendranath">Matsyendranatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morya_Gosavi" title="Morya Gosavi">Morya Gosavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukundraj" title="Mukundraj">Mukundarāja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namdev" title="Namdev">Namadeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narahari_Tirtha" title="Narahari Tirtha">Narahari Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narasimha_Saraswati" title="Narasimha Saraswati">Narasimha Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nayanars" title="Nayanars">Nayanars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarkacharya" class="mw-redirect" title="Nimbarkacharya">Nimbarkacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srinivasacharya" title="Srinivasacharya">Srinivasacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prabh%C4%81kara" title="Prabhākara">Prabhākara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purandara_Dasa" title="Purandara Dasa">Purandara Dasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raghavendra_Swami" class="mw-redirect" title="Raghavendra Swami">Raghavendra Swami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raghunatha_Siromani" title="Raghunatha Siromani">Raghunatha Siromani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raghuttama_Tirtha" title="Raghuttama Tirtha">Raghuttama Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram_Charan_(guru)" title="Ram Charan (guru)">Ram Charan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramananda" title="Ramananda">Ramananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramprasad_Sen" title="Ramprasad Sen">Ramprasad Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravidas" title="Ravidas">Ravidas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupa_Goswami" title="Rupa Goswami">Rupa Goswami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarth_Ramdas" title="Samarth Ramdas">Samarth Ramdas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sankardev" title="Sankardev">Sankardev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyanatha_Tirtha" title="Satyanatha Tirtha">Satyanatha Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddheshwar" title="Siddheshwar">Siddheshwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sripada_Srivallabha" class="mw-redirect" title="Sripada Srivallabha">Sripada Srivallabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sripadaraja" title="Sripadaraja">Sripadaraja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surdas" title="Surdas">Surdas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan" title="Swaminarayan">Swaminarayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syama_Sastri" title="Syama Sastri">Śyāma Śastri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukaram" title="Tukaram">Tukaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsidas" title="Tulsidas">Tulsidas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyagaraja" title="Tyagaraja">Tyagaraja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%81caspati_Mi%C5%9Bra" class="mw-redirect" title="Vācaspati Miśra">Vācaspati Miśra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vadiraja_Tirtha" title="Vadiraja Tirtha">Vadiraja Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vallabha" title="Vallabha">Vallabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta_Desika" title="Vedanta Desika">Vedanta Desika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidyaranya" title="Vidyaranya">Vidyaranya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyasaraja" class="mw-redirect" title="Vyasaraja">Vyasaraja</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Modern</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Aurobindo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaktisiddhanta_Sarasvati" title="Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati">Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaktivinoda_Thakur" title="Bhaktivinoda Thakur">Bhaktivinoda Thakur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandrashekarendra_Saraswati" class="mw-redirect" title="Chandrashekarendra Saraswati">Chandrashekarendra Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinmayananda" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinmayananda">Chinmayananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayananda_Saraswati" title="Dayananda Saraswati">Dayananda Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaggi_Vasudev" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaggi Vasudev">Jaggi Vasudev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishnananda_Saraswati" title="Krishnananda Saraswati">Krishnananda Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavatar_Babaji" title="Mahavatar Babaji">Mahavatar Babaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maharishi_Mahesh_Yogi" title="Maharishi Mahesh Yogi">Mahesh Yogi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narayana_Guru" title="Narayana Guru">Narayana Guru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigamananda_Paramahansa" title="Nigamananda Paramahansa">Nigamananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisargadatta_Maharaj" title="Nisargadatta Maharaj">Nisargadatta Maharaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._C._Bhaktivedanta_Swami_Prabhupada" title="A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada">Prabhupada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramachandra_Dattatrya_Ranade" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramachandra Dattatrya Ranade">R. D. Ranade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramakrishna" title="Ramakrishna">Ramakrishna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Rama_Tirtha" class="mw-redirect" title="Swami Rama Tirtha">Rama Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramana_Maharshi" title="Ramana Maharshi">Ramana Maharshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Shankar_(spiritual_leader)" title="Ravi Shankar (spiritual leader)">Ravi Shankar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Ramdas" title="Swami Ramdas">Ramdas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Samarth" title="Swami Samarth">Samarth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sathya_Sai_Baba" title="Sathya Sai Baba">Sathya Sai Baba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sai_Baba_of_Shirdi" title="Sai Baba of Shirdi">Shirdi Sai Baba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Shraddhanand" title="Swami Shraddhanand">Shraddhanand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyadhyana_Tirtha" title="Satyadhyana Tirtha">Satyadhyana Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddharameshwar_Maharaj" class="mw-redirect" title="Siddharameshwar Maharaj">Siddharameshwar Maharaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sivananda_Saraswati" title="Sivananda Saraswati">Sivananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trailanga" title="Trailanga">Trailanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U._G._Krishnamurti" title="U. G. Krishnamurti">U. G. Krishnamurti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upasni_Maharaj" class="mw-redirect" title="Upasni Maharaj">Upasni Maharaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vethathiri_Maharishi" title="Vethathiri Maharishi">Vethathiri Maharishi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramahansa_Yogananda" title="Paramahansa Yogananda">Yogananda</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Texts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81stra_pram%C4%81%E1%B9%87am_in_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism">Sources and classification of scripture</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aruti" title="Śruti">Śruti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Smṛti">Smṛti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80c%C4%81ra" title="Ācāra">Ācāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmatusti" title="Atmatusti">Ātmatuṣṭi</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Scriptures</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Hindu_texts" title="Timeline of Hindu texts">Timeline of Hindu texts</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dd><i>Divisions</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samhitapatha" class="mw-redirect" title="Samhitapatha">Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></div></dt></dl> <dl><dd><i>Rigveda:</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad" title="Aitareya Upanishad">Aitareya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kaushitaki_Upanishad" title="Kaushitaki Upanishad">Kaushitaki</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dd><i>Yajurveda:</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad">Brihadaranyaka</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Isha_Upanishad" title="Isha Upanishad">Isha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taittiriya_Upanishad" title="Taittiriya Upanishad">Taittiriya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katha_Upanishad" title="Katha Upanishad">Katha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad" title="Shvetashvatara Upanishad">Shvetashvatara</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maitrayaniya_Upanishad" title="Maitrayaniya Upanishad">Maitri</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dd><i>Samaveda:</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chandogya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kena_Upanishad" title="Kena Upanishad">Kena</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dd><i>Atharvaveda:</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mundaka_Upanishad" title="Mundaka Upanishad">Mundaka</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mandukya_Upanishad" title="Mandukya Upanishad">Mandukya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prashna_Upanishad" title="Prashna Upanishad">Prashna</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Vedangas" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedangas">Vedangas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shiksha" title="Shiksha">Shiksha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_metre" title="Vedic metre">Chandas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">Vyākaraṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">Nirukta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyotisha" class="mw-redirect" title="Jyotisha">Jyotisha</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_scriptures" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Hindu scriptures">Other scriptures</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agama_(Hinduism)" title="Agama (Hinduism)"><i>Agama</i>s (Hinduism)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Itihasa-Purana" title="Itihasa-Purana">Itihasas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Vishnu_Purana" title="Vishnu Purana">Vishnu Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Purana" title="Bhagavata Purana">Bhagavata Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Devi_Bhagavata_Purana" title="Devi Bhagavata Purana">Devi Bhagavata Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naradiya_Purana" title="Naradiya Purana">Naradiya Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vamana_Purana" title="Vamana Purana">Vāmana Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Matsya_Purana" title="Matsya Purana">Matsya Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Garuda_Purana" title="Garuda Purana">Garuda Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Purana" title="Brahma Purana">Brahma Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahmanda_Purana" title="Brahmanda Purana">Brahmanda Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Vaivarta_Purana" title="Brahma Vaivarta Purana">Brahma Vaivarta Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhavishya_Purana" title="Bhavishya Purana">Bhavishya Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Padma_Purana" title="Padma Purana">Padma Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Agni_Purana" title="Agni Purana">Agni Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Purana" title="Shiva Purana">Shiva Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Linga_Purana" title="Linga Purana">Linga Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kurma_Purana" title="Kurma Purana">Kūrma Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Skanda_Purana" title="Skanda Purana">Skanda Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Varaha_Purana" title="Varaha Purana">Varaha Purana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Markandeya_Purana" title="Markandeya Purana">Markandeya Purana</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Vedas#Upaveda" title="Vedas">Upavedas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhanurveda" title="Dhanurveda">Dhanurveda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gandharvaveda" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandharvaveda">Gandharvaveda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sthapatyaveda" class="mw-redirect" title="Sthapatyaveda">Sthapatyaveda</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Shastra" title="Shastra">Shastras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">sutras</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Samhita" title="Samhita">samhitas</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharma Shastra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Artha Śastra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shilpa_Shastras" title="Shilpa Shastras">Shilpa Shastras</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kama_Sutra" title="Kama Sutra">Kama Sutra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sutras" title="Brahma Sutras">Brahma Sutras</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samkhya_Pravachana_Sutra" title="Samkhya Pravachana Sutra">Samkhya Sutras</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Purva_Mimamsa_Sutras" title="Purva Mimamsa Sutras">Mimamsa Sutras</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vai%C5%9Be%E1%B9%A3ika_S%C5%ABtra" title="Vaiśeṣika Sūtra">Vaiśeṣika Sūtra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sutras</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">Pramana Sutras</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Charaka_Samhita" title="Charaka Samhita">Charaka Samhita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sushruta_Samhita" title="Sushruta Samhita">Sushruta Samhita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Natya Shastra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Panchatantra" title="Panchatantra">Panchatantra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naalayira_Divya_Prabandham" title="Naalayira Divya Prabandham">Naalayira Divya Prabandham</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ramcharitmanas" title="Ramcharitmanas">Ramcharitmanas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasistha" title="Yoga Vasistha">Yoga Vasistha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Swarodaya" title="Shiva Swarodaya">Swara yoga</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Panchadasi" title="Panchadasi">Panchadasi</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Stotra" title="Stotra">Stotras</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_suktas_and_stutis" title="List of suktas and stutis">stutis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bhashya" title="Bhashya">Bhashya</a> </div></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kanakadhara_Stotra" title="Kanakadhara Stotra">Kanakadhara Stotra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Stuti" title="Shiva Stuti">Shiva Stuti</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vayu_Stuti" title="Vayu Stuti">Vayu Stuti</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed"><a href="/wiki/Tamil_literature" title="Tamil literature">Tamil literature</a></div></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naalayira_Divya_Prabandham" title="Naalayira Divya Prabandham">Naalayira Divya Prabandham</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tirumuruk%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai">Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tiruppukal" title="Tiruppukal">Tiruppukal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kural" title="Kural">Kural</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kamba_Ramayanam" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamba Ramayanam">Kamba Ramayanam/Ramavataram</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Five_Great_Epics" title="Five Great Epics">Five Great Epics</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Greater_Texts" title="Eighteen Greater Texts">Eighteen Greater Texts</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Lesser_Texts" title="Eighteen Lesser Texts">Eighteen Lesser Texts</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Athichudi" title="Athichudi">Athichudi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Iraiyanar_Akapporul" title="Iraiyanar Akapporul">Iraiyanar Akapporul</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Abirami_Antati" title="Abirami Antati">Abirami Antati</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thiruvilaiyadal_Puranam" title="Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam">Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vinayagar_Agaval" title="Vinayagar Agaval">Vinayagar Agaval</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed; border-bottom:1px dotted"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_texts" title="List of Hindu texts">Other texts</a></div></dt></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border:1px solid #FFC569;background:#FFC569;padding-top:0.1em;padding-left:3em; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Hindu Culture & Society</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border:2px solid #FDE7B9"> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Society</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">Varna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayastha" title="Kayastha">Kayastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishya</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Shudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit" title="Dalit">Dalit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%81ti" title="Jāti">Jāti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotra" title="Gotra">Gotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvija" title="Dvija">Dvija</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dasa" title="Dasa">Dasa</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Hindu Art</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_art" title="Hindu art">Hindu art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_iconography" title="Hindu iconography">Hindu iconography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shilpa_Shastras" title="Shilpa Shastras">Shilpa Shastras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics)" title="Rasa (aesthetics)">Rasa (aesthetics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_aesthetics" title="Indian aesthetics">Indian aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yantra" title="Yantra">Yantra</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Hindu Architecture</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_architecture" title="Hindu architecture">Hindu architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Hindu temple architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vastu_shastra" title="Vastu shastra">Vastu shastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talamana" title="Talamana">Talamana</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Hindu Music</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_music" title="Hindu music">Hindu music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shruti_(music)" title="Shruti (music)">Shruti (music)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svara" title="Svara">Svara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alank%C4%81ra" title="Alankāra">Alankāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tala_(music)" title="Tala (music)">Tala (music)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raga" title="Raga">Raga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics)" title="Rasa (aesthetics)">Rasa (aesthetics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangita" title="Sangita">Sangita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vadya" title="Vadya">Vadya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Natya Shastra</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; background-color:#ffd6ad; border-top:0px dashed">Food & Diet Customs</div></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_in_Hinduism" title="Diet in Hinduism">Diet in Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sattvic_diet" title="Sattvic diet">Sattvic diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitahara" title="Mitahara">Mitahara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jhatka" title="Jhatka">Jhatka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vrata" title="Vrata">Vrata</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><div style="font-size: 100%; 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Theoretically, Shudras constituted a class like workers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199060–61,_192–200,_261–267_with_footnotes_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199060–61,_192–200,_261–267_with_footnotes-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye196915–17,_Quote:_"This_was_only_generally_true,_for_there_were_groups_of_occupations_like_trading,_agriculture,_labouring_in_the_field_and_doing_military_service_which_were_looked_upon_as_anybody's,_and_most_caste_were_supposed_to_be_eligible_for_any_of_them._5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196915–17,_Quote:_"This_was_only_generally_true,_for_there_were_groups_of_occupations_like_trading,_agriculture,_labouring_in_the_field_and_doing_military_service_which_were_looked_upon_as_anybody's,_and_most_caste_were_supposed_to_be_eligible_for_any_of_them.-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> According to <a href="/wiki/Richard_Gombrich" title="Richard Gombrich">Richard Gombrich</a>'s study of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a>, particularly relating to castes in <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lankan Buddhist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil Hindu">Tamil Hindu</a> society, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"The terms Vaisya and Sudra did not correspond to any clear-cut social units, even in the ancient period, but various groups were subsumed under each term [...]; In medieval times (say AD 500–1500) though society was still said to consist of the four classes, this classification seems to have become irrelevant[.]"</p></blockquote> <p>The word <i>Shudra</i> appears in the <i><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></i> and it is found in other Hindu texts such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Manusmriti" title="Manusmriti">Manusmriti</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">dharmaśāstras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jyoti%E1%B8%A5%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Jyotiḥśāstra">jyotiḥśāstras</a>. In some cases, Shudras participated in the coronation of kings, or were <a href="/wiki/Amatya" title="Amatya">amatya</a> "ministers" and <a href="/wiki/Raja" title="Raja">rajas</a> "kings" according to early Indian texts.<sup id="cite_ref-jabbar148_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jabbar148-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199054–61,_267–268_with_footnotes_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199054–61,_267–268_with_footnotes-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vedas">Vedas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Vedas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>śūdra</i> appears only once in the <i>Rigveda</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham198925–26_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham198925–26-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199033_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199033-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This mention is found in the mythical story of creation embodied in the <i><a href="/wiki/Purusha_Sukta" title="Purusha Sukta">Puruṣasuktam</a></i>. It describes the formation of the four varnas from the body of a <a href="/wiki/Purusha" title="Purusha">primeval man</a>. It states that the <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">brahmin</a> emerged from his mouth, the <a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">kshatriya</a> from his arms, the <a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">vaishya</a> from his thighs and the shudra from his feet. According to historian <a href="/wiki/Ram_Sharan_Sharma" title="Ram Sharan Sharma">Ram Sharan Sharma</a>, the purpose of this verse may have been to show that shudras had the same lineage as the other varnas and hence were a section of society in the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a>. On the other hand, it could also represent an attempt to provide a common mythical origin for the heterogenous Brahminical society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199032_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199032-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sharma1983_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharma1983-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsintroductiontohi0000floopage36_36-37]_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsintroductiontohi0000floopage36_36-37]-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the <i>Rigveda</i> was most likely compiled between c. 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199637_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199637-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19954_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19954-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> John Muir in 1868 suggested that the verse that mentions the four varnas has "every character of modernness both in its diction and ideas".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Purusha Sukta</i> verse is now generally considered to have been inserted at a later date into the Vedic text, possibly as a <a href="/wiki/Origin_myth" title="Origin myth">charter myth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_JamisonJoel_Brereton201457–58_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_JamisonJoel_Brereton201457–58-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Stephanie_W._Jamison" title="Stephanie W. Jamison">Stephanie W. Jamison</a> and Joel Brereton, "there is no evidence in the Rigveda for an elaborate, much-subdivided and overarching caste system", and "the varna system seems to be embryonic in the Rigveda and, both then and later, a social ideal rather than a social reality".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_JamisonJoel_Brereton201457–58_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_JamisonJoel_Brereton201457–58-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Ram_Sharan_Sharma" title="Ram Sharan Sharma">Ram Sharan Sharma</a> states that "the Rig Vedic society was neither organized on the basis of social division of labour nor on that of differences in wealth... [it] was primarily organised based on kin, tribe and lineage."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199010_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199010-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Sharma, nowhere in the <i>Ṛgveda</i> or <i>Atharvaveda</i> "is there any evidence of restrictions regarding food and marriage either between the Dasa and Aryan, or between the Shudra and the higher varnas". Further, adds Sharma, in late Atharva Veda, "Shudra does not come in for notice, probably because his varna did not exist at that stage".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199044–45_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199044–45-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Romila_Thapar" title="Romila Thapar">Romila Thapar</a>, the Vedic text's mention of Shudra and other varnas has been seen as its origin, and that "in the varna ordering of society, notions of purity and pollution were central and activities were worked out in this context" and it is "formulaic and orderly, dividing society into four groups arranged in a hierarchy".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar200463_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar200463-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Sharma, the Shudra class originated from <a href="/wiki/Aryan#Proto-Indo-Iranians" title="Aryan">Indo-Aryans and non-Indo-Aryans</a> who were relegated to that position due "partly through external and partly through internal conflicts".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199045_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199045-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word <i>pusan</i> appears in a Vedic-era <a href="/wiki/Upanishad" class="mw-redirect" title="Upanishad">upanishad</a> meaning "nourisher" and associates it with the creation of earth and production activities that nourishes the whole world, and the text calls this <i>Pusan</i> as Shudra.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199049–50_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199049–50-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>Pusan</i>, in Hindu mythology, is the charioteer of the sun who knows the paths thereby bringing light, knowledge and life to all.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same word <i>pusan</i> is, however, associated in a <a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a> text to <a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishya</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199049–50_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199049–50-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Arthashastra"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ancient Hindu text <i>Arthashastra</i> states, according to Sharma, that <i>Aryas</i> were free men and could not be subject to slavery under any circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma1958163_(1990:177)_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma1958163_(1990:177)-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The text contrasts <i>Aryas</i> with <i>Shudra</i>, but neither as a hereditary slave nor as an economically closed social stratum in a manner that the term Shudra later was interpreted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._R._Bhandarkar19899_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._R._Bhandarkar19899-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma1958163_(1990:177)_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma1958163_(1990:177)-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoger_Boesche2013103–104_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoger_Boesche2013103–104-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Rangarajan, the law on labour and employment in <i>Arthashastra</i> has led to a variety of different interpretations by different translators and commentators, and "the accepted view is that slavery, in the form it was practised in contemporary Greece, did not exist in Kautilyan India".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELN_Rangarajan1992411_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELN_Rangarajan1992411-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kautilya" class="mw-redirect" title="Kautilya">Kautilya</a> argued for the rights of Shudras and all classes to participate as warriors. Roger Borsche says that this is so because it is in the self-interest of the ruler to "have a people's army fiercely loyal to him precisely because the people had been treated justly".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoger_Boesche2013103–104_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoger_Boesche2013103–104-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manusmriti">Manusmriti</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Manusmriti"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>Manusmriti</i> predominantly discusses the code of conduct (dharma rules) for the Brahmins (priestly class) and the Kshatriyas (king, administration and warrior class).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatrick_Olivelle200516,_62–65_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatrick_Olivelle200516,_62–65-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The text mentions Shudras and Vaishyas, but this part is its shortest section. Sections–of the <i>Manusmriti</i> state eight rules for Vaishyas and two for Shudras.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatrick_Olivelle200516,_8–14,_206–207_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatrick_Olivelle200516,_8–14,_206–207-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Indologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Indologist">Indologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Olivelle" title="Patrick Olivelle">Patrick Olivelle</a>, the <i>Manusmriti</i> says Brahmins may seize property from Shudras (because Shudras own nothing)<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that Shudras should not accumulate wealth as if they become wealthy they could gain undue power. <sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In sections 10.43 - 10.44, Manu lists <a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a> tribes who, neglecting the priests and their rites, had fallen to the status of Shudras. These are: <a href="/wiki/Pundravardhana" title="Pundravardhana">Pundrakas</a>, Codas, <a href="/wiki/Dravida_kingdom" title="Dravida kingdom">Dravidas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kambojas" title="Kambojas">Kambojas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yavana" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavana">Yavanas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Sakas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parada_kingdom" title="Parada kingdom">Paradas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pahlavas" title="Pahlavas">Pahlavas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinas" title="Chinas">Chinas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kirata" title="Kirata">Kiratas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daradas" title="Daradas">Daradas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khas_people" title="Khas people">Khasas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yajnavalkya_smriti_and_Grhyasutras">Yajnavalkya smriti and Grhyasutras</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Yajnavalkya smriti and Grhyasutras"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Laurie_L._Patton" title="Laurie L. Patton">Laurie Patton</a>, a professor of religion specialising in early Indian religions, the rights and status of Shudra vary widely across early Indian texts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200290_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200290-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Apastamba Grhysutra</i> excludes the Shudra students from hearing or learning the Vedas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200290_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200290-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Yajnavalkya_Smriti" class="mw-redirect" title="Yajnavalkya Smriti">Yajnavalkya Smriti</a></i> in contrast, mentions Shudra students, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></i> states that all four varnas, including the Shudras, may hear the Vedas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200290–91_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200290–91-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma1990293_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma1990293-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other Hindu texts go further and state that the three varnas – Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya – may acquire knowledge from Shudra teachers, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Yajna" title="Yajna">yajna</a></i> sacrifices may be performed by Shudras.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200291_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200291-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These rights and social mobility for Shudras may have arisen in times of lower societal stress and greater economic prosperity, periods that also saw improvement in the social conditions of women.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200290–91_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200290–91-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_Upanishads">Medieval Upanishads</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Medieval Upanishads"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Medieval era texts such as <i><a href="/wiki/Vajrasuchi_Upanishad" title="Vajrasuchi Upanishad">Vajrasuchi Upanishad</a></i> discuss varna and include the term Shudra.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Ashwani Peetush, a professor of philosophy at the Wilfrid Laurier University, the <i>Vajrasuchi Upanishad</i> is a significant text because it assumes and asserts that any human being from any social background can achieve the highest spiritual state of existence.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-Hindu_texts">Non-Hindu texts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Non-Hindu texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Outside of the conflicting stances within the Hindu texts, non-Hindu texts present a different picture about the Shudras. A Buddhist text, states Patton, "refers to Shudras who know the Vedas, grammar, <a href="/wiki/Mimamsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimamsa">Mimamsa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lagna" title="Lagna">lagna</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200290_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200290-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Bronkhorst" title="Johannes Bronkhorst">Johannes Bronkhorst</a>, a professor of Indology specialising in early Buddhism and Hinduism, the ancient Buddhist canon is predominantly devoid of varna discussions, and the varnas are rarely referred to in its ancient discourses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohannes_Bronkhorst201134_with_footnotes_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohannes_Bronkhorst201134_with_footnotes-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Buddhist texts do not describe the Indian society as divided into the four varṇas of "Brahmins, Ksạtriyas, Vaiśyas and Śūdras". Instead, states Bronkhorst, the bulk of society is described as consisting of "householders" (Pāli: <i>gahapati</i>), without internal distinctions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohannes_Bronkhorst201134_with_footnotes_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohannes_Bronkhorst201134_with_footnotes-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even where the Brahmins are mentioned in such a context, they too are referred to as householders, or <i>Brāhmaṇa-gahapati</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohannes_Bronkhorst201134–35_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohannes_Bronkhorst201134–35-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>vaṇṇa</i> does appear in the Buddhist texts as few exceptions, but states Bronkhorst, only in the context of abstract divisions of society and it seems to "have remained a theoretical concept without any parallel in actual practice".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohannes_Bronkhorst201135_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohannes_Bronkhorst201135-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education">Education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historian R. S. Sharma, after discussing several examples concludes that the dharmaśāstras did not allow the Shudras access to <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a> but allowed them to learn arts and crafts such as elephant training, etc. He also adds that texts denied them Vedic education as it was believed to impede agriculture and vice versa. While the other varnas showed varying degrees of literacy, the Shudras were generally illiterate.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The social reformer <a href="/wiki/Jyotirao_Phule" title="Jyotirao Phule">Jyotirao Phule</a> blamed the deterioration of the Shudras on illiteracy and emphasised education for them.<sup id="cite_ref-JyotiraoPhuleonShudra_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JyotiraoPhuleonShudra-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Occupation">Occupation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Occupation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:From_left_to_right-_A_Gurkha,_a_Brahmin_and_a_Sood.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/From_left_to_right-_A_Gurkha%2C_a_Brahmin_and_a_Sood.jpg/220px-From_left_to_right-_A_Gurkha%2C_a_Brahmin_and_a_Sood.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/From_left_to_right-_A_Gurkha%2C_a_Brahmin_and_a_Sood.jpg/330px-From_left_to_right-_A_Gurkha%2C_a_Brahmin_and_a_Sood.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/From_left_to_right-_A_Gurkha%2C_a_Brahmin_and_a_Sood.jpg/440px-From_left_to_right-_A_Gurkha%2C_a_Brahmin_and_a_Sood.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2801" data-file-height="3473" /></a><figcaption>From left to right: A <a href="/wiki/Gurkha" title="Gurkha">Gurkha</a>, a Brahmin, and a Shudra, Simla, 1868.</figcaption></figure> <p>Traditionally, Shudras were <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artisan" title="Artisan">artisans</a>. The ancient texts designate the Shudra as a peasant. Shudras were described as the giver of grain and ancient texts describe a Shudra's mode of earning as being "by the sickle and ears of corn". The ancient precept, "Vedas are destroyer of agriculture and agriculture is destroyer of Vedas", is shown as one of the reasons as to why the Shudras were not allowed to learn Vedas. The fact that peasants were held as Shudras is also documented by Chinese traveller <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> in the <a href="/wiki/7th_century" title="7th century">7th century</a>. Also, an "outcaste" who entered the profession of agriculture would be absorbed in the Shudra varna.<sup id="cite_ref-ShudraPeasantSources_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShudraPeasantSources-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Shudra, states Marvin Davis, are not required to learn the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>. They were not <i><a href="/wiki/Dvija" title="Dvija">dvija</a></i> or "twice-born", and their occupational sphere stated as service (<i>seva</i>) of the other three varna.<sup id="cite_ref-davis51_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davis51-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar200463_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar200463-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word <i>Dvija</i> is neither found in any <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a>, nor is it found in any Vedanga literature such as the Shrauta-sutras or Grihya-sutras.<sup id="cite_ref-DIntinoGuenzi2012p117_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DIntinoGuenzi2012p117-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word is almost entirely missing, in any context, from ancient Sanskrit literature composed before the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE, and it scarcely appears in the dharmasutras.<sup id="cite_ref-DIntinoGuenzi2012p117_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DIntinoGuenzi2012p117-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increasing mentions of it appear in the dharmasastras of mid to late 1st millennium CE. The presence of the word <i>dvija</i> is a marker that the text is likely a medieval-era text.<sup id="cite_ref-DIntinoGuenzi2012p117_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DIntinoGuenzi2012p117-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The traditional occupation of Shudra as described by Ghurye is agriculture, trade and crafts.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this categorisation varies by scholar.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye196963–64,_102_Quote:_"treat_both_the_Vaishyas_and_the_Shudras_as_almost_indistinguishable._The_occupations_prescribed_by_Parashara,_who_is_par_excellence_the_mentor_of_the_age,_for_both_of_them_are_the_same,_viz._agriculture,_trade_and_crafts"_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196963–64,_102_Quote:_"treat_both_the_Vaishyas_and_the_Shudras_as_almost_indistinguishable._The_occupations_prescribed_by_Parashara,_who_is_par_excellence_the_mentor_of_the_age,_for_both_of_them_are_the_same,_viz._agriculture,_trade_and_crafts"-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As per Drekmeier state "Vaishya and Shudra actually shared many occupations and were frequently grouped together".<sup id="cite_ref-Drekmeier1962p85_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drekmeier1962p85-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma1990263–269,_342–345_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma1990263–269,_342–345-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>Arthashastra</i> mentions Shudra as artisans while the <i>Vishnusmriti</i> (3rd century) states all arts to be their occupational domain. In contrast, the <i>Parasarasmriti</i> and other texts state that arts and crafts are the occupational domain of all four varnas.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other sources state that this statement of occupations of Shudra is a theoretical discussion found in select texts, it is not historical. Other Hindu texts such as the epics, states Naheem Jabbar, assert that Shudras played other roles such as kings and ministers.<sup id="cite_ref-jabbar148_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jabbar148-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Ghurye,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye196915–16_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196915–16-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in reality, the hereditary occupation aspect of Shudra and other varnas was missing from large parts of India, and all four varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras) were agriculturalists, traders or became warriors in large numbers depending on economic opportunity and circumstantial necessities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye196916–17_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196916–17-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Ghurye: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>Though theoretically the position of the Shudras was very low, there is evidence to show that many of them were well-to-do. Some of them succeeded in marrying their daughters in royal families. Sumitra, one of the 3 wives of king Dasharatha, was a Shudra. Some of them even worked their way up to throne. </p> <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>G. C. Ghurye, <i>Caste and Race in India</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye196963_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196963-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bali,_Indonesia"><span id="Bali.2C_Indonesia"></span>Bali, Indonesia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Bali, Indonesia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Among the Hindu communities of Bali, Indonesia, the Shudra (locally spelled <i>Soedra</i>) have typically been the temple priests, though depending on the demographics, a temple priest may also be a Brahmin (Brahmana), Kshatriya (Ksatrya) or Vaishya. In most regions, it has been the Shudra who typically make offerings to the gods on behalf of the Hindu devotees, chant prayers, recite <i>meweda</i> (Vedas), and set the course of Balinese temple festivals.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_evidence">Historical evidence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Historical evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scholars have tried to locate historical evidence for the existence and nature of <i>varna</i> and <i>jati</i> in documents and inscriptions of medieval India. Supporting evidence for the existence of <i>varna</i> and <i>jati</i> systems in medieval India has been elusive, and contradicting evidence has emerged.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbot200150–51_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbot200150–51-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrr200030–31_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrr200030–31-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Varna</i> is rarely mentioned in the extensive medieval era records of <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a>, for example. This has led Cynthia Talbot, a professor of history and Asian studies, to question whether <i>varna</i> was socially significant in the daily lives of this region. The mention of <i>jati</i> is even rarer, through the 13th century. Two rare temple donor records from warrior families of the 14th century claim to be Shudras. One states that Shudras are the bravest, the other states that Shudras are the purest.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbot200150–51_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbot200150–51-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Richard Eaton, a professor of history, writes, "anyone could become a warrior regardless of social origins, nor do the <i>jati</i> appear as features of people's identity. Occupations were fluid." Evidence shows, according to Eaton, that Shudras were part of the nobility, and many "father and sons had different professions, suggesting that social status was earned, not inherited" in the Hindu <a href="/wiki/Kakatiya_dynasty" title="Kakatiya dynasty">Kakatiya</a> population in the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a> region between the 11th and 14th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEaton200815–16_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEaton200815–16-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Johannes Bronkhorst, none of Ashoka's inscriptions mention the terms Kshatriyas, Vaishyas or Shudras, and only mention Brahmins and <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohannes_Bronkhorst201132,_36_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohannes_Bronkhorst201132,_36-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several popular medieval era <a href="/wiki/Bhakti_movement" title="Bhakti movement">Bhakti movement</a> poet-saints and religious leaders were born in a Shudra family. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Tukaram" title="Tukaram">Tukaram</a> and <a href="/wiki/Namdev" title="Namdev">Namdev</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENovetzke201354–55_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENovetzke201354–55-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The compositions of Namdev have been popular not only in the Hindu community of <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a>, but also in the Sikh community. Sixty of his compositions were included by the Sikh Gurus of Punjab region as they compiled the <a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a> scripture the <i><a href="/wiki/Guru_Granth_Sahib" title="Guru Granth Sahib">Guru Granth Sahib</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Commentary">Commentary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Commentary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Women_of_all_nations;_a_record_of_their_characteristics,_habits,_manners,_customs_and_influence_(1908)_(14596144980).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Women_of_all_nations%3B_a_record_of_their_characteristics%2C_habits%2C_manners%2C_customs_and_influence_%281908%29_%2814596144980%29.jpg/220px-Women_of_all_nations%3B_a_record_of_their_characteristics%2C_habits%2C_manners%2C_customs_and_influence_%281908%29_%2814596144980%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Women_of_all_nations%3B_a_record_of_their_characteristics%2C_habits%2C_manners%2C_customs_and_influence_%281908%29_%2814596144980%29.jpg/330px-Women_of_all_nations%3B_a_record_of_their_characteristics%2C_habits%2C_manners%2C_customs_and_influence_%281908%29_%2814596144980%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Women_of_all_nations%3B_a_record_of_their_characteristics%2C_habits%2C_manners%2C_customs_and_influence_%281908%29_%2814596144980%29.jpg/440px-Women_of_all_nations%3B_a_record_of_their_characteristics%2C_habits%2C_manners%2C_customs_and_influence_%281908%29_%2814596144980%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1674" data-file-height="1198" /></a><figcaption>A 1908 photo of a <a href="/wiki/Bride" title="Bride">bride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bridegroom" title="Bridegroom">bridegroom</a> of the sudra caste in a <a href="/wiki/Horse-drawn_vehicle" title="Horse-drawn vehicle">horse-drawn vehicle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar</a>, a social reformer, believed that there were initially only three varnas: the <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishya</a>, and that the Shudras were the Kshatriyas who were denied the <a href="/wiki/Upanayana" title="Upanayana">Upanayana</a>, an initiation ritual, by the Brahmins.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This claim has been contested by historians such as <a href="/wiki/Ram_Sharan_Sharma" title="Ram Sharan Sharma">R. S. Sharma</a>. Sharma criticised Ambedkar for relying solely on translations of texts for his information, and stated Ambedkar wrote the book with the sole purpose to prove Shudras were of high caste origin, which was very popular among the highly educated parts of the lower castes during that time period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma19905_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma19905-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Sri Aurobindo</a> states Shudra and the other varna is a concept found in all human beings in different proportions. He states that this was externalised and mechanised into a system quite different from what it was intended.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAurobindo1996740–747_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAurobindo1996740–747-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The tenets of Vedic Hinduism in north India held less sway in the south, where the societal divisions were simply Brahmin and Shudra. However, some non-Brahmins, like the <a href="/wiki/Vellalar" title="Vellalar">Vellalar</a>, adopted the classification of <i>Sat Shudra</i> (clean Shudra) in an attempt to distinguish themselves from other non-Brahmin communities.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sat-Sudra" title="Sat-Sudra">Sat-Sudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuhra" title="Chuhra">Chuhra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_Backward_Class" title="Other Backward Class">Other Backward Class</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Who_Were_the_Shudras%3F" title="Who Were the Shudras?">Who Were the Shudras?</a> (Book)</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/eastern-religions/hinduism/sudra">"Sudra | Encyclopedia.com"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sudra+%7C+Encyclopedia.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fphilosophy-and-religion%2Feastern-religions%2Fhinduism%2Fsudra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199060–61,_192–200,_261–267_with_footnotes-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199060–61,_192–200,_261–267_with_footnotes_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199060–61,_192–200,_261–267_with_footnotes_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSharma1990">Sharma 1990</a>, pp. 60–61, 192–200, 261–267 with footnotes.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-davis51-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-davis51_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davis51_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDavis1983" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Marvin (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_kw4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52"><i>Rank and Rivalry: The Politics of Inequality in Rural West Bengal</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521288804" title="Special:BookSources/9780521288804"><bdi>9780521288804</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rank+and+Rivalry%3A+The+Politics+of+Inequality+in+Rural+West+Bengal&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9780521288804&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Marvin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_kw4AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaradaraja_V._Raman2006200–204-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVaradaraja_V._Raman2006200–204_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVaradaraja_V._Raman2006200–204_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVaradaraja_V._Raman2006">Varadaraja V. Raman 2006</a>, pp. 200–204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196915–17,_Quote:_"This_was_only_generally_true,_for_there_were_groups_of_occupations_like_trading,_agriculture,_labouring_in_the_field_and_doing_military_service_which_were_looked_upon_as_anybody's,_and_most_caste_were_supposed_to_be_eligible_for_any_of_them.-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye196915–17,_Quote:_"This_was_only_generally_true,_for_there_were_groups_of_occupations_like_trading,_agriculture,_labouring_in_the_field_and_doing_military_service_which_were_looked_upon_as_anybody's,_and_most_caste_were_supposed_to_be_eligible_for_any_of_them._5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGhurye1969">Ghurye 1969</a>, pp. 15–17, Quote: "This was only generally true, for there were groups of occupations like trading, agriculture, labouring in the field and doing military service which were looked upon as anybody's, and most caste were supposed to be eligible for any of them..</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Gombrich2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Gombrich" title="Richard Gombrich">Richard Gombrich</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uZQrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA343">"Chapter 8. Caste in the Monastery"</a>. <i>Buddhist Precept & Practice</i>. Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">343–</span>357. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-15616-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-15616-8"><bdi>978-1-136-15616-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+8.+Caste+in+the+Monastery&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Precept+%26+Practice&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E343-%3C%2Fspan%3E357&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-136-15616-8&rft.au=Richard+Gombrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuZQrBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA343&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jabbar148-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jabbar148_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jabbar148_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNaheem_Jabbar2009" class="citation book cs1">Naheem Jabbar (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0wt6AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA148"><i>Historiography and Writing Postcolonial India</i></a>. Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">148–</span>149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-01040-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-01040-0"><bdi>978-1-134-01040-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historiography+and+Writing+Postcolonial+India&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E148-%3C%2Fspan%3E149&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-134-01040-0&rft.au=Naheem+Jabbar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0wt6AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199054–61,_267–268_with_footnotes-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199054–61,_267–268_with_footnotes_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSharma1990">Sharma 1990</a>, pp. 54–61, 267–268 with footnotes.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasham198925–26-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasham198925–26_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBasham1989">Basham 1989</a>, pp. 25–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199033-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199033_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSharma1990">Sharma 1990</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199032-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199032_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSharma1990">Sharma 1990</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharma1983-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sharma1983_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSharma1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ram_Sharan_Sharma" title="Ram Sharan Sharma">Sharma, Ram Sharan</a> (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GN_ZAAAAMAAJ"><i>Material culture and social formations in ancient India</i></a>. Macmillan. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780333904169" title="Special:BookSources/9780333904169"><bdi>9780333904169</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Material+culture+and+social+formations+in+ancient+India&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9780333904169&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=Ram+Sharan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGN_ZAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsintroductiontohi0000floopage36_36-37]-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996[httpsarchiveorgdetailsintroductiontohi0000floopage36_36-37]_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/36">36-37</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199637-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199637_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel19954-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel19954_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWitzel1995">Witzel 1995</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMuir1868" class="citation book cs1">Muir, John (1868). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K5ooAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA12"><i>Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India: Their Religion and Institutions, Volume 1</i></a> (2nd ed.). London: Trubner and Co. p. 12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Original+Sanskrit+Texts+on+the+Origin+and+History+of+the+People+of+India%3A+Their+Religion+and+Institutions%2C+Volume+1&rft.place=London&rft.pages=12&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Trubner+and+Co&rft.date=1868&rft.aulast=Muir&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK5ooAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephanie_JamisonJoel_Brereton201457–58-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_JamisonJoel_Brereton201457–58_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephanie_JamisonJoel_Brereton201457–58_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStephanie_JamisonJoel_Brereton2014">Stephanie Jamison & Joel Brereton 2014</a>, pp. 57–58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMoriz_WinternitzV._Srinivasa_Sarma1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Moriz_Winternitz" title="Moriz Winternitz">Moriz Winternitz</a>; V. Srinivasa Sarma (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA59"><i>A History of Indian Literature</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. <span class="nowrap">59–</span>60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0264-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0264-3"><bdi>978-81-208-0264-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Indian+Literature&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E59-%3C%2Fspan%3E60&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0264-3&rft.au=Moriz+Winternitz&rft.au=V.+Srinivasa+Sarma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJRfuJFRV_O8C%26pg%3DPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199010-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199010_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSharma1990">Sharma 1990</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199044–45-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199044–45_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSharma1990">Sharma 1990</a>, p. 44–45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar200463-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar200463_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThapar200463_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThapar2004">Thapar 2004</a>, p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199045-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199045_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSharma1990">Sharma 1990</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPatrick_Olivelle1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Olivelle" title="Patrick Olivelle">Patrick Olivelle</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Lsp18ZvstrcC"><i>The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-535242-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-535242-9"><bdi>978-0-19-535242-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Upanishads%3A+Annotated+Text+and+Translation&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-535242-9&rft.au=Patrick+Olivelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLsp18ZvstrcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199049–50-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199049–50_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma199049–50_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSharma1990">Sharma 1990</a>, pp. 49–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPatrick_Olivelle1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Olivelle" title="Patrick Olivelle">Patrick Olivelle</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Lsp18ZvstrcC"><i>The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 483, 636. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-535242-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-535242-9"><bdi>978-0-19-535242-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Upanishads%3A+Annotated+Text+and+Translation&rft.pages=483%2C+636&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-535242-9&rft.au=Patrick+Olivelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLsp18ZvstrcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma1958163_(1990:177)-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma1958163_(1990:177)_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma1958163_(1990:177)_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSharma1958">Sharma 1958</a>, p. 163 (1990:177).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTED._R._Bhandarkar19899-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._R._Bhandarkar19899_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFD._R._Bhandarkar1989">D. R. Bhandarkar 1989</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoger_Boesche2013103–104-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoger_Boesche2013103–104_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoger_Boesche2013103–104_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoger_Boesche2013">Roger Boesche 2013</a>, pp. 103–104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELN_Rangarajan1992411-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELN_Rangarajan1992411_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLN_Rangarajan1992">LN Rangarajan 1992</a>, p. 411.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatrick_Olivelle200516,_62–65-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatrick_Olivelle200516,_62–65_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPatrick_Olivelle2005">Patrick Olivelle 2005</a>, pp. 16, 62–65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatrick_Olivelle200516,_8–14,_206–207-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatrick_Olivelle200516,_8–14,_206–207_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPatrick_Olivelle2005">Patrick Olivelle 2005</a>, pp. 16, 8–14, 206–207.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patrick Olivelle 2005, page 189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patrick Olivelle 2005, page 214.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDeshpandeHook1979" class="citation book cs1">Deshpande, Madhav; Hook, Peter Edwin (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vpz6CpO4XhwC&q=Cinas,+Kir%C4%81tas+and+Daradas"><i>Aryan and Non-Aryan in India</i></a>. University of Michigan. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0891480145" title="Special:BookSources/0891480145"><bdi>0891480145</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aryan+and+Non-Aryan+in+India&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0891480145&rft.aulast=Deshpande&rft.aufirst=Madhav&rft.au=Hook%2C+Peter+Edwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dvpz6CpO4XhwC%26q%3DCinas%2C%2BKir%25C4%2581tas%2Band%2BDaradas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBaldwin1871" class="citation book cs1">Baldwin, John Denison (1871). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Oz5HAQAAMAAJ&q=shudras+Cinas%2C+Kir%C4%81tas+and+Daradas&pg=PA290"><i>Pre-Historic Nations</i></a>. Sagwan Press. p. 290. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1340096080" title="Special:BookSources/1340096080"><bdi>1340096080</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pre-Historic+Nations&rft.pages=290&rft.pub=Sagwan+Press&rft.date=1871&rft.isbn=1340096080&rft.aulast=Baldwin&rft.aufirst=John+Denison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOz5HAQAAMAAJ%26q%3Dshudras%2BCinas%252C%2BKir%25C4%2581tas%2Band%2BDaradas%26pg%3DPA290&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200290-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200290_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200290_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200290_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaurie_Patton2002">Laurie Patton 2002</a>, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200290–91-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200290–91_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200290–91_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaurie_Patton2002">Laurie Patton 2002</a>, pp. 90–91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma1990293-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma1990293_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSharma1990">Sharma 1990</a>, p. 293.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200291-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaurie_Patton200291_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaurie_Patton2002">Laurie Patton 2002</a>, p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mariola Offredi (1997), The banyan tree: essays on early literature in new Indo-Aryan languages, Volume 2, Manohar Publishers, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46731068">46731068</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788173042775" title="Special:BookSources/9788173042775">9788173042775</a>, page 442</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M.V. Nadkarni (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gateway.isec.ac.in/JSED/JSED_V7_I1_91-113.pdf">Review Articles: Perspectives on Dalit Problems and Solutions</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>, Journal of Social and Economic Development, Vol. 7, No. 1, page 99</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ashwani Peetush (2011), Justice and Religion: Hinduism, in Encyclopedia of Global Justice, Springer Netherlands, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1402091599" title="Special:BookSources/978-1402091599">978-1402091599</a>, pages 596–600</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohannes_Bronkhorst201134_with_footnotes-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohannes_Bronkhorst201134_with_footnotes_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohannes_Bronkhorst201134_with_footnotes_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohannes_Bronkhorst2011">Johannes Bronkhorst 2011</a>, p. 34 with footnotes.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohannes_Bronkhorst201134–35-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohannes_Bronkhorst201134–35_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohannes_Bronkhorst2011">Johannes Bronkhorst 2011</a>, pp. 34–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohannes_Bronkhorst201135-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohannes_Bronkhorst201135_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohannes_Bronkhorst2011">Johannes Bronkhorst 2011</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSharma1990">Sharma 1990</a>, p. 134</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JyotiraoPhuleonShudra-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JyotiraoPhuleonShudra_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAngus_J._L._Menuge2017" class="citation book cs1">Angus J. L. Menuge (20 July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NMItDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT272"><i>Religious Liberty and the Law: Theistic and Non-Theistic Perspectives</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 272–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-98266-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-98266-5"><bdi>978-1-351-98266-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religious+Liberty+and+the+Law%3A+Theistic+and+Non-Theistic+Perspectives&rft.pages=272-&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2017-07-20&rft.isbn=978-1-351-98266-5&rft.au=Angus+J.+L.+Menuge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNMItDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT272&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJ._S._RajputNational_Council_of_Educational_Research_and_Training_(India)2004" class="citation book cs1">J. S. Rajput; National Council of Educational Research and Training (India) (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lGYOAQAAMAAJ"><i>Encyclopaedia of Indian Education: A-K</i></a>. NCERT. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7450-303-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7450-303-9"><bdi>978-81-7450-303-9</bdi></a>. <q>Although varying degrees of literacy were present among the first three castes, there was absolute illiteracy among Shudras.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Indian+Education%3A+A-K&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=NCERT&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-7450-303-9&rft.au=J.+S.+Rajput&rft.au=National+Council+of+Educational+Research+and+Training+%28India%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlGYOAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMichael_D._PalmerStanley_M._Burgess2012" class="citation book cs1">Michael D. Palmer; Stanley M. Burgess (12 March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=miXfxNiFghcC&pg=PT210"><i>The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Religion and Social Justice</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 210. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-5537-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-5537-6"><bdi>978-1-4443-5537-6</bdi></a>. <q>His emphasis on the education of the Shudras is well explained in his own words: For want of education intellect deteriorated, For want of intellect morality decayed, For want of morality progress stopped, For want of progress wealth vanished, For want of wealth Shudra perished and all these sorrows sprang from illiteracy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wiley-Blackwell+Companion+to+Religion+and+Social+Justice&rft.pages=210&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2012-03-12&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-5537-6&rft.au=Michael+D.+Palmer&rft.au=Stanley+M.+Burgess&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmiXfxNiFghcC%26pg%3DPT210&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-ShudraPeasantSources-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ShudraPeasantSources_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shudra peasant : <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarrett2008" class="citation book cs1">Barrett, Ronald L. (4 March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZnIlDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA68"><i>Aghor Medicine: Pollution, Death, and Healing in Northern India</i></a>. University of California Press. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25218-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25218-9"><bdi>978-0-520-25218-9</bdi></a>. <q>Among the most vocal of these supporters was Dr. Shastri, a professor of Ayurvedic medicine at a well-known university, who associated the Caraka Samhita use of shudra for lesser conditions with the shudra (peasant) castes, linking both.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aghor+Medicine%3A+Pollution%2C+Death%2C+and+Healing+in+Northern+India&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2008-03-04&rft.isbn=978-0-520-25218-9&rft.aulast=Barrett&rft.aufirst=Ronald+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZnIlDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKrishnan-Kutty1986" class="citation book cs1">Krishnan-Kutty, G. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8lOrdSYJiLwC&pg=PA47"><i>Peasantry in India</i></a>. Abhinav Publications. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7017-215-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7017-215-4"><bdi>978-81-7017-215-4</bdi></a>. <q>The ancient texts designate the sudra as a peasant. The distinction between the all-India category of varna and the local and omnipresent category of jati is well brought out by M. N. Srinivas in his famous book <i>The Remembered Village</i>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peasantry+in+India&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Abhinav+Publications&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-81-7017-215-4&rft.aulast=Krishnan-Kutty&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8lOrdSYJiLwC%26pg%3DPA47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSisson1971" class="citation book cs1">Sisson, Richard (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YNn0L9BmCQcC&pg=PA33"><i>The Congress Party in Rajasthan: Political Integration and Institution-building in an Indian State</i></a>. University of California Press. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-01808-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-01808-2"><bdi>978-0-520-01808-2</bdi></a>. <q>The Shudra included peasants and artisans.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Congress+Party+in+Rajasthan%3A+Political+Integration+and+Institution-building+in+an+Indian+State&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-520-01808-2&rft.aulast=Sisson&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYNn0L9BmCQcC%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGadkari1996" class="citation book cs1">Gadkari, Jayant (October 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zst_7qaatp8C&pg=PA76"><i>Society and Religion: From Rugveda to Puranas</i></a>. Popular Prakashan. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7154-743-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7154-743-2"><bdi>978-81-7154-743-2</bdi></a>. <q>An extract from Pali work Majjima Nikaya tells us... shudras [live] by the sickle and ears of corn. A large number of Shudras appear to be agricultural laborers. Shudras were not entitled to learn Vedas, and a precept says, 'Vedas are the destroyer of agriculture and agriculture is the destroyer of Vedas.'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Society+and+Religion%3A+From+Rugveda+to+Puranas&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Popular+Prakashan&rft.date=1996-10&rft.isbn=978-81-7154-743-2&rft.aulast=Gadkari&rft.aufirst=Jayant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZst_7qaatp8C%26pg%3DPA76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKumar2005" class="citation book cs1">Kumar, Sangeet (1 January 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=guhtAAAAMAAJ"><i>Changing Role of the Caste System: A Critique</i></a>. Rawat Publications. p. 144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7033-881-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7033-881-9"><bdi>978-81-7033-881-9</bdi></a>. <q>In some texts, the pure Shudras were described as giver of grain (annada) and householder (grhastha). The reason was that the actual cultivation was generally done by peasants belonging to the Shudra caste.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Changing+Role+of+the+Caste+System%3A+A+Critique&rft.pages=144&rft.pub=Rawat+Publications&rft.date=2005-01-01&rft.isbn=978-81-7033-881-9&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=Sangeet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DguhtAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrewal2005" class="citation book cs1">Grewal, J. S. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cgluAAAAMAAJ"><i>The State and Society in Medieval India</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-566720-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-566720-2"><bdi>978-0-19-566720-2</bdi></a>. <q>At its beginning or a little before the millennium, the Manusmriti considers the pursuit of agriculture blameworthy because the 'wooden [plough] with the iron point injures the earth and the [beings] living in the earth'. Thus, by an appeal to the doctrine of ahimsa, so much promoted by Buddhism and Jainism, the plough became unclean, and the peasant who worked the plough earned opprobrium that has stuck till our own times. R. S. Sharma shows how in the legal texts, peasants were generally regarded not as Vaishyas as earlier, but as Shudras. This is confirmed in the seventh century by Xuan Zhuang (Hsuan Tsang) who found that in India peasants were held to be Shudras. Such varna ranking of most peasant castes (now usually given the designation of 'Other Backward Castes') is thus more than 1300 years old, and was in place by the early medieval times. If certain older communities were thus reduced in status, it is possible that other communities, previously held to be outside the pale of the varna system, were absorbed as Shudra castes once they took to agriculture. We have such an example in the Kaivartas.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+State+and+Society+in+Medieval+India&rft.pages=156&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-566720-2&rft.aulast=Grewal&rft.aufirst=J.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcgluAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJha2004" class="citation book cs1">Jha, Dwijendra Narayan (1 January 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HUpuAAAAMAAJ"><i>Early India: A Concise History</i></a>. Manohar Publishers & Distributors. p. 196. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7304-587-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7304-587-5"><bdi>978-81-7304-587-5</bdi></a>. <q>For the shudras now took their position as cultivators and the origin of the modern peasant castes of kurmis in Bihar and kunbis in Maharashtra may be traced back to the early medieval period.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+India%3A+A+Concise+History&rft.pages=196&rft.pub=Manohar+Publishers+%26+Distributors&rft.date=2004-01-01&rft.isbn=978-81-7304-587-5&rft.aulast=Jha&rft.aufirst=Dwijendra+Narayan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHUpuAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-DIntinoGuenzi2012p117-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DIntinoGuenzi2012p117_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DIntinoGuenzi2012p117_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DIntinoGuenzi2012p117_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPatric_Olivelle2012" class="citation book cs1">Patric Olivelle (2012). Silvia D'Intino, Caterina Guenzi (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k9UIMwEACAAJ"><i>Aux abords de la clairière: études indiennes et comparées en l'honneur de Charles Malamoud</i></a>. Volume 7 of Bibliothèque de l'École des Hautes Études, Sciences Religieuses: Série Histoire et prosopographie. Brepols, Belgium. pp. <span class="nowrap">117–</span>132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-503-54472-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-503-54472-4"><bdi>978-2-503-54472-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aux+abords+de+la+clairi%C3%A8re%3A+%C3%A9tudes+indiennes+et+compar%C3%A9es+en+l%27honneur+de+Charles+Malamoud&rft.series=Volume+7+of+Biblioth%C3%A8que+de+l%27%C3%89cole+des+Hautes+%C3%89tudes%2C+Sciences+Religieuses%3A+S%C3%A9rie+Histoire+et+prosopographie&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E117-%3C%2Fspan%3E132&rft.pub=Brepols%2C+Belgium&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-2-503-54472-4&rft.au=Patric+Olivelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk9UIMwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFIngold1994" class="citation book cs1">Ingold, Tim (1994). <i>Companion encyclopedia of anthropology</i>. London New York: Routledge. p. 1026. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28604-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28604-6"><bdi>978-0-415-28604-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Companion+encyclopedia+of+anthropology&rft.place=London+New+York&rft.pages=1026&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-415-28604-6&rft.aulast=Ingold&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196963–64,_102_Quote:_"treat_both_the_Vaishyas_and_the_Shudras_as_almost_indistinguishable._The_occupations_prescribed_by_Parashara,_who_is_par_excellence_the_mentor_of_the_age,_for_both_of_them_are_the_same,_viz._agriculture,_trade_and_crafts"-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye196963–64,_102_Quote:_"treat_both_the_Vaishyas_and_the_Shudras_as_almost_indistinguishable._The_occupations_prescribed_by_Parashara,_who_is_par_excellence_the_mentor_of_the_age,_for_both_of_them_are_the_same,_viz._agriculture,_trade_and_crafts"_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGhurye1969">Ghurye 1969</a>, pp. 63–64, 102 Quote: "treat both the Vaishyas and the Shudras as almost indistinguishable. The occupations prescribed by Parashara, who is par excellence the mentor of the age, for both of them are the same, viz. agriculture, trade and crafts".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drekmeier1962p85-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Drekmeier1962p85_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Drekmeier1962" class="citation book cs1">Charles Drekmeier (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmurAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA85"><i>Kingship and Community in Early India</i></a>. Stanford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">85–</span>86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0114-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0114-3"><bdi>978-0-8047-0114-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kingship+and+Community+in+Early+India&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E85-%3C%2Fspan%3E86&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-0114-3&rft.au=Charles+Drekmeier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZmurAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma1990263–269,_342–345-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma1990263–269,_342–345_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSharma1990">Sharma 1990</a>, pp. 263–269, 342–345.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStella_Kramrisch1994" class="citation book cs1">Stella Kramrisch (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bxPeWwFz9MkC&pg=PA60"><i>Exploring India'S Sacred Art</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. <span class="nowrap">60–</span>61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1208-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1208-6"><bdi>978-81-208-1208-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exploring+India%27S+Sacred+Art&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E60-%3C%2Fspan%3E61&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1208-6&rft.au=Stella+Kramrisch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbxPeWwFz9MkC%26pg%3DPA60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196915–16-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye196915–16_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGhurye1969">Ghurye 1969</a>, pp. 15–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196916–17-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye196916–17_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGhurye1969">Ghurye 1969</a>, pp. 16–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhurye196963-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhurye196963_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGhurye1969">Ghurye 1969</a>, p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jane Belo (1953), Bali: Temple Festival, Monograph 22, American Ethnological Society, University of Washington Press, pages 4-5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETalbot200150–51-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbot200150–51_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETalbot200150–51_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTalbot2001">Talbot 2001</a>, pp. 50–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrr200030–31-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOrr200030–31_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOrr2000">Orr 2000</a>, pp. 30–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEaton200815–16-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEaton200815–16_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEaton2008">Eaton 2008</a>, pp. 15–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohannes_Bronkhorst201132,_36-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohannes_Bronkhorst201132,_36_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohannes_Bronkhorst2011">Johannes Bronkhorst 2011</a>, pp. 32, 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard M. Eaton (2005), <i>A Social History of the Deccan, 1300–1761: Eight Indian Lives</i>, Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521716277" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521716277">978-0521716277</a>, pages 129-130</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENovetzke201354–55-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENovetzke201354–55_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNovetzke2013">Novetzke 2013</a>, pp. 54–55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPashaura_Singh2003" class="citation book cs1">Pashaura Singh (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fMrXAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Bhagats of the Guru Granth Sahib: Sikh Self-definition and the Bhagat Bani</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">11–</span>15, <span class="nowrap">105–</span>107, <span class="nowrap">119–</span>120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-566269-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-566269-6"><bdi>978-0-19-566269-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bhagats+of+the+Guru+Granth+Sahib%3A+Sikh+Self-definition+and+the+Bhagat+Bani&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11-%3C%2Fspan%3E15%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E105-%3C%2Fspan%3E107%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E119-%3C%2Fspan%3E120&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-566269-6&rft.au=Pashaura+Singh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfMrXAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKerry_Brown2002" class="citation book cs1">Kerry Brown (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ddgO-DldmSwC"><i>Sikh Art and Literature</i></a>. Routledge. p. 114. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-63136-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-63136-0"><bdi>978-1-134-63136-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sikh+Art+and+Literature&rft.pages=114&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-134-63136-0&rft.au=Kerry+Brown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DddgO-DldmSwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJoyce1908" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Athol_Joyce" title="Thomas Athol Joyce">Joyce, Thomas Athol</a> (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/womenofallnation00joyc"><i>Women of all nations, a record of their characteristics, habits, manners, customs and influence</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+of+all+nations%2C+a+record+of+their+characteristics%2C+habits%2C+manners%2C+customs+and+influence&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Joyce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Athol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwomenofallnation00joyc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAmbedkar1970" class="citation book cs1">Ambedkar, B.R. (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140819103958/http://164.100.47.134/plibrary/ebooks/Jagjivan%20Ram/(sno%207)jagjivan%20ram%201.pdf"><i>Who were the Shudras</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Bombay: Thackers. p. xiv. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://164.100.47.134/plibrary/ebooks/Jagjivan%20Ram/(sno%207)jagjivan%20ram%201.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 19 August 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+were+the+Shudras&rft.place=Bombay&rft.pages=xiv&rft.pub=Thackers&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Ambedkar&rft.aufirst=B.R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2F164.100.47.134%2Fplibrary%2Febooks%2FJagjivan%2520Ram%2F%28sno%25207%29jagjivan%2520ram%25201.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma19905-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma19905_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSharma1990">Sharma 1990</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAurobindo1996740–747-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAurobindo1996740–747_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAurobindo1996">Aurobindo (1996)</a>, pp. 740–747<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFAurobindo1996 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVaitheespara2011" class="citation book cs1">Vaitheespara, Ravi (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OcEM2IsnA1AC&pg=PA96">"Forging a Tamil Caste: Maraimalai Adigal (1876-1950) and the discourse of caste in colonial Tamilnadu"</a>. In Bergunder, Michael; Frese, Heiko (eds.). <i>Ritual, Caste, and Religion in Colonial South India</i>. Primus Books. p. 96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-38060-721-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-38060-721-4"><bdi>978-9-38060-721-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Forging+a+Tamil+Caste%3A+Maraimalai+Adigal+%281876-1950%29+and+the+discourse+of+caste+in+colonial+Tamilnadu&rft.btitle=Ritual%2C+Caste%2C+and+Religion+in+Colonial+South+India&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Primus+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-9-38060-721-4&rft.aulast=Vaitheespara&rft.aufirst=Ravi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOcEM2IsnA1AC%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_and_cited_references">General and cited references</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shudra&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: General and cited references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBasham1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Basham" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Basham">Basham, Arthur Llewellyn</a> (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2aqgTYlhLikC"><i>The Origin and Development of Classical Hinduism</i></a> (Reprinted ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507349-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507349-2"><bdi>978-0-19-507349-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origin+and+Development+of+Classical+Hinduism&rft.edition=Reprinted&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-19-507349-2&rft.aulast=Basham&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Llewellyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2aqgTYlhLikC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFD._R._Bhandarkar1989" class="citation book cs1">D. R. Bhandarkar (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gUAvuYu-otEC"><i>Some Aspects of Ancient Indian Culture</i></a>. Asian Educational Services. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0457-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0457-5"><bdi>978-81-206-0457-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Some+Aspects+of+Ancient+Indian+Culture&rft.pub=Asian+Educational+Services&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-81-206-0457-5&rft.au=D.+R.+Bhandarkar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgUAvuYu-otEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohannes_Bronkhorst2011" class="citation book cs1">Johannes Bronkhorst (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BaX58-E5-3MC&pg=PA32"><i>Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism</i></a>. BRILL Academic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20140-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20140-8"><bdi>978-90-04-20140-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism+in+the+Shadow+of+Brahmanism&rft.pub=BRILL+Academic&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-90-04-20140-8&rft.au=Johannes+Bronkhorst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBaX58-E5-3MC%26pg%3DPA32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEaton2008" class="citation book cs1">Eaton, Richard (2008). <i>A social history of the Deccan, 1300–1761</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51442-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51442-2"><bdi>978-0-521-51442-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+social+history+of+the+Deccan%2C+1300%E2%80%931761&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-51442-2&rft.aulast=Eaton&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFlood1996" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Gavin_Flood" title="Gavin Flood">Flood, Gavin D.</a> (1996), <i>An Introduction to Hinduism</i>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521438780" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521438780"><bdi>978-0521438780</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Hinduism&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0521438780&rft.aulast=Flood&rft.aufirst=Gavin+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRoger_Boesche2013" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Boesche" title="Roger Boesche">Roger Boesche</a> (2013), <i>The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra</i>, Lexington, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0739104019" title="Special:BookSources/978-0739104019"><bdi>978-0739104019</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Great+Political+Realist%3A+Kautilya+and+His+Arthashastra&rft.pub=Lexington&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0739104019&rft.au=Roger+Boesche&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVaradaraja_V._Raman2006" class="citation book cs1">Varadaraja V. Raman (2006). "Hinduism". In Elizabeth M. Dowling & W. George Scarlett (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of Religious and Spiritual Development</i>. SAGE Publications. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412952477.n114">10.4135/9781412952477.n114</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0761928836" title="Special:BookSources/978-0761928836"><bdi>978-0761928836</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hinduism&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Religious+and+Spiritual+Development&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412952477.n114&rft.isbn=978-0761928836&rft.au=Varadaraja+V.+Raman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEncyclopedia_Britannica2010" class="citation web cs1">Encyclopedia Britannica (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shudra">"Shudra: Hindu Class"</a>. The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Shudra%3A+Hindu+Class&rft.pub=The+Editors+of+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FShudra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGhurye1969" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/G._S._Ghurye" title="G. S. Ghurye">Ghurye, G. S.</a> (1969) [first published 1932], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nWkjsvf6_vsC"><i>Caste and Race in India</i></a> (Fifth ed.), Popular Prakashan, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7154-205-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7154-205-5"><bdi>978-81-7154-205-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caste+and+Race+in+India&rft.edition=Fifth&rft.pub=Popular+Prakashan&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-81-7154-205-5&rft.aulast=Ghurye&rft.aufirst=G.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnWkjsvf6_vsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStephanie_JamisonJoel_Brereton2014" class="citation book cs1">Stephanie Jamison; Joel Brereton (2014). <i>The Rigveda: the earliest religious poetry of India</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-937018-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-937018-4"><bdi>978-0-19-937018-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rigveda%3A+the+earliest+religious+poetry+of+India&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-937018-4&rft.au=Stephanie+Jamison&rft.au=Joel+Brereton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNovetzke2013" class="citation book cs1">Novetzke, Christian Lee (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SqUdRVOv9TUC"><i>Religion and Public Memory: A Cultural History of Saint Namdev in India</i></a>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-23151-256-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-23151-256-5"><bdi>978-0-23151-256-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+Public+Memory%3A+A+Cultural+History+of+Saint+Namdev+in+India&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-23151-256-5&rft.aulast=Novetzke&rft.aufirst=Christian+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSqUdRVOv9TUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPatrick_Olivelle2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Olivelle" title="Patrick Olivelle">Patrick Olivelle</a> (2005). <i>Manu's Code of Law</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195171464" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195171464"><bdi>978-0195171464</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manu%27s+Code+of+Law&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0195171464&rft.au=Patrick+Olivelle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOrr2000" class="citation book cs1">Orr, Leslie (2000). <i>Donors, devotees, and daughters of God temple women in medieval Tamilnadu</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509962-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509962-1"><bdi>978-0-19-509962-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Donors%2C+devotees%2C+and+daughters+of+God+temple+women+in+medieval+Tamilnadu&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-509962-1&rft.aulast=Orr&rft.aufirst=Leslie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLaurie_Patton2002" class="citation book cs1">Laurie Patton (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iB3-v90z3SwC"><i>Jewels of Authority: Women and Textual Tradition in Hindu India</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513478-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513478-0"><bdi>978-0-19-513478-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewels+of+Authority%3A+Women+and+Textual+Tradition+in+Hindu+India&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513478-0&rft.au=Laurie+Patton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiB3-v90z3SwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLN_Rangarajan1992" class="citation book cs1">LN Rangarajan (1992). <i>The Arthashastra</i>. Penguin Classics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140446036" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140446036"><bdi>978-0140446036</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arthashastra&rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0140446036&rft.au=LN+Rangarajan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSharma1958" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ram_Sharan_Sharma" title="Ram Sharan Sharma">Sharma, R. S.</a> (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.16085"><i>Śūdras in Ancient India</i></a>. Delhi: Motilal Banarasi Dass – via archive.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C5%9A%C5%ABdras+in+Ancient+India&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarasi+Dass&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=R.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.gov.ignca.16085&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSharma1990" class="citation book cs1">Sharma, Ram Sharan (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gsZkAu-RHVgC"><i>Śūdras in Ancient India: A Social History of the Lower Order Down to Circa A.D. 600</i></a> (Third ed.). Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0706-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0706-8"><bdi>978-81-208-0706-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C5%9A%C5%ABdras+in+Ancient+India%3A+A+Social+History+of+the+Lower+Order+Down+to+Circa+A.D.+600&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publishers.&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0706-8&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=Ram+Sharan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgsZkAu-RHVgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTalbot2001" class="citation book cs1">Talbot, Cynthia (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ofGLngEACAAJ"><i>Precolonial India in practice society, region, and identity in medieval Andhra</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513661-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513661-6"><bdi>978-0-19-513661-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Precolonial+India+in+practice+society%2C+region%2C+and+identity+in+medieval+Andhra&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513661-6&rft.aulast=Talbot&rft.aufirst=Cynthia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DofGLngEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThapar2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Romila_Thapar" title="Romila Thapar">Thapar, Romila</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC"><i>Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520242258" title="Special:BookSources/9780520242258"><bdi>9780520242258</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+India%3A+From+the+Origins+to+AD+1300&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780520242258&rft.aulast=Thapar&rft.aufirst=Romila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-5irrXX0apQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWitzel1995" class="citation journal cs1">Witzel, Michael (1995). "Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state". <i>EJVS</i>. <b>1</b> (4).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EJVS&rft.atitle=Early+Sanskritization%3A+Origin+and+Development+of+the+Kuru+state&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=4&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShudra" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shudra&oldid=1278631590">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shudra&oldid=1278631590</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Shudra_castes" title="Category:Shudra castes">Shudra castes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Varnas_in_Hinduism" title="Category:Varnas in Hinduism">Varnas in Hinduism</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_May_2018" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from May 2018">Articles with dead external links from May 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_no-target_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn no-target errors">Harv and Sfn no-target errors</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:EngvarB_from_February_2024" title="Category:EngvarB from February 2024">EngvarB from February 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_February_2024" title="Category:Use dmy dates from February 2024">Use dmy dates from February 2024</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 3 March 2025, at 16:58<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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