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href="#Unpledged_electors_in_the_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Unpledged electors in the 20th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Unpledged_electors_in_the_20th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Unpledged electors in the 20th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Unpledged_electors_in_the_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Election" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Election"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Election</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Election-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1944" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1944"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>1944</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1944-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1956" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1956"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>1956</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1956-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1960" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1960"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>1960</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1960-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1964" 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presidential elections</a>, an <b>unpledged elector</b> is a person nominated to stand as an elector but who has not pledged to support any particular presidential or vice presidential candidate, and is free to vote for any candidate when elected a member of the <a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral College (United States)">Electoral College</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fortier_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fortier-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Presidential elections are <a href="/wiki/Indirect_election" title="Indirect election">indirect</a>, with voters in each <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">state</a> choosing electors on <a href="/wiki/Election_Day_(United_States)" title="Election Day (United States)">Election Day</a> in November, and these electors choosing the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">president</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vice_president_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Vice president of the United States">vice president of the United States</a> in December. Electors in practice have since the 19th century almost always agreed in advance to vote for a particular candidate — that is, they are said to have been <i>pledged</i> to that candidate.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In several elections in the 20th century, however, competitive campaigns were mounted by candidates who made no pledge to any presidential nominee before the election. These anomalies largely arose from fissures within the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> over the issues of <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> and <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">segregation</a>. No serious general election campaign has been mounted to elect unpledged electors in any state since 1964. </p><p>An unpledged elector is distinct from a <a href="/wiki/Faithless_elector" title="Faithless elector">faithless elector</a> who pledges their vote for a particular candidate before the election but ultimately votes for someone else or fails to vote at all.<sup id="cite_ref-Fortier_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fortier-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Constitutional_background">Constitutional background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unpledged_elector&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Constitutional background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> was written, the <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a> intended the Electoral College to be a truly deliberative body whose members would choose a president (<a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">and vice president, after 1800</a>) based on their own preferences.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also left the method for selecting the electors for each state to the discretion of that state's legislature. Other than the implied expectation that the electors vote for candidates who are constitutionally qualified to serve as president and vice president, the Constitution otherwise places no restriction on the behavior of the electors, and assumes that each is an independent agent. </p><p>The system worked without much controversy for the first two presidential elections in which <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> was the unanimous choice for president and electors' opinions diverged only on the choice for vice president, which was widely seen to be an unimportant post.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Washington was not a member of any political party, and had hoped they would not form. Nevertheless, "Federalist" and "Anti-Federalist" factions quickly coalesced in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a>. </p><p>Once Washington announced his intention to retire after his second presidential term, U.S. politics very quickly became dominated by strong <a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">political party</a> organizations. Even without this particular development, the reality was that electors had only one constitutional duty – electing the president and vice president, while at the same time seeking no other federal office since federal officials are constitutionally barred from serving as electors. In several states, legislatures chose electors. Among the states that selected electors by popular vote, different electoral systems were in place. Some effectively held a statewide vote for all electors – essentially the system most similar to that used in 48 of 50 states today although at this time an electoral mechanism that could effectively compel voters to vote for any particular "slate" of presidential electors had not yet been contemplated. Some states elected two electors in a statewide vote and one in each congressional district (essentially, the system used today in Maine and Nebraska) and a few states experimented with selecting presidential electors in special districts distinct from its congressional districts. More broadly, the franchise (that is, the qualifications that determined who among the adult male population was allowed to vote for state and federal legislators and, where applicable, for presidential electors) varied widely from state to state. However, no matter who was allowed to vote for electors and no matter how they were selected, the only meaningful question any prospective elector had to answer was for whom they would vote for president (and, from 1804 onward, for vice president) and the only real issues of importance to those selecting electors, beyond deciding who they wanted to become president and vice president, was perhaps whether the person or people they selected to represent them in the Electoral College could be trusted to keep their word. Thus, it rapidly became increasingly unrealistic for anyone to be elected to the Electoral College without making a trustworthy "pledge" to vote for particular candidates on behalf of those electing them. </p><p>By the 1830s, most states chose their electors by popular vote. While voting for individual electors was still the norm at this point, by this time the electors who appeared on ballots were nominated by the state chapters of national parties with the understanding that they would cast their votes for their party's candidate if elected. Also by this time, political parties had successfully lobbied most states to allow voters to cast one vote for every elector that state had apportioned to it. The main rationale of this system was to greatly simplify the distribution of presidential ballots. Prior to the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Secret_ballot" title="Secret ballot">secret ballot</a>, political parties were responsible for printing and distributing their own ballots, thus, allowing voters to cast as many votes as the state had electors meant a party could print a standardized ballot containing the same slate of the party's presidential electors for each state. Also, whether an intended consequence or not, this system resulted in most states having a <i><a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a></i> (but not <i><a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a></i>) <a href="/wiki/Winner-takes-all_voting" class="mw-redirect" title="Winner-takes-all voting">winner-take-all</a> method of allocating presidential electors. </p><p>Eventually, this arrangement became such a given in presidential elections that when the time came for the states to take over the printing and distribution of ballots (a development necessitated by the introduction of the secret ballot in the 1880s) most states did not bother to list the names of the electors on ballots, instead listing the candidates to whom those electors were pledged. In doing so, they also ensured that the winner-take-all method of selecting presidential electors that had become so firmly entrenched in the U.S. presidential electoral system by that point would become established by law in most states. There were some exceptions, however, such as <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>, described below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unpledged_electors_in_the_20th_century">Unpledged electors in the 20th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unpledged_elector&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Unpledged electors in the 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unpledged_elector&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction era of the United States">Reconstruction</a>, the Democratic Party gained an almost unbreakable dominance in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republicans</a>, associated with <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a> cause, were correspondingly unelectable there. The nationwide Democratic party became increasingly <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a> in the early 20th century, a shift that accelerated with the election of <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>. By contrast, the leaders of the Democratic Party in the South, although somewhat supportive of certain parts of the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> and other liberal Democratic economic policies, were in many other aspects <a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservative</a>. In particular, they were vehemently protective of segregation and strongly opposed to civil rights for <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a>. </p><p>In several mid-20th-century elections, unpledged Democratic electors appeared on the ballots in several Southern states; in some cases they ran in opposition to electors pledged to the nationwide Democratic candidate, and in others they were the only Democratic electors that appeared on the ballot. The goal was to have electors who could act as <a href="/wiki/Kingmaker" title="Kingmaker">kingmakers</a> in a close election, extracting concessions that would favor conservative Southern Democrats in exchange for their votes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Election">Election</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unpledged_elector&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Election"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1944">1944</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unpledged_elector&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 1944"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first modern slates of unpledged electors were fielded in the <a href="/wiki/U.S._presidential_election,_1944" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. presidential election, 1944">1944 election</a> as a protest against certain aspects of President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>’s <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> and support for <a href="/wiki/Desegregation_in_the_United_States" title="Desegregation in the United States">desegregation</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, a splinter group of Democrats known as the <a href="/wiki/Texas_Regulars" title="Texas Regulars">Texas Regulars</a> fielded a slate of electors not pledged to any candidate; similar slates were on the ballot in <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While they won or placed second in several counties, none of the groups met much success. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1956">1956</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unpledged_elector&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 1956"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/U.S._presidential_election,_1956" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. presidential election, 1956">1956</a>, unpledged slates were on the ballot in <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> (20,150 votes, 4.1% of the vote), <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a> (44,520 votes, 7.2% of the vote and they won four <a href="/wiki/List_of_parishes_of_Louisiana" class="mw-redirect" title="List of parishes of Louisiana">parishes</a>), <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a> (42,266 votes, 17.3% of the vote and they won seven <a href="/wiki/List_of_counties_in_Mississippi" title="List of counties in Mississippi">counties</a>) and South Carolina (88,509 votes, 29.5% of the vote and 21 <a href="/wiki/List_of_counties_in_South_Carolina" title="List of counties in South Carolina">counties</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1960">1960</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unpledged_elector&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 1960"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/U.S._presidential_election,_1960" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. presidential election, 1960">1960 election</a> was the only election that saw unpledged electors actually elected to the electoral college. </p><p>In that year, a slate of eight unpledged electors in Mississippi won a plurality of the vote there (116,248 votes, or 39% of the total). </p><p>Louisiana's popular vote went to a slate of electors pledged to Kennedy and Johnson, but a slate of unpledged electors on the ballot there won 169,572 votes (21% of the vote). </p><p>In Georgia, the state legislature, although allowing for a separate group of unpledged electors according to state law, requested the people give a non-binding straw vote to determine whether Kennedy should have pledged electors on the ballot or whether his electors should be free to choose to act as unpledged electors. The voters overwhelmingly supported the "Pledge Free" Electors, but after it was clear they ultimately wouldn’t affect the Electoral College’s decision all Georgia electors voted for Kennedy, despite concerns they would abandon their pledges and become faithless electors.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Alabama, the vote was not for the presidential candidates but for individual electors, with each of the 11 electors having their own separate elections. As a result of Alabama's Democratic primaries, five of the eleven nominated Democratic electors were pledged to Democratic nominees <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> and six were unpledged. Although all eleven Democratic electors were elected, the unusual situation has led to ambiguity about the correct method to calculate popular votes for Kennedy and the unpledged electors. The common practice is to give Kennedy the votes for his most-voted pledged elector and to give unpledged electors their popular votes by subtracting the votes for the most-voted unpledged elector by the votes for the most-voted Kennedy-pledged elector; the unusual calculation for the unpledged electors is done so that the total votes align with the estimated total number of people who voted in Alabama's presidential contest (although the exact number is uncertain because voters are allowed to abstain from voting for all 11 electors' elections).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the electoral split between Kennedy and the Unpledged Electors has been used to argue for an lesser-used method of splitting the vote of the highest-voted Democratic elector proportionally between Kennedy and the Unpledged; some have used said vote split to argue that Kennedy had lost the popular vote to Nixon, both in the Alabama popular vote and resultantly the national popular vote.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even disregarding proportionally splitting the vote of the highest-voted Democratic elector, simply summing Kennedy and Nixon's total votes from their multiple electors and evenly splitting them among the 11 electors' races would give Nixon a national popular vote victory of 34,108,157 to 34,076,629. Such calculation would temporarily be used in the <i>Congressional Quarterly</i> before the change to the current vote-counting method. </p><p>When the electoral college cast its vote, all fourteen unpledged electors cast their votes for conservative Democrat <a href="/wiki/Harry_F._Byrd" title="Harry F. Byrd">Harry F. Byrd</a> for president and <a href="/wiki/Strom_Thurmond" title="Strom Thurmond">Strom Thurmond</a> for vice president after trying to influence other Southern states into unpledging their electors to join them.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were joined by <a href="/wiki/Henry_D._Irwin" title="Henry D. Irwin">Henry D. Irwin</a> from Oklahoma, a faithless Republican elector who objected to Republican nominee <a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Nixon" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard M. Nixon">Richard M. Nixon</a>. Irwin cast his vice presidential vote for <a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Barry Goldwater</a>. Irwin had attempted to broker a coalition between the unpledged electors and other Republican electors, but to no avail: Kennedy and Johnson won a clear majority of the electoral vote. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1964">1964</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unpledged_elector&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1964"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The last slate of unpledged electors to date was filed in Alabama in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_election_in_Alabama,_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="United States presidential election in Alabama, 1964">1964 election</a>. The slate was supported by Democratic Alabama Governor <a href="/wiki/George_C._Wallace" class="mw-redirect" title="George C. Wallace">George C. Wallace</a> while the national Democratic nominees, <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hubert_H._Humphrey" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubert H. Humphrey">Hubert H. Humphrey</a>, did not appear on Alabama ballots.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The electors won 30.6 percent of the vote, but the state was ultimately won by Republican nominees <a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Barry Goldwater</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_E._Miller" title="William E. Miller">William E. Miller</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unpledged_elector&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Republican ticket's victory in Alabama and four other Southern states (the only states Goldwater carried besides his home state of <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_election_in_Arizona,_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="United States presidential election in Arizona, 1964">Arizona</a>) heralded a trend that would put an end to the practice of nominating unpledged electors. </p><p>As a strategy, it had been largely ineffective, and southern conservatives, many of whom were still reluctant to vote Republican, began urging Governor Wallace to run for the White House in 1968 under the auspices of a traditional third-party presidential campaign. Once Wallace announced his intention to run for president, the rationale for running slates of formally unpledged electors disappeared. Nevertheless, Wallace sought commitments from his "pledged" electors in the states he was most likely to win that they would not necessarily vote for him but rather as he directed, thus allowing the Alabama Governor to act as a power broker in case of an election with no clear winner in the weeks between the general election and the Electoral College vote. Wallace ultimately carried four Southern states under the American Independent Party banner, in addition to his home state of Alabama in which he ran as the official nominee of the state's Democratic Party. While a shift of a few thousand votes in a handful of key states would have resulted in no candidate winning a clear majority of the electoral vote, Republican <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> ultimately won a clear majority of the electoral vote. Unable to influence the result, Wallace's 45 electors voted as pledged - he ultimately finished with 46 electoral votes due to the support of a North Carolinian faithless elector. </p><p>Following Nixon's triumph in 1968, former Southern Democratic supporters began voting Republican in large numbers. By 1972, Wallace was seeking the national Democratic nomination on a more moderate platform in a presidential campaign that was ultimately cut short after he was seriously wounded by a would-be assassin. Nixon would sweep the South in his landslide victory that year. By the time the Democrats regained the White House following the 1976 election, it was under the candidacy of <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a>, a Southerner who in contrast to most of his predecessors was firmly opposed to segregation. Carter nevertheless managed to almost sweep the South, with Virginia being the only former Confederate state to not vote for him. Many other Southern Democrats, including Wallace himself, would soon follow Carter's lead. </p><p>The 1976 presidential was the last such contest in which the Democratic nominee carried a majority of Southern states. Today, the practice of nominating unpledged electors combined with Wallace's third-party presidential campaign can be seen as a transitional phase between the Democrats' traditional hold on the South and the modern political environment where the region is a Republican stronghold and where state Democratic parties, while still more conservative in some respects compared to other regions, tend to be to the left of the Republicans as in the rest of the country and tend to be more supported in predominantly African-American locales. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unpledged_elector&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Fortier-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fortier_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fortier_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFortierWalter_Berns2004" class="citation book cs1">Fortier, John C.; <a href="/wiki/Walter_Berns" title="Walter Berns">Walter Berns</a> (2004). <i>After the People Vote: a guide to the Electoral College</i>. <a href="/wiki/American_Enterprise_Institute" title="American Enterprise Institute">American Enterprise Institute</a>. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8447-4202-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8447-4202-3"><bdi>0-8447-4202-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+the+People+Vote%3A+a+guide+to+the+Electoral+College&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=American+Enterprise+Institute&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-8447-4202-3&rft.aulast=Fortier&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.au=Walter+Berns&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnpledged+elector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLeanArnold_B._UrkenFiona_Hewitt1995" class="citation book cs1">McLean, Iain; Arnold B. Urken; Fiona Hewitt (1995). "Introduction: what is social choice?". <i>Classics of social choice</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-10450-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-10450-0"><bdi>0-472-10450-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+what+is+social+choice%3F&rft.btitle=Classics+of+social+choice&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-472-10450-0&rft.aulast=McLean&rft.aufirst=Iain&rft.au=Arnold+B.+Urken&rft.au=Fiona+Hewitt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnpledged+elector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimberling" class="citation web cs1">Kimberling, William C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uselectionatlas.org/INFORMATION/INFORMATION/electcollege_history.php">"The Electoral College"</a>. <i>Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Atlas+of+U.S.+Presidential+Elections&rft.atitle=The+Electoral+College&rft.aulast=Kimberling&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuselectionatlas.org%2FINFORMATION%2FINFORMATION%2Felectcollege_history.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnpledged+elector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The precedent that a vice president would be permitted to complete the term of a deceased president would not be established until after a president had died in office, which did not occur until 1841.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloom1987" class="citation book cs1">Bloom, Jack M. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f7a5KxIcznAC&q=unpledged+electors+1944+south+carolina&pg=PA72"><i>Class, Race, and the Civil Rights Movement</i></a>. Indiana University Press. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0253204070" title="Special:BookSources/0253204070"><bdi>0253204070</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Class%2C+Race%2C+and+the+Civil+Rights+Movement&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0253204070&rft.aulast=Bloom&rft.aufirst=Jack+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df7a5KxIcznAC%26q%3Dunpledged%2Belectors%2B1944%2Bsouth%2Bcarolina%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnpledged+elector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone2014" class="citation book cs1">Stone, Roger (2014-08-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ww9gBgAAQBAJ&q=unpledged+electors+1956&pg=PT588"><i>Nixon's Secrets: The Rise, Fall, and Untold Truth about the President, Watergate, and the Pardon</i></a>. Skyhorse. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781632200600" title="Special:BookSources/9781632200600"><bdi>9781632200600</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nixon%27s+Secrets%3A+The+Rise%2C+Fall%2C+and+Untold+Truth+about+the+President%2C+Watergate%2C+and+the+Pardon&rft.pub=Skyhorse&rft.date=2014-08-11&rft.isbn=9781632200600&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dww9gBgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dunpledged%2Belectors%2B1956%26pg%3DPT588&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnpledged+elector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1960/09/16/archives/georgia-electors-freed-by-voters-democrats-back-unpledged-slate.html">"GEORGIA ELECTORS 'FREED' BY VOTERS; Democrats Back Unpledged Slate -- Party Leaders Cite Confusion on Wording (Published 1960)"</a>. 1960-09-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-08-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=GEORGIA+ELECTORS+%27FREED%27+BY+VOTERS%3B+Democrats+Back+Unpledged+Slate+--+Party+Leaders+Cite+Confusion+on+Wording+%28Published+1960%29&rft.date=1960-09-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1960%2F09%2F16%2Farchives%2Fgeorgia-electors-freed-by-voters-democrats-back-unpledged-slate.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnpledged+elector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNovotny2004" class="citation journal cs1">Novotny, Patrick (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=14658910&site=eds-live&scope=site">"John F. Kennedy, the 1960 Election, and Georgia's Unpledged Electors in the Electoral College"</a>. <i>Georgia Historical Quarterly</i>. <b>88</b> (3): 375–397<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Georgia+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=John+F.+Kennedy%2C+the+1960+Election%2C+and+Georgia%27s+Unpledged+Electors+in+the+Electoral+College&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=375-397&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Novotny&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.ebscohost.com%2Flogin.aspx%3Fdirect%3Dtrue%26db%3Da9h%26AN%3D14658910%26site%3Deds-live%26scope%3Dsite&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnpledged+elector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/state.php?year=1960&f=0&off=0&elect=0&fips=1&submit=Retrieve">1960 Presidential General Election Results – Alabama</a> Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrende2012" class="citation web cs1">Trende, Sean (October 19, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2012/10/19/did_jfk_lose_the_popular_vote_115833.html">"Did JFK Lose the Popular Vote?"</a>. <i>Real Clear Politics</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 15,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Real+Clear+Politics&rft.atitle=Did+JFK+Lose+the+Popular+Vote%3F&rft.date=2012-10-19&rft.aulast=Trende&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.realclearpolitics.com%2Farticles%2F2012%2F10%2F19%2Fdid_jfk_lose_the_popular_vote_115833.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnpledged+elector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFund2003" class="citation news cs1">Fund, John (November 20, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031123133522/http://www.opinionjournal.com/diary/?id=110004320">"A Minority President"</a>. <i>Opinion Journal</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.opinionjournal.com/diary/?id=110004320">the original</a> on November 23, 2003<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Opinion+Journal&rft.atitle=A+Minority+President&rft.date=2003-11-20&rft.aulast=Fund&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.opinionjournal.com%2Fdiary%2F%3Fid%3D110004320&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnpledged+elector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://clio.lib.olemiss.edu/cdm/ref/collection/citizens/id/1153">"Statement of Unpledged Electors from Mississippi and Alabama"</a>. <i>Citizens' Council</i>. December 12, 1960<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 9,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Citizens%27+Council&rft.atitle=Statement+of+Unpledged+Electors+from+Mississippi+and+Alabama&rft.date=1960-12-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclio.lib.olemiss.edu%2Fcdm%2Fref%2Fcollection%2Fcitizens%2Fid%2F1153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnpledged+elector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1964/05/03/alabama-expected-to-choose-electors-backed-by-wallace.html">"Alabama Expected To Choose Electors Backed by Wallace"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 1964-05-03. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-02-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Alabama+Expected+To+Choose+Electors+Backed+by+Wallace&rft.date=1964-05-03&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1964%2F05%2F03%2Falabama-expected-to-choose-electors-backed-by-wallace.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnpledged+elector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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<li><a href="/wiki/1792_United_States_presidential_election" title="1792 United States presidential election">1792</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">1796</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">1800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1804_United_States_presidential_election" title="1804 United States presidential election">1804</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1808_United_States_presidential_election" title="1808 United States presidential election">1808</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1812_United_States_presidential_election" title="1812 United States presidential election">1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1816_United_States_presidential_election" title="1816 United States presidential election">1816</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1820_United_States_presidential_election" title="1820 United States presidential election">1820</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election" title="1824 United States presidential election">1824</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1828_United_States_presidential_election" title="1828 United States presidential election">1828</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1832_United_States_presidential_election" title="1832 United States presidential election">1832</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1836_United_States_presidential_election" title="1836 United States presidential election">1836</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1840_United_States_presidential_election" title="1840 United States presidential election">1840</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1844_United_States_presidential_election" title="1844 United States presidential election">1844</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1848_United_States_presidential_election" title="1848 United States presidential election">1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1852_United_States_presidential_election" title="1852 United States presidential election">1852</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1856_United_States_presidential_election" title="1856 United States presidential election">1856</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">1860</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_United_States_presidential_election" title="1864 United States presidential election">1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_United_States_presidential_election" title="1868 United States presidential election">1868</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_United_States_presidential_election" title="1872 United States presidential election">1872</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_United_States_presidential_election" title="1876 United States presidential election">1876</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1880_United_States_presidential_election" title="1880 United States presidential election">1880</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1884_United_States_presidential_election" title="1884 United States presidential election">1884</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888_United_States_presidential_election" title="1888 United States presidential election">1888</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1892_United_States_presidential_election" title="1892 United States presidential election">1892</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1896_United_States_presidential_election" title="1896 United States presidential election">1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1900_United_States_presidential_election" title="1900 United States presidential election">1900</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1904_United_States_presidential_election" title="1904 United States presidential election">1904</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1908_United_States_presidential_election" title="1908 United States presidential election">1908</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">1912</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_United_States_presidential_election" title="1916 United States presidential election">1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_United_States_presidential_election" title="1920 United States presidential election">1920</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1924_United_States_presidential_election" title="1924 United States presidential election">1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1928_United_States_presidential_election" title="1928 United States presidential election">1928</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1932_United_States_presidential_election" title="1932 United States presidential election">1932</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_United_States_presidential_election" title="1936 United States presidential election">1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_presidential_election" title="1940 United States presidential election">1940</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election" title="1944 United States presidential election">1944</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_United_States_presidential_election" title="1948 United States presidential election">1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_United_States_presidential_election" title="1952 United States presidential election">1952</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_United_States_presidential_election" title="1956 United States presidential election">1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_election" title="1960 United States presidential election">1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_United_States_presidential_election" title="1964 United States presidential election">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_United_States_presidential_election" title="1968 United States presidential election">1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_United_States_presidential_election" title="1972 United States presidential election">1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_United_States_presidential_election" title="1976 United States presidential election">1976</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_United_States_presidential_election" title="1980 United States presidential election">1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_United_States_presidential_election" title="1984 United States presidential election">1984</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_United_States_presidential_election" title="1988 United States presidential election">1988</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_United_States_presidential_election" title="1992 United States presidential election">1992</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_United_States_presidential_election" title="1996 United States presidential election">1996</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election" title="2000 United States presidential election">2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_United_States_presidential_election" title="2004 United States presidential election">2004</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_United_States_presidential_election" title="2008 United States presidential election">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_United_States_presidential_election" title="2012 United States presidential election">2012</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_United_States_presidential_election" title="2020 United States presidential election">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_United_States_presidential_election" title="2024 United States presidential election">2024</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2028_United_States_presidential_election" title="2028 United States presidential election"><i>2028</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_by_participation_in_United_States_presidential_elections" title="List of states by participation in United States presidential elections">Elections by state</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Alabama" title="United States presidential elections in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Alaska" title="United States presidential elections in Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Arizona" title="United States presidential elections in Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Arkansas" title="United States presidential elections in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_California" title="United States presidential elections in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Colorado" title="United States presidential elections in Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Connecticut" title="United States presidential elections in Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Delaware" title="United States presidential elections in Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_the_District_of_Columbia" title="United States presidential elections in the District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Florida" title="United States presidential elections in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Georgia" title="United States presidential elections in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Hawaii" title="United States presidential elections in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Idaho" title="United States presidential elections in Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Illinois" title="United States presidential elections in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Indiana" title="United States presidential elections in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Iowa" title="United States presidential elections in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Kansas" title="United States presidential elections in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Kentucky" title="United States presidential elections in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Louisiana" title="United States presidential elections in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Maine" title="United States presidential elections in Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Maryland" title="United States presidential elections in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Massachusetts" title="United States presidential elections in Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Michigan" title="United States presidential elections in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Minnesota" title="United States presidential elections in Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Mississippi" title="United States presidential elections in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Missouri" title="United States presidential elections in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Montana" title="United States presidential elections in Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Nebraska" title="United States presidential elections in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Nevada" title="United States presidential elections in Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_New_Hampshire" title="United States presidential elections in New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_New_Jersey" title="United States presidential elections in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_New_Mexico" title="United States presidential elections in New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_New_York" title="United States presidential elections in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_North_Carolina" title="United States presidential elections in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_North_Dakota" title="United States presidential elections in North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Ohio" title="United States presidential elections in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Oklahoma" title="United States presidential elections in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Oregon" title="United States presidential elections in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Pennsylvania" title="United States presidential elections in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Rhode_Island" title="United States presidential elections in Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_South_Carolina" title="United States presidential elections in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_South_Dakota" title="United States presidential elections in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Tennessee" title="United States presidential elections in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Texas" title="United States presidential elections in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Utah" title="United States presidential elections in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Vermont" title="United States presidential elections in Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Virginia" title="United States presidential elections in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Washington_(state)" title="United States presidential elections in Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_West_Virginia" title="United States presidential elections in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Wisconsin" title="United States presidential elections in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Wyoming" title="United States presidential elections in Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_primary" title="United States presidential primary">Primaries and caucuses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iowa_caucuses" title="Iowa caucuses">Iowa caucuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire_presidential_primary" title="New Hampshire presidential primary">New Hampshire presidential primary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_presidential_caucuses" title="Nevada presidential caucuses">Nevada presidential caucuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_presidential_primary" title="South Carolina presidential primary">South Carolina presidential primary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_Tuesday" title="Super Tuesday">Super Tuesday</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_nominating_convention" title="United States presidential nominating convention">Nominating conventions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidential_nominating_conventions_in_the_United_States" title="List of presidential nominating conventions in the United States">List of nominating conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brokered_convention" title="Brokered convention">Brokered convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_bounce" title="Convention bounce">Convention bounce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superdelegate" title="Superdelegate">Superdelegate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Electoral College</a><br />and popular vote</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Results <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_election_summary" class="mw-redirect" title="United States presidential election summary">summary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_presidential_elections_in_which_the_winner_lost_the_popular_vote" title="List of United States presidential elections in which the winner lost the popular vote">elections in which the winner lost the popular vote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_presidential_elections_by_Electoral_College_margin" title="List of United States presidential elections by Electoral College margin">Electoral College margins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_presidential_election_results_by_state" title="List of United States presidential election results by state">Electoral College results by state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_vote_changes_between_United_States_presidential_elections" title="Electoral vote changes between United States presidential elections">electoral vote changes between elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_who_received_an_electoral_vote_in_the_United_States_Electoral_College" title="List of people who received an electoral vote in the United States Electoral College">electoral vote recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_presidential_candidates_by_number_of_votes_received" title="List of United States presidential candidates by number of votes received">popular votes received</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_presidential_elections_by_popular_vote_margin" title="List of United States presidential elections by popular vote margin">popular-vote margins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_Count_Act" title="Electoral Count Act">Electoral Count Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certificate_of_ascertainment" title="Certificate of ascertainment">Certificate of ascertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certificate_of_vote" class="mw-redirect" title="Certificate of vote">Certificate of vote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">Contingent election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faithless_elector" title="Faithless elector">Faithless elector</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Unpledged elector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_turnout_in_United_States_presidential_elections" title="Voter turnout in United States presidential elections">Voter turnout</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._presidential_campaign_slogans" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. presidential campaign slogans">Campaign slogans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polling_for_United_States_presidential_elections" title="Polling for United States presidential elections">Historical election polling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_Day_(United_States)" title="Election Day (United States)">Election Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_major_party_presidential_tickets" title="List of United States major party presidential tickets">Major party tickets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsuccessful_major_party_candidates_for_President_of_the_United_States" title="List of unsuccessful major party candidates for President of the United States">Major party losers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_debates" title="United States presidential debates">Presidential debates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/October_surprise" title="October surprise">October surprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_states_and_blue_states" title="Red states and blue states">Red states and blue states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swing_state" title="Swing state">Swing state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping-point_state" title="Tipping-point state">Tipping-point state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_recount" title="Election recount">Election recount</a> (<a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election_recount_in_Florida" title="2000 United States presidential election recount in Florida">2000</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_straw_polls_in_Guam" title="United States presidential straw polls in Guam">Guam straw poll</a></li> <li>Vice presidential confirmations: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1973_United_States_vice_presidential_confirmation" title="1973 United States vice presidential confirmation">1973</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974_United_States_vice_presidential_confirmation" title="1974 United States vice presidential confirmation">1974</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="Template:United States House of Representatives elections">House elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_Senate_elections" title="Template:United States Senate elections">Senate elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_gubernatorial_elections" title="Template:United States gubernatorial elections">Gubernatorial elections</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" 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