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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Time_in_Berlin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Time_in_Berlin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Time in Berlin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Time_in_Berlin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Nuclear physics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manhattan_Project" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manhattan_Project"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Manhattan Project</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Manhattan_Project-sublist" 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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_the_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>After the war</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-After_the_war-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle After the war subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-After_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Personal life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Writings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cancer_diagnosis_and_treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cancer_diagnosis_and_treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Cancer diagnosis and treatment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cancer_diagnosis_and_treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Last_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Last_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Last years</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Last_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Patents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Patents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recognition_and_remembrance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recognition_and_remembrance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Recognition and remembrance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recognition_and_remembrance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>In media</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Leo Szilard</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 53 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-53" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">53 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88_%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="ليو زيلارد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ليو زيلارد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%85%27_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1" title="লিঅ' জিলাৰ্ড – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="লিঅ' জিলাৰ্ড" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A6%D9%88_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="لئو زیلارد – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="لئو زیلارد" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%93_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1" title="লিও জিলার্ড – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="লিও জিলার্ড" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BE_%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4" title="Лео Силард – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Лео Силард" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%AD%CE%BF_%CE%A3%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BD%CF%84" title="Λέο Σίλαρντ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Λέο Σίλαρντ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A6%D9%88_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="لئو زیلارد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="لئو زیلارد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Leo Szilard" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A4%EB%9D%BC%EB%A5%B4%EB%93%9C_%EB%A0%88%EC%98%A4" title="실라르드 레오 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="실라르드 레오" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%A5%D5%B8_%D5%8D%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4" title="Լեո Սիլարդ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լեո Սիլարդ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%95_%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%93" title="לאו סילארד – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לאו סילארד" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93%E1%83%98" title="ლეო ზილარდი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ლეო ზილარდი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leo Szilárd – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Leo Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Sil%C4%81rds" title="Leo Silārds – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Leo Silārds" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szil%C3%A1rd_Le%C3%B3" title="Szilárd Leó – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szilárd Leó" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%93_%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1" title="लिओ झिलार्ड – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="लिओ झिलार्ड" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93%E1%83%98" title="ლეო სილარდი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ლეო სილარდი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88_%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="ليو زيلارد – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ليو زيلارد" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AC%E3%82%AA%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89" title="レオ・シラード – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="レオ・シラード" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silard" title="Silard – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Silard" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%88_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="لیو زیلارد – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لیو زیلارد" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4,_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BE" title="Силард, Лео – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Силард, Лео" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" title="Leó Szilárd – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Leó Szilárd" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Leó Szilárd">Leó Szilárd</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Hungarian-American physicist and inventor (1898–1964)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">The native form of this <a href="/wiki/Personal_name" title="Personal name">personal name</a> is <i>Szilárd Leó</i>. This article uses <a href="/wiki/Personal_name#Western_name_order" title="Personal name">Western name order</a> when mentioning individuals.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Leo Szilard</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Leo_Szilard-cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Headshot of Szilard looking to the right against a black background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Leo_Szilard-cropped.png/220px-Leo_Szilard-cropped.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Leo_Szilard-cropped.png/330px-Leo_Szilard-cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Leo_Szilard-cropped.png/440px-Leo_Szilard-cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="661" data-file-height="865" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Szilard, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1960</span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Leó Spitz</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1898-02-11</span>)</span>February 11, 1898<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Budapest" title="Budapest">Budapest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Kingdom of Hungary</a>, <span class="avoidwrap" style="display:inline-block;">Austria-Hungary</span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">May 30, 1964<span style="display:none">(1964-05-30)</span> (aged 66)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace">San Diego, California, US</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citizenship</th><td class="infobox-data category"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Hungary</li><li>Germany (from 1930)</li><li>United States (from 1943)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Budapest_Technical_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Budapest Technical University">Budapest Technical University</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Technische_Universit%C3%A4t_Berlin" title="Technische Universität Berlin">Technische Universität Berlin</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold"><i>See list</i></span></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">Nuclear chain reaction</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Szilard_petition" class="mw-redirect" title="Szilard petition">Szilard petition</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" title="Einstein–Szilard letter">Einstein–Szilard letter</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_bomb" title="Cobalt bomb">Cobalt bomb</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Absorption_refrigerator" title="Absorption refrigerator">Absorption refrigerator</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Szilard_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Szilard engine">Szilard engine</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Szilard%E2%80%93Chalmers_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Szilard–Chalmers effect">Szilard–Chalmers effect</a></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_refrigerator" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein–Szilard refrigerator">Einstein–Szilard refrigerator</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Atoms_for_Peace_Award" title="Atoms for Peace Award">Atoms for Peace Award</a> (1959)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Award" title="Albert Einstein Award">Albert Einstein Award</a> (1960)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Humboldt University of Berlin</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Salk_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Salk Institute">Salk Institute</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i> Über die thermodynamischen Schwankungserscheinungen </i> <span style="font-size:97%;">(1923)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Max von Laue</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Leo_Szilard.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Leo_Szilard.svg/150px-Leo_Szilard.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Leo_Szilard.svg/225px-Leo_Szilard.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Leo_Szilard.svg/300px-Leo_Szilard.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="32" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Leo Szilard</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ɑːr/: 'ar' in 'far'">ɑːr</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a>: <i lang="hu">Szilárd Leó</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="hu-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Hungarian" title="Help:IPA/Hungarian">[ˈsilaːrd<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈlɛoː]</a></span>; born <b>Leó Spitz</b>; February 11, 1898 – May 30, 1964) was a Hungarian-born physicist, biologist and inventor who made numerous important discoveries in nuclear physics and the biological sciences. He conceived the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reaction</a> in 1933, and patented the idea in 1936. In late 1939 he wrote <a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" title="Einstein–Szilard letter">the letter</a> for <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s signature that resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> that built the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a>, and then in 1944 wrote the <a href="/wiki/Szilard_petition" class="mw-redirect" title="Szilard petition">Szilard petition</a> asking President Truman to demonstrate the bomb without dropping it on civilians. According to <a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Marx" title="György Marx">György Marx</a>, he was one of the Hungarian scientists known as <a href="/wiki/The_Martians_(scientists)" title="The Martians (scientists)">The Martians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Szilard initially attended <a href="/wiki/Budapest_University_of_Technology_and_Economics" title="Budapest University of Technology and Economics">Palatine Joseph Technical University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Budapest" title="Budapest">Budapest</a>, but his engineering studies were interrupted by service in the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Army" title="Austro-Hungarian Army">Austro-Hungarian Army</a> during World War I. He left Hungary for Germany in 1919, enrolling at Technische Hochschule (Institute of Technology) in Berlin-Charlottenburg (now <a href="/wiki/Technische_Universit%C3%A4t_Berlin" title="Technische Universität Berlin">Technische Universität Berlin</a>), but became bored with engineering and transferred to <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Friedrich Wilhelm University</a>, where he studied physics. He wrote his doctoral thesis on <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_demon" title="Maxwell's demon">Maxwell's demon</a>, a long-standing puzzle in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_thermal_and_statistical_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics">philosophy of thermal and statistical physics</a>. Szilard was the first scientist of note to recognize the connection between thermodynamics and <a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">information theory</a>. </p><p>Szilard coined and submitted the earliest known <a href="/wiki/Patent_application" title="Patent application">patent applications</a> and the first publications for the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">electron microscope</a> (1928), the <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotron</a> (1929), and also contributed to the development of the <a href="/wiki/Linear_accelerator" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear accelerator">linear accelerator</a> (1928) in Germany. Between 1926 and 1930, he worked with Einstein on the development of the <a href="/wiki/Einstein_refrigerator" title="Einstein refrigerator">Einstein refrigerator</a>. </p><p>After <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_rise_to_power" title="Adolf Hitler's rise to power">Adolf Hitler became chancellor of Germany</a> in 1933, Szilard urged his family and friends to flee Europe while they still could. He moved to England, where he helped found the <a href="/wiki/Academic_Assistance_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Assistance Council">Academic Assistance Council</a>, an organization dedicated to helping refugee scholars find new jobs. While in England, Szilard, alongside Thomas A. Chalmers, discovered a means of isotope separation known as the <a href="/wiki/Szilard%E2%80%93Chalmers_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Szilard–Chalmers effect">Szilard–Chalmers effect</a>. </p><p>Foreseeing another war in Europe, Szilard moved to the United States in 1938, where he worked with Enrico Fermi and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Zinn" title="Walter Zinn">Walter Zinn</a> on means of creating a nuclear chain reaction. He was present when this was achieved within the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a> on December 2, 1942. He worked for the Manhattan Project's <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Metallurgical Laboratory</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> on aspects of nuclear reactor design, where he was the chief physicist. He drafted the <a href="/wiki/Szilard_petition" class="mw-redirect" title="Szilard petition">Szilard petition</a> advocating a non-lethal demonstration of the atomic bomb, but the <a href="/wiki/Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a> chose to use them <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">in a military strike </a> instead. </p><p>Together with <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>, he applied for a nuclear reactor patent in 1944. He publicly sounded the alarm against the possible development of <a href="/wiki/Salted_bomb" title="Salted bomb">salted thermonuclear bombs</a>, a new kind of nuclear weapon that might annihilate mankind. </p><p>His inventions, discoveries, and contributions related to biological science are also equally important, they include the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Feedback_inhibition" class="mw-redirect" title="Feedback inhibition">feedback inhibition</a> and the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Chemostat" title="Chemostat">chemostat</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Puck" title="Theodore Puck">Theodore Puck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philip_I._Marcus" title="Philip I. Marcus">Philip I. Marcus</a>, Szilard gave essential advice which made the earliest cloning of the human cell a reality. </p><p>Diagnosed with <a href="/wiki/Bladder_cancer" title="Bladder cancer">bladder cancer</a> in 1960, he underwent a <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60">cobalt-60</a> treatment that he had designed. He helped found the <a href="/wiki/Salk_Institute_for_Biological_Studies" title="Salk Institute for Biological Studies">Salk Institute for Biological Studies</a>, where he became a resident fellow. Szilard founded <a href="/wiki/Council_for_a_Livable_World" title="Council for a Livable World">Council for a Livable World</a> in 1962 to deliver "the sweet voice of reason" about nuclear weapons to Congress, the White House, and the American public. He died in his sleep of a heart attack in 1964. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>He was born as Leó Spitz in <a href="/wiki/Budapest" title="Budapest">Budapest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Kingdom of Hungary</a>, on February 11, 1898. His middle-class <a href="/wiki/History_of_Jews_in_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jews in Hungary">Jewish</a> parents, Lajos (Louis) Spitz, a <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineer" title="Civil engineer">civil engineer</a>, and Tekla Vidor, raised Leó on the Városligeti Fasor in <a href="/wiki/Pest,_Hungary" title="Pest, Hungary">Pest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199210–13_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199210–13-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had two younger siblings, a brother, Béla, born in 1900, and a sister, Rózsi, born in 1901. On October 4, 1900, the family changed its surname from the German "Spitz" to the Hungarian "Szilárd", a name that means "solid" in <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199213–15_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199213–15-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite having a religious background, Szilard became an <a href="/wiki/Agnostic" class="mw-redirect" title="Agnostic">agnostic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992167_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992167-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1908 to 1916 he attended Föreáliskola (high school) in Budapest's 6th District . Showing an early interest in physics and a proficiency in mathematics, in 1916 he won the Eötvös Prize, a national prize for mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrank2008244–246_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank2008244–246-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlumesbergerDoppelhoferMauthe20021355_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlumesbergerDoppelhoferMauthe20021355-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Szil%C3%A1rd_Le%C3%B3_1916.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Szil%C3%A1rd_Le%C3%B3_1916.jpg/220px-Szil%C3%A1rd_Le%C3%B3_1916.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Szil%C3%A1rd_Le%C3%B3_1916.jpg/330px-Szil%C3%A1rd_Le%C3%B3_1916.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Szil%C3%A1rd_Le%C3%B3_1916.jpg/440px-Szil%C3%A1rd_Le%C3%B3_1916.jpg 2x" data-file-width="764" data-file-height="541" /></a><figcaption>Leo Szilard in 1915<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>With World War I raging in Europe, Szilard received notice on January 22, 1916, that he had been drafted into the 5th Fortress Regiment, but he was able to continue his studies. He enrolled as an engineering student at the <a href="/wiki/Budapest_University_of_Technology_and_Economics" title="Budapest University of Technology and Economics">Palatine Joseph Technical University</a>, which he entered in September 1916. The following year he joined the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Army" title="Austro-Hungarian Army">Austro-Hungarian Army</a>'s 4th Mountain Artillery Regiment, but immediately was sent to Budapest as an officer candidate. He rejoined his regiment in May 1918 but in September, before being sent to the front, he fell ill with <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Influenza" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Influenza">Spanish Influenza</a> and was returned home for hospitalization.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199236–41_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199236–41-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later he was informed that his regiment had been nearly annihilated in battle, so the illness probably saved his life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBess199344_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBess199344-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was discharged honorably in November 1918, after the Armistice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199242_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199242-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In January 1919, Szilard resumed his engineering studies, but Hungary was in a chaotic political situation with the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Soviet_Republic" title="Hungarian Soviet Republic">Hungarian Soviet Republic</a> under <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Kun" title="Béla Kun">Béla Kun</a>. Szilard and his brother Béla founded their own political group, the Hungarian Association of Socialist Students, with a platform based on a scheme of Szilard's for taxation reform. He was convinced that <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> was the answer to Hungary's post-war problems, but not that of Kun's Hungarian Socialist Party, which had close ties to the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199244–46_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199244–46-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Kun's government tottered, the brothers officially changed their religion from "Israelite" to "<a href="/wiki/Reformed_Church_in_Hungary" title="Reformed Church in Hungary">Calvinist</a>", but when they attempted to re-enroll in what was now the Budapest University of Technology, they were prevented from doing so by nationalist students because they were Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199244–49_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199244–49-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Time_in_Berlin">Time in Berlin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Time in Berlin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Convinced that there was no future for him in Hungary, Szilard left for <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> via Austria on December 25, 1919, and enrolled at the <a href="/wiki/Technische_Universit%C3%A4t_Berlin" title="Technische Universität Berlin">Technische Hochschule (Institute of Technology) in Berlin-Charlottenburg</a>. He was soon joined by his brother Béla.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199249–52_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199249–52-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Szilard became bored with engineering, and his attention turned to <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>. This was not taught at the Technische Hochschule, so he transferred to <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Friedrich Wilhelm University</a>, where he attended lectures given by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Nernst" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Nernst">Walter Nernst</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Max von Laue</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199256–58_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199256–58-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also met fellow Hungarian students <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Gabor" title="Dennis Gabor">Dennis Gabor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHargittai200644_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHargittai200644-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Szilard's doctoral <a href="/wiki/Dissertation" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissertation">dissertation</a> on <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> <i>Über die thermodynamischen Schwankungserscheinungen</i> (On The Manifestation of Thermodynamic Fluctuations), praised by Einstein, won top honors in 1922. It involved a long-standing puzzle in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_thermal_and_statistical_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics">philosophy of thermal and statistical physics</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_demon" title="Maxwell's demon">Maxwell's demon</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a> originated by the <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a>. The problem was thought to be insoluble, but in tackling it Szilard recognized the connection between thermodynamics and <a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">information theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199260–61_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199260–61-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Szilard was appointed as assistant to von Laue at the Institute for Theoretical Physics in 1924. In 1927 he finished his <a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">habilitation</a> and became a <i><a href="/wiki/Privatdozent" title="Privatdozent">Privatdozent</a></i> (private lecturer) in physics. For his habilitation lecture, he produced a second paper on Maxwell's Demon, <i>Über die Entropieverminderung in einem thermodynamischen System bei Eingriffen intelligenter Wesen</i> (On the reduction of entropy in a thermodynamic system by the intervention of intelligent beings), that had actually been written soon after the first. This introduced the thought experiment now called the <a href="/wiki/Szilard_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Szilard engine">Szilard engine</a> and became important in the history of attempts to understand Maxwell's demon. The paper is also the first equation of negative entropy and information. As such, it established Szilard as one of the founders of information theory, but he did not publish it until 1929, and did not pursue it further.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199262–65_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199262–65-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">Cybernetics</a>, via the work of <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a> and <a href="/wiki/Claude_E._Shannon" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude E. Shannon">Claude E. Shannon</a>, would later develop the concept into a general theory in the 1940s and 1950s—though, during the time of the <a href="/wiki/Macy_conferences" title="Macy conferences">Cybernetics Meetings</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Von_Neumann" class="mw-redirect" title="John Von Neumann">John Von Neumann</a> pointed out that Szilard first equated information with entropy in his review of Wiener's <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics:_Or_Control_and_Communication_in_the_Animal_and_the_Machine" title="Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine">Cybernetics book</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout his time in Berlin, Szilard worked on numerous technical inventions. In 1928 he submitted a <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> application for the <a href="/wiki/Linear_accelerator" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear accelerator">linear accelerator</a>, not knowing of <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Ising" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustav Ising">Gustav Ising</a>'s prior 1924 journal article and <a href="/wiki/Rolf_Wider%C3%B8e" title="Rolf Widerøe">Rolf Widerøe</a>'s operational device,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalapriceLipscombe2005110_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalapriceLipscombe2005110-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 1929 applied for one for the <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotron</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992101–102_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992101–102-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was also the first person to conceive the idea of the <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">electron microscope</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199283–85_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199283–85-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and submitted the earliest patent for one in 1928.<sup id="cite_ref-budtalk_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-budtalk-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1926 and 1930, he worked with Einstein to develop the <a href="/wiki/Einstein_refrigerator" title="Einstein refrigerator">Einstein refrigerator</a>, notable because it had no moving parts.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He did not build all of these devices, or publish these ideas in <a href="/wiki/Scientific_journals" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific journals">scientific journals</a>, and so credit for them often went to others. As a result, Szilard never received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a>, but <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a> was awarded it for the cyclotron in 1939, and <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Ruska" title="Ernst Ruska">Ernst Ruska</a> for the electron microscope in 1986.<sup id="cite_ref-budtalk_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-budtalk-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fermi-Szilard_Neutronic_Reactor_-_Figure_38.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Fermi-Szilard_Neutronic_Reactor_-_Figure_38.png/170px-Fermi-Szilard_Neutronic_Reactor_-_Figure_38.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Fermi-Szilard_Neutronic_Reactor_-_Figure_38.png/255px-Fermi-Szilard_Neutronic_Reactor_-_Figure_38.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Fermi-Szilard_Neutronic_Reactor_-_Figure_38.png/340px-Fermi-Szilard_Neutronic_Reactor_-_Figure_38.png 2x" data-file-width="1658" data-file-height="2610" /></a><figcaption>An image from the Fermi–Szilard "neutronic reactor" patent</figcaption></figure> <p>Szilard received German citizenship in 1930, but was already uneasy about the political situation in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser201271_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser201271-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> became <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Chancellor of Germany">chancellor of Germany</a> <a href="/wiki/Machtergreifung" class="mw-redirect" title="Machtergreifung">on January 30, 1933</a>, Szilard urged his family and friends to flee Europe while they still could.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199262–65_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199262–65-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He moved to England, and transferred his savings of £1,595 (£143,000 today) from his bank in <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Zürich">Zürich</a> to one in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>. He lived in hotels where lodging and meals cost about £5.5 a week.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes198626_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes198626-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For those less fortunate, he helped found the <a href="/wiki/Council_for_Assisting_Refugee_Academics" class="mw-redirect" title="Council for Assisting Refugee Academics">Academic Assistance Council</a>, an organization dedicated to helping refugee scholars find new jobs, and persuaded the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> to provide accommodation for it at <a href="/wiki/Burlington_House" title="Burlington House">Burlington House</a>. He enlisted the help of academics such as <a href="/wiki/Harald_Bohr" title="Harald Bohr">Harald Bohr</a>, <a href="/wiki/G._H._Hardy" title="G. H. Hardy">G. H. Hardy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Hill" title="Archibald Hill">Archibald Hill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_G._Donnan" title="Frederick G. Donnan">Frederick G. Donnan</a>. By the outbreak of World War II in 1939, it had helped to find places for over 2,500 refugee scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992119–122_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992119–122-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_physics">Nuclear physics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nuclear physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On the morning of September 12, 1933, Szilard read an article in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a></i> summarizing a speech given by <a href="/wiki/Lord_Rutherford" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Rutherford">Lord Rutherford</a> in which Rutherford rejected the feasibility of using atomic energy for practical purposes. The speech remarked specifically on the recent 1932 work of his students, <a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Ernest Walton</a>, in "splitting" <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> into <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a>, by bombardment with <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerator</a> they had constructed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992131–132_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992131–132-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rutherford went on to say: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We might in these processes obtain very much more energy than the proton supplied, but on the average we could not expect to obtain energy in this way. It was a very poor and inefficient way of producing energy, and anyone who looked for a source of power in the transformation of the atoms was talking moonshine. But the subject was scientifically interesting because it gave insight into the atoms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes198627_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes198627-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>Szilard was so annoyed at Rutherford's dismissal that, on the same day, he conceived of the idea of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reaction</a> (analogous to a chemical <a href="/wiki/Chain_reaction" title="Chain reaction">chain reaction</a>), using recently discovered <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a>. The idea did not use the mechanism of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>, which was not yet discovered, but Szilard realized that if neutrons could initiate any sort of energy-producing nuclear reaction, such as the one that had occurred in lithium, and could be produced themselves by the same reaction, energy might be obtained with little input, since the reaction would be self-sustaining.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992133–135_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992133–135-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wanted to carry out a systematic survey of all 92 then-known elements in order to find one that can allow the chain reaction, at an estimated cost of $8000, but he did not for lack of funds.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Szilard filed for a patent on the concept of the neutron-induced nuclear chain reaction in June 1934, which was granted in March 1936.<sup id="cite_ref-ChainPatent_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChainPatent-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under section 30 of the <i><a href="/wiki/Patents_and_Design_Act_1907" title="Patents and Design Act 1907">Patents and Designs Act</a></i> (1907, UK),<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Szilard was able to assign the patent to the <a href="/wiki/British_Admiralty" class="mw-redirect" title="British Admiralty">British Admiralty</a> to ensure its secrecy, which he did.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986224–225_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986224–225-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, his patent was not published until 1949<sup id="cite_ref-ChainPatent_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChainPatent-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when the relevant parts of the <i>Patents and Designs Act</i> (1907, UK) were repealed by the <a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom_from_1949" title="List of acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1949"><i>Patents and Designs Act</i> (July 1949, UK)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rhodes" title="Richard Rhodes">Richard Rhodes</a> described Szilard's moment of inspiration: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In London, where <a href="/wiki/Southampton_Row" class="mw-redirect" title="Southampton Row">Southampton Row</a> passes <a href="/wiki/Russell_Square" title="Russell Square">Russell Square</a>, across from the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> in Bloomsbury,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leo Szilard waited irritably one gray <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Depression</a> morning for the stoplight to change. A trace of rain had fallen during the night; Tuesday, September 12, 1933, dawned cool, humid and dull. Drizzling rain would begin again in early afternoon. When Szilard told the story later he never mentioned his destination that morning. He may have had none; he often walked to think. In any case another destination intervened. The stoplight changed to green. Szilard stepped off the curb. As he crossed the street time cracked open before him and he saw a way to the future, death into the world and all our woe,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/The_Shape_of_Things_to_Come" title="The Shape of Things to Come">the shape of things to come</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes198613_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes198613-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>Prior to conceiving the nuclear chain reaction, in 1932 Szilard had read <a href="/wiki/H._G._Wells" title="H. G. Wells">H. G. Wells</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/The_World_Set_Free" title="The World Set Free">The World Set Free</a></i>, a book describing continuing explosives which Wells termed "atomic bombs"; Szilard wrote in his memoirs the book had made "a very great impression on me."<sup id="cite_ref-Chain_reactor_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chain_reactor-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Szilard assigned his patent to the Admiralty to keep the news from reaching the notice of the wider scientific community, he wrote, "Knowing what this [a chain reaction] would mean—and I knew it because I had read H. G. Wells—I did not want this patent to become public."<sup id="cite_ref-Chain_reactor_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chain_reactor-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In early 1934, Szilard began working at <a href="/wiki/St_Bartholomew%27s_Hospital" title="St Bartholomew's Hospital">St Bartholomew's Hospital</a> in London. Working with a young physicist on the hospital staff, Thomas A. Chalmers, he began studying radioactive <a href="/wiki/Isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotopes">isotopes</a> for medical purposes. It was known that bombarding elements with neutrons could produce either heavier isotopes of an element, or a heavier element, a phenomenon known as the Fermi Effect after its discoverer, the Italian physicist <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>. When they bombarded <a href="/wiki/Ethyl_iodide" title="Ethyl iodide">ethyl iodide</a> with neutrons produced by a <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a>–<a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">beryllium</a> source, they found that the heavier radioactive <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_iodine" title="Isotopes of iodine">isotopes of iodine</a> separated from the compound. Thus, they had discovered a means of isotope separation. This method became known as the <a href="/wiki/Szilard%E2%80%93Chalmers_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Szilard–Chalmers effect">Szilard–Chalmers effect</a>, and was widely used in the preparation of medical isotopes.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992145–148_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992145–148-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also attempted unsuccessfully to create a nuclear chain reaction using beryllium by bombarding it with <a href="/wiki/X-rays" class="mw-redirect" title="X-rays">X-rays</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992148_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992148-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manhattan_Project">Manhattan Project</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Manhattan Project"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Columbia_University">Columbia University</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Columbia University"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Szilard visited Béla and Rose and her husband Roland (Lorand) Detre, in Switzerland in September 1937. After a rainstorm, he and his siblings spent an afternoon in an unsuccessful attempt to build a prototype collapsible umbrella. One reason for the visit was that he had decided to emigrate to the United States, as he believed that another war in Europe was inevitable and imminent. He reached New York on the liner <a href="/wiki/RMS_Franconia_(1922)" title="RMS Franconia (1922)">RMS <i>Franconia</i></a> on January 2, 1938.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992166–167_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992166–167-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the next few months, he moved from place to place, conducting research with <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Goldhaber" title="Maurice Goldhaber">Maurice Goldhaber</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana%E2%80%93Champaign" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign">University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign</a>, and then the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Rochester" title="University of Rochester">University of Rochester</a>, where he undertook experiments with <a href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium">indium</a> but again failed to initiate a chain reaction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992172–173_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992172–173-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fermi_and_Szilard.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Fermi_and_Szilard.gif/170px-Fermi_and_Szilard.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Fermi_and_Szilard.gif/255px-Fermi_and_Szilard.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Fermi_and_Szilard.gif/340px-Fermi_and_Szilard.gif 2x" data-file-width="601" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Army Intelligence report on Enrico Fermi and Leo Szilard</figcaption></figure> <p>In early 1938, Szilard would settle down at "what would become a haven for much of the rest of his life" when he took a room at the King's Crown Hotel in New York City, being near <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> where he now conducted research without a formal title or position.<sup id="cite_ref-Lanouette_18_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lanouette_18-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He encountered <a href="/wiki/John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John R. Dunning</a>, who invited him to speak about his research at an afternoon seminar in January 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992172–173_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992172–173-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That same month, <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> brought news with him to New York that nuclear fission had accidentally been observed by chemists <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Strassmann" title="Fritz Strassmann">Fritz Strassmann</a> at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry in Berlin on December 19, 1938. Hahn and Strassman's misunderstanding of their observation would be corrected theoretically and thus explained by <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Frisch" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Frisch">Otto Frisch</a>, as Meitner had known of Szilard's theory back in 1933 and after re-conducting the experiment themselves, confirmed Szilard's theory to have been correct all along.<sup id="cite_ref-Lanouette_18_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lanouette_18-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Szilard found out about it on a visit to Wigner at <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>, he immediately realized that <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> might be the element capable of sustaining a chain reaction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992178–179_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992178–179-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unable to convince Fermi that this was the case, Szilard set out on his own. He obtained permission from the head of the physics department at Columbia, <a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a>, to use a laboratory for three months. To fund his experiment, he borrowed $2,000 from a fellow inventor, Benjamin Liebowitz. He wired <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Lindemann" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Lindemann">Frederick Lindemann</a> at Oxford and asked him to send a beryllium cylinder. He persuaded <a href="/wiki/Walter_Zinn" title="Walter Zinn">Walter Zinn</a> to become his collaborator and hired Semyon Krewer to investigate processes for manufacturing pure uranium and <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992182–183_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992182–183-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Szilard and Zinn conducted a simple experiment on the seventh floor of Pupin Hall at Columbia, using a radium–beryllium source to bombard uranium with neutrons. Initially nothing registered on the <a href="/wiki/Oscilloscope" title="Oscilloscope">oscilloscope</a>, but then Zinn realized that it was not plugged in. On doing so, they discovered significant neutron multiplication in natural uranium, proving that a chain reaction might be possible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992186–187_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992186–187-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Szilard later described the event: "We turned the switch and saw the flashes. We watched them for a little while and then we switched everything off and went home."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986291_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986291-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He understood the implications and consequences of this discovery, though. "That night, there was very little doubt in my mind that the world was headed for grief".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986292_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986292-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While they had demonstrated that the fission of uranium produced more neutrons than it consumed, this was still not a chain reaction. Szilard persuaded Fermi and <a href="/wiki/Herbert_L._Anderson" title="Herbert L. Anderson">Herbert L. Anderson</a> to try a larger experiment using 500 pounds (230 kg) of uranium. To maximize the chance of fission, they needed a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">neutron moderator</a> to slow the neutrons down. <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a> was a known moderator, so they used water. The results were disappointing. It became apparent that hydrogen slowed neutrons down, but also absorbed them, leaving fewer for the chain reaction. Szilard then suggested Fermi use <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, in the form of graphite. He felt he would need about 50 tonnes (49 long tons; 55 short tons) (50.8 metric ton) of graphite and 5 tonnes (4.9 long tons; 5.5 short tons) of uranium. As a back-up plan, Szilard also considered where he might find a few tons of <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a>; <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> would not absorb neutrons like ordinary hydrogen but would have the similar value as a moderator. Such quantities of material would require a lot of money.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992194–195_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992194–195-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Szilard drafted a confidential letter to the President, <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>, explaining the possibility of nuclear weapons, warning of the <a href="/wiki/German_nuclear_weapon_project" class="mw-redirect" title="German nuclear weapon project">German nuclear weapon project</a>, and encouraging the development of a program that could result in their creation. With the help of Wigner and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a>, he approached his old friend and collaborator Einstein in August 1939, and persuaded him to sign the letter, lending his fame to the proposal.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szil%C3%A1rd_letter" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein–Szilárd letter">Einstein–Szilárd letter</a> resulted in the establishment of research into nuclear fission by the US government, and ultimately to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>. Roosevelt gave the letter to his aide, <a href="/wiki/Brigadier_General_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigadier General (United States)">Brigadier General</a> <a href="/wiki/Edwin_%22Pa%22_Watson" title="Edwin "Pa" Watson">Edwin M. "Pa" Watson</a> with the instruction: "Pa, this requires action!"<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An Advisory Committee on Uranium was formed under <a href="/wiki/Lyman_J._Briggs" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyman J. Briggs">Lyman J. Briggs</a>, a scientist and the director of the <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Standards" class="mw-redirect" title="National Bureau of Standards">National Bureau of Standards</a>. Its first meeting on October 21, 1939, was attended by Szilard, Teller, and Wigner, who persuaded the Army and Navy to provide $6,000 for Szilard to purchase supplies for experiments—in particular, more graphite.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196219–21_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196219–21-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 1940 Army intelligence report on Fermi and Szilard, prepared when the United States had not yet entered World War II, expressed reservations about both. While it contained some errors of fact about Szilard, it correctly noted his dire prediction that Germany would win the war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992223–224_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992223–224-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fermi and Szilard met with <a href="/wiki/Herbert_G._MacPherson" title="Herbert G. MacPherson">Herbert G. MacPherson</a> and V. C. Hamister of the <a href="/wiki/National_Carbon_Company" title="National Carbon Company">National Carbon Company</a>, who manufactured graphite, and Szilard made another important discovery. He asked about impurities in graphite and learned<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg1994b_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg1994b-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from MacPherson that it usually contained <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a>, a neutron absorber. He then had special boron-free graphite produced.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992222_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992222-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Had he not done so, they might have concluded, as the German nuclear researchers did, that graphite was unsuitable for use as a neutron moderator.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like the German researchers, Fermi and Szilard still believed that enormous quantities of uranium would be required for an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a>, and therefore concentrated on producing a controlled chain reaction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992227_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992227-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fermi determined that a fissioning uranium atom produced 1.73 neutrons on average. It was enough, but a careful design was called for to minimize losses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196228_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196228-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Szilard worked up various designs for a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a>. "If the uranium project could have been run on ideas alone," Wigner later remarked, "no one but Leo Szilard would have been needed."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992227_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992227-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metallurgical_Laboratory">Metallurgical Laboratory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Metallurgical Laboratory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ChicagoPileTeam.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="14 men and one woman, all wearing formal suit jackets, with Szilard also wearing a lab coat" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ChicagoPileTeam.png/220px-ChicagoPileTeam.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ChicagoPileTeam.png/330px-ChicagoPileTeam.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ChicagoPileTeam.png/440px-ChicagoPileTeam.png 2x" data-file-width="1546" data-file-height="1148" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Metallurgical Laboratory</a> scientists, with Szilard second from right, in the lab coat</figcaption></figure> <p>At its December 6, 1941, meeting, the <a href="/wiki/National_Defense_Research_Committee" title="National Defense Research Committee">National Defense Research Committee</a> resolved to proceed with an all-out effort to produce atomic bombs. This decision was given urgency by the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> the following day that brought the United States into World War II. It was formally approved by Roosevelt in January 1942. <a href="/wiki/Arthur_H._Compton" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur H. Compton">Arthur H. Compton</a> from the University of Chicago was appointed head of research and development. Against Szilard's wishes, Compton concentrated all the groups working on reactors and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Metallurgical Laboratory</a> of the University of Chicago. Compton laid out an ambitious plan to achieve a chain reaction by January 1943, start manufacturing plutonium in nuclear reactors by January 1944, and produce an atomic bomb by January 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992227–231_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992227–231-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In January 1942, Szilard joined the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago as a research associate, and later the chief physicist.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992227–231_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992227–231-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Weinberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Alvin Weinberg">Alvin Weinberg</a> noted that Szilard served as the project "gadfly", asking all the embarrassing questions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg1994a22–23_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg1994a22–23-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Szilard provided important insights. While <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">uranium-238</a> did not fission readily with slow, moderated neutrons, it might still fission with the fast neutrons produced by fission. This effect was small but crucial.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg1994a17_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg1994a17-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Szilard made suggestions that improved the uranium canning process,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg1994a36_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg1994a36-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and worked with David Gurinsky and <a href="/wiki/Ed_Creutz" class="mw-redirect" title="Ed Creutz">Ed Creutz</a> on a method for recovering uranium from its salts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992234–235_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992234–235-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A vexing question at the time was how a production reactor should be cooled. Taking a conservative view that every possible neutron must be preserved, the majority opinion initially favored cooling with helium, which would absorb very few neutrons. Szilard argued that if this was a concern, then liquid <a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">bismuth</a> would be a better choice. He supervised experiments with it, but the practical difficulties turned out to be too great. In the end, Wigner's plan to use ordinary water as a coolant won out.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg1994a22–23_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg1994a22–23-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the coolant issue became too heated, Compton and the director of the Manhattan Project, Brigadier General <a href="/wiki/Leslie_R._Groves,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Leslie R. Groves, Jr.">Leslie R. Groves, Jr.</a>, moved to dismiss Szilard, who was still a German citizen, but the <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Stimson" title="Henry L. Stimson">Henry L. Stimson</a>, refused to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992238–242_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992238–242-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Szilard was therefore present on December 2, 1942, when the first man-made self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction was achieved in the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">first nuclear reactor</a> under viewing stands of <a href="/wiki/Stagg_Field" title="Stagg Field">Stagg Field</a> and shook Fermi's hand.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992243–245_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992243–245-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Szilard started to acquire high-quality graphite and uranium, which were the necessary materials for building a large-scale chain reaction experiment. The success of this demonstration and technological breakthrough at the University of Chicago were partially due to Szilard's new atomic theories, his uranium lattice design, and the identification and mitigation of a key graphite impurity (boron) through a joint collaboration with graphite suppliers.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Szilard became a <a href="/wiki/Naturalized_citizen" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalized citizen">naturalized citizen</a> of the United States in March 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992249_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992249-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Army offered Szilard $25,000 for his inventions before November 1940, when he officially joined the project. He refused.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992253_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992253-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was the co-holder, with Fermi, of the patent on the nuclear reactor.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the end he sold his patent to the government for reimbursement of his expenses, some $15,416, plus the standard $1 fee.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992254_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992254-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He continued to work with Fermi and Wigner on nuclear reactor design and is credited with coining the term "<a href="/wiki/Breeder_reactor" title="Breeder reactor">breeder reactor</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg1994a38–40_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg1994a38–40-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With an enduring passion for the preservation of human life and political freedom, Szilard hoped that the US government would not use nuclear weapons, but that the mere threat of such weapons would force Germany and Japan to surrender. He also worried about the long-term implications of nuclear weapons, predicting that their use by the United States would start a nuclear arms race with the USSR. He drafted the <a href="/wiki/Szil%C3%A1rd_petition" title="Szilárd petition">Szilárd petition</a> advocating that the atomic bomb be demonstrated to the enemy, and used only if the enemy did not then surrender. The <a href="/wiki/Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a> instead chose to <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">use atomic bombs against cities</a> over the protests of Szilard and other scientists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992266–275_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992266–275-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterwards, he lobbied for amendments to the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a> that placed nuclear energy under civilian control.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992377–378_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992377–378-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="After_the_war">After the war</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: After the war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Szilard_and_Hilberry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Szilard_and_Hilberry.jpg/170px-Szilard_and_Hilberry.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Szilard_and_Hilberry.jpg/255px-Szilard_and_Hilberry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Szilard_and_Hilberry.jpg/340px-Szilard_and_Hilberry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1591" /></a><figcaption>Szilard and Norman Hilberry at the site of <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">CP-1</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, some years after the war. It was demolished in 1957.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1946, Szilard secured a research professorship at the University of Chicago that allowed him to research in biology and the social sciences. He teamed up with <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Novick" title="Aaron Novick">Aaron Novick</a>, a chemist who had worked at the Metallurgical Laboratory during the war. The two men saw biology as a field that had not been explored as much as physics and was ready for scientific breakthroughs. It was a field that Szilard had been working on in 1933 before he had become subsumed in the quest for a nuclear chain reaction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992377–378_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992377–378-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The duo made considerable advances. They invented the <a href="/wiki/Chemostat" title="Chemostat">chemostat</a>, a device for regulating the growth rate of the <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Bioreactor" title="Bioreactor">bioreactor</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and developed methods for measuring the growth rate of bacteria. They discovered <a href="/wiki/Feedback_inhibition" class="mw-redirect" title="Feedback inhibition">feedback inhibition</a>, an important factor in processes such as growth and metabolism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHargittai2006143–144_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHargittai2006143–144-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Szilard gave essential advice to <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Puck" title="Theodore Puck">Theodore Puck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philip_I._Marcus" title="Philip I. Marcus">Philip I. Marcus</a> for their first cloning of a human cell in 1955.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992395–397_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992395–397-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Personal life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before his relationship with his later wife Gertrud "Trude" Weiss, Leo Szilard's life partner in the period 1927–1934 was the kindergarten teacher and opera singer <a href="/wiki/Gerda_Philipsborn" title="Gerda Philipsborn">Gerda Philipsborn</a>, who also worked as a volunteer in a Berlin asylum organization for refugee children and in 1932 moved to India to continue this work.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Szilard married Trude Weiss,<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a physician, in a civil ceremony in New York on October 13, 1951. They had known each other since 1929 and had frequently corresponded and visited each other ever since. Weiss took up a teaching position at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Colorado_Denver" title="University of Colorado Denver">University of Colorado</a> in April 1950, and Szilard began staying with her in <a href="/wiki/Denver" title="Denver">Denver</a> for weeks at a time when they had never been together for more than a few days before. Single people living together was frowned upon in the conservative United States at the time and, after they were discovered by one of her students, Szilard began to worry that she might lose her job. Their relationship remained a long-distance one, and they kept news of their marriage quiet. Many of his friends were shocked, having considered Szilard a born bachelor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEstererEsterer1972148_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEstererEsterer1972148-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992334–339_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992334–339-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Writings">Writings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Writings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1949 Szilard wrote a short story titled "<a href="/wiki/My_Trial_as_a_War_Criminal" title="My Trial as a War Criminal">My Trial as a War Criminal</a>" in which he imagined himself on trial for crimes against humanity after the United States lost a war with the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He publicly sounded the alarm against the possible development of <a href="/wiki/Salted_bomb" title="Salted bomb">salted thermonuclear bombs</a>, explaining in a University of Chicago Round Table radio program on February 26, 1950,<sup id="cite_ref-Radio_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radio-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that a sufficiently big thermonuclear bomb rigged with specific but common materials, might annihilate mankind.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992317,_366_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992317,_366-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His comments, as well as those of <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harrison_Brown" title="Harrison Brown">Harrison Brown</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Seitz" title="Frederick Seitz">Frederick Seitz</a> (the three other scientists who participated in the program), were attacked by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a>'s former Chairman <a href="/wiki/David_Lilienthal" class="mw-redirect" title="David Lilienthal">David Lilienthal</a>, and the criticisms plus a response from Szilard were published.<sup id="cite_ref-Radio_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radio-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i> compared Szilard to <a href="/wiki/Chicken_Little" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicken Little">Chicken Little</a><sup id="cite_ref-Time_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Time-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the AEC dismissed his ideas, but scientists debated whether it was feasible or not; the <i><a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Atomic_Scientists" title="Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists">Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</a></i> commissioned a study by <a href="/wiki/James_R._Arnold" title="James R. Arnold">James R. Arnold</a>, who concluded that it was.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physicist W. H. Clark suggested that a 50 <a href="/wiki/Megatonne" class="mw-redirect" title="Megatonne">megaton</a> <a href="/wiki/Cobalt_bomb" title="Cobalt bomb">cobalt bomb</a> did have the potential to produce sufficient long-lasting radiation to be a <a href="/wiki/Doomsday_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Doomsday weapon">doomsday weapon</a>, in theory,<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but was of the view that, even then, "enough people might find refuge to wait out the radioactivity and emerge to begin again."<sup id="cite_ref-Time_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Time-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1961 he proposed the idea of "Mined Cities", an early example of <a href="/wiki/Mutually_assured_destruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutually assured destruction">mutually assured destruction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Szilard published a book of short stories, <i>The Voice of the Dolphins</i> (1961), in which he dealt with the moral and ethical issues raised by the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> and his own role in the development of atomic weapons. The title story described an international biology research laboratory in Central Europe. This became reality after a meeting in 1962 with <a href="/wiki/Victor_Frederick_Weisskopf" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Frederick Weisskopf">Victor F. Weisskopf</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_D._Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="James D. Watson">James Watson</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Kendrew" title="John Kendrew">John Kendrew</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EMBL_history_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EMBL_history-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the <a href="/wiki/European_Molecular_Biology_Laboratory" title="European Molecular Biology Laboratory">European Molecular Biology Laboratory</a> was established, the library was named The Szilard Library and the library stamp features dolphins.<sup id="cite_ref-EMBL_library_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EMBL_library-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other honors that he received included the <a href="/wiki/Atoms_for_Peace_Award" title="Atoms for Peace Award">Atoms for Peace Award</a> in 1959,<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Humanist_Association" title="American Humanist Association">Humanist of the Year</a> in 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-Humanist_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humanist-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Szilard_(crater)" title="Szilard (crater)">lunar crater</a> on the far side of the Moon was named after him in 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard_Lectureship_Award" title="Leo Szilard Lectureship Award">Leo Szilard Lectureship Award</a>, established in 1974, is given in his honor by the <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Awardees_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Awardees-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cancer_diagnosis_and_treatment">Cancer diagnosis and treatment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Cancer diagnosis and treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1960, Szilard was diagnosed with <a href="/wiki/Bladder_cancer" title="Bladder cancer">bladder cancer</a>. He underwent <a href="/wiki/Cobalt_therapy" title="Cobalt therapy">cobalt therapy</a> at New York's <a href="/wiki/Memorial_Sloan-Kettering_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Memorial Sloan-Kettering Hospital">Memorial Sloan-Kettering Hospital</a> using a cobalt 60 treatment regimen that his doctors gave him a high degree of control over. A second round of treatment with an increased dose followed in 1962. The higher dose did its job and his cancer never returned.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Last_years">Last years</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Last years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Salk_Institute_(5).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Salk_Institute_%285%29.jpg/170px-Salk_Institute_%285%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Salk_Institute_%285%29.jpg/255px-Salk_Institute_%285%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Salk_Institute_%285%29.jpg/340px-Salk_Institute_%285%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>Salk Institute</figcaption></figure> <p>Szilard spent his last years as a fellow of the <a href="/wiki/Salk_Institute_for_Biological_Studies" title="Salk Institute for Biological Studies">Salk Institute for Biological Studies</a> in the <a href="/wiki/La_Jolla" title="La Jolla">La Jolla</a> community of San Diego, California, which he had helped create.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992400–401_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992400–401-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Szilard founded <a href="/wiki/Council_for_a_Livable_World" title="Council for a Livable World">Council for a Livable World</a> in 1962 to deliver "the sweet voice of reason" about nuclear weapons to Congress, the White House, and the American public.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was appointed a non-resident fellow there in July 1963, and became a resident fellow on April 1, 1964, after moving to San Diego in February.<sup id="cite_ref-Papers_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papers-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With Trude, he lived in a bungalow on the property of the <a href="/wiki/Hotel_del_Charro" title="Hotel del Charro">Hotel del Charro</a>. On May 30, 1964, he died there in his sleep of a <a href="/wiki/Myocardial_infarction" title="Myocardial infarction">heart attack</a>; when Trude awoke, she was unable to revive him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992477_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992477-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His remains were cremated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992479_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992479-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His papers are in the library at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Diego" title="University of California, San Diego">University of California, San Diego</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Papers_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papers-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In February 2014, the library announced that it received funding from the <a href="/wiki/National_Historical_Publications_and_Records_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="National Historical Publications and Records Commission">National Historical Publications and Records Commission</a> to digitize its collection of his papers, ranging from 1938 to 1998.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Patents">Patents</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Patents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation patent"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=GB630726">GB 630726</a></span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&rft.number=630726&rft.cc=GB&rft.title="><span style="display: none;"> </span></span>—Improvements in or relating to the transmutation of chemical elements—L. Szilard, filed June 28, 1934, issued March 30, 1936</li> <li><span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US2708656">U.S. patent 2,708,656</a></span>—Neutronic reactor—E. Fermi, L. Szilard, filed December 19, 1944, issued May 17, 1955</li> <li><span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US1781541">U.S. patent 1,781,541</a></span>—<a href="/wiki/Einstein_Refrigerator" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein Refrigerator">Einstein Refrigerator</a>—co-developed with <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> filed in 1926, issued November 11, 1930</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recognition_and_remembrance">Recognition and remembrance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Recognition and remembrance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atoms_for_Peace_Award" title="Atoms for Peace Award">Atoms for Peace Award</a>, 1959</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Award" title="Albert Einstein Award">Albert Einstein Award</a>, 1960</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Humanist_Association" title="American Humanist Association">American Humanist Association</a>'s Humanist of the Year, 1960</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Szilard_(crater)" title="Szilard (crater)">Szilard (crater)</a> on the far side of the Moon, named in 1970</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard_Lectureship_Award" title="Leo Szilard Lectureship Award">Leo Szilard Lectureship Award</a>, since 1974</li> <li>Asteroid <a href="/wiki/38442_Szil%C3%A1rd" class="mw-redirect" title="38442 Szilárd">38442 Szilárd</a> discovered in 1999<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3szil%C3%A1rdite" title="Leószilárdite">Leószilárdite</a>, mineral, reported in 2016</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_media">In media</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: In media"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Szilard was portrayed in the 2023 <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Nolan" title="Christopher Nolan">Christopher Nolan</a> film <i><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_(film)" title="Oppenheimer (film)">Oppenheimer</a></i> by Máté Haumann.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Szilard was also the subject of a musical entitled <i>Atomic</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Martians_(scientists)" title="The Martians (scientists)">The Martians (scientists)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Szilard_Point" title="Szilard Point">Szilard Point</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMarx" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy" title="György">Marx, György</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220409175959/http://fizikaiszemle.hu/archivum/fsz9703/marsl.html">"A marslakók legendája"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fizikaiszemle.hu/archivum/fsz9703/marsl.html">the original</a> on April 9, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 7,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+marslak%C3%B3k+legend%C3%A1ja&rft.aulast=Marx&rft.aufirst=Gy%C3%B6rgy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffizikaiszemle.hu%2Farchivum%2Ffsz9703%2Fmarsl.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199210–13-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199210–13_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLanouetteSilard1992">Lanouette & Silard 1992</a>, pp. 10–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199213–15-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199213–15_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLanouetteSilard1992">Lanouette & Silard 1992</a>, pp. 13–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992167-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992167_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLanouetteSilard1992">Lanouette & Silard 1992</a>, p. 167.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByers" class="citation web cs1">Byers, Nina. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/html/physics/0207094">"Fermi and Szilard"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 23,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fermi+and+Szilard&rft.aulast=Byers&rft.aufirst=Nina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farxiv.org%2Fhtml%2Fphysics%2F0207094&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank2008244–246-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrank2008244–246_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrank2008">Frank 2008</a>, pp. 244–246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlumesbergerDoppelhoferMauthe20021355-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlumesbergerDoppelhoferMauthe20021355_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlumesbergerDoppelhoferMauthe2002">Blumesberger, Doppelhofer & Mauthe 2002</a>, p. 1355.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzilard1979" class="citation journal cs1">Szilard, Leo (February 1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00963402.1979.11458587">"His version of the facts"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</i>. <b>35</b> (2): 37–40. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979BuAtS..35b..37S">1979BuAtS..35b..37S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00963402.1979.11458587">10.1080/00963402.1979.11458587</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3402">0096-3402</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 29,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Atomic+Scientists&rft.atitle=His+version+of+the+facts&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=37-40&rft.date=1979-02&rft.issn=0096-3402&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00963402.1979.11458587&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1979BuAtS..35b..37S&rft.aulast=Szilard&rft.aufirst=Leo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fpdf%2F10.1080%2F00963402.1979.11458587&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199236–41-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199236–41_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLanouetteSilard1992">Lanouette & Silard 1992</a>, pp. 36–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBess199344-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBess199344_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBess1993">Bess 1993</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199242-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199242_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLanouetteSilard1992">Lanouette & Silard 1992</a>, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199244–46-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199244–46_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLanouetteSilard1992">Lanouette & Silard 1992</a>, pp. 44–46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199244–49-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199244–49_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLanouetteSilard1992">Lanouette & Silard 1992</a>, pp. 44–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199249–52-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199249–52_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLanouetteSilard1992">Lanouette & Silard 1992</a>, pp. 49–52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199256–58-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199256–58_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLanouetteSilard1992">Lanouette & Silard 1992</a>, pp. 56–58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHargittai200644-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHargittai200644_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHargittai2006">Hargittai 2006</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzilard1925" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Szilard, Leo (December 1, 1925). "Über die Ausdehnung der phänomenologischen Thermodynamik auf die Schwankungserscheinungen". <i>Zeitschrift für Physik</i> (in German). <b>32</b> (1): 753–788. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1925ZPhy...32..753S">1925ZPhy...32..753S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01331713">10.1007/BF01331713</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0044-3328">0044-3328</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121162622">121162622</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Physik&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+die+Ausdehnung+der+ph%C3%A4nomenologischen+Thermodynamik+auf+die+Schwankungserscheinungen&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=753-788&rft.date=1925-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01331713&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A121162622%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0044-3328&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1925ZPhy...32..753S&rft.aulast=Szilard&rft.aufirst=Leo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199260–61-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199260–61_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLanouetteSilard1992">Lanouette & Silard 1992</a>, pp. 60–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzilard1929" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Szilard, Leo (1929). "Über die Entropieverminderung in einem thermodynamischen System bei Eingriffen intelligenter Wesen". <i>Zeitschrift für Physik</i> (in German). <b>53</b> (11–12): 840–856. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1929ZPhy...53..840S">1929ZPhy...53..840S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01341281">10.1007/BF01341281</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0044-3328">0044-3328</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122038206">122038206</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Physik&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+die+Entropieverminderung+in+einem+thermodynamischen+System+bei+Eingriffen+intelligenter+Wesen&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=11%E2%80%9312&rft.pages=840-856&rft.date=1929&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01341281&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A122038206%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0044-3328&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1929ZPhy...53..840S&rft.aulast=Szilard&rft.aufirst=Leo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span> Available on-line in English at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aurellem.org/jaynes/sources/Szilard.pdf">Aurellen.org</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199262–65-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199262–65_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199262–65_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLanouetteSilard1992">Lanouette & Silard 1992</a>, pp. 62–65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Neumann1949" class="citation journal cs1">von Neumann, John (1949). "Review of Norbert Wiener, cybernetics". <i>Physics Today</i>. <b>2</b>: 33–34.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=Review+of+Norbert+Wiener%2C+cybernetics&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=33-34&rft.date=1949&rft.aulast=von+Neumann&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKline2015" class="citation book cs1">Kline, Ronald (2015). <i>The cybernetics moment: Or why we call our age the information age</i>. JHU Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+cybernetics+moment%3A+Or+why+we+call+our+age+the+information+age&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Kline&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTelegdi2000" class="citation journal cs1">Telegdi, V. L. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1325189">"Szilard as Inventor: Accelerators and More"</a>. <i>Physics Today</i>. <b>53</b> (10): 25–28. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PhT....53j..25T">2000PhT....53j..25T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1325189">10.1063/1.1325189</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=Szilard+as+Inventor%3A+Accelerators+and+More&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=25-28&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.1325189&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000PhT....53j..25T&rft.aulast=Telegdi&rft.aufirst=V.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1063%252F1.1325189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECalapriceLipscombe2005110-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECalapriceLipscombe2005110_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCalapriceLipscombe2005">Calaprice & Lipscombe 2005</a>, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992101–102-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992101–102_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLanouetteSilard1992">Lanouette & Silard 1992</a>, pp. 101–102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199283–85-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard199283–85_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLanouetteSilard1992">Lanouette & Silard 1992</a>, pp. 83–85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-budtalk-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-budtalk_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-budtalk_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDannen1998" class="citation web cs1">Dannen, Gene (February 9, 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dannen.com/budatalk.html">"Leo Szilard the Inventor: A Slideshow"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 24,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Leo+Szilard+the+Inventor%3A+A+Slideshow&rft.date=1998-02-09&rft.aulast=Dannen&rft.aufirst=Gene&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dannen.com%2Fbudatalk.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US1781541">U.S. patent 1,781,541</a></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser201271-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser201271_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFraser2012">Fraser 2012</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes198626-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes198626_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRhodes1986">Rhodes 1986</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992119–122-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992119–122_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLanouetteSilard1992">Lanouette & Silard 1992</a>, pp. 119–122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992131–132-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992131–132_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLanouetteSilard1992">Lanouette & Silard 1992</a>, pp. 131–132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes198627-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes198627_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRhodes1986">Rhodes 1986</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992133–135-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanouetteSilard1992133–135_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLanouetteSilard1992">Lanouette & Silard 1992</a>, pp. 133–135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRotblat1973" class="citation journal cs1">Rotblat, J. (March 1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F242067a0">"The Sixteen Faces of Leo Szilard"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>242</b> (5392): 67–68. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973Natur.242...67R">1973Natur.242...67R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F242067a0">10.1038/242067a0</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4163940">4163940</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+Sixteen+Faces+of+Leo+Szilard&rft.volume=242&rft.issue=5392&rft.pages=67-68&rft.date=1973-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F242067a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4163940%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1973Natur.242...67R&rft.aulast=Rotblat&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F242067a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChainPatent-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ChainPatent_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChainPatent_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation patent" id="CITEREFLeo_Szilard1936"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=GB630726">GB patent 630726</a>, Leo Szilard, "Improvements in or relating to the transmutation of chemical elements", published September 28, 1949, issued March 30, 1936</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&rft.number=630726&rft.cc=GB&rft.title=Improvements+in+or+relating+to+the+transmutation+of+chemical+elements&rft.inventor=Leo+Szilard&rft.date=March 30, 1936&rft.appldate=June 28, 1934&rft.pubdate=September 28, 1949&rft.prioritydate=June 28, 1934"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Edw7/7/29/section/30/enacted">"Section 30: Assignment to Secretary for War or the Admiralty of certain inventions"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Patents_and_Design_Act_1907" title="Patents and Design Act 1907"><i><span></span></i>Patents and Designs Act<i> (1907, UK)</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/The_National_Archives_(United_Kingdom)" title="The National Archives (United Kingdom)">The National Archives</a> on behalf of <a href="/wiki/HM_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="HM Government">HM Government</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 7,</span> 2020</span> – via legislation.gov.uk.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Section+30%3A+Assignment+to+Secretary+for+War+or+the+Admiralty+of+certain+inventions&rft.btitle=Patents+and+Designs+Act+%281907%2C+UK%29&rft.pub=The+National+Archives+on+behalf+of+HM+Government&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legislation.gov.uk%2Fukpga%2FEdw7%2F7%2F29%2Fsection%2F30%2Fenacted&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes1986224–225-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes1986224–225_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRhodes1986">Rhodes 1986</a>, pp. 224–225.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Edw7/7/29/section/30/enacted">"Changes over time for Section 1"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Patents_and_Design_Act_1907" title="Patents and Design Act 1907"><i><span></span></i>Patents and Designs Act<i> (1907, UK)</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/The_National_Archives_(United_Kingdom)" title="The National Archives (United Kingdom)">The National Archives</a> on behalf of <a href="/wiki/HM_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="HM Government">HM Government</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 7,</span> 2020</span> – via legislation.gov.uk. <q>Ss. 1–46 repealed by <i>Patents Act</i> 1949 (c. 87), Schs. 2, 3 and <i>Registered Designs Act</i> 1949 (c. 88), s. 48, Sch. 2</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Changes+over+time+for+Section+1&rft.btitle=Patents+and+Designs+Act+%281907%2C+UK%29&rft.pub=The+National+Archives+on+behalf+of+HM+Government&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legislation.gov.uk%2Fukpga%2FEdw7%2F7%2F29%2Fsection%2F30%2Fenacted&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.ucsd.edu/dc/object/bb8022312q">"Street corner in London where Szilard conceived the idea of the chain reaction"</a>, about 1980. Leo Szilard Papers. MSS 32. Special Collections & Archives, UC San Diego Library.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quote from <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton, John</a> (1667) <i>"<a href="/wiki/Paradise_Lost" title="Paradise Lost">Paradise Lost</a>", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/20/pg20-images.html#link2HCH0001">Book I, verse 3</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhodes198613-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhodes198613_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRhodes1986">Rhodes 1986</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chain_reactor-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chain_reactor_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chain_reactor_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vqronline.org/essay/hg-wells-and-scientific-imagination">"H.G. Wells and the Scientific Imagination"</a>. <i>The Virginia Quarterly Review</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 6,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Virginia+Quarterly+Review.&rft.atitle=H.G.+Wells+and+the+Scientific+Imagination&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vqronline.org%2Fessay%2Fhg-wells-and-scientific-imagination&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzilardChalmers1934" class="citation journal cs1">Szilard, L.; Chalmers, T. A. (September 22, 1934). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F134462b0">"Chemical Separation of the Radioactive Element from its Bombarded Isotope in the Fermi Effect"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>134</b> (3386): 462. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1934Natur.134..462S">1934Natur.134..462S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F134462b0">10.1038/134462b0</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4129460">4129460</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Chemical+Separation+of+the+Radioactive+Element+from+its+Bombarded+Isotope+in+the+Fermi+Effect&rft.volume=134&rft.issue=3386&rft.pages=462&rft.date=1934-09-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F134462b0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4129460%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1934Natur.134..462S&rft.aulast=Szilard&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.au=Chalmers%2C+T.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F134462b0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzilardChalmers1934" class="citation journal cs1">Szilard, L.; Chalmers, T. A. (September 29, 1934). 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computing+in+Science+and+Engineering&rft.atitle=Nonlinear+population+dynamics+in+the+chemostat&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=48-55&rft.date=2001-01-01&rft.issn=1521-9615&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2F5992.895187&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001CSE.....3a..48G&rft.aulast=Grivet&rft.aufirst=Jean-Philippe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusers.mat.unimi.it%2Fusers%2Fnaldi%2Fchemostat.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span> The chemostat was independently invented the same year by <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Monod" title="Jacques Monod">Jacques Monod</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNovickSzilard1950" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Novick" 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Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-04421-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-04421-1"><bdi>0-226-04421-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/27894840">27894840</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Realism%2C+Utopia%2C+and+the+Mushroom+Cloud%3A+Four+Activist+Intellectuals+and+their+Strategies+for+Peace%2C+1945%E2%80%931989&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F27894840&rft.isbn=0-226-04421-1&rft.aulast=Bess&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlumesbergerDoppelhoferMauthe2002" class="citation book cs1">Blumesberger, Susanne; Doppelhofer, Michael; Mauthe, Gabriele (2002). <i>Handbuch österreichischer Autorinnen und Autoren jüdischer Herkunft</i>. Vol. 1. Munich: K. G. Saur. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783598115455" title="Special:BookSources/9783598115455"><bdi>9783598115455</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/49635343">49635343</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbuch+%C3%B6sterreichischer+Autorinnen+und+Autoren+j%C3%BCdischer+Herkunft&rft.place=Munich&rft.pub=K.+G.+Saur&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F49635343&rft.isbn=9783598115455&rft.aulast=Blumesberger&rft.aufirst=Susanne&rft.au=Doppelhofer%2C+Michael&rft.au=Mauthe%2C+Gabriele&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalapriceLipscombe2005" class="citation book cs1">Calaprice, Alice; Lipscombe, Trevor (2005). <i>Albert Einstein: A Biography</i>. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33080-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33080-3"><bdi>978-0-313-33080-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/57208188">57208188</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Albert+Einstein%3A+A+Biography&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F57208188&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33080-3&rft.aulast=Calaprice&rft.aufirst=Alice&rft.au=Lipscombe%2C+Trevor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEstererEsterer1972" class="citation book cs1">Esterer, Arnulf K.; Esterer, Luise A. (1972). <i>Prophet of the Atomic Age: Leo Szilard</i>. New York: Julian Messner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-32523-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-32523-X"><bdi>0-671-32523-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1488166">1488166</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prophet+of+the+Atomic+Age%3A+Leo+Szilard&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Julian+Messner&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1488166&rft.isbn=0-671-32523-X&rft.aulast=Esterer&rft.aufirst=Arnulf+K.&rft.au=Esterer%2C+Luise+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank2008" class="citation book cs1">Frank, Tibor (2008). <i>Double exile: migrations of Jewish-Hungarian professionals through Germany to the United States, 1919–1945</i>. Exile Studies. Vol. 7. Oxford: Peter Lang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-03911-331-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-03911-331-6"><bdi>978-3-03911-331-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/299281775">299281775</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Double+exile%3A+migrations+of+Jewish-Hungarian+professionals+through+Germany+to+the+United+States%2C+1919%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Exile+Studies&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F299281775&rft.isbn=978-3-03911-331-6&rft.aulast=Frank&rft.aufirst=Tibor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFraser2012" class="citation book cs1">Fraser, Gordon (2012). <i>The Quantum Exodus</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-959215-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-959215-9"><bdi>978-0-19-959215-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/757930837">757930837</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Quantum+Exodus&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F757930837&rft.isbn=978-0-19-959215-9&rft.aulast=Fraser&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHargittai2006" class="citation book cs1">Hargittai, István (2006). <i>The Martians of Science: Five Physicists Who Changed the Twentieth Century</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517845-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517845-6"><bdi>978-0-19-517845-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/62084304">62084304</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Martians+of+Science%3A+Five+Physicists+Who+Changed+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F62084304&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517845-6&rft.aulast=Hargittai&rft.aufirst=Istv%C3%A1n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Hewlett" title="Richard G. Hewlett">Hewlett, Richard G.</a>; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.governmentattic.org/5docs/TheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf"><i>The New World, 1939–1946</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-07186-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-07186-7"><bdi>0-520-07186-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/637004643">637004643</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 26,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+World%2C+1939%E2%80%931946&rft.place=University+Park&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F637004643&rft.isbn=0-520-07186-7&rft.aulast=Hewlett&rft.aufirst=Richard+G.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Oscar+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.governmentattic.org%2F5docs%2FTheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanouetteSilard1992" class="citation book cs1">Lanouette, William; Silard, Bela (1992). <i>Genius in the Shadows: A Biography of Leo Szilard: The Man Behind The Bomb</i>. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-626-36023-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-626-36023-5"><bdi>1-626-36023-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/25508555">25508555</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genius+in+the+Shadows%3A+A+Biography+of+Leo+Szilard%3A+The+Man+Behind+The+Bomb&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Skyhorse+Publishing&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F25508555&rft.isbn=1-626-36023-5&rft.aulast=Lanouette&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Silard%2C+Bela&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhodes1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rhodes" title="Richard Rhodes">Rhodes, Richard</a> (1986). <a href="/wiki/The_Making_of_the_Atomic_Bomb" title="The Making of the Atomic Bomb"><i>The Making of the Atomic Bomb</i></a>. New York: Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0671441337" title="Special:BookSources/0671441337"><bdi>0671441337</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/25508555">25508555</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+Atomic+Bomb&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F25508555&rft.isbn=0671441337&rft.aulast=Rhodes&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg1994a" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Weinberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Alvin Weinberg">Weinberg, Alvin</a> (1994a). <i>The First Nuclear Era: The Life and Times of a Technological Fixer</i>. New York: AIP Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56396-358-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-56396-358-2"><bdi>1-56396-358-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Nuclear+Era%3A+The+Life+and+Times+of+a+Technological+Fixer&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=AIP+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=1-56396-358-2&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg1994b" class="citation cs2">Weinberg, Alvin (1994b), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=4779&page=142">"Herbert G. MacPherson"</a>, <i>Memorial Tributes</i>, vol. 7, National Academy of Engineering Press, pp. 143–147, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F4779">10.17226/4779</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-05146-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-05146-0"><bdi>978-0-309-05146-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Herbert+G.+MacPherson&rft.btitle=Memorial+Tributes&rft.pages=143-147&rft.pub=National+Academy+of+Engineering+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F4779&rft.isbn=978-0-309-05146-0&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fopenbook.php%3Frecord_id%3D4779%26page%3D142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Szilard, Leo; Weiss-Szilard, Gertrud; <a href="/wiki/Spencer_Weart" class="mw-redirect" title="Spencer Weart">Weart, Spencer R.</a> (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leoszilardhisver0000spen/mode/1up"><i>Leo Szilard: His Version of the Facts – Selected Recollections and Correspondence</i></a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-69070-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-69070-5"><bdi>0-262-69070-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4037084">4037084</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leo+Szilard%3A+His+Version+of+the+Facts+%E2%80%93+Selected+Recollections+and+Correspondence&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4037084&rft.isbn=0-262-69070-5&rft.aulast=Szilard&rft.aufirst=Leo&rft.au=Weiss-Szilard%2C+Gertrud&rft.au=Weart%2C+Spencer+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fleoszilardhisver0000spen%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Szilard, Leo (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/voiceofdolphinso00szil_0"><i>The Voice of the Dolphins: And Other Stories</i></a></span> (Expanded edition from 1961 original ed.). Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-1754-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-1754-0"><bdi>0-8047-1754-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/758259818">758259818</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Voice+of+the+Dolphins%3A+And+Other+Stories&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.edition=Expanded+edition+from+1961+original&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F758259818&rft.isbn=0-8047-1754-0&rft.aulast=Szilard&rft.aufirst=Leo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvoiceofdolphinso00szil_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeo+Szilard" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Leó Szilárd">Leó Szilárd</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Leo_Szilard" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dannen.com/szilard.html">Leo Szilard Online</a> – an "Internet Historic Site" (first created March 30, 1995) maintained by Gene Dannen</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libraries.ucsd.edu/speccoll/findingaids/mss0032.html">Register of the Leo Szilard Papers, MSS 32</a>, Special Collections & Archives, UC San Diego Library.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.ucsd.edu/dc/collection/bb0752385q">Leo Szilard Papers, MSS 32</a>, Special Collections & Archives, UC San Diego Library.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libraries.ucsd.edu/speccoll/findingaids/mss0659.html">Lanouette/Szilard Papers, MSS 659</a>, Special Collections & Archives, UC San Diego Library.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/william-lanouettes-interview">2014 Interview with William Lanouette, author of "Genius in the Shadows: A Biography of Leo Szilard, the Man Behind the Bomb." </a> Voices of the Manhattan Project</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/Begin/Einstein.shtml">Einstein's Letter to President Roosevelt – 1939</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.embl.de/services/library/library_information/">The Szilard Library at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dannen.com/roadtowar.html">Szilard lecture on war</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150603014926/http://www.t3licensing.com/license/clip/49312131_022.do">Einstein and Szilard re-enact their meeting</a> for the film <i><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Power_(film)" title="Atomic Power (film)">Atomic Power</a></i> (1946)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UmGVnFGVu50">The Many Worlds of Leo Szilard</a>, an invited session sponsored by the APS Forum on the History of Physics at the APS April Meeting 2014, speakers discuss the life and physics Léo Szilárd. Presentations by William Lanouette (The Many Worlds of Léo Szilárd: Physicist, Peacemaker, Provocateur), Richard Garwin (Léo Szilárd in Physics and Information), and Matthew Meselson (Léo Szilárd: Biologist and Peacemaker)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170425054224/http://www.imdb.com/character/ch0030409/">Leo Szilard</a> on <a href="/wiki/IMDb" title="IMDb">IMDb</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/ea.cgi?11120">Entry at isfdb.org</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Szilard%2C%20Leo%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Leo%20Szilard%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Szilard%2C%20Leo%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Leo%20Szilard%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Szilard%2C%20L%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Leo%20Szilard%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Szilard%2C%20Leo%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Leo%20Szilard%22%29%20OR%20%28%221898-1964%22%20AND%20Szilard%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Leo Szilard</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fadedpage.com/csearch.php?author=Szilard%2C%20Leo">Works by Leo Szilard</a> at <a href="/wiki/Distributed_Proofreaders_Canada" title="Distributed Proofreaders Canada">Faded Page</a> (Canada)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ames_Project" title="Ames Project">Ames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Chicago</a> (<a href="/wiki/Site_A" title="Site A">Site A</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayton_Project" title="Dayton Project">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanford_Engineer_Works" title="Hanford Engineer Works">Hanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Camel" title="Project Camel">Inyokern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Y" title="Project Y">Los Alamos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreal_Laboratory" title="Montreal Laboratory">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Oak Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_Wells_Pilot_Plant" title="Salt Wells Pilot Plant">Salt Wells Pilot Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendover_Air_Force_Base" title="Wendover Air Force Base">Wendover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-9_Project" title="P-9 Project">Heavy water sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Administrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Duffield" title="Priscilla Duffield">Priscilla Duffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Farrell_(United_States_Army_officer)" title="Thomas Farrell (United States Army officer)">Thomas Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lansdale_Jr." title="John Lansdale Jr.">John Lansdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Marshall" title="James C. Marshall">James Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Matthias" title="Franklin Matthias">Franklin Matthias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_McKibbin" title="Dorothy McKibbin">Dorothy McKibbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterling_Parsons" title="William Sterling Parsons">Deak Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Pash" title="Boris Pash">Boris Pash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Purnell" title="William R. Purnell">William Purnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Spedding" title="Frank Spedding">Frank Spedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas" title="Charles Allen Thomas">Charles Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tibbets" title="Paul Tibbets">Paul Tibbets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Uanna" title="William L. Uanna">Bud Uanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_L._Warren" title="Stafford L. Warren">Stafford Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Westcott" title="Ed Westcott">Ed Westcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Charles_Wilson" title="Roscoe Charles Wilson">Roscoe Wilson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">Aage Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Critchfield" title="Charles Critchfield">Charles Critchfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Daghlian" title="Harry Daghlian">Harry Daghlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John R. Dunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Maria Goeppert Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Koval" title="George Koval">George Koval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Norman Ramsey Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">James Rainwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn Seaborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Leo Szilard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ulam" title="Stanisław Ulam">Stanisław Ulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsos_Mission" title="Alsos Mission">Alsos Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Peppermint" title="Operation Peppermint">Operation Peppermint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Alberta" title="Project Alberta">Project Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silverplate" title="Silverplate">Silverplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/509th_Composite_Group" title="509th Composite Group">509th Composite Group</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enola_Gay" title="Enola Gay">Enola Gay</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bockscar" title="Bockscar">Bockscar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Artiste" title="The Great Artiste">The Great Artiste</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpkin_bomb" title="Pumpkin bomb">Pumpkin bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_Man_(nuclear_bomb)" title="Thin Man (nuclear bomb)">Thin Man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_scientists_and_technicians_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bismuth_phosphate_process" title="Bismuth phosphate process">Bismuth phosphate process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron_Girls" title="Calutron Girls">Calutron Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">Demon core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" title="Einstein–Szilard letter">Einstein–Szilard letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25 Project</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Primer" title="Los Alamos Primer">Los Alamos Primer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_who_worked_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="List of Nobel laureates who worked on the Manhattan Project">Nobel Prize laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RaLa_Experiment" title="RaLa Experiment">RaLa Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-1_Executive_Committee" title="S-1 Executive Committee">S-1 Executive Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" title="S-50 (Manhattan Project)">S-50 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Y-12 Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Manhattan_Project" title="Category:Manhattan Project">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q153238#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q153238#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q153238#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/119152088">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n88277643">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12492965j">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12492965j">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00458237">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35537319">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ntk20191030668&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX5657546">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068233477">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90402372">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/ljx01tk44t39lz9">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810559765605606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007312089805171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058515832306706">Catalonia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00609432?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=113115">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=23058888400">Scopus</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:szilard.leo">zbMATH</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/642312">MathSciNet</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/988570">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd119152088.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/119152088">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/034141928">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10572431">NARA</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6dn46tv">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 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.portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" 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class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/21px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/42px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/17px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/26px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/34px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/17px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/26px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/34px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1276" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/21px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/32px-Radioactive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/42px-Radioactive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="446" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Nuclear_technology" title="Portal:Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></li></ul></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&oldid=1257495670">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leo_Szilard&oldid=1257495670</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: 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