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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Preparation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Preparation_of_pages_for_writing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preparation_of_pages_for_writing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Preparation of pages for writing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preparation_of_pages_for_writing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forming_quire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forming_quire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Forming quire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forming_quire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Materials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Pages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_libraire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_libraire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>The <i>libraire</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_libraire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>General and cited references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Codex</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 51 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-51" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">51 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodeks" title="Kodeks – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kodeks" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%B1_(%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8)" title="سفر (كتاب) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سفر (كتاب)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A1%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8" title="কোডেক্স – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কোডেক্স" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B2dex" title="Còdex – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Còdex" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodex" title="Kodex – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kodex" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codecs" title="Codecs – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Codecs" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodeks" title="Kodeks – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kodeks" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodex" title="Kodex – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kodex" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koodeks" title="Koodeks – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Koodeks" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%8E%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%82_(%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1)" title="Κώδικας (παλαιογραφία) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κώδικας (παλαιογραφία)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3dice" title="Códice – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Códice" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodekso_(filologio)" title="Kodekso (filologio) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kodekso (filologio)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodex" title="Kodex – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kodex" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%87" title="دفترنامه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دفترنامه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex" title="Codex – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Codex" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodeks" title="Kodeks – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Kodeks" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3dice" title="Códice – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Códice" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BD%94%EB%8D%B1%EC%8A%A4" title="코덱스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="코덱스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%B8%D5%A4%D5%A5%D6%84%D5%BD_(%D5%A3%D5%AB%D6%80%D6%84)" title="Կոդեքս (գիրք) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կոդեքս (գիրք)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodeks" title="Kodeks – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kodeks" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodeks" title="Kodeks – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kodeks" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codice_(filologia)" title="Codice (filologia) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Codice (filologia)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%93%D7%A7%D7%A1" title="קודקס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קודקס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kod%C3%A8ks" title="Kodèks – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kodèks" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex" title="Codex – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Codex" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodekss" title="Kodekss – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kodekss" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodeksas" title="Kodeksas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kodeksas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B3dex" title="Kódex – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kódex" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodeks" title="Kodeks – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kodeks" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex" title="Codex – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Codex" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%87%E3%83%83%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B9" title="コデックス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コデックス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodeks" title="Kodeks – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kodeks" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cod%C3%A8x" title="Codèx – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Codèx" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%88%DA%89%DB%90%DA%A9%D8%B3" title="کوډېکس – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کوډېکس" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodeks_(ksi%C4%85%C5%BCka)" title="Kodeks (książka) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kodeks (książka)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3dice" title="Códice – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Códice" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex" title="Codex – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Codex" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81_(%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0)" title="Кодекс (книга) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кодекс (книга)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodeksi" title="Kodeksi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kodeksi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex" title="Codex – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="Codex" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex" title="Codex – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Codex" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AA%D9%88%DA%8A%D9%8A%DA%AA%D8%B3" title="ڪوڊيڪس – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ڪوڊيڪس" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodeks" title="Kodeks – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kodeks" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81" title="Кодекс – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Кодекс" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodeks" title="Kodeks – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kodeks" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koodeksi" title="Koodeksi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Koodeksi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodex" title="Kodex – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kodex" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodeks" title="Kodeks – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kodeks" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Рукописна книга – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Рукописна книга" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex" title="Codex – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Codex" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Historical ancestor of the modern book</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about ancient and medieval books. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Codex_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Codex (disambiguation)">Codex (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Devil_codex_Gigas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Devil_codex_Gigas.jpg/300px-Devil_codex_Gigas.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Devil_codex_Gigas.jpg/450px-Devil_codex_Gigas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Devil_codex_Gigas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Codex_Gigas" title="Codex Gigas">Codex Gigas</a>, 13th century, Bohemia</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>codex</b> (<abbr title="plural form">pl.</abbr>: <b>codices</b> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span></span>/</a></span></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was the historical ancestor format of the modern <a href="/wiki/Book" title="Book">book</a>. Technically, the vast majority of modern books use the codex format of a stack of pages <a href="/wiki/Bookbinding" title="Bookbinding">bound</a> at one edge, along the side of the text. But the term "codex" is now reserved for older <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscript</a> books, which mostly used sheets of <a href="/wiki/Vellum" title="Vellum">vellum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment">parchment</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a>, rather than <a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By convention, the term is also used for any <a href="/wiki/Aztec_codex" title="Aztec codex">Aztec codex</a> (although the earlier examples do not actually use the codex format), <a href="/wiki/Maya_codices" title="Maya codices">Maya codices</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">pre-Columbian</a> manuscripts. Library practices have led to many European manuscripts having "codex" as part of their usual name, as with the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Gigas" title="Codex Gigas">Codex Gigas</a>, while most do not. </p><p>Modern books are divided into <a href="/wiki/Paperback" title="Paperback">paperback</a> (or softback) and those bound with stiff boards, called <a href="/wiki/Hardback" class="mw-redirect" title="Hardback">hardbacks</a>. Elaborate historical bindings are called <a href="/wiki/Treasure_binding" title="Treasure binding">treasure bindings</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons201122_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons201122-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least in the Western world, the main alternative to the paged codex format for a long document was the continuous <a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">scroll</a>, which was the dominant form of document in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">ancient world</a>. Some codices are continuously folded like a <a href="/wiki/Concertina" title="Concertina">concertina</a>, in particular the Maya codices and Aztec codices, which are actually long sheets of paper or animal skin folded into pages. In Japan, concertina-style codices called <a href="/wiki/Orihon" title="Orihon">orihon</a> developed during the <a href="/wiki/Heian_period" title="Heian period">Heian period</a> (794–1185) were made of paper.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Romans" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Romans">ancient Romans</a> developed the form from <a href="/wiki/Wax_tablet" title="Wax tablet">wax tablets</a>. The gradual replacement of the scroll by the codex has been called the most important advance in book making before the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The codex transformed the shape of the book itself, and offered a form that has lasted ever since.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons20118_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons20118-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spread of the codex is often associated with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, which early on adopted the format for the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First described in the 1st century of the Common Era, when the Roman poet <a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a> praised its convenient use, the codex achieved numerical parity with the scroll around 300 CE,<sup id="cite_ref-Oxf_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxf-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and had completely replaced it throughout what was by then a Christianized <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> by the 6th century.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_origins">Etymology and origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Codex&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology and origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2049_-_Byzantine_Museum,_Athens_-_Parchement_scroll,_13th_century_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto,_Nov_12.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/2049_-_Byzantine_Museum%2C_Athens_-_Parchement_scroll%2C_13th_century_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_12.jpg/130px-2049_-_Byzantine_Museum%2C_Athens_-_Parchement_scroll%2C_13th_century_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_12.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/2049_-_Byzantine_Museum%2C_Athens_-_Parchement_scroll%2C_13th_century_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_12.jpg/195px-2049_-_Byzantine_Museum%2C_Athens_-_Parchement_scroll%2C_13th_century_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_12.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/2049_-_Byzantine_Museum%2C_Athens_-_Parchement_scroll%2C_13th_century_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_12.jpg/260px-2049_-_Byzantine_Museum%2C_Athens_-_Parchement_scroll%2C_13th_century_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_12.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="2480" /></a><figcaption>The scroll was the document form which was replaced by the codex during the late Roman Empire.</figcaption></figure> <p>The word codex comes from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word <i>caudex</i>, meaning "trunk of a tree", "block of wood" or "book". The codex began to replace the <a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">scroll</a> almost as soon as it was invented, although new finds add three centuries to its history (see below). In <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, by the fifth century, the codex outnumbered the scroll by ten to one based on surviving examples. By the sixth century, the scroll had almost vanished as a medium for literature.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The change from rolls to codices roughly coincides with the transition from <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> to <a href="/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment">parchment</a> as the preferred writing material, but the two developments are unconnected. In fact, any combination of codices and scrolls with papyrus and parchment is technically feasible and common in the historical record.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Technically, even modern <a href="/wiki/Notebook" title="Notebook">notebooks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paperback" title="Paperback">paperbacks</a> are codices, but publishers and scholars reserve the term for <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscript</a> (hand-written) books produced from <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a> until the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The scholarly study of these manuscripts is sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Codicology" title="Codicology">codicology</a>. The study of ancient documents in general is called <a href="/wiki/Paleography" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleography">paleography</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The codex provided considerable advantages over other book formats, primarily its compactness, sturdiness, economic use of materials by using both sides (<a href="/wiki/Recto_and_verso" title="Recto and verso">recto and verso</a>), and ease of reference (a codex accommodates <a href="/wiki/Random_access" title="Random access">random access</a>, as opposed to a scroll, which uses <a href="/wiki/Sequential_access" title="Sequential access">sequential access</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Codex&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Table_with_was_and_stylus_Roman_times.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Table_with_was_and_stylus_Roman_times.jpg/220px-Table_with_was_and_stylus_Roman_times.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Table_with_was_and_stylus_Roman_times.jpg/330px-Table_with_was_and_stylus_Roman_times.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Table_with_was_and_stylus_Roman_times.jpg/440px-Table_with_was_and_stylus_Roman_times.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption>Reproduction Roman-style <a href="/wiki/Wax_tablet" title="Wax tablet">wax tablet</a>, from which the codex evolved</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> used precursors made of reusable <a href="/wiki/Wax_tablet" title="Wax tablet">wax-covered tablets of wood</a> for taking notes and other informal writings. Two ancient <a href="/wiki/Polyptych" title="Polyptych">polyptychs</a>, a <i>pentaptych</i> and <i>octoptych</i> excavated at <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a>, used a unique connecting system that presages later sewing on of thongs or cords.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation cites a broad range of pages. Page ranges should be limited to one or two pages when possible. (February 2022)"><span class="nowrap">page range too broad</span></span></a></i>]</sup> A first evidence of the use of papyrus in codex form comes from the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic period</a> in Egypt, as a find at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Graz" title="University of Graz">University of Graz</a> shows.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> may have been the first Roman to reduce scrolls to bound pages in the form of a note-book, possibly even as a papyrus codex.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the turn of the 1st century AD, a kind of folded parchment notebook called <i>pugillares membranei</i> in Latin became commonly used for writing in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobertsSkeat198315–22_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertsSkeat198315–22-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Cressy_Skeat" title="Theodore Cressy Skeat">Theodore Cressy Skeat</a> theorized that this form of notebook was invented in Rome and then spread rapidly to the Near East.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkeat200445_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkeat200445-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Codices are described in certain works by the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a> poet, <a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a>. He wrote a series of five <a href="/wiki/Couplet" title="Couplet">couplets</a> meant to accompany gifts of literature that Romans exchanged during the festival of <a href="/wiki/Saturnalia" title="Saturnalia">Saturnalia</a>. Three of these books are specifically described by Martial as being in the form of a codex; the poet praises the compendiousness of the form (as opposed to the scroll), as well as the convenience with which such a book can be read on a journey. In another poem by Martial, the poet advertises a new edition of his works, specifically noting that it is produced as a codex, taking less space than a scroll and being more comfortable to hold in one hand. According to <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Cressy_Skeat" title="Theodore Cressy Skeat">Theodore Cressy Skeat</a>, this might be the first recorded known case of an entire edition of a literary work (not just a single copy) being published in codex form, though it was likely an isolated case and was not a common practice until a much later time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkeat200445–46_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkeat200445–46-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Facsimile_of_the_book_of_kells-Interior_of_the_Old_Library,_Trinity_College,_Dublin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photo of two pages within the Book of Kells" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Facsimile_of_the_book_of_kells-Interior_of_the_Old_Library%2C_Trinity_College%2C_Dublin.jpg/220px-Facsimile_of_the_book_of_kells-Interior_of_the_Old_Library%2C_Trinity_College%2C_Dublin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Facsimile_of_the_book_of_kells-Interior_of_the_Old_Library%2C_Trinity_College%2C_Dublin.jpg/330px-Facsimile_of_the_book_of_kells-Interior_of_the_Old_Library%2C_Trinity_College%2C_Dublin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Facsimile_of_the_book_of_kells-Interior_of_the_Old_Library%2C_Trinity_College%2C_Dublin.jpg/440px-Facsimile_of_the_book_of_kells-Interior_of_the_Old_Library%2C_Trinity_College%2C_Dublin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="1908" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Kells" title="Book of Kells">Book of Kells</a> is an example of a codex that was created during the Middle Ages.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In his discussion of one of the earliest parchment codices to survive from <a href="/wiki/Oxyrhynchus" title="Oxyrhynchus">Oxyrhynchus</a> in Egypt, Eric Turner seems to challenge Skeat's notion when stating, "its mere existence is evidence that this book form had a prehistory", and that "early experiments with this book form may well have taken place outside of Egypt."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner197738_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner197738-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early codices of parchment or papyrus appear to have been widely used as personal notebooks, for instance in recording copies of letters sent (Cicero <i>Fam.</i> 9.26.1). Early codices were not always cohesive. They often contained multiple languages, various topics and even multiple authors. "Such codices formed libraries in their own right."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The parchment notebook pages were "more durable, and could withstand being folded and stitched to other sheets". Parchments whose writing was no longer needed were commonly washed or scraped for re-use, creating a <a href="/wiki/Palimpsest" title="Palimpsest">palimpsest</a>; the erased text, which can often be recovered, is older and usually more interesting than the newer text which replaced it. Consequently, writings in a codex were often considered informal and impermanent.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons201122_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons201122-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parchment (animal skin) was expensive, and therefore it was used primarily by the wealthy and powerful, who were also able to pay for textual design and color. "Official documents and deluxe manuscripts [in the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late Middle Ages</a>] were written in gold and silver ink on parchment...dyed or painted with costly purple pigments as an expression of imperial power and wealth."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons201122_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons201122-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As early as the early 2nd century, there is evidence that a codex—usually of papyrus—was the preferred format among <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christians</a>. In the library of the <a href="/wiki/Villa_of_the_Papyri" title="Villa of the Papyri">Villa of the Papyri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a> (buried in AD 79), all the texts (of Greek literature) are scrolls (see <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum_papyri" title="Herculaneum papyri">Herculaneum papyri</a>). However, in the <a href="/wiki/Nag_Hammadi_library" title="Nag Hammadi library">Nag Hammadi library</a>, hidden about AD 390, all texts (Gnostic) are codices. Despite this comparison, a fragment of a non-Christian parchment codex of <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a>' <i>De Falsa Legatione</i> from <a href="/wiki/Oxyrhynchus_Papyri" title="Oxyrhynchus Papyri">Oxyrhynchus</a> in Egypt demonstrates that the surviving evidence is insufficient to conclude whether Christians played a major or central role in the development of early codices—or if they simply adopted the format to distinguish themselves from <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest surviving fragments from codices come from Egypt, and are variously dated (always tentatively) towards the end of the 1st century or in the first half of the 2nd. This group includes the <a href="/wiki/Rylands_Library_Papyrus_P52" title="Rylands Library Papyrus P52">Rylands Library Papyrus P52</a>, containing part of St John's Gospel, and perhaps dating from between 125 and 160.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meister_des_Codex_Amiatus_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Meister_des_Codex_Amiatus_001.jpg/170px-Meister_des_Codex_Amiatus_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Meister_des_Codex_Amiatus_001.jpg/255px-Meister_des_Codex_Amiatus_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Meister_des_Codex_Amiatus_001.jpg/340px-Meister_des_Codex_Amiatus_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="2266" /></a><figcaption>Early medieval bookcase containing about ten codices depicted in the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Amiatinus" title="Codex Amiatinus">Codex Amiatinus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 700)</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Western_culture#Foundations" title="Western culture">Western culture</a>, the codex gradually replaced the scroll. Between the 4th century, when the codex gained wide acceptance, and the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a> in the 8th century, many works that were not converted from scroll to codex were lost. The codex improved on the scroll in several ways. It could be opened flat at any page for easier reading, pages could be written on both front and back (<a href="/wiki/Recto_and_verso" title="Recto and verso">recto and verso</a>), and the protection of durable covers made it more compact and easier to transport.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ancients stored codices with spines facing inward, and not always vertically. The spine could be used for the <a href="/wiki/Incipit" title="Incipit">incipit</a>, before the concept of a proper title developed in medieval times. Though most early codices were made of papyrus, the material was fragile and supplied from Egypt, the only place where papyrus grew. The more durable parchment and <a href="/wiki/Vellum" title="Vellum">vellum</a> gained favor, despite the cost.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons201122_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons201122-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Codex_Mendoza_folio_37r.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Codex_Mendoza_folio_37r.jpg/170px-Codex_Mendoza_folio_37r.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Codex_Mendoza_folio_37r.jpg/255px-Codex_Mendoza_folio_37r.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Codex_Mendoza_folio_37r.jpg/340px-Codex_Mendoza_folio_37r.jpg 2x" data-file-width="735" data-file-height="1084" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Codex_Mendoza" title="Codex Mendoza">Codex Mendoza</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Aztec_codices" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec codices">Aztec codex</a> from the early 16th century, showing the tribute obligations of particular towns</figcaption></figure> <p>The codices of <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">pre-Columbian</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a> (Mexico and Central America) had a similar appearance when closed to the European codex, but were instead made with long folded strips of either fig bark (<a href="/wiki/Amatl" class="mw-redirect" title="Amatl">amatl</a>) or plant fibers, often with a layer of <a href="/wiki/Whitewash" title="Whitewash">whitewash</a> applied before writing. <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> codices were written as late as the 16th century (see <a href="/wiki/Maya_codices" title="Maya codices">Maya codices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aztec_codices" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec codices">Aztec codices</a>). Those written before the Spanish conquests seem all to have been single long sheets folded <a href="/wiki/Concertina" title="Concertina">concertina</a>-style, sometimes written on both sides of the <i><a href="/wiki/Amatl" class="mw-redirect" title="Amatl">amatl</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper</a>. There are significant codices produced in the colonial era, with pictorial and alphabetic texts in Spanish or an indigenous language such as <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>, the scroll remained standard for far longer than in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> world. There were intermediate stages, such as scrolls folded <a href="/wiki/Concertina" title="Concertina">concertina</a>-style and pasted together at the back and books that were printed only on one side of the paper.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This replaced traditional Chinese writing mediums such as <a href="/wiki/Bamboo_and_wooden_slips" title="Bamboo and wooden slips">bamboo and wooden slips</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/History_of_silk" title="History of silk">silk</a> and paper scrolls.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedhamTsien1985227_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedhamTsien1985227-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The evolution of the codex in <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">China</a> began with folded-leaf <a href="/wiki/Pamphlet" title="Pamphlet">pamphlets</a> in the 9th century, during the late <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (618–907), improved by the 'butterfly' bindings of the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1279), the wrapped back binding of the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> (1271–1368), the stitched binding of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> (1368–1644) and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> dynasties (1644–1912), and finally the adoption of Western-style bookbinding in the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedhamTsien1985227–229_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedhamTsien1985227–229-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="no mention of codex in source (February 2022)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> The initial phase of this evolution, the accordion-folded palm-leaf-style book, most likely came from <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and was introduced to China via <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist missionaries and scriptures</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedhamTsien1985227–229_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedhamTsien1985227–229-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="no mention of India in source (February 2022)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> still retains the <a href="/wiki/Torah_scroll" title="Torah scroll">Torah scroll</a>, at least for ceremonial use.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="From_scrolls_to_codices">From scrolls to codices</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Codex&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: From scrolls to codices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Codex_Aureus_Sankt_Emmeram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Codex_Aureus_Sankt_Emmeram.jpg/170px-Codex_Aureus_Sankt_Emmeram.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Codex_Aureus_Sankt_Emmeram.jpg/255px-Codex_Aureus_Sankt_Emmeram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Codex_Aureus_Sankt_Emmeram.jpg/340px-Codex_Aureus_Sankt_Emmeram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>The cover of the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingian">Carolingian</a> gospel book, the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Aureus_of_St._Emmeram" title="Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram">Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram</a>, produced ca. AD 870 at the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Aachen" title="Palace of Aachen">Palace of Aachen</a>, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Bald" title="Charles the Bald">Charles the Bald</a>.<br /><a href="/wiki/Bayerische_Staatsbibliothek" class="mw-redirect" title="Bayerische Staatsbibliothek">Bayerische Staatsbibliothek</a>, Munich.</figcaption></figure> <p>Among the experiments of earlier centuries, scrolls were sometimes unrolled horizontally, as a succession of columns. The <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls" title="Dead Sea Scrolls">Dead Sea Scrolls</a> are a famous example of this format, and it is the standard format for Jewish <a href="/wiki/Torah_scroll" title="Torah scroll">Torah scrolls</a> made to this day for ritual use. This made it possible to fold the scroll as an accordion. The next evolutionary step was to cut the <a href="/wiki/Folio_(printing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Folio (printing)">folios</a> and sew and glue them at their centers, making it easier to use the papyrus or vellum <a href="/wiki/Recto_and_verso" title="Recto and verso">recto-verso</a> as with a modern book.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Traditional bookbinders would call one of these assembled, trimmed and bound folios (that is, the "pages" of the book as a whole, comprising the front matter and contents) a <i>codex</i> in contradistinction to the cover or <i>case,</i> producing the format of book now colloquially known as a <i>hardcover</i>. In the hardcover bookbinding process, the procedure of binding the codex is very different to that of producing and attaching the case.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Preparation">Preparation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Codex&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Preparation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment">Parchment</a></div> <p>The first stage in creating a codex is to prepare the animal skin. The skin is washed with water and lime but not together. The skin is soaked in the lime for a couple of days.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hair is removed, and the skin is dried by attaching it to a frame, called a herse.<sup id="cite_ref-Intro_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intro-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 11">: 11 </span></sup> The parchment maker attaches the skin at points around the circumference. The skin attaches to the herse by cords. To prevent it from being torn, the maker wraps the area of the skin attached to the cord around a pebble called a pippin.<sup id="cite_ref-Intro_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intro-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 11">: 11 </span></sup> After completing that, the maker uses a crescent shaped knife called a <i>lunarium</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Lunellum" title="Lunellum">lunellum</a></i> to remove any remaining hairs. Once the skin completely dries, the maker gives it a deep clean and processes it into sheets. The number of sheets from a piece of skin depends on the size of the skin and the final product dimensions. For example, the average calfskin can provide three-and-a-half medium sheets of writing material, which can be doubled when they are folded into two conjoint leaves, also known as a <i>bifolium</i>. Historians have found evidence of manuscripts in which the scribe wrote down the medieval instructions now followed by modern <a href="/wiki/Membrane" title="Membrane">membrane</a> makers.<sup id="cite_ref-daniel_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daniel-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Defects can often be found in the membrane, whether they are from the original animal, human error during the preparation period, or from when the animal was killed. Defects can also appear during the writing process. Unless the manuscript is kept in perfect condition, defects can also appear later in its life.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preparation_of_pages_for_writing">Preparation of pages for writing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Codex&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Preparation of pages for writing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Codex_Manesse_193r_-_Albrecht_von_Rapperswil.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Codex_Manesse_193r_-_Albrecht_von_Rapperswil.jpg/220px-Codex_Manesse_193r_-_Albrecht_von_Rapperswil.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Codex_Manesse_193r_-_Albrecht_von_Rapperswil.jpg/330px-Codex_Manesse_193r_-_Albrecht_von_Rapperswil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Codex_Manesse_193r_-_Albrecht_von_Rapperswil.jpg/440px-Codex_Manesse_193r_-_Albrecht_von_Rapperswil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="636" data-file-height="849" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Codex_Manesse" title="Codex Manesse">Codex Manesse</a>. Most manuscripts were ruled with horizontal lines that served as the baselines on which the text was entered.</figcaption></figure> <p>Firstly, the membrane must be prepared. The first step is to set up the quires. The quire is a group of several sheets put together. Raymond Clemens and Timothy Graham point out, in "Introduction to Manuscript Studies", that "the quire was the scribe's basic writing unit throughout the Middle Ages":<sup id="cite_ref-Intro_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intro-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 14">: 14 </span></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>Pricking is the process of making holes in a sheet of parchment (or membrane) in preparation of it ruling. The lines were then made by ruling between the prick marks.... The process of entering ruled lines on the page to serve as a guide for entering text. Most manuscripts were ruled with horizontal lines that served as the baselines on which the text was entered and with vertical bounding lines that marked the boundaries of the columns.<sup id="cite_ref-Intro_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intro-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forming_quire">Forming quire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Codex&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Forming quire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the Carolingian period to the end of the Middle Ages, different styles of folding the quire came about. For example, in continental Europe throughout the Middle Ages, the quire was put into a system in which each side folded on to the same style.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (October 2020)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The hair side met the hair side and the flesh side to the flesh side. This was not the same style used in the British Isles, where the membrane was folded so that it turned out an eight-leaf quire, with single leaves in the third and sixth positions.<sup id="cite_ref-Intro_35-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intro-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next stage was tacking the quire. Tacking is when the scribe would hold together the leaves in quire with thread. Once threaded together, the scribe would then sew a line of parchment up the "spine" of the manuscript to protect the tacking.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Materials">Materials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Codex&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The materials codices are made with are their support, and include papyrus, parchment (sometimes referred to as membrane or vellum), and paper. They are written and drawn on with metals, <a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigments</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ink" title="Ink">ink</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Byzantium_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Byzantium-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The quality, size, and choice of support determine the status of a codex. Papyrus is found only in late antiquity and the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>. Codices intended for display were bound with more durable materials than vellum.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parchment varied widely due to animal species and finish, and identification of animals used to make it has only begun to be studied in the 21st century. How manufacturing influenced the final products, technique, and style, is little understood. However, changes in style are underpinned more by variation in technique.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the 14th and 15th centuries, paper was expensive, and its use may mark off the deluxe copy.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure">Structure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Codex&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The structure of a codex includes its size, format/<i>ordinatio</i><sup id="cite_ref-:0_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (its quires or gatherings),<sup id="cite_ref-:1_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> consisting of sheets folded a number of times, often twice- a <i>bifolio</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sewing, <a href="/wiki/Bookbinding" title="Bookbinding">bookbinding</a>, and rebinding. A quire consisted of a number of folded sheets inserting into one another- at least three, but most commonly four bifolia,<sup id="cite_ref-Byzantium_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Byzantium-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that is eight sheets and sixteen pages:<sup id="cite_ref-:1_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Latin quaternio or Greek tetradion, which became a synonym for quires.<sup id="cite_ref-Byzantium_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Byzantium-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unless an exemplar (text to be copied) was copied exactly, format differed.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In preparation for writing codices, ruling patterns were used that determined the layout of each page. Holes were prickled with a spiked lead wheel and a circle. Ruling was then applied separately on each page or once through the top folio.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ownership markings, decorations, and <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illumination</a> are also a part of it.<sup id="cite_ref-Terminology_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Terminology-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Byzantium_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Byzantium-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are specific to the <a href="/wiki/Scriptorium" title="Scriptorium">scriptoria</a>, or any production center, and libraries of codices.<sup id="cite_ref-Byzantium_37-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Byzantium-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pages">Pages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Codex&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Pages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Watermarks may provide, although often approximate, dates for when the copying occurred. The layout (size of the margin and the number of lines) is determined. There may be textual articulations, <a href="/wiki/Page_header" title="Page header">running heads</a>, openings, <a href="/wiki/Chapter_(books)" title="Chapter (books)">chapters</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paragraph" title="Paragraph">paragraphs</a>. Space was reserved for illustrations and decorated guide letters. The apparatus of books for scholars became more elaborate during the 13th and 14th centuries when chapter, verse, <a href="/wiki/Page_numbering" title="Page numbering">page numbering</a>, marginalia finding guides, <a href="/wiki/Index_(publishing)" title="Index (publishing)">indexes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glossary" title="Glossary">glossaries</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Table_of_contents" title="Table of contents">tables of contents</a> were developed.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_38-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_libraire">The <i>libraire</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Codex&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The libraire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By a close examination of the physical attributes of a codex, it is sometimes possible to match up long-separated elements originally from the same book. In 13th-century <a href="/wiki/Publishing" title="Publishing">book publishing</a>, due to secularization, stationers or <i>libraires</i> emerged. They would receive commissions for texts, which they would contract out to scribes, illustrators, and binders, to whom they supplied materials. Due to the systematic format used for assembly by the <i>libraire</i>, the structure can be used to reconstruct the original order of a manuscript. However, complications can arise in the study of a codex. Manuscripts were frequently rebound, and this resulted in a particular codex incorporating works of different dates and origins, thus different internal structures. Additionally, a binder could alter or unify these structures to ensure a better fit for the new binding.<sup id="cite_ref-Companion_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Companion-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Completed quires or books of quires might constitute independent book units- booklets, which could be returned to the stationer, or combined with other texts to make anthologies or miscellanies. Exemplars were sometimes divided into quires for simultaneous copying and loaned out to students for study. To facilitate this, catchwords were used- a word at the end of a page providing the next page's first word.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_38-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Codex&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grimoire" title="Grimoire">Grimoire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_books" title="History of books">History of books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_scrolls" title="History of scrolls">History of scrolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_codices" title="List of codices">List of codices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_florilegia_and_botanical_codices" title="List of florilegia and botanical codices">List of florilegia and botanical codices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_papyri" title="List of New Testament papyri">List of New Testament papyri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_uncials" title="List of New Testament uncials">List of New Testament uncials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_bookbinding" title="Traditional Chinese bookbinding">Traditional Chinese bookbinding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_(bibliography)" title="Volume (bibliography)">Volume (bibliography)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_(publishing)" title="Index (publishing)">Index (publishing)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Codex&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1">"codex". <i>The Chambers Dictionary</i> (9th ed.). Chambers. 2003. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-550-10105-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-550-10105-5"><bdi>0-550-10105-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=codex&rft.btitle=The+Chambers+Dictionary&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Chambers&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-550-10105-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i>, 2nd ed.: Codex: "a manuscript volume"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Michelle_P._Brown" title="Michelle P. Brown">Michelle P. Brown</a>, <i>Understanding Illuminated Manuscripts, revised: A Guide to Technical Terms</i>, 2018, Getty Publications, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1606065785" title="Special:BookSources/1606065785">1606065785</a>, 9781606065785 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a4Z1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA109">p. 109</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons201122-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons201122_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons201122_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons201122_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons201122_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyons2011">Lyons 2011</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collegebookart.org/bookarttheory/10634352">"CBAA the Association for Book Art Education - A HISTORY OF THE ACCORDION BOOK: PART II // Peter Thomas"</a>. <i>www.collegebookart.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-10-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.collegebookart.org&rft.atitle=CBAA+the+Association+for+Book+Art+Education+-+A+HISTORY+OF+THE+ACCORDION+BOOK%3A+PART+II+%2F%2F+Peter+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.collegebookart.org%2Fbookarttheory%2F10634352&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobertsSkeat1983">Roberts & Skeat 1983</a>, p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons20118-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyons20118_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLyons2011">Lyons 2011</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobertsSkeat1983">Roberts & Skeat 1983</a>, pp. 38–67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxf-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oxf_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Codex" in the <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_Byzantium" title="Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium">Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium</a></i>, Oxford University Press, New York & Oxford, 1991, p. 473. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195046528" title="Special:BookSources/0195046528">0195046528</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobertsSkeat1983">Roberts & Skeat 1983</a>, p. 75</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roberts, Colin H., and Skeat, T. C. (1987), <i>The Birth of the Codex</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> for the <a href="/wiki/British_Academy" title="British Academy">British Academy</a>, p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobertsSkeat1983">Roberts & Skeat 1983</a>, p. 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/paleography">"Definition of PALEOGRAPHY"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190306043044/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/paleography">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-03-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-03-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+PALEOGRAPHY&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fpaleography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobertsSkeat1983">Roberts & Skeat 1983</a>, pp. 45–53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarratelli1950" class="citation book cs1">Carratelli, Giovanni Pugliese (1950). <i>"L'instrvmentvm Scriptorivm Nei Monumenti Pompeiani Ed Ercolanesi." in Pompeiana. Raccolta di studi per il secondo centenario degli di Pompei</i>. pp. 166–78.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22L%27instrvmentvm+Scriptorivm+Nei+Monumenti+Pompeiani+Ed+Ercolanesi.%22+in+Pompeiana.+Raccolta+di+studi+per+il+secondo+centenario+degli+di+Pompei.&rft.pages=166-78&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Carratelli&rft.aufirst=Giovanni+Pugliese&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mummybook.uni-graz.at/en/">"Graz Mummy Book"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Graz+Mummy+Book&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmummybook.uni-graz.at%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZammit_LupiKrämerCsanádyRenhart2024" class="citation journal cs1">Zammit Lupi, Theresa; Krämer, Lena; Csanády, Thomas; Renhart, Erich (2024-01-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/18680860.2023.2292721">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'The Graz Mummy Book': The Oldest Known Codex Fragment from 260 BC Discovered at Graz University Library, Austria"</a>. <i>Journal of Paper Conservation</i>. <b>25</b> (1): 41–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F18680860.2023.2292721">10.1080/18680860.2023.2292721</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1868-0860">1868-0860</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Paper+Conservation&rft.atitle=%E2%80%98The+Graz+Mummy+Book%E2%80%99%3A+The+Oldest+Known+Codex+Fragment+from+260+BC+Discovered+at+Graz+University+Library%2C+Austria&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=41-46&rft.date=2024-01-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F18680860.2023.2292721&rft.issn=1868-0860&rft.aulast=Zammit+Lupi&rft.aufirst=Theresa&rft.au=Kr%C3%A4mer%2C+Lena&rft.au=Csan%C3%A1dy%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Renhart%2C+Erich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F18680860.2023.2292721&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">During the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a>; Suet. <i>Jul.</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#56.6">56.6</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221226081027/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius%2A.html#56.6">Archived</a> 2022-12-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; cf. <a href="#CITEREFRobertsSkeat1983">Roberts & Skeat 1983</a>, p. 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobertsSkeat198315–22-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobertsSkeat198315–22_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobertsSkeat1983">Roberts & Skeat 1983</a>, pp. 15–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESkeat200445-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkeat200445_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSkeat2004">Skeat 2004</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESkeat200445–46-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkeat200445–46_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSkeat2004">Skeat 2004</a>, pp. 45–46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://study.com/learn/lesson/the-book-of-kells.html">"The Book of Kells | Symbols, History & Art"</a>. <i>study.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221028192042/https://study.com/learn/lesson/the-book-of-kells.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-10-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-10-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=study.com&rft.atitle=The+Book+of+Kells+%7C+Symbols%2C+History+%26+Art&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstudy.com%2Flearn%2Flesson%2Fthe-book-of-kells.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurner197738-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner197738_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurner1977">Turner 1977</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyons2013" class="citation book cs1">Lyons, Martyn (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/863061436"><i>Books : a living history</i></a>. Thames & Hudson. pp. 36–37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-29115-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-29115-3"><bdi>978-0-500-29115-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/863061436">863061436</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Books+%3A+a+living+history&rft.pages=36-37&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F863061436&rft.isbn=978-0-500-29115-3&rft.aulast=Lyons&rft.aufirst=Martyn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F863061436&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/biblical-literature">"Biblical literature – Types of writing materials and methods"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150426082426/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/64496/biblical-literature">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-04-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-06-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Biblical+literature+%E2%80%93+Types+of+writing+materials+and+methods&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fbiblical-literature&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner2016" class="citation book cs1">Turner, Eric G. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/979970695"><i>The Typology of the Early Codex</i></a>. Philadelphia, Pa. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5128-0786-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5128-0786-8"><bdi>978-1-5128-0786-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/979970695">979970695</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Typology+of+the+Early+Codex&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+Pa.&rft.pages=40&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F979970695&rft.isbn=978-1-5128-0786-8&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Eric+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F979970695&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurner1977">Turner 1977</a>, and <a href="#CITEREFRobertsSkeat1983">Roberts & Skeat 1983</a>. From Robert A Kraft (see link): "A fragment of a Latin parchment codex of an otherwise unknown historical text dating to about AD 100 was also found at Oxyrhynchus (<a href="/wiki/Papyrus_Oxyrhynchus_30" title="Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 30">P. Oxy. 30</a>; see Roberts & Skeat 28). Papyrus fragments of a 'Treatise of the Empirical School' dated by its editor to the centuries AD 1–2 is also attested in the Berlin collection (inv. # 9015, Pack\2 # 2355)—Turner, Typology # 389, and Roberts & Skeat 71, call it a 'medical manual<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Murray, S. (2009). The library: An illustrated history. New York, NY: Skyhorse Publishing, Inc. Chicago: ALA Editions 2009. (p. 27).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2008" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Jongsoo (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R8LqsuokdzUC&dq=There+are+significant+codices+produced+in+the+colonial+era,+with+pictorial+and+alphabetic+texts+in+Spanish+or+an+indigenous+language+such+as+Nahuatl.&pg=PA230"><i>The Allure of Nezahualcoyotl: Pre-Hispanic History, Religion, and Nahua Poetics</i></a>. UNM Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8263-4337-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8263-4337-6"><bdi>978-0-8263-4337-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Allure+of+Nezahualcoyotl%3A+Pre-Hispanic+History%2C+Religion%2C+and+Nahua+Poetics&rft.pub=UNM+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8263-4337-6&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Jongsoo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR8LqsuokdzUC%26dq%3DThere%2Bare%2Bsignificant%2Bcodices%2Bproduced%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bcolonial%2Bera%2C%2Bwith%2Bpictorial%2Band%2Balphabetic%2Btexts%2Bin%2BSpanish%2Bor%2Ban%2Bindigenous%2Blanguage%2Bsuch%2Bas%2BNahuatl.%26pg%3DPA230&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://idp.bl.uk/education/bookbinding/bookbinding.a4d">Several intermediate Chinese bookbinding forms from the 10th century</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160110163433/http://idp.bl.uk/education/bookbinding/bookbinding.a4d">Archived</a> 2016-01-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Dunhuang_Project" title="International Dunhuang Project">International Dunhuang Project</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedhamTsien1985227-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedhamTsien1985227_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedhamTsien1985">Needham & Tsien 1985</a>, p. 227.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedhamTsien1985227–229-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedhamTsien1985227–229_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeedhamTsien1985227–229_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNeedhamTsien1985">Needham & Tsien 1985</a>, pp. 227–229.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer1995" class="citation book cs1">Meyer, Michael A. (1995-04-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M12toEjI5PEC&dq=Judaism+still+retains+the+Torah+scroll,+at+least+for+ceremonial+use.&pg=PA278"><i>Response to Modernity: A History of the Reform Movement in Judaism</i></a>. Wayne State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-3755-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-3755-4"><bdi>978-0-8143-3755-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Response+to+Modernity%3A+A+History+of+the+Reform+Movement+in+Judaism&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=1995-04-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8143-3755-4&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM12toEjI5PEC%26dq%3DJudaism%2Bstill%2Bretains%2Bthe%2BTorah%2Bscroll%2C%2Bat%2Bleast%2Bfor%2Bceremonial%2Buse.%26pg%3DPA278&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.getty.edu/art/exhibitions/making/">"The Making of a Medieval Book"</a>. The J. Paul Getty Trust. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101125133814/http://getty.edu/art/exhibitions/making/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 November 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 November</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+a+Medieval+Book&rft.pub=The+J.+Paul+Getty+Trust&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.getty.edu%2Fart%2Fexhibitions%2Fmaking%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Intro-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Intro_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Intro_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Intro_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Intro_35-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Intro_35-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClemensGraham2007" class="citation book cs1">Clemens, Raymond; Graham, Timothy (2007). <i>Introduction to manuscript studies</i>. Itaca (N. Y.) London: Cornell university press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-3863-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-3863-9"><bdi>978-0-8014-3863-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+manuscript+studies&rft.place=Itaca+%28N.+Y.%29+London&rft.pub=Cornell+university+press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-3863-9&rft.aulast=Clemens&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rft.au=Graham%2C+Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-daniel-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-daniel_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thompson, Daniel. "Medieval Parchment-Making." The Library 16, no. 4 (1935).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Byzantium-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Byzantium_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Byzantium_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Byzantium_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Byzantium_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Byzantium_37-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCormickGamillscheg1991" class="citation book cs1">McCormick, Michael; Gamillscheg, Ernst (1991). "Codicology". In Kazhdan, Alexander P. (ed.). <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195046526" title="Special:BookSources/9780195046526"><bdi>9780195046526</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Codicology&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Byzantium&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780195046526&rft.aulast=McCormick&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Gamillscheg%2C+Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_38-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_38-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_38-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearsal2010" class="citation book cs1">Pearsal, Derek (2010). "Codicology". In Suarez, Michael; Woudhuysen, H. R. (eds.). <i>The Oxford Companion to the Book</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198606536" title="Special:BookSources/9780198606536"><bdi>9780198606536</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Codicology&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+Book&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780198606536&rft.aulast=Pearsal&rft.aufirst=Derek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHourihane2013" class="citation book cs1">Hourihane, Colum P., ed. (2013). "Codicology". <i>The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195395365" title="Special:BookSources/9780195395365"><bdi>9780195395365</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Codicology&rft.btitle=The+Grove+Encyclopedia+of+Medieval+Art+and+Architecture&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780195395365&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGamillschegŠevčenko1991" class="citation book cs1">Gamillscheg, Ernst; Ševčenko, Ihor (1991). "Quire". In Kazhdan, Alexander P. (ed.). <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195046526" title="Special:BookSources/9780195046526"><bdi>9780195046526</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Quire&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Byzantium&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780195046526&rft.aulast=Gamillscheg&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rft.au=%C5%A0ev%C4%8Denko%2C+Ihor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKazhdan1991" class="citation book cs1">Kazhdan, Alexander P., ed. (1991). "Ruling Patterns". <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195046526" title="Special:BookSources/9780195046526"><bdi>9780195046526</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ruling+Patterns&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Byzantium&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780195046526&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Terminology-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Terminology_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeal2008" class="citation book cs1">Beal, Peter (2008). "codicology". <i>A Dictionary of English Manuscript Terminology 1450–2000</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199576128" title="Special:BookSources/9780199576128"><bdi>9780199576128</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=codicology&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+English+Manuscript+Terminology+1450%E2%80%932000&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780199576128&rft.aulast=Beal&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Companion-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Companion_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter2001" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Timothy (2001). "Codicology". In Brigstocke, Hugh (ed.). <i>The Oxford Companion to Western Art</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198662037" title="Special:BookSources/9780198662037"><bdi>9780198662037</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Codicology&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Western+Art&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780198662037&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2010" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Margaret M. (2010). "Catchword". In Suarez, Michael; Woudhuysen, H. R. (eds.). <i>The Oxford Companion to the Book</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198606536" title="Special:BookSources/9780198606536"><bdi>9780198606536</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Catchword&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+Book&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780198606536&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Margaret+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_and_cited_references">General and cited references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Codex&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: General and cited references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiringer1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Diringer" title="David Diringer">Diringer, David</a> (1982). <i>The Book Before Printing: Ancient, Medieval and Oriental</i>. New York: Courier Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-24243-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-24243-9"><bdi>0-486-24243-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Book+Before+Printing%3A+Ancient%2C+Medieval+and+Oriental&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Courier+Dover+Publications&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-486-24243-9&rft.aulast=Diringer&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurtado2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Larry_Hurtado" title="Larry Hurtado">Hurtado, L. W.</a> (2006). <i>The Earliest Christian Artifacts: Manuscripts and Christian Origins</i>. Cambridge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Earliest+Christian+Artifacts%3A+Manuscripts+and+Christian+Origins&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Hurtado&rft.aufirst=L.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyons2011" class="citation book cs1">Lyons, Martyn (2011). <i>Books: A Living History</i>. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-083-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-083-4"><bdi>978-1-60606-083-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Books%3A+A+Living+History&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pub=J.+Paul+Getty+Museum&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-60606-083-4&rft.aulast=Lyons&rft.aufirst=Martyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedhamTsien1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tsien_Tsuen-hsuin" title="Tsien Tsuen-hsuin">Needham, Joseph</a>; <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin</a> (1985). <i>Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1: Paper and Printing</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-08690-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-08690-6"><bdi>0-521-08690-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilization+in+China%3A+Volume+5%3A+Chemistry+and+Chemical+Technology%2C+Part+1%3A+Paper+and+Printing&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-521-08690-6&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Tsien%2C+Tsuen-Hsuin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertsSkeat1983" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Colin H.; Skeat, T. C. (1983). <i>The Birth of the Codex</i>. London: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-726024-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-726024-1"><bdi>0-19-726024-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Birth+of+the+Codex&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-19-726024-1&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Colin+H.&rft.au=Skeat%2C+T.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkeat2004" class="citation book cs1">Skeat, T.C. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=td_OLXo4RvkC"><i>The Collected Biblical Writings of T.C. Skeat</i></a>. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-13920-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-13920-6"><bdi>90-04-13920-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Collected+Biblical+Writings+of+T.C.+Skeat.&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=E.J.+Brill&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=90-04-13920-6&rft.aulast=Skeat&rft.aufirst=T.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dtd_OLXo4RvkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner1977" class="citation book cs1">Turner, Eric (1977). <i>The Typology of the Early Codex</i>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-7696-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-7696-1"><bdi>978-0-8122-7696-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Typology+of+the+Early+Codex&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-7696-1&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Codex&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/codex" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/codex">codex</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080624072331/http://www.hss.ed.ac.uk/chb/">"Centre for the History of the Book"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Centre+for+the+History+of+the+Book&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20080624072331%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.hss.ed.ac.uk%2Fchb%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/gopher/other/journals/kraftpub/Christianity/Canon">"The Codex and Canon Consciousness – Draft paper by Robert Kraft on the change from scroll to codex"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Codex+and+Canon+Consciousness+%E2%80%93+Draft+paper+by+Robert+Kraft+on+the+change+from+scroll+to+codex&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fccat.sas.upenn.edu%2Fgopher%2Fother%2Fjournals%2Fkraftpub%2FChristianity%2FCanon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20021017172935/http://www.mathcs.duq.edu/~tobin/maya/">"The Construction of the Codex In Classic- and Postclassic-Period Maya Civilization .Maya Codex and Paper Making"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Construction+of+the+Codex+In+Classic-+and+Postclassic-Period+Maya+Civilization+.Maya+Codex+and+Paper+Making&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20021017172935%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.mathcs.duq.edu%2F~tobin%2Fmaya%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/scroll/scrollcodex.html">"Scroll and codex"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Romana</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Scroll+and+codex&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Romana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2F~grout%2Fencyclopaedia_romana%2Fscroll%2Fscrollcodex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson" class="citation web cs1">Hanson, K. C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kchanson.com/papyri.html">"Catalogue of New Testament Papyri & Codices 2nd—10th Centuries"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Catalogue+of+New+Testament+Papyri+%26+Codices+2nd%E2%80%9410th+Centuries&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=K.+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kchanson.com%2Fpapyri.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110218052112/http://cdi.uvm.edu/collections/getCollection.xql?pid=manuscripts&title=Medieval%20and%20Renaissance%20Manuscripts">"Medieval and Renaissance manuscripts, including Vulgates, Breviaries, Contracts, and Herbal Texts from 12 -17th century"</a>. Center for Digital Initiatives, University of Vermont Libraries.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Medieval+and+Renaissance+manuscripts%2C+including+Vulgates%2C+Breviaries%2C+Contracts%2C+and+Herbal+Texts+from+12+-17th+century&rft.pub=Center+for+Digital+Initiatives%2C+University+of+Vermont+Libraries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20110218052112%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fcdi.uvm.edu%2Fcollections%2FgetCollection.xql%3Fpid%3Dmanuscripts%26title%3DMedieval%2520and%2520Renaissance%2520Manuscripts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACodex" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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<li><a href="/wiki/Editing" title="Editing">Editing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_illustration" title="Book illustration">Illustration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">Illuminated manuscripts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">Printing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edition_(book)" title="Edition (book)">edition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_printing" title="History of printing">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incunable" title="Incunable">incunabula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instant_book" title="Instant book">instant book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited-edition_book" class="mw-redirect" title="Limited-edition book">limited edition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publishing" title="Publishing">Publishing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advance_copy" title="Advance copy">advance copy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardcover" title="Hardcover">hardcover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paperback" title="Paperback">paperback</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_size" title="Book size">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typesetting" title="Typesetting">Typesetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_(bibliography)" title="Volume (bibliography)">Volume (bibliography)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collection_(publishing)" title="Collection (publishing)">Collection (publishing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_series" title="Book series">Book series</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Consumption</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literary_award" title="Literary award">Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bestseller" title="Bestseller">Bestsellers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_best-selling_books" title="List of best-selling books">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography" title="Bibliography">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliomania" title="Bibliomania">Bibliomania</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tsundoku" title="Tsundoku">tsundoku</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliophilia" title="Bibliophilia">Bibliophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliotherapy" title="Bibliotherapy">Bibliotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bookmark" title="Bookmark">Bookmarks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bookselling" title="Bookselling">Bookselling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blurb" title="Blurb">blurbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_town" title="Book town">book towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_bookselling" title="History of bookselling">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Used_book" title="Used book">used</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_censorship" title="Book censorship">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_discussion_club" title="Book discussion club">Clubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_collecting" title="Book collecting">Collecting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_scanning" title="Book scanning">Digitizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bookworm_(insect)" title="Bookworm (insect)">Bookworm (insect)</a></li> <li>Furniture <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bookcase" title="Bookcase">bookcases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bookend" title="Bookend">bookends</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library" title="Library">Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Print_culture" title="Print culture">Print culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_review" title="Book review">Reviews</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Books_in_Brazil" title="Books in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_in_France" title="Books in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_in_Germany" title="Books in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_in_Italy" title="Books in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Was%C5%8Dbon" title="Wasōbon">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_in_the_Netherlands" title="Books in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_and_publishing_in_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Books and publishing in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_in_Spain" title="Books in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Books in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Books_in_the_United_States" title="Books in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Genres <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fictional_book" title="Fictional book">fictional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miniature_book" title="Miniature book">miniature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pop-up_book" title="Pop-up book">pop-up</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textbook" title="Textbook">textbook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grimoire" title="Grimoire">Grimoire</a></li> <li>Formats <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audiobook" title="Audiobook">audiobooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebook" title="Ebook">Ebooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folio" title="Folio">Folio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_table_book" title="Coffee table book">Coffee table book</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_banned_books" title="Lists of banned books">Banned books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_burning" title="Book burning">Book burning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_book-burning_incidents" title="List of book-burning incidents">incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_book_burnings" title="Nazi book burnings">Nazi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_curse" title="Book curse">Book curses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_packaging" title="Book packaging">Book packaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_swapping" title="Book swapping">Book swapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_tour" title="Book tour">Book tour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_books,_manuscripts,_documents_and_ephemera" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation and restoration of books, manuscripts, documents and ephemera">Conservation and restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_ears" title="Dog ears">Dog ears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_books" title="History of books">History of books</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">scroll</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">codex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">Novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_books" title="Outline of books">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preservation_(library_and_archive)" title="Preservation (library and archive)">Preservation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Philobiblon" title="The Philobiblon">The Philobiblon</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Book_Day" title="World Book Day">World Book Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Book_Capital" title="World Book Capital">World Book Capital</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_books" title="Outline of books">Outline</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a 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