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</a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1858–1868:_rebellion_aftermath,_critiques,_and_responses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1858–1868:_rebellion_aftermath,_critiques,_and_responses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>1858–1868: rebellion aftermath, critiques, and responses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1858–1868:_rebellion_aftermath,_critiques,_and_responses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1858–1880:_railways,_canals,_Famine_Code" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1858–1880:_railways,_canals,_Famine_Code"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>1858–1880: railways, canals, Famine Code</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1858–1880:_railways,_canals,_Famine_Code-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1880s–1890s:_middle_class,_Indian_National_Congress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1880s–1890s:_middle_class,_Indian_National_Congress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>1880s–1890s: middle class, Indian National Congress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1880s–1890s:_middle_class,_Indian_National_Congress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1905–1911:_Partition_of_Bengal,_Swadeshi,_violence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1905–1911:_Partition_of_Bengal,_Swadeshi,_violence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>1905–1911: Partition of Bengal, <i>Swadeshi</i>, violence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1905–1911:_Partition_of_Bengal,_Swadeshi,_violence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1870s–1906:_Muslim_social_movements,_Muslim_League" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1870s–1906:_Muslim_social_movements,_Muslim_League"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>1870s–1906: Muslim social movements, Muslim League</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1870s–1906:_Muslim_social_movements,_Muslim_League-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1914–1918:_First_World_War,_Lucknow_Pact,_Home_Rule_leagues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1914–1918:_First_World_War,_Lucknow_Pact,_Home_Rule_leagues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>1914–1918: First World War, Lucknow Pact, Home Rule leagues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1914–1918:_First_World_War,_Lucknow_Pact,_Home_Rule_leagues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1915–1918:_return_of_Gandhi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1915–1918:_return_of_Gandhi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>1915–1918: return of Gandhi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1915–1918:_return_of_Gandhi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1916–1919:_Montagu–Chelmsford_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1916–1919:_Montagu–Chelmsford_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>1916–1919: Montagu–Chelmsford reforms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1916–1919:_Montagu–Chelmsford_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1917–1919:_Rowlatt_Act" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1917–1919:_Rowlatt_Act"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>1917–1919: Rowlatt Act</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1917–1919:_Rowlatt_Act-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1919–1929:_Jallianwala,_non-cooperation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1919–1929:_Jallianwala,_non-cooperation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>1919–1929: Jallianwala, non-cooperation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1919–1929:_Jallianwala,_non-cooperation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_of_India_Act,_1935" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_of_India_Act,_1935"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.11</span> <span>Government of India Act, 1935</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government_of_India_Act,_1935-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1939–1945:_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1939–1945:_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.12</span> <span>1939–1945: World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1939–1945:_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1946–1947:_Independence,_Partition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1946–1947:_Independence,_Partition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.13</span> <span>1946–1947: Independence, Partition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1946–1947:_Independence,_Partition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timeline_of_major_events,_legislation,_and_public_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline_of_major_events,_legislation,_and_public_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.14</span> <span>Timeline of major events, legislation, and public works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline_of_major_events,_legislation,_and_public_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_India_and_the_princely_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_India_and_the_princely_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>British India and the princely states</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-British_India_and_the_princely_states-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle British India and the princely states subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-British_India_and_the_princely_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Major_provinces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_provinces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Major provinces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_provinces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minor_provinces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minor_provinces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Minor provinces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minor_provinces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Princely_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Princely_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Princely states</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Princely_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Organisation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Economy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economic_trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Economic trends</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Railways" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Railways"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Railways</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Railways-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Irrigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Irrigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>Irrigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Irrigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_impact_of_the_Raj" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_impact_of_the_Raj"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Economic impact of the Raj</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_impact_of_the_Raj-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Demography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Famines,_epidemics,_and_public_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Famines,_epidemics,_and_public_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Famines, epidemics, and public health</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Famines,_epidemics,_and_public_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Surveys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surveys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Surveys</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surveys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specialised_topics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specialised_topics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Specialised topics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specialised_topics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_and_social_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_and_social_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Economic and social history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_and_social_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography_and_memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography_and_memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.4</span> <span>Historiography and memory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography_and_memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Miscellaneous" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Miscellaneous"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.5</span> <span>Miscellaneous</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Miscellaneous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Year_books_and_statistical_records" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Year_books_and_statistical_records"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Year books and statistical records</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Year_books_and_statistical_records-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">British Raj</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 90 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-90" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">90 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C" title="ब्रिटिश राज – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="ब्रिटिश राज" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="الراج البريطاني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الراج البريطاني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9B_%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C" title="ব্ৰিটিছ ৰাজ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ব্ৰিটিছ ৰাজ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raj_brit%C3%A1nicu" title="Raj británicu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Raj británicu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCst%C9%99ml%C9%99k%C9%99_Hindistan%C4%B1" title="Müstəmləkə Hindistanı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Müstəmləkə Hindistanı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D9%87%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="بریتانیا هیندوستانی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بریتانیا هیندوستانی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4" title="ব্রিটিশ ভারত – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ব্রিটিশ ভারত" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eng-kok_l%C3%A9ng_%C3%8Cn-t%C5%8D%CD%98_T%C3%A8-kok" title="Eng-kok léng Ìn-tō͘ Tè-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Eng-kok léng Ìn-tō͘ Tè-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D2%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Британия Һиндостаны – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Британия Һиндостаны" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Брытанская Індыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Брытанская Індыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Брытанская Індыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Брытанская Індыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C" title="ब्रिटिश राज – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="ब्रिटिश राज" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Британска Индия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Британска Индия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raj_breizhveuriat" title="Raj breizhveuriat – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Raj breizhveuriat" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raj_brit%C3%A0nic" title="Raj britànic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Raj britànic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britsk%C3%A1_Indie" title="Britská Indie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Britská Indie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_Raj_Prydeinig" title="Y Raj Prydeinig – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Y Raj Prydeinig" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%82_%CE%99%CE%BD%CE%B4%CE%AF%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Βρετανικές Ινδίες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βρετανικές Ινδίες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_brit%C3%A1nica" title="India británica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="India británica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brita_Ra%C4%9Do" title="Brita Raĝo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Brita Raĝo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britainiar_Raj" title="Britainiar Raj – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Britainiar Raj" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="راج بریتانیا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="راج بریتانیا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raj_britannique" title="Raj britannique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Raj britannique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9imeas_Briotanach" title="Réimeas Briotanach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Réimeas Briotanach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raj_Brit%C3%A1nico" title="Raj Británico – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Raj Británico" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C3%AEn-koet_li%C3%A2ng_Yin-thu_Ti-koet" title="Yîn-koet liâng Yin-thu Ti-koet – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Yîn-koet liâng Yin-thu Ti-koet" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EB%8F%84_%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD" title="인도 제국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="인도 제국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%80%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Բրիտանական Հնդկաստան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բրիտանական Հնդկաստան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C" title="ब्रिटिश राज – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ब्रिटिश राज" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britanska_Indija" title="Britanska Indija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Britanska Indija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raj_Britania_Raya" title="Raj Britania Raya – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Raj Britania Raya" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_anglo-indiano" title="Impero anglo-indiano – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Impero anglo-indiano" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%92%27_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99" title="הראג' הבריטי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הראג' הבריטי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98" title="ბრიტანეთის ინდოეთი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბრიტანეთის ინდოეთი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8E%D8%B1%D8%B7%D9%B2%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8C_%DB%81%D9%90%D9%86%D8%AF" title="بَرطٲنوی ہِند – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="بَرطٲنوی ہِند" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uhindi_ya_Kiingereza" title="Uhindi ya Kiingereza – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Uhindi ya Kiingereza" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9A%E0%BA%A3%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%81_%E0%BA%A3%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%8A" title="ບຣິດທິກ ຣາຊ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ບຣິດທິກ ຣາຊ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britu_Indija" title="Britu Indija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Britu Indija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brit%C5%B3_Indija" title="Britų Indija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Britų Indija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C" title="ब्रिटिश राज – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="ब्रिटिश राज" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Британска Индија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Британска Индија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D" title="ബ്രിട്ടീഷ് രാജ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബ്രിട്ടീഷ് രാജ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C" title="ब्रिटिश राज – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ब्रिटिश राज" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%89" title="الراج البريطانى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الراج البريطانى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raj_British" title="Raj British – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Raj British" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%ACng-gu%C3%B3k_li%C4%81ng_%C3%89ng-d%C3%B4_D%C3%A1%CC%A4-gu%C3%B3k" title="Ĭng-guók liāng Éng-dô Dá̤-guók – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ĭng-guók liāng Éng-dô Dá̤-guók" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%97%E1%80%BC%E1%80%AD%E1%80%90%E1%80%AD%E1%80%9E%E1%80%BB%E1%80%BE%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AC%E1%80%87" title="ဗြိတိသျှရာဇ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဗြိတိသျှရာဇ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brits-Indi%C3%AB" title="Brits-Indië – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Brits-Indië" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C" title="ब्रिटिस राज – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="ब्रिटिस राज" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%82%AE%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E9%A0%98%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="イギリス領インド帝国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イギリス領インド帝国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britisk_India" title="Britisk India – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Britisk India" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britisk_India" title="Britisk India – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Britisk India" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raj_Britanic" title="Raj Britanic – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Raj Britanic" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britaniya_Hindistoni" title="Britaniya Hindistoni – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Britaniya Hindistoni" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C" title="ਬਰਤਾਨਵੀ ਰਾਜ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਰਤਾਨਵੀ ਰਾਜ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC" title="برطانوی راج – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="برطانوی راج" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%90%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%8A_%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF" title="برېتانوي هند – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="برېتانوي هند" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indie_Brytyjskie" title="Indie Brytyjskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Indie Brytyjskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Dndia_brit%C3%A2nica" title="Índia britânica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Índia britânica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britaniya_Hindstan%C4%B1" title="Britaniya Hindstanı – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Britaniya Hindstanı" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Britanic%C4%83" title="India Britanică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="India Britanică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Брітаньска Індія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Брітаньска Індія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Британская Индия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Британская Индия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%B5%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%B4%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A5_%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%BD" title="ᱵᱨᱤᱴᱤᱥ ᱨᱟᱡᱽ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱵᱨᱤᱴᱤᱥ ᱨᱟᱡᱽ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8C_%DB%81%D9%86%D8%AF" title="برطانوی ہند – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="برطانوی ہند" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breetish_Raj" title="Breetish Raj – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Breetish Raj" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raxhi_Britanik" title="Raxhi Britanik – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Raxhi Britanik" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="British Raj" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%8A_%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%84" title="برطانوي راڄ – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="برطانوي راڄ" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britsk%C3%A1_India" title="Britská India – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Britská India" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britanska_Indija" title="Britanska Indija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Britanska Indija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%DA%95%D8%A7%D8%AC" title="بەریتانی ڕاج – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بەریتانی ڕاج" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Британска Индија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Британска Индија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britanska_Indija" title="Britanska Indija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Britanska Indija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittil%C3%A4inen_Intia" title="Brittiläinen Intia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Brittiläinen Intia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittiska_Indien" title="Brittiska Indien – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Brittiska Indien" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britanikong_Raj" title="Britanikong Raj – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Britanikong Raj" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81" title="பிரித்தானியாவின் இந்தியப் பேரரசு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பிரித்தானியாவின் இந்தியப் பேரரசு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D2%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Британия Һиндстаны – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Британия Һиндстаны" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AD%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8B_%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B7%E0%B1%81_%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%A8" title="భారతదేశంలో బ్రిటిషు పాలన – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="భారతదేశంలో బ్రిటిషు పాలన" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A" title="บริติชราช – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="บริติชราช" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%91" title="Ҳиндустони Бритониё – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ҳиндустони Бритониё" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britanya_Hindistan%C4%B1" title="Britanya Hindistanı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Britanya Hindistanı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Британська Індія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Британська Індія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC" title="برطانوی راج – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="برطانوی راج" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inpero_anglo-indian" title="Inpero anglo-indian – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Inpero anglo-indian" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raj_thu%E1%BB%99c_Anh" title="Raj thuộc Anh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Raj thuộc Anh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%B1%9E%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6" title="英属印度 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="英属印度" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%B1%AC%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6" title="英屬印度 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="英屬印度" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%B1%9E%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6" title="英属印度 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="英属印度" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q129286#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=British_Indian_Empire&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="British Indian Empire">British Indian Empire</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none"> British colonial rule on the Indian subcontinent (1858–1947)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the rule of India by the British Crown from 1858 to 1947. For the rule of the East India Company from 1757 to 1858, see <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">Company rule in India</a>. For British directly-ruled administrative divisions in India, see <a href="/wiki/Presidencies_and_provinces_of_British_India" title="Presidencies and provinces of British India">Presidencies and provinces of British India</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">India</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1858–1947</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Political subdivisions of the British Raj in 1909. British India is shown in two shades of pink; Sikkim, Nepal, Bhutan, and the Princely states are shown in yellow."><img alt="Political subdivisions of the British Raj in 1909. British India is shown in two shades of pink; Sikkim, Nepal, Bhutan, and the Princely states are shown in yellow." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg/250px-British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg/375px-British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg/500px-British_Indian_Empire_1909_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1498" data-file-height="1223" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Political subdivisions of the British Raj in 1909. <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a> is shown in two shades of pink; <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sikkim" title="Kingdom of Sikkim">Sikkim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nepal" title="Kingdom of Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Princely_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Princely states">Princely states</a> are shown in yellow.</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:India-or-British-Raj-in-British-Empire-1909.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The British Raj in relation to the British Empire in 1909"><img alt="The British Raj in relation to the British Empire in 1909" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/India-or-British-Raj-in-British-Empire-1909.jpg/250px-India-or-British-Raj-in-British-Empire-1909.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/India-or-British-Raj-in-British-Empire-1909.jpg/375px-India-or-British-Raj-in-British-Empire-1909.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/India-or-British-Raj-in-British-Empire-1909.jpg/500px-India-or-British-Raj-in-British-Empire-1909.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5874" data-file-height="4720" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The British Raj in relation to the British Empire in 1909</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">Imperial political structure</a> (comprising British India<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Princely_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Princely States">Princely States</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Interpretation_Act_1889_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Interpretation_Act_1889-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcutta">Calcutta</a><sup id="cite_ref-igi-calcutta_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-igi-calcutta-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />(1858–1911)</li><li><a href="/wiki/New_Delhi" title="New Delhi">New Delhi</a><br />(1911/1931<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>–1947)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a> (<a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">Other Indian languages</a><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Indians, British Indians</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_India" title="Emperor of India">Queen/Queen-Empress/King-Emperor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1858–1876 (Queen); 1876–1901 (Queen-Empress) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Victoria</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1901–1910 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Edward_VII" title="Edward VII">Edward VII</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1910–1936 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/George_V" title="George V">George V</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1936 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Edward_VIII" title="Edward VIII">Edward VIII</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1936–1947 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/George_VI" title="George VI">George VI</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_India" title="Governor-General of India">Viceroy</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1858–1862 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Canning,_1st_Earl_Canning" title="Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning">Charles Canning</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1947 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Mountbatten,_1st_Earl_Mountbatten_of_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma">Louis Mountbatten</a></span></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_India" title="Secretary of State for India">Secretary of State</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1858–1859 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Stanley,_15th_Earl_of_Derby" title="Edward Stanley, 15th Earl of Derby">Edward Stanley</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1947 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/William_Hare,_5th_Earl_of_Listowel" title="William Hare, 5th Earl of Listowel">William Hare</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Legislative_Council" title="Imperial Legislative Council">Imperial Legislative Council</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">Upper house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Council_of_State_(India)" title="Council of State (India)">Council of State</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">Lower house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Central_Legislative_Assembly" title="Central Legislative Assembly">Central Legislative Assembly</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">10 May 1857</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1858" title="Government of India Act 1858">Government of India Act</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">2 August 1858</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Indian_Independence_Act_1947" title="Indian Independence Act 1947">Indian Independence Act</a></span> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">18 July 1947</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">took effect Midnight, 14–15 August 1947</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data">4,993,650 km<sup>2</sup> (1,928,060 sq mi)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Indian_rupee" title="Indian rupee">Indian rupee</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India"><b>1858:</b><br />Company rule in India</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire"><b>1857:</b><br />Mughal Empire</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_India" title="Dominion of India"><b>1947:</b><br />Dominion of India</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_Pakistan" title="Dominion of Pakistan">Dominion of Pakistan</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf_Residency" title="Persian Gulf Residency">Persian Gulf Residency</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma" title="British rule in Burma"><b>1937:</b><br />Colony of Burma</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Aden_Colony" title="Aden Colony">Colony of Aden</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland"><b>1898:</b><br />Somaliland Protectorate</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Straits_Settlements" title="Straits Settlements"><b>1867:</b><br />Straits Settlements</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>British Raj</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">RAHJ</span></i></a>; from <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a> <span title="Hindi-language romanization"><i lang="hi-Latn">rāj</i></span>, 'reign', 'rule' or 'government')<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was the rule of the British <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">Crown</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-def-raj-stacked_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-def-raj-stacked-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> lasting from 1858 to 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-period-of-raj-stacked_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-period-of-raj-stacked-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also called <b>Crown rule in India</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-british-raj-crown-rule-stacked_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-british-raj-crown-rule-stacked-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <b>Direct rule in India</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-direct-rule-stacked_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-direct-rule-stacked-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The region under British control was commonly called <b>India</b> in contemporaneous usage and included areas directly administered by the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a>, which were collectively called <i><a href="/wiki/Presidencies_and_provinces_of_British_India" title="Presidencies and provinces of British India">British India</a></i>, and areas ruled by indigenous rulers, but under British <a href="/wiki/British_paramountcy" class="mw-redirect" title="British paramountcy">paramountcy</a>, called the <a href="/wiki/Princely_state" title="Princely state">princely states</a>. The region was sometimes called the <b>Indian Empire</b>, though not officially.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <i>India</i>, it was a founding member of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_United_Nations" title="Member states of the United Nations">founding member</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> in <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_International_Organization" title="United Nations Conference on International Organization">San Francisco in 1945</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mansergh-UN-SanFrancisco2_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mansergh-UN-SanFrancisco2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> India was a participating state in the <a href="/wiki/India_at_the_Olympics" title="India at the Olympics">Summer Olympics</a> in <a href="/wiki/India_at_the_1900_Summer_Olympics" title="India at the 1900 Summer Olympics">1900</a>, <a href="/wiki/India_at_the_1920_Summer_Olympics" title="India at the 1920 Summer Olympics">1920</a>, <a href="/wiki/India_at_the_1928_Summer_Olympics" title="India at the 1928 Summer Olympics">1928</a>, <a href="/wiki/India_at_the_1932_Summer_Olympics" title="India at the 1932 Summer Olympics">1932</a>, and <a href="/wiki/India_at_the_1936_Summer_Olympics" title="India at the 1936 Summer Olympics">1936</a>. </p><p>This system of governance was instituted on 28 June 1858, when, after the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">rule</a> of the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a> was transferred to the Crown in the person of <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (who, in 1876, was proclaimed <a href="/wiki/Empress_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Empress of India">Empress of India</a>). It lasted until 1947 when the British Raj was <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">partitioned</a> into two sovereign <a href="/wiki/Dominion" title="Dominion">dominion</a> states: the <a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_India" title="Dominion of India">Union of India</a> (later the <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Republic of India</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_Pakistan" title="Dominion of Pakistan">Dominion of Pakistan</a> (later the <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Islamic Republic of Pakistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">People's Republic of Bangladesh</a> in the 1971 <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_Bangladeshi_Independence" title="Proclamation of Bangladeshi Independence">Proclamation of Bangladeshi Independence</a>). At the inception of the Raj in 1858, <a href="/wiki/Lower_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Burma">Lower Burma</a> was already a part of British India; <a href="/wiki/Upper_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Burma">Upper Burma</a> was added in 1886, and the resulting union, <a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma" title="British rule in Burma">Burma</a>, was administered as an autonomous province until 1937, when it became a separate British colony, gaining its independence in 1948. It was renamed <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> in 1989. The <a href="/wiki/Chief_Commissioner%27s_Province_of_Aden" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Commissioner's Province of Aden">Chief Commissioner's Province of Aden</a> was also part of British India at the inception of the British Raj and became a separate <a href="/wiki/Colony" title="Colony">colony</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Aden_Colony" title="Aden Colony">Aden Colony</a> in 1937 as well. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographical_extent">Geographical extent</h2></div> <p>The British Raj extended over almost all present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Myanmar, except for small holdings by other European nations such as <a href="/wiki/Goa" title="Goa">Goa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pondicherry" title="Pondicherry">Pondicherry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-British_India_geography_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-British_India_geography-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This area is very diverse, containing the Himalayan mountains, fertile floodplains, the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Indo-Gangetic Plain</a>, a long coastline, tropical dry forests, arid uplands, and the <a href="/wiki/Thar_Desert" title="Thar Desert">Thar Desert</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, at various times, it included <a href="/wiki/Aden_Province" title="Aden Province">Aden</a> (from 1858 to 1937),<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lower_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Burma">Lower Burma</a> (from 1858 to 1937), <a href="/wiki/Upper_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Burma">Upper Burma</a> (from 1886 to 1937), <a href="/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a> (briefly from 1884 to 1898), and the <a href="/wiki/Straits_Settlements" title="Straits Settlements">Straits Settlements</a> (briefly from 1858 to 1867). Burma was separated from India and directly administered by the British Crown from 1937 until its independence in 1948. The <a href="/wiki/Trucial_States" title="Trucial States">Trucial States</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> and the other states under the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf_Residency" title="Persian Gulf Residency">Persian Gulf Residency</a> were theoretically princely states as well as <a href="/wiki/Presidencies_and_provinces_of_British_India" title="Presidencies and provinces of British India">presidencies and provinces of British India</a> until 1947 and used the <a href="/wiki/Rupee" title="Rupee">rupee</a> as their unit of currency.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among other countries in the region, <a href="/wiki/British_Ceylon" title="British Ceylon">Ceylon</a>, which was referred to coastal regions and northern part of the island at that time (now <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>) was ceded to Britain in 1802 under the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Amiens" title="Treaty of Amiens">Treaty of Amiens</a>. These coastal regions were temporarily administered under <a href="/wiki/Madras_Presidency" title="Madras Presidency">Madras Presidency</a> between 1793 and 1798,<sup id="cite_ref-codringtonch10_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-codringtonch10-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but for later periods the British governors reported to <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, and it was not part of the Raj. The kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nepal" title="Kingdom of Nepal">Nepal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, having fought wars with the British, subsequently signed treaties with them and were recognised by the British as independent states.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sikkim" title="Kingdom of Sikkim">Kingdom of Sikkim</a> was established as a princely state after the Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty of 1861; however, the issue of sovereignty was left undefined.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldive Islands</a> were a British <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a> from 1887 to 1965, but not part of British India.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 340px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 338px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Raj_and_surrounding_countries_1909.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The British Raj and surrounding countries are shown in 1909."><img alt="The British Raj and surrounding countries are shown in 1909." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/British_Raj_and_surrounding_countries_1909.jpg/507px-British_Raj_and_surrounding_countries_1909.jpg" decoding="async" width="338" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/British_Raj_and_surrounding_countries_1909.jpg/760px-British_Raj_and_surrounding_countries_1909.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/British_Raj_and_surrounding_countries_1909.jpg/1013px-British_Raj_and_surrounding_countries_1909.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5870" data-file-height="4773" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The British Raj and surrounding countries are shown in 1909.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Raj" title="History of the British Raj">History of the British Raj</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1858–1868:_rebellion_aftermath,_critiques,_and_responses"><span id="1858.E2.80.931868:_rebellion_aftermath.2C_critiques.2C_and_responses"></span>1858–1868: rebellion aftermath, critiques, and responses</h3></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rani_of_jhansi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lakshmibai, Rani of Jhansi, one of the principal leaders of the Great Uprising of 1857, who had lost her kingdom by the Doctrine of lapse"><img alt="Lakshmibai, Rani of Jhansi, one of the principal leaders of the Great Uprising of 1857, who had lost her kingdom by the Doctrine of lapse" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Rani_of_jhansi.jpg/81px-Rani_of_jhansi.jpg" decoding="async" width="81" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Rani_of_jhansi.jpg/122px-Rani_of_jhansi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Rani_of_jhansi.jpg/163px-Rani_of_jhansi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="287" data-file-height="422" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Rani_Lakshmibai" class="mw-redirect" title="Rani Lakshmibai">Lakshmibai, Rani of Jhansi</a>, one of the principal leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Great Uprising of 1857</a>, who had lost her kingdom by the <a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_lapse" title="Doctrine of lapse">Doctrine of lapse</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Image_victoria_proclamation1858c.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The proclamation to the "Princes, Chiefs, and People of India", issued by Queen Victoria on 1 November 1858"><img alt="The proclamation to the "Princes, Chiefs, and People of India", issued by Queen Victoria on 1 November 1858" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Image_victoria_proclamation1858c.JPG/120px-Image_victoria_proclamation1858c.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Image_victoria_proclamation1858c.JPG/180px-Image_victoria_proclamation1858c.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Image_victoria_proclamation1858c.JPG/240px-Image_victoria_proclamation1858c.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1330" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The proclamation to the "Princes, Chiefs, and People of India", issued by <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> on 1 November 1858</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SAKhan.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sir Syed Ahmed Khan founder of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, wrote one of the early critiques, The Causes of the Indian Mutiny."><img alt="Sir Syed Ahmed Khan founder of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, wrote one of the early critiques, The Causes of the Indian Mutiny." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/SAKhan.jpg/96px-SAKhan.jpg" decoding="async" width="96" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/SAKhan.jpg/145px-SAKhan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/SAKhan.jpg/193px-SAKhan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="362" data-file-height="450" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Sir_Syed_Ahmed_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Syed Ahmed Khan">Sir Syed Ahmed Khan</a> founder of the <a href="/wiki/Muhammadan_Anglo-Oriental_College" title="Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College">Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College</a>, wrote one of the early critiques, <i>The Causes of the Indian Mutiny</i>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Victoria_empress_india1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="An 1887 souvenir portrait of Queen Victoria as Empress of India, 30 years after the Great Uprising"><img alt="An 1887 souvenir portrait of Queen Victoria as Empress of India, 30 years after the Great Uprising" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Victoria_empress_india1.jpg/74px-Victoria_empress_india1.jpg" decoding="async" width="74" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Victoria_empress_india1.jpg/111px-Victoria_empress_india1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Victoria_empress_india1.jpg/148px-Victoria_empress_india1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="394" data-file-height="640" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">An 1887 souvenir portrait of Queen Victoria as <a href="/wiki/Empress_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Empress of India">Empress of India</a>, 30 years after the Great Uprising</div> </li> </ul> <p>Although the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a> had shaken the British enterprise in India, it had not derailed it. Until 1857, the British, especially under <a href="/wiki/James_Broun-Ramsay,_1st_Marquess_of_Dalhousie" title="James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie">Lord Dalhousie</a>, had been hurriedly building an India which they envisaged to be on par with Britain itself in the quality and strength of its economic and social institutions. After the rebellion, they became more circumspect. Much thought was devoted to the causes of the rebellion and three main lessons were drawn. First, at a practical level, it was felt that there needed to be more communication and camaraderie between the British and Indians—not just between British army officers and their Indian staff but in civilian life as well.<sup id="cite_ref-spear147_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spear147-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Indian army was completely reorganised: units composed of the Muslims and Brahmins of the <a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Agra_and_Oudh" title="United Provinces of Agra and Oudh">United Provinces of Agra and Oudh</a>, who had formed the core of the rebellion, were disbanded. New regiments, like the Sikhs and Baluchis, composed of Indians who, in British estimation, had demonstrated steadfastness, were formed. From then on, the Indian army was to remain unchanged in its organisation until 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1861 Census had revealed that the English population in India was 125,945. Of these only about 41,862 were civilians as compared with about 84,083 European officers and men of the Army.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1880, the standing Indian Army consisted of 66,000 British soldiers, 130,000 Natives, and 350,000 soldiers in the princely armies.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Second, it was also felt that both the princes and the large land-holders, by not joining the rebellion, had proved to be, in Lord Canning's words, "breakwaters in a storm".<sup id="cite_ref-spear147_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spear147-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They too were rewarded in the new British Raj by being integrated into the British-Indian political system and having their territories guaranteed.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, it was felt that the peasants, for whose benefit the large land reforms of the United Provinces had been undertaken, had shown disloyalty, by, in many cases, fighting for their former landlords against the British. Consequently, no more land reforms were implemented for the next 90 years: Bengal and Bihar were to remain the realms of large land holdings (unlike the Punjab and <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Third, the British felt disenchanted with Indian reaction to social change. Until the rebellion, they had enthusiastically pushed through social reform, like the ban on <i><a href="/wiki/Sati_(practice)" title="Sati (practice)">sati</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Lord_William_Bentinck" title="Lord William Bentinck">Lord William Bentinck</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was now felt that traditions and customs in India were too strong and too rigid to be changed easily; consequently, no more British social interventions were made, especially in matters dealing with religion,<sup id="cite_ref-spear147-148_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spear147-148-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even when the British felt very strongly about the issue (as in the instance of the remarriage of Hindu child widows).<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was exemplified further in Queen Victoria's Proclamation released immediately after the rebellion. The proclamation stated that 'We disclaim alike our Right and Desire to impose Our Convictions on any of Our Subjects';<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> demonstrating official British commitment to abstaining from social intervention in India. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1858–1880:_railways,_canals,_Famine_Code"><span id="1858.E2.80.931880:_railways.2C_canals.2C_Famine_Code"></span>1858–1880: railways, canals, Famine Code</h3></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:India_railways1909a.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The 1909 map of Indian Railways, the fourth largest in the world. Railway construction began in 1853."><img alt="The 1909 map of Indian Railways, the fourth largest in the world. Railway construction began in 1853." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/India_railways1909a.jpg/120px-India_railways1909a.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/India_railways1909a.jpg/180px-India_railways1909a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/India_railways1909a.jpg/240px-India_railways1909a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1322" data-file-height="1103" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The 1909 map of <a href="/wiki/Indian_Railways" title="Indian Railways">Indian Railways</a>, the fourth largest in the world. Railway construction began in 1853.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Victoriaterminus1903.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Stereographic image of Victoria Terminus, Bombay, completed in 1888"><img alt="Stereographic image of Victoria Terminus, Bombay, completed in 1888" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Victoriaterminus1903.JPG/120px-Victoriaterminus1903.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Victoriaterminus1903.JPG/180px-Victoriaterminus1903.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Victoriaterminus1903.JPG/240px-Victoriaterminus1903.JPG 2x" data-file-width="976" data-file-height="493" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Stereographic image of <a href="/wiki/Victoria_Terminus" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria Terminus">Victoria Terminus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bombay" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombay">Bombay</a>, completed in 1888</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Agra_canal_headworks1871a.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Agra canal (c. 1873), a year from completion, was closed to navigation in 1904 to increase irrigation during a famine."><img alt="The Agra canal (c. 1873), a year from completion, was closed to navigation in 1904 to increase irrigation during a famine." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Agra_canal_headworks1871a.jpg/120px-Agra_canal_headworks1871a.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Agra_canal_headworks1871a.jpg/180px-Agra_canal_headworks1871a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Agra_canal_headworks1871a.jpg/240px-Agra_canal_headworks1871a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="697" data-file-height="485" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Agra_canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Agra canal">Agra canal</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1873</span>), a year from completion, was closed to navigation in 1904 to increase irrigation during a famine.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Robinson_1st_Marquess_of_Ripon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lord Ripon, the Liberal Viceroy of India, who instituted the Famine Code. 1880."><img alt="Lord Ripon, the Liberal Viceroy of India, who instituted the Famine Code. 1880." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/George_Robinson_1st_Marquess_of_Ripon.jpg/92px-George_Robinson_1st_Marquess_of_Ripon.jpg" decoding="async" width="92" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/George_Robinson_1st_Marquess_of_Ripon.jpg/139px-George_Robinson_1st_Marquess_of_Ripon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/George_Robinson_1st_Marquess_of_Ripon.jpg/185px-George_Robinson_1st_Marquess_of_Ripon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="578" data-file-height="749" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/George_Robinson,_1st_Marquess_of_Ripon" title="George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon">Lord Ripon</a>, the Liberal Viceroy of India, who instituted the Famine Code. 1880.</div> </li> </ul> <p>In the second half of the 19th century, both the direct administration of <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">India</a> by the <a href="/wiki/British_crown" class="mw-redirect" title="British crown">British crown</a> and the technological change ushered in by the industrial revolution, had the effect of closely intertwining the economies of India and Great Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact many of the major changes in transport and communications (that are typically associated with Crown Rule of India) had already begun before the Mutiny. Since Dalhousie had embraced the technological change then rampant in Great Britain, India too saw the rapid development of all those technologies. Railways, roads, canals, and bridges were rapidly built in India, and telegraph links were equally rapidly established so that raw materials, such as cotton, from India's hinterland, could be transported more efficiently to ports, such as <a href="/wiki/Bombay" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombay">Bombay</a>, for subsequent export to England.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, finished goods from England, were transported back for sale in the burgeoning Indian markets.<sup id="cite_ref-oldenburg_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oldenburg-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike Britain, where the market risks for the <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a> development were borne by private investors, in India, it was the taxpayers—primarily farmers and farm-labourers—who endured the risks, which, in the end, amounted to £50 million.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite these costs, very little skilled employment was created for Indians. By 1920, with the fourth largest railway network in the world and a history of 60 years of its construction, only ten per cent of the "superior posts" in the Indian Railways were held by Indians.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rush of technology was also changing the agricultural economy in India: by the last decade of the 19th century, a large fraction of some raw materials—not only cotton, but also some food-grains—were being exported to faraway markets.<sup id="cite_ref-stein260_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stein260-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many small farmers, dependent on the whims of those markets, lost land, animals, and equipment to money-lenders.<sup id="cite_ref-stein260_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stein260-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter half of the 19th century also saw an increase in the number of large-scale <a href="/wiki/Famine_in_India" title="Famine in India">famines in India</a>. Although famines were not new to the subcontinent, these were particularly severe, with tens of millions dying,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and with many critics, both British and Indian, laying the blame at the doorsteps of the lumbering colonial administrations.<sup id="cite_ref-stein260_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stein260-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006126_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006126-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The railway network provided critical famine relief,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200697_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200697-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> notably reduced the cost of moving goods,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200697_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200697-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and helped nascent Indian-owned industry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006126_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006126-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%931878" title="Great Famine of 1876–1878">Great Famine of 1876–1878</a>, The Indian Famine Commission report was issued in 1880, and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Famine_Codes" title="Indian Famine Codes">Indian Famine Codes</a>, the earliest <a href="/wiki/Famine_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Famine scale">famine scales</a> and programmes for famine prevention, were instituted.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In one form or other, they would be implemented worldwide by the United Nations and the Food and Agricultural Organisation well into the 1970s.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1880s–1890s:_middle_class,_Indian_National_Congress"><span id="1880s.E2.80.931890s:_middle_class.2C_Indian_National_Congress"></span>1880s–1890s: middle class, Indian National Congress</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_O_Hume.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Allan Octavian Hume (1829–1912), who proposed the idea of the Indian National Congress in a letter to graduates of Calcutta University"><img alt="Allan Octavian Hume (1829–1912), who proposed the idea of the Indian National Congress in a letter to graduates of Calcutta University" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/A_O_Hume.jpg/90px-A_O_Hume.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/A_O_Hume.jpg/135px-A_O_Hume.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/A_O_Hume.jpg/180px-A_O_Hume.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1157" data-file-height="1543" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Allan_Octavian_Hume" title="Allan Octavian Hume">Allan Octavian Hume</a> (1829–1912), who proposed the idea of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a> in a letter to graduates of <a href="/wiki/Calcutta_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcutta University">Calcutta University</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1st_INC1885.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Congress, Bombay, December 28, 1885. Third row (middle) (l. to r.) Dadabhai Naoroji, Hume, W. C. Bonerjee, and Pherozeshah Mehta."><img alt="Congress, Bombay, December 28, 1885. Third row (middle) (l. to r.) Dadabhai Naoroji, Hume, W. C. Bonerjee, and Pherozeshah Mehta." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/1st_INC1885.jpg/120px-1st_INC1885.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/1st_INC1885.jpg/180px-1st_INC1885.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/1st_INC1885.jpg/240px-1st_INC1885.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1060" data-file-height="696" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Congress, <a href="/wiki/Bombay" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombay">Bombay</a>, December 28, 1885. Third row (middle) (l. to r.) <a href="/wiki/Dadabhai_Naoroji" title="Dadabhai Naoroji">Dadabhai Naoroji</a>, Hume, <a href="/wiki/Womesh_Chandra_Bonerjee" class="mw-redirect" title="Womesh Chandra Bonerjee">W. C. Bonerjee</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pherozeshah_Mehta" title="Pherozeshah Mehta">Pherozeshah Mehta</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Poverty_and_Un_British_Rule_in_India1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Poverty and the Un-British Rule in India, 1901, by Naoroji, Member, British Parliament (1892–1895), and Congress president (1886, 1893, 1906)"><img alt="Poverty and the Un-British Rule in India, 1901, by Naoroji, Member, British Parliament (1892–1895), and Congress president (1886, 1893, 1906)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Poverty_and_Un_British_Rule_in_India1.jpg/79px-Poverty_and_Un_British_Rule_in_India1.jpg" decoding="async" width="79" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Poverty_and_Un_British_Rule_in_India1.jpg/118px-Poverty_and_Un_British_Rule_in_India1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Poverty_and_Un_British_Rule_in_India1.jpg/158px-Poverty_and_Un_British_Rule_in_India1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="791" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Poverty and the Un-British Rule in India</i>, 1901, by Naoroji, Member, British Parliament (1892–1895), and Congress president (1886, 1893, 1906)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pherozeshah_Mehta_(portrait).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mehta, lawyer, businessman, and president of the sixth session of the Indian National Congress in 1890"><img alt="Mehta, lawyer, businessman, and president of the sixth session of the Indian National Congress in 1890" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/52/Pherozeshah_Mehta_%28portrait%29.jpg/98px-Pherozeshah_Mehta_%28portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="98" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/52/Pherozeshah_Mehta_%28portrait%29.jpg/147px-Pherozeshah_Mehta_%28portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/52/Pherozeshah_Mehta_%28portrait%29.jpg/196px-Pherozeshah_Mehta_%28portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="764" data-file-height="934" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Pherozeshah_Mehta" title="Pherozeshah Mehta">Mehta</a>, lawyer, businessman, and president of the sixth session of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a> in 1890</div> </li> </ul> <p>By 1880, a new middle class had arisen in India and spread thinly across the country. Moreover, there was a growing solidarity among its members, created by the "joint stimuli of encouragement and irritation".<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The encouragement felt by this class came from its success in education and its ability to avail itself of the benefits of that education such as employment in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Civil_Service" title="Indian Civil Service">Indian Civil Service</a>. It came too from Queen Victoria's proclamation of 1858 in which she had declared, "We hold ourselves bound to the natives of our Indian territories by the same obligation of duty which bind us to all our other subjects."<sup id="cite_ref-majumdar888_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-majumdar888-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indians were especially encouraged when Canada was granted <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Confederation" title="Canadian Confederation">dominion status</a> in 1867 and established an autonomous democratic constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-majumdar888_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-majumdar888-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lastly, the encouragement came from the work of contemporaneous Oriental scholars like <a href="/wiki/Monier_Monier-Williams" title="Monier Monier-Williams">Monier Monier-Williams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a>, who in their works had been presenting ancient India as a great civilisation. Irritation, on the other hand, came not just from incidents of racial discrimination at the hands of the British in India, but also from governmental actions like the use of Indian troops in imperial campaigns (e.g. in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Second Anglo-Afghan War">Second Anglo-Afghan War</a>) and the attempts to control the vernacular press (e.g. in the <i><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_Press_Act" title="Vernacular Press Act">Vernacular Press Act</a> of 1878</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was, however, Viceroy <a href="/wiki/Lord_Ripon" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Ripon">Lord Ripon</a>'s partial reversal of the <a href="/wiki/Ilbert_Bill" title="Ilbert Bill">Ilbert Bill</a> (1883), a legislative measure that had proposed putting Indian judges in the <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Presidency" title="Bengal Presidency">Bengal Presidency</a> on equal footing with British ones, that transformed the discontent into political action.<sup id="cite_ref-spear170_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spear170-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 28 December 1885, professionals and intellectuals from this middle-class — many educated at the new British-founded universities in Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras, and familiar with the ideas of British political philosophers, especially the <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Classical_utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarians</a> assembled in Bombay — founded the <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a>. The 70 men elected <a href="/wiki/Womesh_Chunder_Bonnerjee" title="Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee">Womesh Chunder Bonerjee</a> as the first president. The membership consisted of a westernised elite, and no effort was made at this time to broaden the base.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During its first 20 years, the Congress primarily debated British policy toward India. Its debates created a new Indian outlook that held Great Britain responsible for draining India of its wealth. Britain did this, the nationalists claimed, by unfair trade, by the restraint on indigenous Indian industry, and by the use of Indian taxes to pay the high salaries of the British civil servants in India.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Baring,_1st_Earl_of_Northbrook" title="Thomas Baring, 1st Earl of Northbrook">Thomas Baring</a> served as Viceroy of India 1872–1876. Baring's major accomplishments came as an energetic reformer who was dedicated to upgrading the quality of government in the British Raj. He began large scale famine relief, reduced taxes, and overcame bureaucratic obstacles in an effort to reduce both starvation and widespread social unrest. Although appointed by a Liberal government, his policies were much the same as viceroys appointed by Conservative governments.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Social reform was in the air by the 1880s. For example, <a href="/wiki/Pandita_Ramabai" title="Pandita Ramabai">Pandita Ramabai</a>, poet, Sanskrit scholar, and a champion of the emancipation of Indian women, took up the cause of widow remarriage, especially of Brahmin widows, later converted to Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1900 reform movements had taken root within the Indian National Congress. Congress member <a href="/wiki/Gopal_Krishna_Gokhale" title="Gopal Krishna Gokhale">Gopal Krishna Gokhale</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Servants_of_India_Society" title="Servants of India Society">Servants of India Society</a>, which lobbied for legislative reform (for example, for a law to permit the remarriage of Hindu child widows), and whose members took vows of poverty, and worked among the <a href="/wiki/Dalits" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalits">untouchable community</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1905, a deep gulf opened between the moderates, led by Gokhale, who downplayed public agitation, and the new "extremists" who not only advocated agitation, but also regarded the pursuit of social reform as a distraction from nationalism. Prominent among the extremists was <a href="/wiki/Bal_Gangadhar_Tilak" title="Bal Gangadhar Tilak">Bal Gangadhar Tilak</a>, who attempted to mobilise Indians by appealing to an explicitly Hindu political identity, displayed, for example, in the annual public <a href="/wiki/Ganapati" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganapati">Ganapati</a> festivals that he inaugurated in western India.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1905–1911:_Partition_of_Bengal,_Swadeshi,_violence"><span id="1905.E2.80.931911:_Partition_of_Bengal.2C_Swadeshi.2C_violence"></span>1905–1911: Partition of Bengal, <i>Swadeshi</i>, violence</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1905)" title="Partition of Bengal (1905)">Partition of Bengal (1905)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swadeshi_movement" title="Swadeshi movement">Swadeshi movement</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Curzon2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lord Curzon, Viceroy of India, 1899–1905, who partitioned the Bengal Presidency in 1905"><img alt="Lord Curzon, Viceroy of India, 1899–1905, who partitioned the Bengal Presidency in 1905" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/George_Curzon2.jpg/89px-George_Curzon2.jpg" decoding="async" width="89" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/George_Curzon2.jpg/133px-George_Curzon2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/George_Curzon2.jpg/178px-George_Curzon2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3813" data-file-height="5146" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/George_Nathaniel_Curzon" class="mw-redirect" title="George Nathaniel Curzon">Lord Curzon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroy of India">Viceroy of India</a>, 1899–1905, who partitioned the <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Presidency" title="Bengal Presidency">Bengal Presidency</a> in 1905</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Surendranath_Banerjee.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Congress moderate Sir Surendranath Banerjee led the opposition with the Swadeshi movement."><img alt="Congress moderate Sir Surendranath Banerjee led the opposition with the Swadeshi movement." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Surendranath_Banerjee.jpg/105px-Surendranath_Banerjee.jpg" decoding="async" width="105" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Surendranath_Banerjee.jpg/158px-Surendranath_Banerjee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Surendranath_Banerjee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="228" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Congress moderate Sir Surendranath Banerjee led the opposition with the <i>Swadeshi</i> movement.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1909magazine_vijaya.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tamil magazine, Vijaya, 1909, showing "Mother India" with her progeny and the slogan "Vande Mataram""><img alt="Tamil magazine, Vijaya, 1909, showing "Mother India" with her progeny and the slogan "Vande Mataram"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/1909magazine_vijaya.jpg/80px-1909magazine_vijaya.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/1909magazine_vijaya.jpg/120px-1909magazine_vijaya.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/1909magazine_vijaya.jpg/159px-1909magazine_vijaya.jpg 2x" data-file-width="288" data-file-height="433" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Tamil magazine, <i>Vijaya</i>, 1909, showing "Mother India" with her progeny and the slogan "Vande Mataram"</div> </li> </ul> <p>The viceroy, <a href="/wiki/George_Curzon,_1st_Marquess_Curzon_of_Kedleston" title="George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston">Lord Curzon</a> (1899–1905), was unusually energetic in pursuit of efficiency and reform.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His agenda included the creation of the <a href="/wiki/North-West_Frontier_Province_(1901%E2%80%931955)" class="mw-redirect" title="North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)">North-West Frontier Province</a>; small changes in the civil services; speeding up the operations of the secretariat; setting up a gold standard to ensure a stable currency; creation of a Railway Board; irrigation reform; reduction of peasant debts; lowering the cost of telegrams; archaeological research and the preservation of antiquities; improvements in the universities; police reforms; upgrading the roles of the Native States; a new Commerce and Industry Department; promotion of industry; revised land revenue policies; lowering taxes; setting up agricultural banks; creating an Agricultural Department; sponsoring agricultural research; establishing an Imperial Library; creating an Imperial Cadet Corps; new famine codes; and, indeed, reducing the smoke nuisance in Calcutta.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Trouble emerged for Curzon when he divided the largest administrative subdivision in British India, the <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Presidency" title="Bengal Presidency">Bengal Province</a>, into the Muslim-majority province of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bengal_and_Assam" title="Eastern Bengal and Assam">Eastern Bengal and Assam</a> and the Hindu-majority province of West Bengal (present-day Indian states of <a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Odisha" title="Odisha">Odisha</a>). Curzon's act, the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1905)" title="Partition of Bengal (1905)">Partition of Bengal</a>, had been contemplated by various colonial administrations since the time of Lord William Bentinck, but was never acted upon. Though some considered it administratively felicitous, it was communally charged. It sowed the seeds of division among Indians in Bengal, transforming nationalist politics as nothing else before it. The Hindu elite of Bengal, among them many who owned land in East Bengal that was leased out to Muslim peasants, protested fervidly.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1905)" title="Partition of Bengal (1905)">Partition of Bengal</a>, which was a strategy set out by Lord Curzon to weaken the nationalist movement, Tilak encouraged the <a href="/wiki/Swadeshi_movement" title="Swadeshi movement">Swadeshi movement</a> and the Boycott movement.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The movement consisted of the boycott of foreign goods and also the social boycott of any Indian who used foreign goods. The Swadeshi movement consisted of the usage of natively produced goods. Once foreign goods were boycotted, there was a gap which had to be filled by the production of those goods in India itself. Bal Gangadhar Tilak said that the Swadeshi and Boycott movements are two sides of the same coin. The large Bengali Hindu middle-class (the <i><a href="/wiki/Bhadralok" title="Bhadralok">Bhadralok</a></i>), upset at the prospect of Bengalis being outnumbered in the new Bengal province by Biharis and Oriyas, felt that Curzon's act was punishment for their political assertiveness. The pervasive protests against Curzon's decision took the form predominantly of the <i><a href="/wiki/Swadeshi" class="mw-redirect" title="Swadeshi">Swadeshi</a></i> ("buy Indian") campaign led by two-time Congress president, <a href="/wiki/Surendranath_Banerjee" title="Surendranath Banerjee">Surendranath Banerjee</a>, and involved boycott of British goods.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rallying cry for both types of protest was the slogan <i><a href="/wiki/Bande_Mataram" class="mw-redirect" title="Bande Mataram">Bande Mataram</a></i> ("Hail to the Mother"), which invoked a mother goddess, who stood variously for Bengal, India, and the Hindu goddess <a href="/wiki/Kali" title="Kali">Kali</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Sri Aurobindo</a> never went beyond the law when he edited the <i><a href="/wiki/Bande_Mataram_(publication)" title="Bande Mataram (publication)">Bande Mataram</a></i> magazine; it preached independence but within the bounds of peace as far as possible. Its goal was Passive Resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The unrest spread from Calcutta to the surrounding regions of Bengal when students returned home to their villages and towns. Some joined <a href="/wiki/Anushilan_samiti" class="mw-redirect" title="Anushilan samiti">local political youth clubs</a> emerging in Bengal at the time, some engaged in robberies to fund arms, and even attempted to take the lives of Raj officials. However, the conspiracies generally failed in the face of intense police work.<sup id="cite_ref-bandyo260_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bandyo260-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Swadeshi</i> boycott movement cut imports of British textiles by 25%. The <i>swadeshi</i> cloth, although more expensive and somewhat less comfortable than its Lancashire competitor, was worn as a mark of national pride by people all over India.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1870s–1906:_Muslim_social_movements,_Muslim_League"><span id="1870s.E2.80.931906:_Muslim_social_movements.2C_Muslim_League"></span>1870s–1906: Muslim social movements, Muslim League</h3></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:LordMelgund1885.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lord Minto, the viceroy who replaced Curzon in 1906. The Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909 allowed separate Muslim electorates."><img alt="Lord Minto, the viceroy who replaced Curzon in 1906. The Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909 allowed separate Muslim electorates." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/LordMelgund1885.jpg/79px-LordMelgund1885.jpg" decoding="async" width="79" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/LordMelgund1885.jpg/118px-LordMelgund1885.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/LordMelgund1885.jpg/158px-LordMelgund1885.jpg 2x" data-file-width="431" data-file-height="656" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_John_Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound,_4th_Earl_of_Minto" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilbert John Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th Earl of Minto">Lord Minto</a>, the viceroy who replaced Curzon in 1906. The <a href="/wiki/Minto-Morley_Reforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Minto-Morley Reforms">Minto-Morley Reforms</a> of 1909 allowed separate Muslim electorates.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="1909 Prevailing Religions, map of the British Indian Empire, 1909, showing the majority religions based on the Census of 1901"><img alt="1909 Prevailing Religions, map of the British Indian Empire, 1909, showing the majority religions based on the Census of 1901" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg/120px-Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg/180px-Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg/240px-Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1534" data-file-height="1241" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>1909 Prevailing Religions</i>, map of the British Indian Empire, 1909, showing the majority religions based on the Census of 1901</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1921ajmalkhan.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hakim Ajmal Khan, a founder of the Muslim League, was to also become the president of the Indian National Congress in 1921."><img alt="Hakim Ajmal Khan, a founder of the Muslim League, was to also become the president of the Indian National Congress in 1921." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/1921ajmalkhan.jpg/90px-1921ajmalkhan.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/1921ajmalkhan.jpg/135px-1921ajmalkhan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/1921ajmalkhan.jpg/180px-1921ajmalkhan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="558" data-file-height="744" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Hakim_Ajmal_Khan" title="Hakim Ajmal Khan">Hakim Ajmal Khan</a>, a founder of the Muslim League, was to also become the president of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a> in 1921.</div> </li> </ul> <p>The overwhelming, but predominantly Hindu, protest against the partition of Bengal and the fear in its wake of reforms favouring the Hindu majority, led the Muslim elite in India to meet with the new viceroy, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Minto" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Minto">Lord Minto</a> in 1906 and to ask for separate electorates for Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-oldenburg_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oldenburg-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In conjunction, they demanded proportional legislative representation reflecting both their status as former rulers and their record of cooperating with the British. This led,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> in December 1906, to the founding of the <a href="/wiki/All-India_Muslim_League" title="All-India Muslim League">All-India Muslim League</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dacca" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacca">Dacca</a>. Although Curzon, by now, had resigned his position over a dispute with his military chief <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Kitchener,_1st_Earl_Kitchener" title="Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener">Lord Kitchener</a> and returned to England, the League was in favour of his partition plan.<sup id="cite_ref-ludden200_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ludden200-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Muslim elite's position, which was reflected in the League's position, had crystallized gradually over the previous three decades, beginning with the revelations of the <a href="/wiki/Census_of_British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Census of British India">Census of British India</a> in 1871,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> which had for the first time estimated the populations in regions of the Muslim majority<sup id="cite_ref-ludden200_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ludden200-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (for his part, Curzon's desire to court the Muslims of East Bengal had arisen from British anxieties ever since the 1871 census—and in light of the history of Muslims fighting them in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Mutiny_of_1857" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Mutiny of 1857">1857 Mutiny</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Second Anglo-Afghan War">Second Anglo-Afghan War</a>—about Indian Muslims rebelling against the Crown).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the three decades since, Muslim leaders across northern India had intermittently experienced public animosity from some of the new Hindu political and social groups.<sup id="cite_ref-ludden200_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ludden200-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Arya_Samaj" title="Arya Samaj">Arya Samaj</a>, for example, had not only supported Cow Protection Societies in their agitation,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but also—distraught at the 1871 Census's Muslim numbers—organized "reconversion" events for the purpose of welcoming Muslims back to the Hindu fold.<sup id="cite_ref-ludden200_70-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ludden200-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1905, when Tilak and Lajpat Rai attempted to rise to leadership positions in the Congress, and the Congress itself rallied around the symbolism of Kali, Muslim fears increased.<sup id="cite_ref-ludden201_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ludden201-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not lost on many Muslims, for example, that the rallying cry, "Bande Mataram", had first appeared in the novel <i><a href="/wiki/Anand_Math" title="Anand Math">Anand Math</a></i> in which Hindus had battled their Muslim oppressors.<sup id="cite_ref-ludden201_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ludden201-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lastly, the Muslim elite, and among it <a href="/wiki/Dhaka_Nawab_Family" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhaka Nawab Family">Dacca Nawab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khwaja_Salimullah" title="Khwaja Salimullah">Khwaja Salimullah</a>, who hosted the League's first meeting in his mansion in <a href="/wiki/Shahbag" title="Shahbag">Shahbag</a>, was aware that a new province with a Muslim majority would directly benefit Muslims aspiring to political power.<sup id="cite_ref-ludden201_72-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ludden201-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first steps were taken toward self-government in British India in the late 19th century with the appointment of Indian counsellors to advise the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils with the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Councils_Act_1892" title="Indian Councils Act 1892">Indian Councils Act 1892</a>. <a href="/wiki/Municipal_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Municipal Corporation">Municipal Corporations</a> and District Boards were created for local administration; they included elected Indian members. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Councils_Act_1909" title="Indian Councils Act 1909">Indian Councils Act 1909</a>, known as the Morley-Minto Reforms (<a href="/wiki/John_Morley" title="John Morley">John Morley</a> was the secretary of state for India, and <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_John_Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound,_4th_Earl_of_Minto" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilbert John Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th Earl of Minto">Minto</a> was viceroy)—gave Indians limited roles in the central and provincial legislatures. Upper-class Indians, rich landowners and businessmen were favoured. The Muslim community was made a separate electorate and granted double representation. The goals were quite conservative but they did advance the elective principle.<sup id="cite_ref-Das1964_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Das1964-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The partition of Bengal was rescinded in 1911 and announced at the Delhi Durbar at which King <a href="/wiki/George_V_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="George V of the United Kingdom">George V</a> came in person and was crowned <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_India" title="Emperor of India">Emperor of India</a>. He announced the capital would be moved from Calcutta to Delhi. This period saw an increase in the activities of <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_movement_for_Indian_independence" title="Revolutionary movement for Indian independence">revolutionary groups</a>, which included Bengal's <a href="/wiki/Anushilan_Samiti" title="Anushilan Samiti">Anushilan Samiti</a> and the Punjab's <a href="/wiki/Ghadar_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghadar Party">Ghadar Party</a>. However, the British authorities were able to crush violent rebels swiftly, partly because the mainstream of educated Indian politicians opposed violent revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1914–1918:_First_World_War,_Lucknow_Pact,_Home_Rule_leagues"><span id="1914.E2.80.931918:_First_World_War.2C_Lucknow_Pact.2C_Home_Rule_leagues"></span>1914–1918: First World War, Lucknow Pact, Home Rule leagues</h3></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="World_War_I"></span> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Indian_Army_during_World_War_I" title="Indian Army during World War I">Indian Army during World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucknow_Pact" title="Lucknow Pact">Lucknow Pact</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Khudadad_khan_vc1915.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Khudadad Khan, the first Indian to be awarded the Victoria Cross, hailed from Chakwal District, Punjab (present-day Pakistan)."><img alt="Khudadad Khan, the first Indian to be awarded the Victoria Cross, hailed from Chakwal District, Punjab (present-day Pakistan)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Khudadad_khan_vc1915.jpg/75px-Khudadad_khan_vc1915.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Khudadad_khan_vc1915.jpg/113px-Khudadad_khan_vc1915.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Khudadad_khan_vc1915.jpg/150px-Khudadad_khan_vc1915.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="957" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Khudadad_Khan" title="Khudadad Khan">Khudadad Khan</a>, the first Indian to be awarded the <a href="/wiki/Victoria_Cross" title="Victoria Cross">Victoria Cross</a>, hailed from <a href="/wiki/Chakwal_District" title="Chakwal District">Chakwal District</a>, Punjab (present-day Pakistan).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Indiantroops_medical_ww1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Indian medical orderlies with the Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force in Mesopotamia during World War I"><img alt="Indian medical orderlies with the Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force in Mesopotamia during World War I" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Indiantroops_medical_ww1.jpg/120px-Indiantroops_medical_ww1.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Indiantroops_medical_ww1.jpg/180px-Indiantroops_medical_ww1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Indiantroops_medical_ww1.jpg/240px-Indiantroops_medical_ww1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="238" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Indian medical orderlies with the <i>Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force</i> in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Annie_a_Taormina.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Annie Besant shown with the Theosophists in Adyar, Madras in 1912 four years before she founded an Indian Home Rule League[h]"><img alt="Annie Besant shown with the Theosophists in Adyar, Madras in 1912 four years before she founded an Indian Home Rule League." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Annie_a_Taormina.jpg/120px-Annie_a_Taormina.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Annie_a_Taormina.jpg/180px-Annie_a_Taormina.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Annie_a_Taormina.jpg/240px-Annie_a_Taormina.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="686" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Annie_Besant" title="Annie Besant">Annie Besant</a> shown with the <a href="/wiki/Theosophical_Society_Adyar" title="Theosophical Society Adyar">Theosophists in Adyar, Madras</a> in 1912 four years before she founded an Indian Home Rule League<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jinnah_lucknow_pact1916.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Muhammad Ali Jinnah, seated, third from the left, supported the Lucknow Pact in 1916, ending the Muslim League-Congress rift."><img alt="Muhammad Ali Jinnah, seated, third from the left, supported the Lucknow Pact in 1916, ending the Muslim League-Congress rift." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3a/Jinnah_lucknow_pact1916.jpg/120px-Jinnah_lucknow_pact1916.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3a/Jinnah_lucknow_pact1916.jpg/180px-Jinnah_lucknow_pact1916.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3a/Jinnah_lucknow_pact1916.jpg/240px-Jinnah_lucknow_pact1916.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="213" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah" title="Muhammad Ali Jinnah">Muhammad Ali Jinnah</a>, seated, third from the left, supported the Lucknow Pact in 1916, ending the Muslim League-Congress rift.</div> </li> </ul> <p>The <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. Shortly before the outbreak of war, the Government of India had indicated that they could furnish two divisions plus a cavalry brigade, with a further division in case of emergency.<sup id="cite_ref-India's_contribution_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-India's_contribution-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some 1.4<span class="nowrap"> </span>million Indian and British soldiers of the <a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">British Indian Army</a> took part in the war, primarily in Iraq and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_theatre_of_World_War_I" title="Middle Eastern theatre of World War I">Middle East</a>. Their participation had a wider cultural fallout as news spread of how bravely soldiers fought and died alongside British soldiers, as well as soldiers from dominions like Canada and Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p197-198_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p197-198-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> India's international profile rose during the 1920s, as it became a <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_members#1920:_founder_members" class="mw-redirect" title="League of Nations members">founding member</a> of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> in 1920 and participated, under the name "Les Indes Anglaises" (British India), in the <a href="/wiki/1920_Summer_Olympics" title="1920 Summer Olympics">1920 Summer Olympics</a> in Antwerp.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Back in India, especially among the leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a>, the war led to calls for greater self-government for Indians.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p197-198_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p197-198-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the onset of World War I, the reassignment of most of the British army in India to Europe and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaign" title="Mesopotamian campaign">Mesopotamia</a>, had led the previous viceroy, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hardinge,_1st_Baron_Hardinge_of_Penshurst" title="Charles Hardinge, 1st Baron Hardinge of Penshurst">Lord Harding</a>, to worry about the "risks involved in denuding India of troops".<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p197-198_77-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p197-198-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_movement_for_Indian_independence" title="Revolutionary movement for Indian independence">Revolutionary violence</a> had already been a concern in British India; consequently, in 1915, to strengthen its powers during what it saw was a time of increased vulnerability, the Government of India passed the <a href="/wiki/Defence_of_India_Act_1915" title="Defence of India Act 1915">Defence of India Act 1915</a>, which allowed it to intern politically dangerous dissidents without due process, and added to the power it already had under the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Press_Act,_1910" title="Indian Press Act, 1910">Indian Press Act of 1910</a> to imprison journalists without trial and to censor the press.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p201-202_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p201-202-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was under the Defence of India act that the Ali brothers were imprisoned in 1916, and <a href="/wiki/Annie_Besant" title="Annie Besant">Annie Besant</a>, a European woman, and ordinarily more problematic to imprison, was arrested in 1917.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p201-202_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p201-202-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Now, as constitutional reform began to be discussed in earnest, the British began to consider how new moderate Indians could be brought into the fold of constitutional politics and, simultaneously, how the hand of established constitutionalists could be strengthened. However, since the Government of India wanted to ensure against any sabotage of the reform process by extremists, and since its reform plan was devised during a time when extremist violence had ebbed as a result of increased governmental control, it also began to consider how some of its wartime powers could be extended into peacetime.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p201-202_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p201-202-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the 1906 split between the moderates and the extremists in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a>, organised political activity by the Congress had remained fragmented until 1914, when <a href="/wiki/Bal_Gangadhar_Tilak" title="Bal Gangadhar Tilak">Bal Gangadhar Tilak</a> was released from prison and began to sound out other Congress leaders about possible reunification. That, however, had to wait until the demise of Tilak's principal moderate opponents, <a href="/wiki/Gopal_Krishna_Gokhale" title="Gopal Krishna Gokhale">Gopal Krishna Gokhale</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pherozeshah_Mehta" title="Pherozeshah Mehta">Pherozeshah Mehta</a>, in 1915, whereupon an agreement was reached for Tilak's ousted group to re-enter the Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p197-198_77-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p197-198-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1916 Lucknow session of the Congress, Tilak's supporters were able to push through a more radical resolution which asked for the British to declare that it was their "aim and intention ... to confer self-government on India at an early date".<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p197-198_77-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p197-198-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon, other such rumblings began to appear in public pronouncements: in 1917, in the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Legislative_Council" title="Imperial Legislative Council">Imperial Legislative Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madan_Mohan_Malaviya" title="Madan Mohan Malaviya">Madan Mohan Malaviya</a> spoke of the expectations the war had generated in India, "I venture to say that the war has put the clock ... fifty years forward ... (The) reforms after the war will have to be such, ... as will satisfy the aspirations of her (India's) people to take their legitimate part in the administration of their own country."<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p197-198_77-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p197-198-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1916 Lucknow Session of the Congress was also the venue of an unanticipated mutual effort by the Congress and the Muslim League, the occasion for which was provided by the wartime partnership between Germany and Turkey. Since the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Turkish Sultan</a>, or <i>Khalifah</i>, had also sporadically claimed guardianship of the Islamic holy sites of <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, and since the British and their allies were now in conflict with Turkey, doubts began to increase among some Indian Muslims about the "religious neutrality" of the British, doubts that had already surfaced as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1905)" title="Partition of Bengal (1905)">reunification of Bengal</a> in 1911, a decision that was seen as ill-disposed to Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p200-201_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p200-201-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Lucknow_Pact" title="Lucknow Pact">Lucknow Pact</a>, the League joined the Congress in the proposal for greater self-government that was campaigned for by Tilak and his supporters; in return, the Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims in the provincial legislatures as well as the Imperial Legislative Council. In 1916, the Muslim League had anywhere between 500 and 800<span class="nowrap"> </span>members and did not yet have the wider following among Indian Muslims that it enjoyed in later years; in the League itself, the pact did not have unanimous backing, having largely been negotiated by a group of "Young Party" Muslims from the <a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Agra_and_Oudh" title="United Provinces of Agra and Oudh">United Provinces</a> (UP), most prominently, two brothers <a href="/wiki/Maulana_Mohammad_Ali" class="mw-redirect" title="Maulana Mohammad Ali">Mohammad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maulana_Shaukat_Ali" class="mw-redirect" title="Maulana Shaukat Ali">Shaukat Ali</a>, who had embraced the Pan-Islamic cause;<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p200-201_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p200-201-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, it did have the support of a young lawyer from Bombay, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah" title="Muhammad Ali Jinnah">Muhammad Ali Jinnah</a>, who was later to rise to leadership roles in both the League and the Indian independence movement. In later years, as the full ramifications of the pact unfolded, it was seen as benefiting the Muslim minority <i>élites</i> of provinces like UP and Bihar more than the Muslim majorities of Punjab and Bengal; nonetheless, at the time, the "Lucknow Pact" was an important milestone in nationalistic agitation and was seen as such by the British.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p200-201_80-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p200-201-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During 1916, two <a href="/wiki/Home_Rule_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Home Rule Movement">Home Rule Leagues</a> were founded within the Indian National Congress by Tilak and <a href="/wiki/Annie_Besant" title="Annie Besant">Annie Besant</a>, respectively, to promote <a href="/wiki/Home_Rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Home Rule">Home Rule</a> among Indians, and also to elevate the stature of the founders within the Congress itself.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p199_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p199-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besant, for her part, was also keen to demonstrate the superiority of this new form of organised agitation, which had achieved some success in the <a href="/wiki/Home_Rule#Irish_home_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Home Rule">Irish home rule movement</a>, over the political violence that had intermittently plagued the subcontinent during the years 1907–1914.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p199_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p199-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two Leagues focused their attention on complementary geographical regions: Tilak's in western India, in the <a href="/wiki/Bombay_presidency#Geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombay presidency">southern Bombay presidency</a>, and Besant's in the rest of the country, but especially in the <a href="/wiki/Madras_Presidency" title="Madras Presidency">Madras Presidency</a> and in regions like <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sind</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> that had hitherto been considered politically dormant by the Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p199_81-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p199-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both leagues rapidly acquired new members—approximately thirty<span class="nowrap"> </span>thousand each in a little over a year—and began to publish inexpensive newspapers. Their propaganda also turned to posters, pamphlets, and political-religious songs, and later to mass meetings, which not only attracted greater numbers than in earlier Congress sessions, but also entirely new social groups such as non-<a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmins</a>, traders, farmers, students, and lower-level government workers.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p199_81-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p199-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although they did not achieve the magnitude or character of a nationwide mass movement, the Home Rule leagues both deepened and widened organised political agitation for self-rule in India. The British authorities reacted by imposing restrictions on the Leagues, including shutting out students from meetings and banning the two leaders from travelling to certain provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p199_81-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p199-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1915–1918:_return_of_Gandhi"><span id="1915.E2.80.931918:_return_of_Gandhi"></span>1915–1918: return of Gandhi</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Champaran_Satyagraha" title="Champaran Satyagraha">Champaran Satyagraha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kheda_Satyagraha_of_1918" title="Kheda Satyagraha of 1918">Kheda Satyagraha of 1918</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gandhi_back_in_india1915.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Gandhi_back_in_india1915.gif/220px-Gandhi_back_in_india1915.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Gandhi_back_in_india1915.gif/330px-Gandhi_back_in_india1915.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Gandhi_back_in_india1915.gif/440px-Gandhi_back_in_india1915.gif 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> (seated in carriage, on the right, eyes downcast, with black flat-top hat) receiving a big welcome in <a href="/wiki/Karachi" title="Karachi">Karachi</a> in 1916 after his return to India from <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gandhi_Kheda_1918.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Gandhi_Kheda_1918.jpg" decoding="async" width="219" height="345" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="219" data-file-height="345" /></a><figcaption>Gandhi at the time of the Kheda Satyagraha, 1918</figcaption></figure> <p>The year 1915 also saw the return of <a href="/wiki/Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi">Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi</a> to India. Already known in India as a result of his civil liberties protests on behalf of the Indians in South Africa, Gandhi followed the advice of his mentor <a href="/wiki/Gopal_Krishna_Gokhale" title="Gopal Krishna Gokhale">Gopal Krishna Gokhale</a> and chose not to make any public pronouncements during the first year of his return, but instead spent the year travelling, observing the country at first hand, and writing.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p214-215_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p214-215-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earlier, during his South Africa sojourn, Gandhi, a lawyer by profession, had represented an Indian community, which, although small, was sufficiently diverse to be a microcosm of India itself. In tackling the challenge of holding this community together and simultaneously confronting the colonial authority, he had created a technique of non-violent resistance, which he labelled <i><a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></i> (or Striving for Truth).<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p210-213_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p210-213-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Gandhi, <i>Satyagraha</i> was different from "<a href="/wiki/Passive_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Passive resistance">passive resistance</a>", by then a familiar technique of social protest, which he regarded as a practical strategy adopted by the weak in the face of superior force; <i>Satyagraha</i>, on the other hand, was for him the "last resort of those strong enough in their commitment to truth to undergo suffering in its cause".<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p210-213_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p210-213-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a> or "non-violence", which formed the underpinning of <i>Satyagraha</i>, came to represent the twin pillar, with Truth, of Gandhi's unorthodox religious outlook on life.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p210-213_83-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p210-213-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the years 1907–1914, Gandhi tested the technique of <i>Satyagraha</i> in a number of protests on behalf of the Indian community in South Africa against the unjust racial laws.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p210-213_83-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p210-213-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also, during his time in South Africa, in his essay, <i>Hind Swaraj</i>, (1909), Gandhi formulated his vision of <i><a href="/wiki/Swaraj" title="Swaraj">Swaraj</a></i>, or "self-rule" for India based on three vital ingredients: solidarity between Indians of different faiths, but most of all between Hindus and Muslims; the removal of <a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">untouchability</a> from Indian society; and the exercise of <i><a href="/wiki/Swadeshi" class="mw-redirect" title="Swadeshi">swadeshi</a></i>—the boycott of manufactured foreign goods and the revival of Indian <a href="/wiki/Cottage_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Cottage industry">cottage industry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p214-215_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p214-215-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first two, he felt, were essential for India to be an egalitarian and tolerant society, one befitting the principles of Truth and <i><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></i>, while the last, by making Indians more self-reliant, would break the cycle of dependence that was perpetuating not only the direction and tenor of the British rule in India, but also the British commitment to it.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p214-215_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p214-215-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least until 1920, the British presence itself was not a stumbling block in Gandhi's conception of <i><a href="/wiki/Swaraj" title="Swaraj">swaraj</a></i>; rather, it was the inability of Indians to create a modern society.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p214-215_82-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p214-215-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gandhi made his political debut in India in 1917 in <a href="/wiki/Champaran" title="Champaran">Champaran</a> district in <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a>, near the Nepal border, where he was invited by a group of disgruntled tenant farmers who, for many years, had been forced into planting <a href="/wiki/Indigo" title="Indigo">indigo</a> (for dyes) on a portion of their land and then selling it at below-market prices to the British planters who had leased them the land.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p216-217_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p216-217-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon his arrival in the district, Gandhi was joined by other agitators, including a young Congress leader, <a href="/wiki/Rajendra_Prasad" title="Rajendra Prasad">Rajendra Prasad</a>, from Bihar, who would become a loyal supporter of Gandhi and go on to play a prominent role in the Indian independence movement. When Gandhi was ordered to leave by the local British authorities, he refused on moral grounds, setting up his refusal as a form of individual <a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a>. Soon, under pressure from the Viceroy in Delhi who was anxious to maintain domestic peace during wartime, the provincial government rescinded Gandhi's expulsion order, and later agreed to an official enquiry into the case. Although the British planters eventually gave in, they were not won over to the farmers' cause, and thereby did not produce the optimal outcome of a Satyagraha that Gandhi had hoped for; similarly, the farmers themselves, although pleased at the resolution, responded less than enthusiastically to the concurrent projects of rural empowerment and education that Gandhi had inaugurated in keeping with his ideal of <i>swaraj</i>. The following year Gandhi launched two more Satyagrahas—both in his native <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>—one in the rural <a href="/wiki/Kheda" title="Kheda">Kaira</a> district where land-owning farmers were protesting increased land-revenue and the other in the city of <a href="/wiki/Ahmedabad" title="Ahmedabad">Ahmedabad</a>, where workers in an Indian-owned textile mill were distressed about their low wages. The satyagraha in Ahmedabad took the form of Gandhi fasting and supporting the workers in a strike, which eventually led to a settlement. In Kaira, in contrast, although the farmers' cause received publicity from Gandhi's presence, the satyagraha itself, which consisted of the farmers' collective decision to withhold payment, was not immediately successful, as the British authorities refused to back down. The agitation in Kaira gained for Gandhi another lifelong lieutenant in <a href="/wiki/Sardar_Vallabhbhai_Patel" class="mw-redirect" title="Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel">Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel</a>, who had organised the farmers, and who too would go on to play a leadership role in the Indian independence movement.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1916–1919:_Montagu–Chelmsford_reforms"><span id="1916.E2.80.931919:_Montagu.E2.80.93Chelmsford_reforms"></span>1916–1919: Montagu–Chelmsford reforms</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Montagu%E2%80%93Chelmsford_Reforms" title="Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms">Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:372px;max-width:372px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:178px;max-width:178px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:249px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Edwin_Samuel_Montagu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Montagu" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Edwin_Samuel_Montagu.jpg/176px-Edwin_Samuel_Montagu.jpg" decoding="async" width="176" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Edwin_Samuel_Montagu.jpg/264px-Edwin_Samuel_Montagu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Edwin_Samuel_Montagu.jpg/352px-Edwin_Samuel_Montagu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2096" data-file-height="2979" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Montagu" title="Edwin Montagu">Edwin Montagu</a>, the secretary of state for India, whose report led to the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1919" title="Government of India Act 1919">Government of India Act 1919</a>, also known as the Montford Reforms or the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:190px;max-width:190px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:249px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chelmsford_Governor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Chelmsford" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Chelmsford_Governor.jpg/188px-Chelmsford_Governor.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Chelmsford_Governor.jpg/282px-Chelmsford_Governor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Chelmsford_Governor.jpg/376px-Chelmsford_Governor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="377" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Thesiger,_1st_Viscount_Chelmsford" title="Frederic Thesiger, 1st Viscount Chelmsford">Lord Chelmsford</a>, viceroy of India, who cautioned the British Government to be more responsive to Indian public opinion</div></div></div></div></div> <p>In 1916, in the face of new strength demonstrated by the nationalists with the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Lucknow_Pact" title="Lucknow Pact">Lucknow Pact</a> and the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Home_Rule_movement" title="Indian Home Rule movement">Home Rule leagues</a>, and the realisation, after the disaster in the <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaign" title="Mesopotamian campaign">Mesopotamian campaign</a>, that the war would likely last longer, the new viceroy, <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Thesiger,_1st_Viscount_Chelmsford" title="Frederic Thesiger, 1st Viscount Chelmsford">Lord Chelmsford</a>, cautioned that the Government of India needed to be more responsive to Indian opinion.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p203-204_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p203-204-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Towards the end of the year, after discussions with the government in London, he suggested that the British demonstrate their good faith—in light of the Indian war role—through a number of public actions, including awards of titles and honours to princes, granting of commissions in the army to Indians, and removal of the much-reviled cotton excise duty, but, most importantly, an announcement of Britain's future plans for India and an indication of some concrete steps. After more discussion, in August 1917, the new Liberal secretary of state for India, <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Montagu" title="Edwin Montagu">Edwin Montagu</a>, announced the British aim of "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration, and the gradual development of self-governing institutions, with a view to the progressive realisation of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire".<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p203-204_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p203-204-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the plan envisioned limited self-government at first only in the provinces—with India emphatically within the British Empire—it represented the first British proposal for any form of representative government in a non-white colony. </p><p>Montagu and Chelmsford presented their report in July 1918 after a long fact-finding trip through India the previous winter.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p205-207_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p205-207-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After more discussion by the government and parliament in Britain, and another tour by the Franchise and Functions Committee for the purpose of identifying who among the Indian population could vote in future elections, the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1919" title="Government of India Act 1919">Government of India Act 1919</a> (also known as the <a href="/wiki/Montagu%E2%80%93Chelmsford_Reforms" title="Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms">Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms</a>) was passed in December 1919.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p205-207_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p205-207-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new Act enlarged both the provincial and <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Legislative_Council" title="Imperial Legislative Council">Imperial</a> legislative councils and repealed the Government of India's recourse to the "official majority" in unfavourable votes.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p205-207_87-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p205-207-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although departments like defence, foreign affairs, criminal law, communications, and income-tax were retained by the <a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_India" title="Governor-General of India">Viceroy</a> and the central government in New Delhi, other departments like public health, education, land-revenue, local self-government were transferred to the provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p205-207_87-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p205-207-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The provinces themselves were now to be administered under a new <a href="/wiki/Diarchy" title="Diarchy">diarchical</a> system, whereby some areas like education, agriculture, infrastructure development, and local self-government became the preserve of Indian ministers and legislatures, and ultimately the Indian electorates, while others like irrigation, land-revenue, police, prisons, and control of media remained within the purview of the British governor and his executive council.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p205-207_87-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p205-207-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new Act also made it easier for Indians to be admitted into the civil services and the army officer corps. </p><p>A greater number of Indians were now enfranchised, although, for voting at the national level, they constituted only 10% of the total adult male population, many of whom were still illiterate.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p205-207_87-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p205-207-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the provincial legislatures, the British continued to exercise some control by setting aside seats for special interests they considered cooperative or useful. In particular, rural candidates, generally sympathetic to British rule and less confrontational, were assigned more seats than their urban counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p205-207_87-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p205-207-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seats were also reserved for non-Brahmins, landowners, businessmen, and college graduates. The principal of "communal representation", an integral part of the <a href="/wiki/Minto%E2%80%93Morley_Reforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Minto–Morley Reforms">Minto–Morley Reforms</a>, and more recently of the Congress-Muslim League Lucknow Pact, was reaffirmed, with seats being reserved for Muslims, <a href="/wiki/Sikhs" title="Sikhs">Sikhs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_India" title="Christianity in India">Indian Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Indians" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Indians">Anglo-Indians</a>, and domiciled Europeans, in both provincial and Imperial legislative councils.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p205-207_87-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p205-207-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Montagu–Chelmsford reforms offered Indians the most significant opportunity yet for exercising legislative power, especially at the provincial level; however, that opportunity was also restricted by the still limited number of eligible voters, by the small budgets available to provincial legislatures, and by the presence of rural and special interest seats that were seen as instruments of British control.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p205-207_87-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p205-207-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its scope was unsatisfactory to the Indian political leadership, famously expressed by <a href="/wiki/Annie_Besant" title="Annie Besant">Annie Besant</a> as something "unworthy of England to offer and India to accept".<sup id="cite_ref-Chhabra2_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chhabra2-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1917–1919:_Rowlatt_Act"><span id="1917.E2.80.931919:_Rowlatt_Act"></span>1917–1919: Rowlatt Act</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rowlatt_Act" title="Rowlatt Act">Rowlatt Act</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_Sidney_Arthur_Taylor_Rowlatt_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Sir_Sidney_Arthur_Taylor_Rowlatt_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Sir_Sidney_Arthur_Taylor_Rowlatt_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Sir_Sidney_Arthur_Taylor_Rowlatt_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Sir_Sidney_Arthur_Taylor_Rowlatt_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Sir_Sidney_Arthur_Taylor_Rowlatt_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="380" data-file-height="553" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Rowlatt" title="Sidney Rowlatt">Sidney Rowlatt</a>, the British judge under whose chairmanship the <a href="/wiki/Rowlatt_Committee" title="Rowlatt Committee">Rowlatt Committee</a> recommended <a href="/wiki/Rowlatt_Act" title="Rowlatt Act">stricter anti-sedition laws</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1917, as Montagu and Chelmsford were compiling their report, a committee chaired by a British judge, <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Rowlatt" title="Sidney Rowlatt">Sidney Rowlatt</a>, and was tasked with investigating "revolutionary conspiracies", with the unstated goal of extending the government's wartime powers.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p203-204_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p203-204-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Rowlatt_Committee" title="Rowlatt Committee">Rowlatt Committee</a> comprised four British and two Indian members, including <a href="/wiki/Basil_Scott" title="Basil Scott">Sir Basil Scott</a> and <a href="/wiki/C._V._Kumaraswami_Sastri" title="C. V. Kumaraswami Sastri">Diwan Bahadur Sir C. V. Kumaraswami Sastri</a>, the present and future Chief Justices of the <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Bombay" class="mw-redirect" title="High Court of Bombay">High Court of Bombay</a> and the <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Madras" class="mw-redirect" title="High Court of Madras">High Court of Madras</a>. It presented its report in July 1918 and identified three regions of conspiratorial insurgency: <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bombay_presidency" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombay presidency">Bombay presidency</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Punjab,_India" title="Punjab, India">Punjab</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p203-204_86-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p203-204-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To combat subversive acts in these regions, the committee unanimously recommended that the government use emergency powers akin to its wartime authority, which included the ability to try cases of sedition by a panel of three judges and without juries, exaction of securities from suspects, governmental overseeing of residences of suspects,<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p203-204_86-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p203-204-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the power for provincial governments to arrest and detain suspects in short-term detention facilities and without trial.<sup id="cite_ref-spear190_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spear190-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rowlatt_bills1919.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Rowlatt_bills1919.gif/220px-Rowlatt_bills1919.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Rowlatt_bills1919.gif/330px-Rowlatt_bills1919.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Rowlatt_bills1919.gif/440px-Rowlatt_bills1919.gif 2x" data-file-width="457" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>Headlines about the Rowlatt Bills (1919) from a nationalist newspaper in India. Although all non-official Indians on the Legislative Council voted against the Rowlatt Bills, the government was able to force their passage by using its majority.<sup id="cite_ref-spear190_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spear190-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>With the end of World War I, there was also a change in the economic climate. By the end of 1919, 1.5<span class="nowrap"> </span>million Indians had served in the armed services in either combatant or non-combatant roles, and India had provided £146<span class="nowrap"> </span>million in revenue for the war.<sup id="cite_ref-brown195-196_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown195-196-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increased taxes coupled with disruptions in both domestic and international trade had the effect of approximately doubling the index of overall prices in India between 1914 and 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-brown195-196_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown195-196-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Returning war veterans, especially in the Punjab, created a growing unemployment crisis,<sup id="cite_ref-stein304_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stein304-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and post-war inflation led to food riots in Bombay, Madras, and Bengal provinces,<sup id="cite_ref-stein304_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stein304-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a situation that was made only worse by the failure of the 1918–19 monsoon and by profiteering and speculation.<sup id="cite_ref-brown195-196_90-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown195-196-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The global influenza epidemic and the <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik Revolution">Bolshevik Revolution</a> of 1917 added to the general jitters; the former among the population already experiencing economic woes,<sup id="cite_ref-stein304_91-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stein304-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the latter among government officials, fearing a similar revolution in India.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To combat what it saw as a coming crisis, the government now drafted the Rowlatt committee's recommendations into two <a href="/wiki/Rowlatt_Acts" class="mw-redirect" title="Rowlatt Acts">Rowlatt Bills</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-spear190_89-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spear190-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the bills were authorised for legislative consideration by Edwin Montagu, they were done so unwillingly, with the accompanying declaration, "I loathe the suggestion at first sight of preserving the Defence of India Act in peacetime to such an extent as Rowlatt and his friends think necessary."<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p203-204_86-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p203-204-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the ensuing discussion and vote in the Imperial Legislative Council, all Indian members voiced opposition to the bills. The Government of India was, nevertheless, able to use of its "official majority" to ensure passage of the bills early in 1919.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p203-204_86-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p203-204-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, what it passed, in deference to the Indian opposition, was a lesser version of the first bill, which now allowed extrajudicial powers, but for a period of exactly three years and for the prosecution solely of "anarchical and revolutionary movements", dropping entirely the second bill involving modification the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code" title="Indian Penal Code">Indian Penal Code</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-brown-p203-204_86-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-p203-204-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even so, when it was passed, the new <a href="/wiki/Rowlatt_Act" title="Rowlatt Act">Rowlatt Act</a> aroused widespread indignation throughout India, and brought Gandhi to the forefront of the nationalist movement.<sup id="cite_ref-spear190_89-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spear190-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1919–1929:_Jallianwala,_non-cooperation"><span id="1919.E2.80.931929:_Jallianwala.2C_non-cooperation"></span>1919–1929: Jallianwala, non-cooperation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Jallianwala_Bagh_massacre" title="Jallianwala Bagh massacre">Jallianwala Bagh massacre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-cooperation_movement_(1909%E2%80%9322)" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-cooperation movement (1909–22)">Non-cooperation movement (1909–22)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simon_Commission" title="Simon Commission">Simon Commission</a>, <a href="/wiki/Purna_Swaraj" title="Purna Swaraj">Purna Swaraj</a>, <a href="/wiki/Round_Table_Conferences" class="mw-redirect" title="Round Table Conferences">Round Table Conferences</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1935" title="Government of India Act 1935">Government of India Act 1935</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gandhi_besant_madras1921.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gandhi with Besant en route to a meeting in Madras in September 1921. Earlier, in Madurai, on 21 September 1921, Gandhi had adopted the loin-cloth in identification with India's poor."><img alt="Gandhi with Besant en route to a meeting in Madras in September 1921. Earlier, in Madurai, on 21 September 1921, Gandhi had adopted the loin-cloth in identification with India's poor." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Gandhi_besant_madras1921.jpg/83px-Gandhi_besant_madras1921.jpg" decoding="async" width="83" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Gandhi_besant_madras1921.jpg/124px-Gandhi_besant_madras1921.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Gandhi_besant_madras1921.jpg/166px-Gandhi_besant_madras1921.jpg 2x" data-file-width="346" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Gandhi with Besant <i>en route</i> to a meeting in <a href="/wiki/Madras" class="mw-redirect" title="Madras">Madras</a> in September 1921. Earlier, in <a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a>, on 21 September 1921, Gandhi had adopted the <a href="/wiki/Loin-cloth" class="mw-redirect" title="Loin-cloth">loin-cloth</a> in identification with India's poor.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Noncooperation_khilafat1921.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Poster advertising a Congress non-co-operation "Public Meeting" and a "Bonfire of Foreign Clothes" in Bombay, early 1920s, and expressing support for the "Karachi Khilafat Conference""><img alt="Poster advertising a Congress non-co-operation "Public Meeting" and a "Bonfire of Foreign Clothes" in Bombay, early 1920s, and expressing support for the "Karachi Khilafat Conference"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a8/Noncooperation_khilafat1921.gif/120px-Noncooperation_khilafat1921.gif" decoding="async" width="120" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a8/Noncooperation_khilafat1921.gif/180px-Noncooperation_khilafat1921.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a8/Noncooperation_khilafat1921.gif/240px-Noncooperation_khilafat1921.gif 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="214" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Poster advertising a Congress non-co-operation "Public Meeting" and a "Bonfire of Foreign Clothes" in Bombay, early 1920s, and expressing support for the "Karachi Khilafat Conference"</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Noncooperation_movement1922.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hindus and Muslims, with flags of Indian National Congress and the Muslim League, collecting clothes to be burnt as a part of the non-cooperation movement"><img alt="Hindus and Muslims, with flags of Indian National Congress and the Muslim League, collecting clothes to be burnt as a part of the non-cooperation movement" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7d/Noncooperation_movement1922.jpg/120px-Noncooperation_movement1922.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7d/Noncooperation_movement1922.jpg/180px-Noncooperation_movement1922.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7d/Noncooperation_movement1922.jpg/240px-Noncooperation_movement1922.jpg 2x" data-file-width="399" data-file-height="286" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Hindus and Muslims, with flags of <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a> and the <a href="/wiki/All-India_Muslim_League" title="All-India Muslim League">Muslim League</a>, collecting clothes to be burnt as a part of the <a href="/wiki/Non-cooperation_movement_(1909%E2%80%9322)" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-cooperation movement (1909–22)">non-cooperation movement</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bhagat_singh_noncooperation.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Staff and students, National College, Lahore, founded in 1921 by Lala Lajpat Rai after the non-co-operation movement. Standing, fourth from right is Bhagat Singh."><img alt="Staff and students, National College, Lahore, founded in 1921 by Lala Lajpat Rai after the non-co-operation movement. Standing, fourth from right is Bhagat Singh." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Bhagat_singh_noncooperation.jpg/120px-Bhagat_singh_noncooperation.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Bhagat_singh_noncooperation.jpg/180px-Bhagat_singh_noncooperation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Bhagat_singh_noncooperation.jpg/240px-Bhagat_singh_noncooperation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="296" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Staff and students, National College, <a href="/wiki/Lahore" title="Lahore">Lahore</a>, founded in 1921 by <a href="/wiki/Lala_Lajpat_Rai" title="Lala Lajpat Rai">Lala Lajpat Rai</a> after the non-co-operation movement. Standing, fourth from right is <a href="/wiki/Bhagat_Singh" title="Bhagat Singh">Bhagat Singh</a>.</div> </li> </ul> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Jallianwala_Bagh_massacre" title="Jallianwala Bagh massacre">Jallianwala Bagh massacre</a> or "Amritsar massacre", took place in the <a href="/wiki/Jallianwala_Bagh" title="Jallianwala Bagh">Jallianwala Bagh</a> public garden in the predominantly Sikh northern city of <a href="/wiki/Amritsar" title="Amritsar">Amritsar</a>. After days of unrest Brigadier-General <a href="/wiki/Reginald_Dyer" title="Reginald Dyer">Reginald E.H. Dyer</a> forbade public meetings and on Sunday 13 April 1919 fifty British Indian Army soldiers commanded by Dyer began shooting at an unarmed gathering of thousands of men, women, and children without warning. Casualty estimates vary widely, with the Government of India reporting 379<span class="nowrap"> </span>dead, with 1,100<span class="nowrap"> </span>wounded.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a> estimated three times the number of dead. Dyer was removed from duty but he became a celebrated hero in Britain among people with connections to the Raj.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians consider the episode was a decisive step towards the end of British rule in India.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1920, after the British government refused to back down, Gandhi began his campaign of <a href="/wiki/Non-cooperation_movement_(1909%E2%80%9322)" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-cooperation movement (1909–22)">non-cooperation</a>, prompting many Indians to return British awards and honours, to resign from the civil services, and to again boycott British goods. In addition, Gandhi reorganised the Congress, transforming it into a mass movement and opening its membership to even the poorest Indians. Although Gandhi halted the non-cooperation movement in 1922 after the violent <a href="/wiki/Chauri_Chaura_incident" title="Chauri Chaura incident">incident at Chauri Chaura</a>, the movement revived again, in the mid-1920s. </p><p>The visit, in 1928, of the British <a href="/wiki/Simon_Commission" title="Simon Commission">Simon Commission</a>, charged with instituting constitutional reform in India, resulted in widespread protests throughout the country.<sup id="cite_ref-markovits-simon-bhagat_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-markovits-simon-bhagat-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earlier, in 1925, non-violent protests of the Congress had resumed too, this time in Gujarat, and led by Patel, who organised farmers to refuse payment of increased land taxes; the success of this protest, the <a href="/wiki/Bardoli_Satyagraha" title="Bardoli Satyagraha">Bardoli Satyagraha</a>, brought Gandhi back into the fold of active politics.<sup id="cite_ref-markovits-simon-bhagat_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-markovits-simon-bhagat-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At its annual session in <a href="/wiki/Lahore" title="Lahore">Lahore</a>, the Indian National Congress, under the presidency of <a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a>, issued a demand for <i><a href="/wiki/Purna_Swaraj" title="Purna Swaraj">Purna Swaraj</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani language</a>: "complete independence"), or Purna Swarajya. The declaration was drafted by the <a href="/wiki/Congress_Working_Committee" title="Congress Working Committee">Congress Working Committee</a>, which included Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, and <a href="/wiki/Chakravarthi_Rajagopalachari" class="mw-redirect" title="Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari">Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari</a>. Gandhi subsequently led an expanded movement of civil disobedience, culminating in 1930 with the <a href="/wiki/Salt_Satyagraha" class="mw-redirect" title="Salt Satyagraha">Salt Satyagraha</a>, in which thousands of Indians defied the tax on salt, by marching to the sea and making their own salt by evaporating seawater. Although, many, including Gandhi, were arrested, the British government eventually gave in, and in 1931 Gandhi travelled to London to negotiate new reform at the <a href="/wiki/Round_Table_Conferences" class="mw-redirect" title="Round Table Conferences">Round Table Conferences</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government_of_India_Act,_1935"><span id="Government_of_India_Act.2C_1935"></span>Government of India Act, 1935</h3></div> <p>In local terms, British control rested on the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Civil_Service" title="Indian Civil Service">Indian Civil Service</a> (ICS), but it faced growing difficulties. Fewer and fewer young men in Britain were interested in joining, and the continuing distrust of Indians resulted in a declining base in terms of quality and quantity. By 1945 Indians were numerically dominant in the ICS and at issue was divided loyalty between the Empire and independence.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The finances of the Raj depended on land taxes, and these became problematic in the 1930s. Epstein argues that after 1919 it became harder and harder to collect the land revenue. The Raj's suppression of civil disobedience after 1934 temporarily increased the power of the revenue agents but after 1937 they were forced by the new Congress-controlled provincial governments to hand back confiscated land. Again the outbreak of war strengthened them, in the face of the <a href="/wiki/Quit_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Quit India">Quit India</a> movement the revenue collectors had to rely on military force and by 1946–47 direct British control was rapidly disappearing in much of the countryside.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1935, after the Round Table Conferences, Parliament passed the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1935" title="Government of India Act 1935">Government of India Act 1935</a>, which authorised the establishment of independent legislative assemblies in all provinces of British India, the creation of a central government incorporating both the British provinces and the princely states, and the protection of Muslim minorities. The future <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">Constitution of independent India</a> was based on this act.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it divided the electorate into 19 religious and social categories, e.g., Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Depressed Classes, Landholders, Commerce and Industry, Europeans, Anglo-Indians, etc., each of which was given separate representation in the Provincial Legislative Assemblies. A voter could cast a vote only for candidates in his own category.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The 1935 Act provided for more autonomy for Indian provinces, with the goal of cooling off nationalist sentiment. The act provided for a national parliament and an executive branch under the purview of the British government, but the rulers of the princely states managed to block its implementation. These states remained under the full control of their hereditary rulers, with no popular government. To prepare for elections Congress built up its grass roots membership from 473,000 in 1935 to 4.5<span class="nowrap"> </span>million in 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrendon2008394_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrendon2008394-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Provincial_Elections,_1937" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Provincial Elections, 1937">1937 elections</a> Congress won victories in seven of the eleven provinces of British India.<sup id="cite_ref-low-1935-elections_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-low-1935-elections-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress governments, with wide powers, were formed in these provinces. The widespread voter support for the Indian National Congress surprised Raj officials, who previously had seen the Congress as a small elitist body.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British separated Burma Province from British India in 1937 and granted the colony a new constitution calling for a fully elected assembly, with many powers given to the Burmese, but this proved to be a divisive issue as a ploy to exclude Burmese from any further Indian reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Second_round_tableconf.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="The Second Round Table Conference showing Gandhi and British prime minister, Ramsay MacDonald, Samuel Hoare and B. R. Ambedkar."><img alt="The Second Round Table Conference showing Gandhi and British prime minister, Ramsay MacDonald, Samuel Hoare and B. R. Ambedkar." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Second_round_tableconf.gif/120px-Second_round_tableconf.gif" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Second_round_tableconf.gif/180px-Second_round_tableconf.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Second_round_tableconf.gif/240px-Second_round_tableconf.gif 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> The Second Round Table Conference showing Gandhi and British prime minister, <a href="/wiki/Ramsay_MacDonald" title="Ramsay MacDonald">Ramsay MacDonald</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Hoare,_1st_Viscount_Templewood" title="Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood">Samuel Hoare</a> and <a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:NewDelhiInaugurationSecondDayCancellation27Feb1931.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A second-day cancellation of the series "Inauguration of New Delhi", 27 February 1931, commemorating the new city designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens and Sir Herbert Baker"><img alt="A second-day cancellation of the series "Inauguration of New Delhi", 27 February 1931, commemorating the new city designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens and Sir Herbert Baker" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/NewDelhiInaugurationSecondDayCancellation27Feb1931.jpg/120px-NewDelhiInaugurationSecondDayCancellation27Feb1931.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/NewDelhiInaugurationSecondDayCancellation27Feb1931.jpg/180px-NewDelhiInaugurationSecondDayCancellation27Feb1931.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/NewDelhiInaugurationSecondDayCancellation27Feb1931.jpg/240px-NewDelhiInaugurationSecondDayCancellation27Feb1931.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2233" data-file-height="1321" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A second-day cancellation of the series "Inauguration of New Delhi", 27 February 1931, commemorating the new city designed by Sir <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Lutyens" title="Edwin Lutyens">Edwin Lutyens</a> and Sir <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Baker" title="Herbert Baker">Herbert Baker</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Separation_of_Burma_from_British_India_1937.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A first-day cover issued on 1 April 1937 commemorating the separation of Burma from the British Indian Empire"><img alt="A first-day cover issued on 1 April 1937 commemorating the separation of Burma from the British Indian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Separation_of_Burma_from_British_India_1937.jpg/120px-Separation_of_Burma_from_British_India_1937.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Separation_of_Burma_from_British_India_1937.jpg/180px-Separation_of_Burma_from_British_India_1937.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Separation_of_Burma_from_British_India_1937.jpg/240px-Separation_of_Burma_from_British_India_1937.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2125" data-file-height="1455" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A first-day cover issued on 1 April 1937 commemorating the separation of Burma from the British Indian Empire</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1939–1945:_World_War_II"><span id="1939.E2.80.931945:_World_War_II"></span>1939–1945: World War II</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">India in World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Army_during_World_War_II" title="Indian Army during World War II">Indian Army during World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cripps_Mission" title="Cripps Mission">Cripps Mission</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Quit_India_Movement" title="Quit India Movement">Quit India Movement</a></div> <p>With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the viceroy, <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hope,_2nd_Marquess_of_Linlithgow" title="Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow">Lord Linlithgow</a>, declared war on India's behalf without consulting Indian leaders, leading the Congress provincial ministries to resign in protest. The Muslim League, in contrast, supported Britain in the war effort and maintained its control of the government in three major provinces, Bengal, Sind and the Punjab.<sup id="cite_ref-British_Raj_Independence_movement_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-British_Raj_Independence_movement-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the Muslim League had been a small elite group in 1927 with only 1300<span class="nowrap"> </span>members, it grew rapidly once it became an organisation that reached out to the masses, reaching 500,000<span class="nowrap"> </span>members in Bengal in 1944, 200,000 in Punjab, and hundreds of thousands elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-India_and_Pakistan_independence_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-India_and_Pakistan_independence-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jinnah now was well positioned to negotiate with the British from a position of power.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jinnah repeatedly warned that Muslims would be unfairly treated in an independent India dominated by the Congress. On 24 March 1940 in Lahore, the League passed the "<a href="/wiki/Lahore_Resolution" title="Lahore Resolution">Lahore Resolution</a>", demanding that, "the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North-Western and Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign."<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although there were other important national Muslim politicians such as Congress leader <a href="/wiki/Ab%27ul_Kalam_Azad" class="mw-redirect" title="Ab'ul Kalam Azad">Ab'ul Kalam Azad</a>, and influential regional Muslim politicians such as <a href="/wiki/A._K._Fazlul_Huq" title="A. K. Fazlul Huq">A. K. Fazlul Huq</a> of the leftist <a href="/wiki/Krishak_Praja_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Krishak Praja Party">Krishak Praja Party</a> in Bengal, <a href="/wiki/Fazl-i-Hussain" title="Fazl-i-Hussain">Fazl-i-Hussain</a> of the landlord-dominated <a href="/wiki/Unionist_Muslim_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Unionist Muslim League">Punjab Unionist Party</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Ghaffar_Khan" title="Abdul Ghaffar Khan">Abd al-Ghaffar Khan</a> of the pro-Congress <a href="/wiki/Khudai_Khidmatgar" title="Khudai Khidmatgar">Khudai Khidmatgar</a> (popularly, "red shirts") in the <a href="/wiki/North-West_Frontier_Province_(1901%E2%80%931955)" class="mw-redirect" title="North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)">North West Frontier Province</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the British, over the next six years, were to increasingly see the League as the main representative of Muslim India. </p><p>The Congress was secular and strongly opposed to having any religious state.<sup id="cite_ref-India_and_Pakistan_independence_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-India_and_Pakistan_independence-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It insisted there was a natural unity to India, and repeatedly blamed the British for "divide and rule" tactics based on prompting Muslims to think of themselves as alien from Hindus.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Jinnah rejected the notion of a united India, and emphasised that religious communities were more basic than an artificial nationalism. He proclaimed the <a href="/wiki/Two-Nation_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Two-Nation Theory">Two-Nation Theory</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> stating at Lahore on 23 March 1940: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[Islam and Hinduism] are not religions in the strict sense of the word, but are, in fact, different and distinct social orders and it is a dream that the Hindus and Muslims can ever evolve a common nationality ... The Hindu and Muslim belong to two different religions, philosophies, social customs and literature  [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>]. They neither intermarry nor interdine together and indeed they belong to two different civilizations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Their aspects on life and of life are different ... To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built up for the government of such a state.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>While the regular Indian army in 1939 included about 220,000<span class="nowrap"> </span>native troops, it expanded tenfold during the war,<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and small naval and air force units were created. Over two<span class="nowrap"> </span>million Indians volunteered for military service in the British Army. They played a major role in numerous campaigns, especially in the Middle East and North Africa. Casualties were moderate (in terms of the world war), with 24,000<span class="nowrap"> </span>killed; 64,000 wounded; 12,000<span class="nowrap"> </span>missing (probably dead), and 60,000<span class="nowrap"> </span>captured at Singapore in 1942.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>London paid most of the cost of the Indian Army, which had the effect of erasing India's national debt; it ended the war with a surplus of £1,300<span class="nowrap"> </span>million. In addition, heavy British spending on munitions produced in India (such as uniforms, rifles, machine-guns, field artillery, and ammunition) led to a rapid expansion of industrial output, such as textiles (up 16%), steel (up 18%), and chemicals (up 30%). Small warships were built, and an aircraft factory opened in Bangalore. The railway system, with 700,000 employees, was taxed to the limit as demand for transportation soared.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British government sent the <a href="/wiki/Cripps_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Cripps mission">Cripps mission</a> in 1942 to secure Indian nationalists' co-operation in the war effort in exchange for a promise of independence as soon as the war ended. Top officials in Britain, most notably Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>, did not support the Cripps Mission and negotiations with the Congress soon broke down.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Congress launched the <a href="/wiki/Quit_India_Movement" title="Quit India Movement">Quit India Movement</a> in July 1942 demanding the immediate withdrawal of the British from India or face nationwide civil disobedience. On 8 August the Raj arrested all national, provincial and local Congress leaders, holding tens of thousands of them until 1945. The country erupted in violent demonstrations led by students and later by peasant political groups, especially in Eastern <a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Agra_and_Oudh" title="United Provinces of Agra and Oudh">United Provinces</a>, Bihar, and western Bengal. The large wartime British Army presence crushed the movement in a little more than six weeks;<sup id="cite_ref-metcalf-quit-india_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-metcalf-quit-india-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nonetheless, a portion of the movement formed for a time an underground provisional government on the border with Nepal.<sup id="cite_ref-metcalf-quit-india_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-metcalf-quit-india-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other parts of India, the movement was less spontaneous and the protest less intensive; however, it lasted sporadically into the summer of 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-Bandypadhya420_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bandypadhya420-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Earlier, <a href="/wiki/Subhas_Chandra_Bose" title="Subhas Chandra Bose">Subhas Chandra Bose</a>, who had been a leader of the younger, radical, wing of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Congress" title="Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a> in the late 1920s and 1930s, had risen to become Congress President from 1938 to 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010305,_325_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010305,_325-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, he was ousted from the Congress in 1939 following differences with the high command,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELow2002297_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELow2002297-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and subsequently placed under house arrest by the British before escaping from India in early 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELow2002313_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELow2002313-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He turned to <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers_of_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis powers of World War II">Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan</a> for help in gaining India's independence by force.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELow199331–31_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELow199331–31-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With Japanese support, he organised the <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Army" title="Indian National Army">Indian National Army</a>, composed largely of Indian soldiers of the British Indian Army who had been captured by the Japanese in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Singapore">Battle of Singapore</a>. As the war turned against them, the Japanese came to support a number of <a href="/wiki/Collaboration_with_Imperial_Japan" title="Collaboration with Imperial Japan">puppet and provisional governments</a> in the captured regions, including those in Burma, the Philippines and Vietnam, and in addition, the Provisional Government of <a href="/wiki/Azad_Hind" title="Azad Hind">Azad Hind</a>, presided by Bose.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELow199331–31_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELow199331–31-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bose's effort, however, was short-lived. In mid-1944 the British Army first halted and then reversed the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Operation_U-Go" title="Operation U-Go">U-Go offensive</a>, beginning the successful part of the <a href="/wiki/Burma_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma Campaign">Burma Campaign</a>. Bose's Indian National Army largely disintegrated during the subsequent fighting in Burma, with its remaining elements surrendering with the recapture of Singapore in September 1945. Bose died in August from third degree burns received after attempting to escape in an overloaded Japanese plane which crashed in Taiwan,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWolpert200669_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolpert200669-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which many Indians believe did not happen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBandyopadhyay2004427_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBandyopadhyay2004427-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaylyHarper20072_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaylyHarper20072-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sugata-bose-p320_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sugata-bose-p320-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Bose was unsuccessful, he roused patriotic feelings in India.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2001345_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2001345-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ncert_gandhi_tomeet_linlithgow1939.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mahatma Gandhi (centre-right) and Rajendra Prasad (centre-left) on their way to meet the viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, on 13 October 1939, after the outbreak of World War II"><img alt="Mahatma Gandhi (centre-right) and Rajendra Prasad (centre-left) on their way to meet the viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, on 13 October 1939, after the outbreak of World War II" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/0a/Ncert_gandhi_tomeet_linlithgow1939.jpg/120px-Ncert_gandhi_tomeet_linlithgow1939.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/0a/Ncert_gandhi_tomeet_linlithgow1939.jpg/180px-Ncert_gandhi_tomeet_linlithgow1939.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/0a/Ncert_gandhi_tomeet_linlithgow1939.jpg/240px-Ncert_gandhi_tomeet_linlithgow1939.jpg 2x" data-file-width="467" data-file-height="320" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> (centre-right) and <a href="/wiki/Rajendra_Prasad" title="Rajendra Prasad">Rajendra Prasad</a> (centre-left) on their way to meet the viceroy, <a href="/wiki/Marquess_of_Linlithgow" title="Marquess of Linlithgow">Lord Linlithgow</a>, on 13 October 1939, after the outbreak of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chaudhry_Khaliquzzaman.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chaudhari Khaliquzzaman (left) seconding the 1940 Lahore Resolution of the Muslim League with Jinnah (right) presiding, and Liaquat Ali Khan (centre)"><img alt="Chaudhari Khaliquzzaman (left) seconding the 1940 Lahore Resolution of the Muslim League with Jinnah (right) presiding, and Liaquat Ali Khan (centre)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Chaudhry_Khaliquzzaman.jpg/120px-Chaudhry_Khaliquzzaman.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Chaudhry_Khaliquzzaman.jpg/180px-Chaudhry_Khaliquzzaman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Chaudhry_Khaliquzzaman.jpg/240px-Chaudhry_Khaliquzzaman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="266" data-file-height="205" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Chaudhari_Khaliquzzaman" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaudhari Khaliquzzaman">Chaudhari Khaliquzzaman</a> (left) seconding the 1940 Lahore Resolution of the Muslim League with <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah" title="Muhammad Ali Jinnah">Jinnah</a> (right) presiding, and <a href="/wiki/Liaquat_Ali_Khan" title="Liaquat Ali Khan">Liaquat Ali Khan</a> (centre)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Newly-arrived_Indian_troops.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Newly arrived Indian troops on the quayside in Singapore, November 1941"><img alt="Newly arrived Indian troops on the quayside in Singapore, November 1941" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Newly-arrived_Indian_troops.jpg/120px-Newly-arrived_Indian_troops.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Newly-arrived_Indian_troops.jpg/180px-Newly-arrived_Indian_troops.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Newly-arrived_Indian_troops.jpg/240px-Newly-arrived_Indian_troops.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="792" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Newly arrived Indian troops on the quayside in Singapore, November 1941</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Operation_Crusader.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Indian Army troops in action during Operation Crusader in the Western Desert Campaign in North Africa in November/December 1941"><img alt="Indian Army troops in action during Operation Crusader in the Western Desert Campaign in North Africa in November/December 1941" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Operation_Crusader.jpg/120px-Operation_Crusader.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Operation_Crusader.jpg/180px-Operation_Crusader.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Operation_Crusader.jpg/240px-Operation_Crusader.jpg 2x" data-file-width="631" data-file-height="484" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Indian Army troops in action during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Crusader" title="Operation Crusader">Operation Crusader</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Desert Campaign">Western Desert Campaign</a> in North Africa in November/December 1941</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1946–1947:_Independence,_Partition"><span id="1946.E2.80.931947:_Independence.2C_Partition"></span>1946–1947: Independence, Partition</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interim_Government_of_India" title="Interim Government of India">Interim Government of India</a></div> <p>In January 1946, a number of mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation to Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-judd-mutiny_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-judd-mutiny-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mutinies came to a head with <a href="/wiki/The_Royal_Indian_Navy_Mutiny" class="mw-redirect" title="The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny">mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy</a> in Bombay in February 1946, followed by others in <a href="/wiki/Calcutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcutta">Calcutta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madras" class="mw-redirect" title="Madras">Madras</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karachi" title="Karachi">Karachi</a>. Although the mutinies were rapidly suppressed, they had the effect of spurring the new Labour government in Britain to action, and leading to the Cabinet Mission to India led by the secretary of state for India, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Pethick-Lawrence,_1st_Baron_Pethick-Lawrence" title="Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, 1st Baron Pethick-Lawrence">Lord Pethick Lawrence</a>, and including <a href="/wiki/Stafford_Cripps" title="Stafford Cripps">Sir Stafford Cripps</a>, who had visited four years before.<sup id="cite_ref-judd-mutiny_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-judd-mutiny-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also in early 1946, new elections were called in India. Earlier, at the end of the war in 1945, the colonial government had announced the <a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Army_trials" title="Indian National Army trials">public trial</a> of three senior officers of Bose's defeated Indian National Army who stood accused of treason. Now as the trials began, the Congress leadership, although ambivalent towards the INA, chose to defend the accused officers.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The subsequent convictions of the officers, the public outcry against the convictions, and the eventual remission of the sentences, created positive propaganda for the Congress, which only helped in the party's subsequent electoral victories in eight of the eleven provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The negotiations between the Congress and the Muslim League, however, stumbled over the issue of the partition. Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946, <a href="/wiki/Direct_Action_Day" title="Direct Action Day">Direct Action Day</a>, with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a>. The following day Hindu-Muslim riots broke out in Calcutta and quickly spread throughout British India. Although the Government of India and the Congress were both shaken by the course of events, in September, a Congress-led interim government was installed, with Jawaharlal Nehru as united India's prime minister.<sup id="cite_ref-Gopal1976_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gopal1976-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later that year, the <a href="/wiki/Exchequer" title="Exchequer">British Exchequer</a> exhausted by the recently concluded World War II, and the <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour</a> government conscious that it had neither the mandate at home, the international support, nor the reliability of <a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">native forces</a> for continuing to control an increasingly restless British India,<sup id="cite_ref-Hyam106_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyam106-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-British_Raj_Independence_movement_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-British_Raj_Independence_movement-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As independence approached, the violence between Hindus and Muslims in the provinces of Punjab and Bengal continued unabated. With the British army unprepared for the potential for increased violence, the new viceroy, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Mountbatten" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Mountbatten">Louis Mountbatten</a>, advanced the date for the transfer of power, allowing less than six months for a mutually agreed plan for independence.<sup id="cite_ref-Indian_Independence_movement_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indian_Independence_movement-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-British_Raj_Independence_movement_104-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-British_Raj_Independence_movement-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">partition of India</a>, the end of the British rule in India in August 1947 saw the creation of two separate states of India and Pakistan.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 15 August 1947, the new <a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_Pakistan" title="Dominion of Pakistan">Dominion of Pakistan</a> (later <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Republic of Pakistan">Islamic Republic of Pakistan</a>), with Muhammad Ali Jinnah as the governor-general; and the <a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_India" title="Dominion of India">Dominion of India</a>, (later <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of India">Republic of India</a>) with <a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India" title="Prime Minister of India">prime minister</a>, and the viceroy, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Mountbatten" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Mountbatten">Louis Mountbatten</a>, staying on as its first governor-general came into being; with official ceremonies taking place in <a href="/wiki/Karachi" title="Karachi">Karachi</a> on 14 August and <a href="/wiki/New_Delhi" title="New Delhi">New Delhi</a> on 15 August. This was done so that Mountbatten could attend both ceremonies.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The great majority of Indians remained in place with independence, but in border areas millions of people (Muslim, Sikh, and Hindu) relocated across the <a href="/wiki/Radcliffe_Line" title="Radcliffe Line">newly drawn borders</a>. In Punjab, where the new border lines divided the Sikh regions in half, there was much bloodshed; in Bengal and Bihar, where Gandhi's presence assuaged communal tempers, the violence was more limited. In all, somewhere between 250,000 and 500,000 people on both sides of the new borders, among both the refugee and resident populations of the three faiths, died in the violence.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Muslim_percent_1909.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Percentage of Muslims by district, in 1901"><img alt="Percentage of Muslims by district, in 1901" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Muslim_percent_1909.jpg/120px-Muslim_percent_1909.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Muslim_percent_1909.jpg/180px-Muslim_percent_1909.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Muslim_percent_1909.jpg/240px-Muslim_percent_1909.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2358" data-file-height="1970" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Percentage of <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> by district, in 1901</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hindu_percent_1909.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Percentage of Hindus by district, 1901"><img alt="Percentage of Hindus by district, 1901" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Hindu_percent_1909.jpg/120px-Hindu_percent_1909.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Hindu_percent_1909.jpg/180px-Hindu_percent_1909.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Hindu_percent_1909.jpg/240px-Hindu_percent_1909.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2358" data-file-height="1969" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Percentage of <a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a> by district, 1901</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sikhs_buddhists_jains_percent1909.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="District-wide percentages of Buddhists, Sikhs, and Jains in 1901"><img alt="District-wide percentages of Buddhists, Sikhs, and Jains in 1901" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Sikhs_buddhists_jains_percent1909.jpg/120px-Sikhs_buddhists_jains_percent1909.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Sikhs_buddhists_jains_percent1909.jpg/180px-Sikhs_buddhists_jains_percent1909.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Sikhs_buddhists_jains_percent1909.jpg/240px-Sikhs_buddhists_jains_percent1909.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2358" data-file-height="1969" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">District-wide percentages of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sikhs" title="Sikhs">Sikhs</a>, and Jains in 1901</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cabinet_mission_to_india1946.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Members of the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India meeting Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Far left is Lord Pethick Lawrence; far right is Sir Stafford Cripps."><img alt="Members of the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India meeting Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Far left is Lord Pethick Lawrence; far right is Sir Stafford Cripps." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Cabinet_mission_to_india1946.jpg/120px-Cabinet_mission_to_india1946.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Cabinet_mission_to_india1946.jpg/180px-Cabinet_mission_to_india1946.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Cabinet_mission_to_india1946.jpg/240px-Cabinet_mission_to_india1946.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="350" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Members of the <a href="/wiki/1946_Cabinet_Mission_to_India" title="1946 Cabinet Mission to India">1946 Cabinet Mission to India</a> meeting <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah" title="Muhammad Ali Jinnah">Muhammad Ali Jinnah</a>. Far left is <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Pethick-Lawrence,_1st_Baron_Pethick-Lawrence" title="Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, 1st Baron Pethick-Lawrence">Lord Pethick Lawrence</a>; far right is <a href="/wiki/Stafford_Cripps" title="Stafford Cripps">Sir Stafford Cripps</a>.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timeline_of_major_events,_legislation,_and_public_works"><span id="Timeline_of_major_events.2C_legislation.2C_and_public_works"></span>Timeline of major events, legislation, and public works</h3></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed center"> <li class="gallerycaption">The reigning British monarchs during the period of the British Raj, 1858–1947, on silver one-rupee coins.</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 164.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 162.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:VictoriaQueen1862Empress1886.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Two silver one rupee coins used in India during the British Raj, showing Victoria, Queen, 1862 (left) and Victoria, Empress, 1886 (right)"><img alt="Two silver one rupee coins used in India during the British Raj, showing Victoria, Queen, 1862 (left) and Victoria, Empress, 1886 (right)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/VictoriaQueen1862Empress1886.jpg/244px-VictoriaQueen1862Empress1886.jpg" decoding="async" width="163" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/VictoriaQueen1862Empress1886.jpg/366px-VictoriaQueen1862Empress1886.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/VictoriaQueen1862Empress1886.jpg/488px-VictoriaQueen1862Empress1886.jpg 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="803" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Two silver one rupee coins used in India during the British Raj, showing Victoria, Queen, 1862 (left) and Victoria, Empress, 1886 (right)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EdwardVIIKingEmperorIndia1903and1908.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Silver one rupee coins showing Edward VII, King-Emperor, 1903 (left) and 1908 (right)"><img alt="Silver one rupee coins showing Edward VII, King-Emperor, 1903 (left) and 1908 (right)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/EdwardVIIKingEmperorIndia1903and1908.jpg/240px-EdwardVIIKingEmperorIndia1903and1908.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/EdwardVIIKingEmperorIndia1903and1908.jpg/360px-EdwardVIIKingEmperorIndia1903and1908.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/EdwardVIIKingEmperorIndia1903and1908.jpg/480px-EdwardVIIKingEmperorIndia1903and1908.jpg 2x" data-file-width="775" data-file-height="775" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Silver one rupee coins showing <a href="/wiki/Edward_VII" title="Edward VII">Edward VII</a>, King-Emperor, 1903 (left) and 1908 (right)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 161.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 159.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:GeorgeVKingEmperor1913and1919.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Silver one rupee coins used in India during the British Raj, showing George V, King-Emperor, 1913 (left) and 1919 (right)"><img alt="Silver one rupee coins used in India during the British Raj, showing George V, King-Emperor, 1913 (left) and 1919 (right)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/GeorgeVKingEmperor1913and1919.jpg/239px-GeorgeVKingEmperor1913and1919.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/GeorgeVKingEmperor1913and1919.jpg/358px-GeorgeVKingEmperor1913and1919.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/GeorgeVKingEmperor1913and1919.jpg/478px-GeorgeVKingEmperor1913and1919.jpg 2x" data-file-width="781" data-file-height="785" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Silver one rupee coins used in India during the British Raj, showing <a href="/wiki/George_V" title="George V">George V</a>, King-Emperor, 1913 (left) and 1919 (right)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 158px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 156px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:GeorgeVIKingEmperorIndia1940and1947.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="One rupee coins showing George VI, King-Emperor, 1940 (left) and just before India's independence in 1947 (right)[i]"><img alt="One rupee coins showing George VI, King-Emperor, 1940 (left) and just before India's independence in 1947 (right)[i]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/GeorgeVIKingEmperorIndia1940and1947.jpg/234px-GeorgeVIKingEmperorIndia1940and1947.jpg" decoding="async" width="156" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/GeorgeVIKingEmperorIndia1940and1947.jpg/351px-GeorgeVIKingEmperorIndia1940and1947.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/GeorgeVIKingEmperorIndia1940and1947.jpg/467px-GeorgeVIKingEmperorIndia1940and1947.jpg 2x" data-file-width="747" data-file-height="767" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> One rupee coins showing <a href="/wiki/George_VI" title="George VI">George VI</a>, King-Emperor, 1940 (left) and just before India's independence in 1947 (right)<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;"> <th width="130pt">Period </th> <th width="150pt">Presiding Viceroy </th> <th>Major events, legislation, public works </th></tr> <tr> <td>1 November 1858 – <br />21 March 1862</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Charles_Canning,_1st_Earl_Canning" title="Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning">Viscount Canning</a><sup id="cite_ref-Maclagan1963_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maclagan1963-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>1858 reorganisation of <a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">British Indian Army</a> (contemporaneously and hereafter Indian Army) <br /> Construction begins (1860): <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bombay" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Bombay">University of Bombay</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Madras" title="University of Madras">University of Madras</a>, and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Calcutta" title="University of Calcutta">University of Calcutta</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code" title="Indian Penal Code">Indian Penal Code</a> passed into law in 1860.<br /> <a href="/wiki/Upper_Doab_famine_of_1860%E2%80%931861" title="Upper Doab famine of 1860–1861">Upper Doab famine of 1860–1861</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Indian_Councils_Act_1861" title="Indian Councils Act 1861">Indian Councils Act 1861</a> <br /> Establishment of <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Survey_of_India" title="Archaeological Survey of India">Archaeological Survey of India</a> in 1861 <br /> <a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(businessman)" title="James Wilson (businessman)">James Wilson</a>, financial member of <a href="/wiki/Council_of_India" title="Council of India">Council of India</a>, reorganises customs, imposes <a href="/wiki/Income_tax" title="Income tax">income tax</a>, creates <a href="/wiki/Paper_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Paper currency">paper currency</a>. <br /> Indian Police Act 1861: creation of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Police" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Police">Imperial Police</a>, later known as the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Police_Service" title="Indian Police Service">Indian Police Service</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>21 March 1862 – <br />20 November 1863</td> <td><a href="/wiki/James_Bruce,_8th_Earl_of_Elgin" title="James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin">Earl of Elgin</a></td> <td>Viceroy dies prematurely in <a href="/wiki/Dharamsala,_Himachal_Pradesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharamsala, Himachal Pradesh">Dharamsala</a> in 1863 </td></tr> <tr> <td>12 January 1864 – <br />12 January 1869</td> <td><a href="/wiki/John_Lawrence,_1st_Baron_Lawrence" title="John Lawrence, 1st Baron Lawrence">Sir John Lawrence, Bt</a><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Duar_War" title="Duar War">Anglo-Bhutan Duar War</a> (1864–1865)<br /> <a href="/wiki/Orissa_famine_of_1866" title="Orissa famine of 1866">Orissa famine of 1866</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Rajputana_famine_of_1869" title="Rajputana famine of 1869">Rajputana famine of 1869</a><br /> Creation of Department of Irrigation. <br /> Creation of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Forestry_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Forestry Service">Imperial Forestry Service</a> in 1867 (now the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Forest_Service" title="Indian Forest Service">Indian Forest Service</a>).<br /> "<a href="/wiki/Nicobar_Islands" title="Nicobar Islands">Nicobar Islands</a> annexed and incorporated into India 1869" </td></tr> <tr> <td>12 January 1869 – <br />8 February 1872</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bourke,_6th_Earl_of_Mayo" title="Richard Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo">Earl of Mayo</a><sup id="cite_ref-Hunter1876_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hunter1876-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Creation of Department of Agriculture (now <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Agriculture (India)">Ministry of Agriculture</a>) <br /> Major extension of railways, roads, and canals <br /> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_Councils_Act_1870&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indian Councils Act 1870 (page does not exist)">Indian Councils Act 1870</a> <br /> Creation of <a href="/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands" title="Andaman and Nicobar Islands">Andaman and Nicobar Islands</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Chief_Commissioner" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Commissioner">Chief Commissionership</a> (1872). <br />Assassination of Lord Mayo in the Andamans. </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 May 1872 – <br />12 April 1876</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Baring,_1st_Earl_of_Northbrook" title="Thomas Baring, 1st Earl of Northbrook">Lord Northbrook</a><sup id="cite_ref-Hunter1876_139-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hunter1876-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Deaths in <a href="/wiki/Bihar_famine_of_1873%E2%80%931874" title="Bihar famine of 1873–1874">Bihar famine of 1873–1874</a> prevented by import of rice from Burma.<br /> Gaikwad of Baroda dethroned for misgovernment; dominions passed to <a href="/wiki/Sayajirao_Gaekwad_III" title="Sayajirao Gaekwad III">a child prince</a>.<br /> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_Councils_Act_1874&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indian Councils Act 1874 (page does not exist)">Indian Councils Act 1874</a> <br /> Visit of the <a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales" title="Prince of Wales">Prince of Wales</a>, the future <a href="/wiki/Edward_VII" title="Edward VII">Edward VII</a>, in 1875–76. </td></tr> <tr> <td>12 April 1876 – <br />8 June 1880</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bulwer-Lytton,_1st_Earl_of_Lytton" title="Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton">Lord Lytton</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Baluchistan_(Chief_Commissioners_Province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Baluchistan (Chief Commissioners Province)">Baluchistan</a> established as a <a href="/wiki/Chief_Commissioner" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Commissioner">Chief Commissionership</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> (in absentia) proclaimed <a href="/wiki/Empress_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Empress of India">Empress of India</a> at <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Durbar" title="Delhi Durbar">Delhi Durbar</a> of 1877. <br /> <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%931878" title="Great Famine of 1876–1878">Great Famine of 1876–1878</a>: 5.25 million dead; reduced relief offered at expense of <a href="/wiki/Rupee" title="Rupee">Rs.</a> 80 million.<br /> Creation of Famine Commission of 1878–80 under Sir <a href="/wiki/Richard_Strachey" title="Richard Strachey">Richard Strachey</a>. <br /> Indian Forest Act of 1878 <br /> <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Second Anglo-Afghan War">Second Anglo-Afghan War</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>8 June 1880 – <br />13 December 1884</td> <td><a href="/wiki/George_Robinson,_1st_Marquess_of_Ripon" title="George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon">Marquess of Ripon</a><sup id="cite_ref-Gopal1953_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gopal1953-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>End of <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Second Anglo-Afghan War">Second Anglo-Afghan War</a>. <br /> Repeal of Vernacular Press Act of 1878. Compromise on the <a href="/wiki/Ilbert_Bill" title="Ilbert Bill">Ilbert Bill</a>.<br /> Local Government Acts extend self-government from towns to country. <br /> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Punjab" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Punjab">University of Punjab</a> established in <a href="/wiki/Lahore" title="Lahore">Lahore</a> in 1882 <br /> Famine Code promulgated in 1883 by the Government of India. <br /> Creation of the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(India)" title="Ministry of Education (India)">Education Commission</a>. Creation of indigenous schools, especially for Muslims. <br /> Repeal of import duties on cotton and of most tariffs. Railway extension. </td></tr> <tr> <td>13 December 1884 – <br />10 December 1888</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood,_1st_Marquess_of_Dufferin_and_Ava" title="Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava">Earl of Dufferin</a><sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Passage of Bengal Tenancy Bill <br /> <a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Burmese_War" title="Third Anglo-Burmese War">Third Anglo-Burmese War</a>. <br /> Joint Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission appointed for the Afghan frontier. Russian attack on Afghans at <a href="/wiki/Panjdeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Panjdeh">Panjdeh</a> (1885). <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="The Great Game">The Great Game</a> in full play. <br /> Report of Public Services Commission of 1886–87, creation of the Imperial Civil Service (later the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Civil_Service" title="Indian Civil Service">Indian Civil Service</a> (ICS), and today the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Administrative_Service" title="Indian Administrative Service">Indian Administrative Service</a>) <br /> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Allahabad" title="University of Allahabad">University of Allahabad</a> established in 1887 <br /> Queen Victoria's Jubilee, 1887. </td></tr> <tr> <td>10 December 1888 – <br />11 October 1894</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Henry_Petty-Fitzmaurice,_5th_Marquess_of_Lansdowne" title="Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne">Marquess of Lansdowne</a><sup id="cite_ref-Forrest1894_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forrest1894-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Strengthening of NW Frontier defence. Creation of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Service_Troops" title="Imperial Service Troops">Imperial Service Troops</a> consisting of regiments contributed by the <a href="/wiki/Princely_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Princely states">princely states</a>. <br /> <a href="/wiki/Gilgit_Agency" title="Gilgit Agency">Gilgit Agency</a> leased in 1899 <br /> British Parliament passes <a href="/wiki/Indian_Councils_Act_1892" title="Indian Councils Act 1892">Indian Councils Act 1892</a>, opening the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Legislative_Council" title="Imperial Legislative Council">Imperial Legislative Council</a> to Indians. <br /> Revolution in <a href="/wiki/Princely_state" title="Princely state">princely state</a> of <a href="/wiki/Manipur" title="Manipur">Manipur</a> and subsequent reinstatement of ruler. <br /> High point of <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="The Great Game">The Great Game</a>. Establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Durand_Line" title="Durand Line">Durand Line</a> between British India and <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, <br /> Railways, roads, and irrigation works begun in Burma. Border between Burma and <a href="/wiki/Siam" class="mw-redirect" title="Siam">Siam</a> finalised in 1893. <br /> Fall of the rupee, resulting from the steady depreciation of silver currency worldwide (1873–93). <br /> Indian Prisons Act of 1894 </td></tr> <tr> <td>11 October 1894 – <br />6 January 1899</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Victor_Bruce,_9th_Earl_of_Elgin" title="Victor Bruce, 9th Earl of Elgin">Earl of Elgin</a></td> <td>Reorganisation of <a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">Indian Army</a> (from Presidency System to the four Commands). <br /> Pamir agreement Russia, 1895 <br /> <a href="/wiki/Chitral_Expedition" title="Chitral Expedition">The Chitral Campaign (1895)</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tirah_campaign" title="Tirah campaign">Tirah campaign</a> (1896–97) <br /> <a href="/wiki/Indian_famine_of_1896%E2%80%931897" title="Indian famine of 1896–1897">Indian famine of 1896–1897</a> beginning in <a href="/wiki/Bundelkhand" title="Bundelkhand">Bundelkhand</a>. <br /> <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">Bubonic plague</a> in Bombay (1896), Bubonic plague in Calcutta (1898); riots in wake of plague prevention measures. <br /> Establishment of Provincial Legislative Councils in Burma and Punjab; the former a new Lieutenant Governorship. </td></tr> <tr> <td>6 January 1899 – <br />18 November 1905</td> <td><a href="/wiki/George_Curzon,_1st_Marquess_Curzon_of_Kedleston" title="George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston">Lord Curzon of Kedleston</a><sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Creation of the <a href="/wiki/North-West_Frontier_Province" title="North-West Frontier Province">North-West Frontier Province</a> under a <a href="/wiki/Chief_Commissioner" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Commissioner">Chief Commissioner</a> (1901). <br /> <a href="/wiki/Indian_famine_of_1899%E2%80%931900" title="Indian famine of 1899–1900">Indian famine of 1899–1900</a>. <br /> Return of the bubonic plague, 1 million deaths<br /> Financial Reform Act of 1899; Gold Reserve Fund created for India. <br /> Punjab Land Alienation Act <br /> Inauguration of <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Commerce_and_Industry_(India)" title="Ministry of Commerce and Industry (India)">Department (now Ministry) of Commerce and Industry</a>.<br /> Death of <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> (1901); dedication of the <a href="/wiki/Victoria_Memorial_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria Memorial (India)">Victoria Memorial Hall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calcutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcutta">Calcutta</a> as a national gallery of Indian antiquities, art, and history. <br /> <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Durbar" title="Delhi Durbar">Coronation Durbar in Delhi (1903)</a>; <a href="/wiki/Edward_VII" title="Edward VII">Edward VII</a> (in absentia) proclaimed <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_India" title="Emperor of India">Emperor of India</a>.<br /> <a href="/wiki/Francis_Younghusband" title="Francis Younghusband">Francis Younghusband</a>'s <a href="/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet" title="British expedition to Tibet">British expedition to Tibet</a> (1903–04) <br /> <a href="/wiki/North-Western_Provinces" title="North-Western Provinces">North-Western Provinces</a> (previously <a href="/wiki/Ceded_and_Conquered_Provinces" title="Ceded and Conquered Provinces">Ceded and Conquered Provinces</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Awadh" title="Awadh">Oudh</a> renamed <a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Agra_and_Oudh" title="United Provinces of Agra and Oudh">United Provinces</a> in 1904 <br /> Reorganisation of Indian Universities Act (1904). <br /> Systemisation of preservation and restoration of ancient monuments by <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Survey_of_India" title="Archaeological Survey of India">Archaeological Survey of India</a> with the Indian Ancient Monument Preservation Act. <br /> Inauguration of agricultural banking with Cooperative Credit Societies Act of 1904 <br /> <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1905)" title="Partition of Bengal (1905)">Partition of Bengal</a>; new province of <a href="/wiki/East_Bengal_and_Assam" class="mw-redirect" title="East Bengal and Assam">East Bengal and Assam</a> under a Lieutenant-Governor.<br /> Census of 1901 gives the total population at 294<span class="nowrap"> </span>million, including 62<span class="nowrap"> </span>million in the princely states and 232<span class="nowrap"> </span>million in British India.<sup id="cite_ref-IGI-I-449_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IGI-I-449-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 170,000 are Europeans. 15<span class="nowrap"> </span>million men and 1<span class="nowrap"> </span>million women are literate. Of those school-aged, 25% of the boys and 3% of the girls attend. There are 207<span class="nowrap"> </span>million Hindus, and 63<span class="nowrap"> </span>million Muslims, along with 9<span class="nowrap"> </span>million Buddhists (in Burma), 3<span class="nowrap"> </span>million Christians, 2<span class="nowrap"> </span>million Sikhs, 1<span class="nowrap"> </span>million Jains, and 8.4<span class="nowrap"> </span>million who practise animism.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>18 November 1905 – <br />23 November 1910</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound,_4th_Earl_of_Minto" title="Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th Earl of Minto">Earl of Minto</a><sup id="cite_ref-Das1964_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Das1964-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Creation of the <a href="/wiki/Railway_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="Railway Board">Railway Board</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention_of_1907" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907">Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Indian_Councils_Act_1909" title="Indian Councils Act 1909">Indian Councils Act 1909</a> (also Minto–Morley Reforms) <br /> Appointment of Indian Factories Commission in 1909.<br /> Establishment of <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(India)" title="Ministry of Education (India)">Department of Education</a> in 1910 (now Ministry of Education) </td></tr> <tr> <td>23 November 1910 – <br />4 April 1916</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hardinge,_1st_Baron_Hardinge_of_Penshurst" title="Charles Hardinge, 1st Baron Hardinge of Penshurst">Lord Hardinge of Penshurst</a></td> <td>Visit of King <a href="/wiki/George_V" title="George V">George V</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mary_of_Teck" title="Mary of Teck">Queen Mary</a> in 1911: commemoration as <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_India" title="Emperor of India">Emperor and Empress of India</a> at last <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Durbar" title="Delhi Durbar">Delhi Durbar</a><br /> King George V announces creation of new city of New Delhi to replace <a href="/wiki/Calcutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcutta">Calcutta</a> as capital of India.<br /> <a href="/wiki/Indian_High_Courts_Act_1911" title="Indian High Courts Act 1911">Indian High Courts Act 1911</a> <br /> Indian Factories Act of 1911 <br /> Construction of New Delhi, 1912–1929 <br /> World War I, <a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">Indian Army</a> in: <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front, Belgium, 1914</a>; <a href="/wiki/German_East_Africa" title="German East Africa">German East Africa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tanga" title="Battle of Tanga">Battle of Tanga</a>, 1914); <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaign" title="Mesopotamian campaign">Mesopotamian campaign</a> (<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(1915)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (1915)">Battle of Ctesiphon, 1915</a>; <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kut" title="Siege of Kut">Siege of Kut</a>, 1915–16); <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gallipoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Gallipoli">Battle of Galliopoli, 1915–16</a> <br /> Passage of <a href="/wiki/Defence_of_India_Act_1915" title="Defence of India Act 1915">Defence of India Act 1915</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>4 April 1916 – <br />2 April 1921</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Thesiger,_1st_Viscount_Chelmsford" title="Frederic Thesiger, 1st Viscount Chelmsford">Lord Chelmsford</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">Indian Army</a> in: <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaign" title="Mesopotamian campaign">Mesopotamian campaign</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Baghdad_(1917)" title="Fall of Baghdad (1917)">Fall of Baghdad, 1917</a>); <a href="/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_campaign" title="Sinai and Palestine campaign">Sinai and Palestine campaign</a> (<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Megiddo_(1918)" title="Battle of Megiddo (1918)">Battle of Megiddo, 1918</a>) <br /> Passage of <a href="/wiki/Rowlatt_Act" title="Rowlatt Act">Rowlatt Act</a>, 1919 <br /> <a href="/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1919" title="Government of India Act 1919">Government of India Act 1919</a> (also <a href="/wiki/Montagu%E2%80%93Chelmsford_Reforms" title="Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms">Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms</a>) <br /> <a href="/wiki/Jallianwala_Bagh_massacre" title="Jallianwala Bagh massacre">Jallianwala Bagh massacre</a>, 1919 <br /> <a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Third Anglo-Afghan War">Third Anglo-Afghan War</a>, 1919 <br /> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Rangoon" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Rangoon">University of Rangoon</a> established in 1920. <br /> Indian Passport Act of 1920: <a href="/wiki/British_Indian_passport" title="British Indian passport">British Indian passport</a> introduced </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 April 1921 – <br />3 April 1926</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rufus_Isaacs,_1st_Marquess_of_Reading" title="Rufus Isaacs, 1st Marquess of Reading">Earl of Reading</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/University_of_Delhi" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Delhi">University of Delhi</a> established in 1922. <br /> Indian Workers Compensation Act of 1923 </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 April 1926 – <br />18 April 1931</td> <td><a href="/wiki/E._F._L._Wood,_1st_Earl_of_Halifax" class="mw-redirect" title="E. F. L. Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax">Lord Irwin</a></td> <td>Indian Trade Unions Act of 1926, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Forest_Act,_1927" title="Indian Forest Act, 1927">Indian Forest Act, 1927</a> <br /> Appointment of Royal Commission of Indian Labour, 1929 <br /> <a href="/wiki/Round_Table_Conferences_(India)" title="Round Table Conferences (India)">Indian Constitutional Round Table Conferences, London, 1930–32</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gandhi%E2%80%93Irwin_Pact" title="Gandhi–Irwin Pact">Gandhi–Irwin Pact</a>, 1931. </td></tr> <tr> <td>18 April 1931 – <br />18 April 1936</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Freeman_Freeman-Thomas,_1st_Marquess_of_Willingdon" title="Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon">Earl of Willingdon</a></td> <td>New Delhi inaugurated as capital of India, 1931.<br /> Indian Workmen's Compensation Act of 1933 <br /> Indian Factories Act of 1934 <br /> <a href="/wiki/Royal_Indian_Air_Force" title="Royal Indian Air Force">Royal Indian Air Force</a> created in 1932. <br /> <a href="/wiki/Indian_Military_Academy" title="Indian Military Academy">Indian Military Academy</a> established in 1932. <br /> <a href="/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1935" title="Government of India Act 1935">Government of India Act 1935</a> <br /> Creation of <a href="/wiki/Reserve_Bank_of_India" title="Reserve Bank of India">Reserve Bank of India</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>18 April 1936 – <br />1 October 1943</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Victor_Hope,_2nd_Marquess_of_Linlithgow" title="Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow">Marquess of Linlithgow</a></td> <td>Indian Payment of Wages Act of 1936 <br /> Burma administered independently after 1937 with creation of new cabinet position <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_India_and_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of State for India and Burma">Secretary of State for India and Burma</a>, and with the <a href="/wiki/Burma_Office" title="Burma Office">Burma Office</a> separated off from the <a href="/wiki/India_Office" title="India Office">India Office</a> <br /> Indian Provincial Elections of 1937 <br /> <a href="/wiki/Cripps%27_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Cripps' mission">Cripps' mission</a> to India, 1942.<br /> <a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">Indian Army</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean,_Middle_East_and_African_theatres_of_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean, Middle East and African theatres of World War II">Mediterranean, Middle East and African theatres of World War II</a> (<a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North African campaign</a>): (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Compass" title="Operation Compass">Operation Compass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Crusader" title="Operation Crusader">Operation Crusader</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="First Battle of El Alamein">First Battle of El Alamein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="Second Battle of El Alamein">Second Battle of El Alamein</a>. <a href="/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East African campaign, 1940</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Anglo-Iraqi War</a>, 1941, <a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign">Syria–Lebanon campaign</a>, 1941, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran</a>, 1941) <br /> Indian Army in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong" title="Battle of Hong Kong">Battle of Hong Kong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Malaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Malaya">Battle of Malaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Singapore">Battle of Singapore</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma campaign</a> of World War II begins in 1942. </td></tr> <tr> <td>1 October 1943 – <br />21 February 1947</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Wavell,_1st_Earl_Wavell" title="Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell">Viscount Wavell</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">Indian Army</a> becomes, at 2.5 million men, the largest all-volunteer force in history.<br /> <a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">World War II: Burma Campaign, 1943–45</a> (<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kohima" title="Battle of Kohima">Battle of Kohima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Imphal" title="Battle of Imphal">Battle of Imphal</a>) <br /> <a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine of 1943</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">Indian Army</a> in <a href="/wiki/Italian_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian campaign (World War II)">Italian campaign</a> (<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Battle of Monte Cassino</a>) <br /> <a href="/wiki/British_Labour_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="British Labour Party">British Labour Party</a> wins <a href="/wiki/1945_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1945 United Kingdom general election">UK General Election of 1945</a> with <a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Clement Attlee</a> becoming prime minister.<br /> <a href="/wiki/1946_Cabinet_Mission_to_India" title="1946 Cabinet Mission to India">1946 Cabinet Mission to India</a> <br /> Indian Elections of 1946. </td></tr> <tr> <td>21 February 1947 – <br />15 August 1947</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Louis_Mountbatten,_1st_Earl_Mountbatten_of_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma">Viscount Mountbatten of Burma</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Indian_Independence_Act_1947" title="Indian Independence Act 1947">Indian Independence Act 1947</a> of the British Parliament enacted on 18 July 1947. <br /> <a href="/wiki/Radcliffe_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Radcliffe Award">Radcliffe Award</a>, August 1947 <br /> <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a>, August 1947 <br /> <a href="/wiki/India_Office" title="India Office">India Office</a> and position of <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_India" title="Secretary of State for India">Secretary of State for India</a> abolished; ministerial responsibility within the United Kingdom for British relations with India and Pakistan transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Relations_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth Relations Office">Commonwealth Relations Office</a>. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="British_India_and_the_princely_states">British India and the princely states</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Presidencies_and_provinces_of_British_India" title="Presidencies and provinces of British India">Presidencies and provinces of British India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Princely_state" title="Princely state">Princely state</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_British_India" title="Subdivisions of British India">Subdivisions of British India</a></div> <p>India during the British Raj was made up of two types of territory: <i>British India</i> and the <i>Native States</i> (or <i><a href="/wiki/Princely_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Princely State">Princely States</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-WDL_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WDL-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In its <a href="/wiki/Interpretation_Act_1889" title="Interpretation Act 1889">Interpretation Act 1889</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">British Parliament</a> adopted the following definitions in Section 18: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>(4.) The expression "British India" shall mean all territories and places within Her Majesty's dominions which are for the time being governed by Her Majesty through the Governor-General of India or through any governor or other officer subordinates to the Governor-General of India. </p><p>(5.) The expression "India" shall mean British India together with any territories of any native prince or chief under the suzerainty of Her Majesty exercised through the Governor-General of India, or through any governor or other officer subordinates to the Governor-General of India.<sup id="cite_ref-Interpretation_Act_1889_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Interpretation_Act_1889-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>In general, the term "British India" had been used (and is still used) to refer also to the regions under <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">the rule of the British East India Company</a> in India from 1600 to 1858.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term has also been used to refer to the "British in India".<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The terms "Indian Empire" and "Empire of India" (like the term "British Empire") were not used in legislation. The monarch was officially known as Empress or Emperor of India and the term was often used in Queen Victoria's <a href="/wiki/Speech_from_the_throne" title="Speech from the throne">Queen's Speeches</a> and Prorogation Speeches. In addition, an <a href="/wiki/Chivalric_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Chivalric order">order of knighthood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Indian_Empire" title="Order of the Indian Empire">the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire</a>, was set up in 1878. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">Suzerainty</a> over 175 princely states, some of the largest and most important, was exercised (in the name of the <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">British Crown</a>) by the central government of British India under the <a href="/wiki/Viceroy" title="Viceroy">viceroy</a>; the remaining approximately 500 states were dependents of the provincial governments of British India under a governor, lieutenant-governor, or chief commissioner (as the case might have been).<sup id="cite_ref-igi-60_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-igi-60-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A clear distinction between "dominion" and "suzerainty" was supplied by the jurisdiction of the courts of law: the law of British India rested upon the laws passed by the British Parliament and the legislative powers those laws vested in the various governments of British India, both central and local; in contrast, the courts of the Princely States existed under the authority of the respective rulers of those states.<sup id="cite_ref-igi-60_151-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-igi-60-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_provinces">Major provinces</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Presidencies_and_provinces_of_British_India" title="Presidencies and provinces of British India">Presidencies and provinces of British India</a></div> <p>At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight<span class="nowrap"> </span>provinces that were administered either by a governor or a lieutenant-governor. </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Areas and populations (excluding the dependent Native States) <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1907</span><sup id="cite_ref-igi-46_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-igi-46-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <th width="350pt">Province of British India<br /><small>(and present-day territories)</small> </th> <th>Total area </th> <th>Population in 1901<br />(millions) </th> <th>Chief administrative<br />officer </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Assam_Province" title="Assam Province">Assam</a> <br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/Assam" title="Assam">Assam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arunachal_Pradesh" title="Arunachal Pradesh">Arunachal Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meghalaya" title="Meghalaya">Meghalaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mizoram" title="Mizoram">Mizoram</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nagaland" title="Nagaland">Nagaland</a>)</small> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">130,000 km<sup>2</sup><br />(50,000 sq mi) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">6 </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Governors_of_Assam" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Governors of Assam">Chief Commissioner</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Presidency" title="Bengal Presidency">Bengal</a> <br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Bengal" title="West Bengal">West Bengal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jharkhand" title="Jharkhand">Jharkhand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Orissa,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Orissa, India">Odisha</a>)</small> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">390,000 km<sup>2</sup><br />(150,000 sq mi) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">75 </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Governors_of_Bengal" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Governors of Bengal">Lieutenant-Governor</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Bombay_Presidency" title="Bombay Presidency">Bombay</a><br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a>)</small> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">320,000 km<sup>2</sup><br />(120,000 sq mi) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">19 </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Governors_of_Bombay" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Governors of Bombay">Governor-in-Council</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma" title="British rule in Burma">Burma</a> <br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>)</small> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">440,000 km<sup>2</sup><br />(170,000 sq mi) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">9 </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_governors_of_Burma" title="List of colonial governors of Burma">Lieutenant-Governor</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Central_Provinces_and_Berar" title="Central Provinces and Berar">Central Provinces and Berar</a> <br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh" title="Madhya Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chhattisgarh" title="Chhattisgarh">Chhattisgarh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Odisha" title="Odisha">Odisha</a>)</small> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">270,000 km<sup>2</sup><br />(100,000 sq mi) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">13 </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Governors_of_the_Central_Provinces_and_Berar" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Governors of the Central Provinces and Berar">Chief Commissioner</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Madras_Presidency" title="Madras Presidency">Madras</a> <br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odisha" title="Odisha">Odisha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telangana" title="Telangana">Telangana</a>)</small> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">370,000 km<sup>2</sup><br />(140,000 sq mi) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">38 </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_Governors_and_Presidents_of_Madras" class="mw-redirect" title="List of colonial Governors and Presidents of Madras">Governor-in-Council</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Punjab_(British_India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjab (British India)">Punjab</a><br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/Punjab_Province_(Pakistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjab Province (Pakistan)">Punjab Province</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamabad_Capital_Territory" title="Islamabad Capital Territory">Islamabad Capital Territory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Punjab,_India" title="Punjab, India">Punjab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh" title="Himachal Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chandigarh" title="Chandigarh">Chandigarh</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Capital_Territory_of_Delhi" class="mw-redirect" title="National Capital Territory of Delhi">National Capital Territory of Delhi</a>)</small> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">250,000 km<sup>2</sup><br />(97,000 sq mi) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">20 </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Governors_of_Punjab_(British_India)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Governors of Punjab (British India)">Lieutenant-Governor</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Agra_and_Oudh" title="United Provinces of Agra and Oudh">United Provinces</a><br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uttarakhand" title="Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a>)</small> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">280,000 km<sup>2</sup><br />(110,000 sq mi) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">48 </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Governors_of_the_United_Provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Governors of the United Provinces">Lieutenant-Governor</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>During the partition of Bengal (1905–1913), the new provinces of Assam and East Bengal were created as a Lieutenant-Governorship. In 1911, <i>East Bengal</i> was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became: Assam, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.<sup id="cite_ref-igi-46_152-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-igi-46-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Minor_provinces">Minor provinces</h3></div> <p>In addition, there were a few minor provinces that were administered by a chief commissioner:<sup id="cite_ref-igi-56_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-igi-56-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:bottom;"> <th width="350pt">Minor province of British India<br /><small>(and present day territories)</small> </th> <th>Total area in km<sup>2</sup><br />(sq mi) </th> <th>Population in 1901<br />(in thousands) </th> <th>Chief administrative<br />officer </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ajmer-Merwara" title="Ajmer-Merwara">Ajmer-Merwara</a> <br /><small>(parts of <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a>)</small> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><span data-sort-value="7009700000000000000♠"></span>7,000<br />(2,700) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">477 </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><i>ex officio</i> Chief Commissioner </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands" title="Andaman and Nicobar Islands">Andaman and Nicobar Islands</a> <br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands" title="Andaman and Nicobar Islands">Andaman and Nicobar Islands</a>)</small> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><span data-sort-value="7010780000000000000♠"></span>78,000<br />(30,000) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">25 </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Chief Commissioner </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Baluchistan_(Chief_Commissioner%27s_Province)" title="Baluchistan (Chief Commissioner's Province)">British Baluchistan</a> <br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/Balochistan,_Pakistan" title="Balochistan, Pakistan">Balochistan</a>)</small> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><span data-sort-value="7011120000000000000♠"></span>120,000<br />(46,000) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">308 </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><i>ex officio</i> Chief Commissioner </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Coorg_Province" title="Coorg Province">Coorg Province</a> <br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/Kodagu_district" title="Kodagu district">Kodagu district</a>)</small> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><span data-sort-value="7009410000000000000♠"></span>4,100<br />(1,600) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">181 </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><i>ex officio</i> Chief Commissioner </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/North-West_Frontier_Province_(1901%E2%80%931955)" class="mw-redirect" title="North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)">North West Frontier Province</a> <br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa" title="Khyber Pakhtunkhwa">Khyber Pakhtunkhwa</a>)</small> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><span data-sort-value="7010410000000000000♠"></span>41,000<br />(16,000) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">2,125 </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Chief Commissioner </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Princely_states">Princely states</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Princely_state" title="Princely state">Princely state</a></div> <p>A Princely State, also called a Native State or an Indian State, was a British <a href="/wiki/Vassal_state" title="Vassal state">vassal state</a> in India with an indigenous nominal Indian ruler, subject to a <a href="/wiki/Subsidiary_alliance" title="Subsidiary alliance">subsidiary alliance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Markovits2004_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markovits2004-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were 565 princely states when India and Pakistan became independent from Britain in August 1947. The princely states did not form a part of <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a> (i.e. the presidencies and provinces), as they were not directly under British rule. The larger ones had treaties with Britain that specified which rights the princes had; in the smaller ones the princes had few rights. Within the princely states external affairs, defence and most communications were under British control.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The British also exercised a general influence over the states' internal politics, in part through the granting or withholding of recognition of individual rulers. Although there were nearly 600 princely states, the great majority were very small and contracted out the business of government to the British. Some two hundred of the states had an area of less than 25 square kilometres (10 square miles).<sup id="cite_ref-Markovits2004_154-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markovits2004-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last vestige of the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> in Delhi which was under <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">Company</a> authority prior to the advent of British Raj was finally abolished and seized by the <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">Crown</a> in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Sepoy Mutiny of 1857</a> for its support to the rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The princely states were grouped into <a href="/wiki/Agencies_of_British_India" title="Agencies of British India">agencies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Residencies_of_British_India" title="Residencies of British India">residencies</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organisation">Organisation</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1stViscountHalifax.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/1stViscountHalifax.jpg/170px-1stViscountHalifax.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/1stViscountHalifax.jpg/255px-1stViscountHalifax.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/1stViscountHalifax.jpg/340px-1stViscountHalifax.jpg 2x" data-file-width="413" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wood,_1st_Viscount_Halifax" title="Charles Wood, 1st Viscount Halifax">Sir Charles Wood</a> (1800–1885) was <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Board_of_Control" title="President of the Board of Control">President of the Board of Control</a> of the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a> from 1852 to 1855; he shaped British education policy in India, and was <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_India" title="Secretary of State for India">Secretary of State for India</a> from 1859 to 1866.</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a> (usually called the Indian Mutiny by the British), the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1858" title="Government of India Act 1858">Government of India Act 1858</a> made changes in the governance of India at three levels: </p> <ol><li>in the imperial government in London,</li> <li>in the central government in <a href="/wiki/Calcutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcutta">Calcutta</a>, and</li> <li>in the provincial governments in the presidencies (and later in the provinces).<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>In London, it provided for a cabinet-level <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_India" title="Secretary of State for India">Secretary of State for India</a> and a fifteen-member <a href="/wiki/Council_of_India" title="Council of India">Council of India</a>, whose members were required, as one prerequisite of membership, to have spent at least ten years in India and to have done so no more than ten years before.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the secretary of state formulated the policy instructions to be communicated to India, he was required in most instances to consult the Council, but especially so in matters relating to spending of Indian revenues. The Act envisaged a system of "double government" in which the Council ideally served both as a check on excesses in imperial policy-making and as a body of up-to-date expertise on India. However, the secretary of state also had special emergency powers that allowed him to make unilateral decisions, and, in reality, the Council's expertise was sometimes outdated.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1858 until 1947, twenty-seven individuals served as Secretary of State for India and directed the <a href="/wiki/India_Office" title="India Office">India Office</a>; these included: Sir <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wood,_1st_Viscount_Halifax" title="Charles Wood, 1st Viscount Halifax">Charles Wood</a> (1859–1866), the <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil,_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">Marquess of Salisbury</a> (1874–1878; later British prime minister), <a href="/wiki/John_Morley" title="John Morley">John Morley</a> (1905–1910; initiator of the <a href="/wiki/Minto%E2%80%93Morley_Reforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Minto–Morley Reforms">Minto–Morley Reforms</a>), <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Montagu" title="Edwin Montagu">E. S. Montagu</a> (1917–1922; an architect of the <a href="/wiki/Montagu%E2%80%93Chelmsford_Reforms" title="Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms">Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Pethick-Lawrence" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Pethick-Lawrence">Frederick Pethick-Lawrence</a> (1945–1947; head of the <a href="/wiki/1946_Cabinet_Mission_to_India" title="1946 Cabinet Mission to India">1946 Cabinet Mission to India</a>). The size of the Advisory Council was reduced over the next half-century, but its powers remained unchanged. In 1907, for the first time, two Indians were appointed to the Council.<sup id="cite_ref-moore-426_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moore-426-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were <a href="/wiki/K.G._Gupta" class="mw-redirect" title="K.G. Gupta">K.G. Gupta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syed_Hussain_Bilgrami" title="Syed Hussain Bilgrami">Syed Hussain Bilgrami</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lord_Viscount_Canning.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Lord_Viscount_Canning.jpg/170px-Lord_Viscount_Canning.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Lord_Viscount_Canning.jpg/255px-Lord_Viscount_Canning.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Lord_Viscount_Canning.jpg/340px-Lord_Viscount_Canning.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1778" data-file-height="2423" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lord_Canning" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Canning">Lord Canning</a>, the last <a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_India" title="Governor-General of India">Governor-General of India</a> under <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">Company rule</a> and the first <a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroy of India">viceroy of India</a> under Crown rule</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert-Gascoyne-Cecil-3rd-Marquess-of-Salisbury_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Robert-Gascoyne-Cecil-3rd-Marquess-of-Salisbury_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Robert-Gascoyne-Cecil-3rd-Marquess-of-Salisbury_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Robert-Gascoyne-Cecil-3rd-Marquess-of-Salisbury_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Robert-Gascoyne-Cecil-3rd-Marquess-of-Salisbury_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Robert-Gascoyne-Cecil-3rd-Marquess-of-Salisbury_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Robert-Gascoyne-Cecil-3rd-Marquess-of-Salisbury_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2233" data-file-height="3182" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil,_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">Lord Salisbury</a> was <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_India" title="Secretary of State for India">Secretary of State for India</a> from 1874 to 1878.</figcaption></figure> <p>In Calcutta, the <a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_India" title="Governor-General of India">governor-general</a> remained head of the Government of India and now was more commonly called the viceroy on account of his secondary role as the Crown's representative to the nominally sovereign princely states; he was, however, now responsible to the secretary of state in London and through him to Parliament. A system of "double government" had already been in place during the Company's rule in India from the time of Pitt's <a href="/wiki/Pitt%27s_India_Act" title="Pitt's India Act">India Act of 1784</a>. The governor-general in the capital, Calcutta, and the governor in a subordinate presidency (<a href="/wiki/Madras_Presidency" title="Madras Presidency">Madras</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bombay_Presidency" title="Bombay Presidency">Bombay</a>) was each required to consult his advisory council; executive orders in Calcutta, for example, were issued in the name of "Governor-General-in-Council" (<i>i.e.</i> the Governor-General with the advice of the Council). The Company's system of "double government" had its critics, since, from the time of the system's inception, there had been intermittent feuding between the governor-general and his Council; still, the Act of 1858 made no major changes in governance.<sup id="cite_ref-moore-426_160-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moore-426-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in the years immediately thereafter, which were also the years of post-rebellion reconstruction, Viceroy <a href="/wiki/Charles_Canning,_1st_Earl_Canning" title="Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning">Lord Canning</a> found the collective decision making of the Council to be too time-consuming for the pressing tasks ahead, so he requested the "portfolio system" of an <a href="/wiki/Executive_Council_(Commonwealth_countries)" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive Council (Commonwealth countries)">Executive Council</a> in which the business of each government department (the "portfolio") was assigned to and became the responsibility of a single council member.<sup id="cite_ref-moore-426_160-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moore-426-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Routine departmental decisions were made exclusively by the member, but important decisions required the consent of the governor-general and, in the absence of such consent, required discussion by the entire Executive Council. This innovation in Indian governance was promulgated in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Councils_Act_1861" title="Indian Councils Act 1861">Indian Councils Act 1861</a>. </p><p>If the Government of India needed to enact new laws, the Councils Act allowed for a Legislative Council—an expansion of the Executive Council by up to twelve additional members, each appointed to a two-year term—with half the members consisting of British officials of the government (termed <i>official</i>) and allowed to vote, and the other half, comprising Indians and domiciled <a href="/wiki/Britons_in_India" title="Britons in India">Britons in India</a> (termed <i>non-official</i>) and serving only in an advisory capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All laws enacted by Legislative Councils in India, whether by the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Legislative_Council" title="Imperial Legislative Council">Imperial Legislative Council</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kolkata" title="Kolkata">Calcutta</a> or by the provincial ones in <a href="/wiki/Chennai" title="Chennai">Madras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Bombay</a>, required the final assent of the secretary of state in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>; this prompted Sir Charles Wood, the second secretary of state, to describe the Government of India as "a despotism controlled from home".<sup id="cite_ref-moore-426_160-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moore-426-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, although the appointment of Indians to the Legislative Council was a response to calls after the 1857 rebellion, most notably by <a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Ahmad_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayyid Ahmad Khan">Sayyid Ahmad Khan</a>, for more consultation with Indians, the Indians so appointed were from the landed aristocracy, often chosen for their loyalty, and far from representative.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even so, the "...  tiny advances in the practice of representative government were intended to provide safety valves for the expression of public opinion, which had been so badly misjudged before the rebellion".<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indian affairs now also came to be more closely examined in the British Parliament and more widely discussed in the British press.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the promulgation of the Government of India Act 1935, the Council of India was abolished with effect from 1 April 1937 and a modified system of government enacted. The secretary of state for India represented the Government of India in the UK. He was assisted by a body of advisers numbering from 8–12 individuals, at least half of whom were required to have held office in India for a minimum of 10 years, and had not relinquished office earlier than two years prior to their appointment as advisers to the secretary of state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947103–105"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947103–105"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The viceroy and governor-general of India, a Crown appointee, typically held office for five years though there was no fixed tenure, and received an annual salary of Rs. 250,800 <abbr title="per annum">p.a.</abbr> (£18,810 p.a.).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947103–105"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"_165-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947103–105"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947133–34"India_–_Currency,_Weights_and_Measures"_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947133–34"India_–_Currency,_Weights_and_Measures"-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He headed the Viceroy's Executive Council, each member of which had responsibility for a department of the central administration. From 1 April 1937, the position of Governor-General in Council, which the viceroy and governor-general concurrently held in the capacity of representing the Crown in relations with the Indian princely states, was replaced by the designation of "HM Representative for the Exercise of the Functions of the Crown in its Relations with the Indian States", or the "Crown Representative". The Executive Council was greatly expanded during the Second World War, and in 1947 comprised 14<span class="nowrap"> </span>members (<a href="/wiki/Secretary_to_the_Government_of_India" title="Secretary to the Government of India">secretaries</a>), each of whom earned a salary of Rs. 66,000 p.a. (£4,950 p.a.). </p><p>Until 1946, the viceroy held the portfolio for External Affairs and Commonwealth Relations, as well as heading the Political Department in his capacity as the Crown representative. Each department was headed by a <a href="/wiki/Secretary_to_the_Government_of_India" title="Secretary to the Government of India">secretary</a> excepting the Railway Department, which was headed by a Chief Commissioner of Railways under a secretary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947106–107"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947106–107"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The viceroy and governor-general was also the head of the bicameral Indian Legislature, consisting of an upper house (the Council of State) and a lower house (the Legislative Assembly). The viceroy was the head of the Council of State, while the Legislative Assembly, which was first opened in 1921, was headed by an elected president (appointed by the Viceroy from 1921 to 1925). The Council of State consisted of 58<span class="nowrap"> </span>members (32<span class="nowrap"> </span>elected, 26<span class="nowrap"> </span>nominated), while the Legislative Assembly comprised 141<span class="nowrap"> </span>members (26<span class="nowrap"> </span>nominated officials, 13<span class="nowrap"> </span>others nominated and 102<span class="nowrap"> </span>elected). The Council of State existed in five-year periods and the Legislative Assembly for three-year periods, though either could be dissolved earlier or later by the Viceroy. The Indian Legislature was empowered to make laws for all persons resident in British India including all British subjects resident in India, and for all British Indian subjects residing outside India. With the assent of the King-Emperor and after copies of a proposed enactment had been submitted to both houses of the British Parliament, the Viceroy could overrule the legislature and directly enact any measures in the perceived interests of British India or its residents if the need arose.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947106–107"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"_167-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947106–107"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Effective from 1 April 1936, the Government of India Act created the new provinces of Sind (separated from the Bombay Presidency) and Orissa (separated from the Province of Bihar and Orissa). Burma and Aden became separate Crown Colonies under the Act from 1 April 1937, thereby ceasing to be part of the Indian Empire. From 1937 onwards, British India was divided into 17 administrations: the three Presidencies of Madras, Bombay and Bengal, and the 14 provinces of the United Provinces, Punjab, Bihar, the Central Provinces and Berar, Assam, the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), Orissa, Sind, British Baluchistan, Delhi, Ajmer-Merwara, Coorg, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Panth Piploda. The Presidencies and the first eight provinces were each under a governor, while the latter six provinces were each under a chief commissioner. The viceroy directly governed the chief commissioner provinces through each respective chief commissioner, while the Presidencies and the provinces under governors were allowed greater autonomy under the Government of India Act.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947104–105,_108"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947104–105,_108"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each Presidency or province headed by a governor had either a provincial bicameral legislature (in the Presidencies, the United Provinces, Bihar and Assam) or a unicameral legislature (in the Punjab, Central Provinces and Berar, NWFP, Orissa and Sind). The governor of each presidency or province represented the Crown in his capacity, and was assisted by a ministers appointed from the members of each provincial legislature. Each provincial legislature had a life of five years, barring any special circumstances such as wartime conditions. All bills passed by the provincial legislature were either signed or rejected by the governor, who could also issue proclamations or promulgate ordinances while the legislature was in recess, as the need arose.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947108"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947108"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each province or presidency comprised a number of divisions, each headed by a <a href="/wiki/Divisional_commissioner_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Divisional commissioner (India)">commissioner</a> and subdivided into districts, which were the basic administrative units and each headed by a <a href="/wiki/District_collector_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="District collector (India)">district magistrate, collector or deputy commissioner</a>; in 1947, British India comprised 230 districts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947108"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"_169-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947108"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_India_under_the_British_Raj" title="Economy of India under the British Raj">Economy of India under the British Raj</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">Economic history of India</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_trends">Economic trends</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:India_1862_One_Mohur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/India_1862_One_Mohur.jpg/220px-India_1862_One_Mohur.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/India_1862_One_Mohur.jpg/330px-India_1862_One_Mohur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/India_1862_One_Mohur.jpg/440px-India_1862_One_Mohur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4954" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>One <a href="/wiki/Mohur" title="Mohur">Mohur</a> depicting <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> (1862)</figcaption></figure> <p>All three sectors of the economy—agriculture, manufacturing, and services—accelerated in the postcolonial India. In agriculture a huge increase in production took place in the 1870s. The most important difference between colonial and postcolonial India was the use of land surplus with productivity-led growth by using high-yielding variety seeds, chemical fertilizers and more intensive application of water. All these three inputs were subsidised by the state.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result was, on average, no long-term change in per capita income levels, though cost of living had grown higher. Agriculture was still dominant, with most peasants at the subsistence level. Extensive irrigation systems were built, providing an impetus for switching to cash crops for export and for raw materials for Indian industry, especially jute, cotton, sugarcane, coffee and tea.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> India's global share of GDP fell drastically from above 20% to less than 5% in the colonial period.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians have been bitterly divided on issues of economic history, with the Nationalist school (following Nehru) arguing that India was poorer at the end of British rule than at the beginning and that impoverishment occurred because of the British.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mike Davis writes that much of the economic activity in British India was for the benefit of the British economy and was carried out relentlessly through repressive British imperial policies and with negative repercussions for the Indian population. This is reified in India's large exports of wheat to Britain: despite a major famine that claimed between 6 and 10<span class="nowrap"> </span>million lives in the late 1870s, these exports remained unchecked. A colonial government committed to laissez-faire economics refused to interfere with these exports or provide any relief.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Industry">Industry</h4></div> <p>With the end of the state-granted monopoly of the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Trading_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="East India Trading Company">East India Trading Company</a> in 1813, the importation into India of British manufactured goods, including <a href="/wiki/Textile_manufacturing" title="Textile manufacturing">finished textiles</a>, increased dramatically, from approximately 1 million yards of cotton cloth in 1814 to 13 million in 1820, 995 million in 1870, to 2050 million by 1890. The British imposed "<a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a>" on India, while continental Europe and the United States erected <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">stiff tariff</a> barriers ranging from 30% to 70% on the importation of cotton yarn or prohibited it entirely. As a result of the <a href="/wiki/Infant_industry_argument" title="Infant industry argument">less expensive imports from more industrialized</a> Britain, India's most significant industrial sector, <a href="/wiki/Textile_industry_in_India" title="Textile industry in India">textile production</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deindustrialization" title="Deindustrialization">shrank</a>, such that by 1870–1880 Indian producers were manufacturing only 25%–45% of local consumption. Deindustrialization of India's <a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">iron industry</a> was even more extensive during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jamsetji_Tata" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamsetji Tata">Jamsetji Tata</a> (1839–1904) began his industrial career in 1877 with the Central India Spinning, Weaving, and Manufacturing Company in Bombay. While other Indian mills produced cheap coarse yarn (and later cloth) using local short-staple cotton and cheap machinery imported from Britain, Tata did much better by importing expensive longer-stapled cotton from Egypt and buying more complex ring-spindle machinery from the United States to spin finer yarn that could compete with imports from Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-dnb_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dnb-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1890s, he launched plans to move into heavy industry using Indian funding. The Raj did not provide capital, but, aware of Britain's declining position against the US and Germany in the steel industry, it wanted steel mills in India. It promised to purchase any surplus steel Tata could not otherwise sell.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Tata_Steel" title="Tata Steel">Tata Iron and Steel Company</a> (TISCO), now headed by his son <a href="/wiki/Dorabji_Tata" title="Dorabji Tata">Dorabji Tata</a> (1859–1932), began constructing its plant at Jamshedpur in Bihar in 1908, using American technology, not British.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeadrick1988291–92_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeadrick1988291–92-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <i>The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</i>, TISCO became the leading iron and steel producer in India, and "a symbol of Indian technical skill, managerial competence, and entrepreneurial flair".<sup id="cite_ref-dnb_176-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dnb-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Tata family, like most of India's big businessmen, were Indian nationalists but did not trust the Congress because it seemed too aggressively hostile to the Raj, too socialist, and too supportive of trade unions.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Railways">Railways</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_India#History" title="Rail transport in India">Rail transport in India § History</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IndianRailways1871b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/IndianRailways1871b.jpg/220px-IndianRailways1871b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/IndianRailways1871b.jpg/330px-IndianRailways1871b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/IndianRailways1871b.jpg/440px-IndianRailways1871b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1018" data-file-height="1331" /></a><figcaption>The railway network of India in 1871, all major cities, Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, as well as Delhi, are connected.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:India_railways1909a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/India_railways1909a.jpg/220px-India_railways1909a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/India_railways1909a.jpg/330px-India_railways1909a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/India_railways1909a.jpg/440px-India_railways1909a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1322" data-file-height="1103" /></a><figcaption>The railway network of India in 1909, when it was the fourth largest railway network in the world</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Victoriaterminus1903.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Victoriaterminus1903.JPG/220px-Victoriaterminus1903.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Victoriaterminus1903.JPG/330px-Victoriaterminus1903.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Victoriaterminus1903.JPG/440px-Victoriaterminus1903.JPG 2x" data-file-width="976" data-file-height="493" /></a><figcaption>"The most magnificent railway station in the world", says the caption of the stereographic tourist picture of <a href="/wiki/Victoria_Terminus" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria Terminus">Victoria Terminus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bombay" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombay">Bombay</a>, which was completed in 1888.</figcaption></figure> <p>British India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century, which was the fourth largest in the world. At first the railways were privately owned and operated. They were run by British administrators, engineers and craftsmen. At first, only the unskilled workers were Indians.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The East India Company (and later the colonial government) encouraged new railway companies backed by private investors under a scheme that would provide land and guarantee an annual return of up to 5% during the initial years of operation. The companies were to build and operate the lines under a 99-year lease, with the government having the option to buy them earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-Bhandari_Chap1-2_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bhandari_Chap1-2-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two new railway companies, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Indian_Peninsular_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Indian Peninsular Railway">Great Indian Peninsular Railway</a> (GIPR) and the <a href="/wiki/East_Indian_Railway_Company" title="East Indian Railway Company">East Indian Railway Company</a> (EIR) began to construct and operate lines near Bombay and Calcutta in 1853–54. The first passenger railway line in North India, between Allahabad and Kanpur, opened in 1859. Eventually, five British companies came to own all railway business in India,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESatya200872_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESatya200872-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and operated under a <a href="/wiki/Profit_maximization" title="Profit maximization">profit maximization</a> scheme.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, there was no government regulation of these companies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESatya200872_182-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESatya200872-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1854, Governor-General <a href="/wiki/Lord_Dalhousie" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Dalhousie">Lord Dalhousie</a> formulated a plan to construct a network of trunk lines connecting the principal regions of India. Encouraged by the government guarantees, investment flowed in and a series of new rail companies was established, leading to rapid expansion of the rail system in India.<sup id="cite_ref-Thorner_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thorner-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon several large princely states built their own rail systems and the network spread to the regions that became the modern-day states of <a href="/wiki/Assam" title="Assam">Assam</a>, Rajasthan and <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a>. The route mileage of this network increased from 1,349 to 25,495 kilometres (838 to 15,842 mi) between 1860 and 1890, mostly radiating inland from the three major port cities of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta.<sup id="cite_ref-Hurd_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hurd-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Sepoy Rebellion in 1857, and subsequent Crown rule over India, the railways were seen as a strategic defense of the European population, allowing the military to move quickly to subdue native unrest and protect Britons.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The railway thus served as a tool of the colonial government to control India as they were "an essential strategic, defensive, subjugators and administrative 'tool<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>" for the Imperial Project.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of the railway construction was done by Indian companies supervised by British engineers.<sup id="cite_ref-Indian_railways_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indian_railways-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system was heavily built, using a broad gauge, sturdy tracks and strong bridges. By 1900 India had a full range of rail services with diverse ownership and management, operating on broad, metre and <a href="/wiki/Narrow_gauge" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrow gauge">narrow gauge</a> networks. In 1900, the government took over the GIPR network, while the company continued to manage it.<sup id="cite_ref-Indian_railways_188-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indian_railways-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the First World War, the railways were used to transport troops and grain to the ports of Bombay and Karachi en route to Britain, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> With shipments of equipment and parts from Britain curtailed, maintenance became much more difficult; critical workers entered the army; workshops were converted to making munitions; the locomotives, rolling stock, and track of some entire lines were shipped to the Middle East. The railways could barely keep up with the increased demand.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeadrick198878–79_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeadrick198878–79-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the war, the railways had deteriorated for lack of maintenance and were not profitable. In 1923, both GIPR and EIR were nationalised.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-h1_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-h1-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Headrick shows that until the 1930s, both the Raj lines and the private companies hired only European supervisors, civil engineers, and even operating personnel, such as locomotive engineers. The hard physical labor was left to the Indians. The colonial government was chiefly concerned with the welfare of European workers, and any Indian deaths were "either ignored or merely mentioned as a cold statistical figure."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESatya200873_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESatya200873-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government's Stores Policy required that bids on railway contracts be made to the India Office in London, shutting out most Indian firms.<sup id="cite_ref-h1_191-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-h1-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The railway companies purchased most of their hardware and parts in Britain. There were railway maintenance workshops in India, but they were rarely allowed to manufacture or repair locomotives.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeadrick198881–82_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeadrick198881–82-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After independence in 1947, forty-two separate railway systems, including thirty-two lines owned by the former Indian princely states, were amalgamated to form a single nationalised unit named the <i>Indian Railways</i>. </p><p>India provides an example of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> pouring its money and expertise into a very well-built system designed for military purposes (after the Rebellion of 1857), in the hope that it would stimulate industry. The system was overbuilt and too expensive for the small amount of freight traffic it carried. Christensen (1996), who looked at colonial purpose, local needs, capital, service, and private-versus-public interests, concluded that making the railways a creature of the state hindered success because railway expenses had to go through the same time-consuming and political budgeting process as did all other state expenses. Railway costs could therefore not be tailored to the current needs of the railways or of their passengers.<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Irrigation">Irrigation</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Irrigation_in_India" title="Irrigation in India">Irrigation in India</a></div> <p>The British Raj invested heavily in infrastructure, including canals and irrigation systems.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ganges Canal reached 560 kilometres (350 miles) from Haridwar to Cawnpore (now Kanpur), and supplied thousands of kilometres of distribution canals. By 1900 the Raj had the largest irrigation system in the world. One success story was Assam, a jungle in 1840 that by 1900 had 1,600,000 hectares (4,000,000 acres) under cultivation, especially in tea plantations. In all, the amount of irrigated land rose eightfold. Historian <a href="/wiki/Sir_David_Gilmour,_4th_Baronet" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir David Gilmour, 4th Baronet">David Gilmour</a> says:<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>By the 1870s the peasantry in the districts irrigated by the Ganges Canal were visibly better fed, housed and dressed than before; by the end of the century the new network of canals in the Punjab had produced an even more prosperous peasantry there.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_impact_of_the_Raj">Economic impact of the Raj</h3></div> <p>Historians continue to debate whether the long-term intention of British rule was to accelerate the economic development of India, or to distort and delay it. In 1780, the conservative British politician <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a> raised the issue of India's position: he vehemently attacked the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a>, claiming that <a href="/wiki/Warren_Hastings" title="Warren Hastings">Warren Hastings</a> and other top officials had ruined the Indian economy and society. Indian historian Rajat Kanta Ray (1998) continues this line of attack, saying the new economy brought by the British in the 18th century was a form of "plunder" and a catastrophe for the traditional economy of the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-British_expansion_in_India_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-British_expansion_in_India-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ray accuses the British of depleting the food and money stocks and of imposing high taxes that helped cause the terrible <a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1770" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengal famine of 1770">Bengal famine of 1770</a>, which killed a third of the people of Bengal.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/P._J._Marshall" title="P. J. Marshall">P. J. Marshall</a> shows that recent scholarship has reinterpreted the view that the prosperity of the formerly benign Mughal rule gave way to poverty and anarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-Impact_of_British_Rule_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Impact_of_British_Rule-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argues the British takeover did not make any sharp break with the past, which largely delegated control to regional Mughal rulers and sustained a generally prosperous economy for the rest of the 18th century. Marshall notes the British went into partnership with Indian bankers and raised revenue through local tax administrators and kept the old Mughal rates of taxation. </p><p>The East India Company inherited an onerous taxation system that took one-third of the produce of Indian cultivators.<sup id="cite_ref-British_expansion_in_India_198-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-British_expansion_in_India-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead of the Indian nationalist account of the British as alien aggressors, seizing power by brute force and impoverishing all of India, Marshall presents the interpretation (supported by many scholars in India and the West) that the British were not in full control but instead were players in what was primarily an Indian play and in which their rise to power depended upon excellent co-operation with Indian elites.<sup id="cite_ref-Impact_of_British_Rule_200-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Impact_of_British_Rule-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marshall admits that much of his interpretation is still highly controversial among many historians.<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demography">Demography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_India" title="Demographics of India">Demographics of India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Myanmar" title="Demographics of Myanmar">Demographics of Myanmar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Pakistan" title="Demographics of Pakistan">Demographics of Pakistan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Bangladesh" title="Demographics of Bangladesh">Demographics of Bangladesh</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Census_of_British_India_by_religion,_1921.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Census_of_British_India_by_religion%2C_1921.jpg/220px-Census_of_British_India_by_religion%2C_1921.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Census_of_British_India_by_religion%2C_1921.jpg/330px-Census_of_British_India_by_religion%2C_1921.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Census_of_British_India_by_religion%2C_1921.jpg/440px-Census_of_British_India_by_religion%2C_1921.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5640" data-file-height="2106" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Census_in_British_India" title="Census in British India">1921 census of British India</a> shows 69 million Muslims and 217 million Hindus out of a total population of 316 million.</figcaption></figure> <p>The population of the territory that became the British Raj was 100<span class="nowrap"> </span>million by 1600 and remained nearly stationary until the 19th century. The population of the Raj reached 255<span class="nowrap"> </span>million according to the first census taken in 1881 of India.<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Studies of India's population since 1881 have focused on such topics as total population, birth and death rates, growth rates, geographic distribution, literacy, the rural and urban divide, cities of a<span class="nowrap"> </span>million, and the three cities with populations over eight<span class="nowrap"> </span>million: <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>, Greater <a href="/wiki/Bombay" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombay">Bombay</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Calcutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcutta">Calcutta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mortality rates fell in the 1920–1945 era, primarily due to biological immunisation. Other factors included rising incomes and better living conditions, improved nutrition, a safer and cleaner environment, and better official health policies and medical care.<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Severe overcrowding in the cities caused major public health problems, as noted in an official report from 1938:<sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>In the urban and industrial areas ... cramped sites, the high values of land and the necessity for the worker to live in the vicinity of his work ... all tend to intensify congestion and overcrowding. In the busiest centres houses are built close together, eave touching eave, and frequently back to back .... Space is so valuable that, in place of streets and roads, winding lanes provide the only approach to the houses. Neglect of sanitation is often evidenced by heaps of rotting garbage and pools of sewage, whilst the absence of latrines enhance the general pollution of air and soil.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Famines,_epidemics,_and_public_health"><span id="Famines.2C_epidemics.2C_and_public_health"></span>Famines, epidemics, and public health</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Famine_in_India#British_rule" title="Famine in India">Famine in India § British rule</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_major_famines_in_India_during_British_rule" title="Timeline of major famines in India during British rule">Timeline of major famines in India during British rule</a></div> <p>During the British Raj, India experienced <a href="/wiki/Famine_in_India" title="Famine in India">a large number of major famines</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%931878" title="Great Famine of 1876–1878">Great Famine of 1876–1878</a>, in which 6.1 million to 10.39 million Indians perished<sup id="cite_ref-mikedavis_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mikedavis-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_famine_of_1899%E2%80%931900" title="Indian famine of 1899–1900">Indian famine of 1899–1900</a>, in which 1.25 to 10 million Indians perished.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bengal_famine_1943_photo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Bengal_famine_1943_photo.jpg/220px-Bengal_famine_1943_photo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Bengal_famine_1943_photo.jpg/330px-Bengal_famine_1943_photo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Bengal_famine_1943_photo.jpg/440px-Bengal_famine_1943_photo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="763" data-file-height="571" /></a><figcaption>Child who starved to death during the <a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine of 1943</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/1817%E2%80%931824_cholera_pandemic" title="1817–1824 cholera pandemic">first cholera pandemic</a> began in <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a>, then spread across India by 1820. Ten<span class="nowrap"> </span>thousand British troops and countless Indians died during this <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Estimated deaths in India between 1817 and 1860 exceeded 15 million. Another 23 million died between 1865 and 1917.<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic" title="Third plague pandemic">Third plague pandemic</a> which started in China in the middle of the 19th century, eventually spread to all inhabited continents and killed 10 million Indians in India alone.<sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Waldemar_Haffkine" title="Waldemar Haffkine">Waldemar Haffkine</a>, who mainly worked in India, became the first <a href="/wiki/Microbiologist" title="Microbiologist">microbiologist</a> to develop and deploy <a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">vaccines</a> against cholera and bubonic plague. In 1925 the Plague Laboratory in Bombay was renamed the <a href="/wiki/Haffkine_Institute" title="Haffkine Institute">Haffkine Institute</a>. </p><p>Fevers ranked as one of the leading causes of death in India in the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Britain's <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Ross" title="Ronald Ross">Sir Ronald Ross</a>, working in the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_General_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidency General Hospital">Presidency General Hospital</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kolkata" title="Kolkata">Calcutta</a>, finally proved in 1898 that mosquitoes transmit <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, while on assignment in the Deccan at Secunderabad, where the Centre for Tropical and Communicable Diseases is now named in his honour.<sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1881 there were around 120,000 <a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">leprosy</a> patients. The central government passed the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_Federal_Legislation" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Indian Federal Legislation">Lepers Act of 1898</a>, which provided legal provision for forcible confinement of people with leprosy in India.<sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the direction of <a href="/wiki/Mountstuart_Elphinstone" title="Mountstuart Elphinstone">Mountstuart Elphinstone</a> a program was launched to propagate <a href="/wiki/Smallpox_vaccine" title="Smallpox vaccine">smallpox vaccination</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mass vaccination in India resulted in a major decline in smallpox mortality by the end of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1849 nearly 13% of all Calcutta deaths were due to <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1868 and 1907, there were approximately 4.7 million deaths from smallpox.<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sir <a href="/wiki/Robert_Grant_(MP)" title="Robert Grant (MP)">Robert Grant</a> directed his attention to establishing a systematic institution in Bombay for imparting medical knowledge to the natives.<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1860, <a href="/wiki/Grant_Medical_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Grant Medical College">Grant Medical College</a> became one of the four recognised colleges for teaching courses leading to degrees (alongside <a href="/wiki/Elphinstone_College" title="Elphinstone College">Elphinstone College</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deccan_College_(Pune)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deccan College (Pune)">Deccan College</a> and <a href="/wiki/Government_Law_College,_Mumbai" title="Government Law College, Mumbai">Government Law College, Mumbai</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Impact_of_British_Rule_200-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Impact_of_British_Rule-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education">Education</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lucknowuniversity.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Lucknowuniversity.jpg/220px-Lucknowuniversity.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Lucknowuniversity.jpg/330px-Lucknowuniversity.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Lucknowuniversity.jpg/440px-Lucknowuniversity.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Lucknow" title="University of Lucknow">University of Lucknow</a>, founded by the British in 1867</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calcuttamedicalcollege1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Calcuttamedicalcollege1.jpg/260px-Calcuttamedicalcollege1.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Calcuttamedicalcollege1.jpg/390px-Calcuttamedicalcollege1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Calcuttamedicalcollege1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="297" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Calcutta" title="University of Calcutta">University of Calcutta</a>, established in 1857, is one of the three oldest modern <a href="/wiki/State_university_(India)" title="State university (India)">state universities</a> in India.</figcaption></figure> <p>Universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras were established in 1857, just before the Rebellion. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated, chiefly in the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts_education" title="Liberal arts education">liberal arts</a> or law. About a third entered public administration, and another third became lawyers. The result was a very well educated professional state bureaucracy. By 1887 of 21,000 mid-level civil services appointments, 45% were held by Hindus, 7% by Muslims, 19% by Eurasians (European father and Indian mother), and 29% by Europeans. Of the 1000 top-level civil services positions, almost all were held by Britons, typically with an <a href="/wiki/Oxbridge" title="Oxbridge">Oxbridge</a> degree.<sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government, often working with local philanthropists, opened 186<span class="nowrap"> </span>universities and colleges of higher education by 1911; they enrolled 36,000 students (over 90% men). By 1939 the number of institutions had doubled and enrolment reached 145,000. The curriculum followed classical British standards of the sort set by Oxford and Cambridge and stressed English literature and European history. Nevertheless, by the 1920s the student bodies had become hotbeds of Indian nationalism.<sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">Colonial India</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:India,_by_British_Information_Services,_1944_restored_version.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Colonial India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/India%2C_by_British_Information_Services%2C_1944_restored_version.jpg/250px-India%2C_by_British_Information_Services%2C_1944_restored_version.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="375" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/India%2C_by_British_Information_Services%2C_1944_restored_version.jpg/375px-India%2C_by_British_Information_Services%2C_1944_restored_version.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/India%2C_by_British_Information_Services%2C_1944_restored_version.jpg/500px-India%2C_by_British_Information_Services%2C_1944_restored_version.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5839" data-file-height="8748" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Map of colonial <i>India</i>, distributed by the <a href="/wiki/British_Information_Services" title="British Information Services">British Information Services</a> (1942)</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:85%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Austrian_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian India">Austrian India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:left;"> 1778–1785</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:85%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Swedish_East_India_Company" title="Swedish East India Company">Swedish India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:left;"> 1731–1813</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:85%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_India" title="Dutch India">Dutch India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:left;"> 1605–1825</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:85%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Danish_India" title="Danish India">Danish India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:left;"> 1620–1869</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:85%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India">French India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:left;"> 1668–1954</td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">(1505–1961)</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:85%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Casa_da_%C3%8Dndia" title="Casa da Índia">Casa da Índia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:left;"> 1434–1833</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:85%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_East_India_Company" title="Portuguese East India Company">Portuguese East India Company</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:left;"> 1628–1633</td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Presidencies_and_provinces_of_British_India" title="Presidencies and provinces of British India">British India</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="nobold">(1600–1947)</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:85%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">EIC in India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:left;"> 1600–1757</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:85%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">Company rule in India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:left;"> 1757–1858</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:85%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Portuguese_India" title="British rule in Portuguese India">British rule in Portuguese India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:left;"> 1797–1813</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:85%;text-align:left;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">British Raj in India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:left;"> 1858–1947</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:85%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma" title="British rule in Burma">British rule in Burma</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:left;"> 1824–1948</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:85%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Princely_state" title="Princely state">Princely states</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:left;"> 1721–1949</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:85%;text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:left;"> 1947</td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="padding-bottom:0.5em; font-size:130%;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Asia">History of South Asia</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:South_Asia_(orthographic_projection)_without_national_boundaries.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="South Asia (orthographic projection)"><img alt="South Asia (orthographic projection)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg/150px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg/225px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg/300px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history" title="Outline of South Asian history">Outline</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age" title="South Asian Stone Age">Palaeolithic</a> <span class="nobold">(2,500,000–250,000 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Madrasian_culture" title="Madrasian culture">Madrasian culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Soanian" title="Soanian">Soanian culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age" title="South Asian Stone Age">Neolithic</a> <span class="nobold">(10,800–3300 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bhirrana" title="Bhirrana">Bhirrana culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (7570–6200 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (7000–3300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Edakkal_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Edakkal Caves">Edakkal culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (5000–3000 BC)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a> <span class="nobold">(3500–1500 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Anarta_tradition" title="Anarta tradition">Anarta tradition</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3950</span>–1900 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ahar%E2%80%93Banas_culture" title="Ahar–Banas culture">Ahar-Banas culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (3000–1500 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pandu_culture" title="Pandu culture">Pandu culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1600–750 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malwa_culture" title="Malwa culture">Malwa culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1600–1300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Jorwe_culture" title="Jorwe culture">Jorwe culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1400–700 BC)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_India" title="Bronze Age India">Bronze Age</a> <span class="nobold">(3300–1300 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(3300–1300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Early_Harappan" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Early Harappan culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(3300–2600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Mature_Harappan" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Mature Harappan culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(2600–1900 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" title="Cemetery H culture">Late Harappan culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1900–1300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic Civilisation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(2000–500 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture" title="Ochre Coloured Pottery culture">Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(2000–1600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">Swat culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1600–500 BC)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_in_India" title="Iron Age in India">Iron Age</a> <span class="nobold">(1500–200 BC)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic Civilisation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1500–500 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Janapada" title="Janapada">Janapadas</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1500–600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Black_and_red_ware" title="Black and red ware">Black and Red ware culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1300–1000 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1200–600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (700–200 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pradyota_dynasty" title="Pradyota dynasty">Pradyota dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (799–684 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (684–424 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Three_Crowned_Kings" title="Three Crowned Kings">Three Crowned Kingdoms</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600 BC</span> – AD 1600)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Maha Janapadas</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600</span>–300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (550–330 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> Ror Dynasty</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (450 BC – 489 AD)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (424–345 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (380–321 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (330–323 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (321–184 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (312–303 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 AD</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span> – AD 1345)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span> – AD 1102)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span> – AD 1279)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pallava_dynasty" title="Pallava dynasty">Pallava Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250 AD</span> – AD 800)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mahameghavahana_dynasty" title="Mahameghavahana dynasty">Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250 BC</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> AD 500</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (247 BC – AD 224)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">Middle Kingdoms</a> <span class="nobold">(230 BC – AD 1206)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (230 BC – AD 220)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kuninda_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuninda Kingdom">Kuninda Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (200 BC – AD 300)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mitra_dynasty_(Mathura)" title="Mitra dynasty (Mathura)">Mitra Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 150</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 50 BC</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (185–73 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (180 BC – AD 10)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kanva_dynasty" title="Kanva dynasty">Kanva Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (75–26 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Indo-Scythian Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (50 BC – AD 400)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthian Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (AD 21 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 130</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Western_Satraps" title="Western Satraps">Western Satrap Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (AD 35–405 )</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (AD 60–240)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nagas_of_Padmavati" title="Nagas of Padmavati">Bharshiva Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (170–350)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nagas_of_Padmavati" title="Nagas of Padmavati">Nagas of Padmavati</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (210–340)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (224–651)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kushano-Sasanian_Kingdom" title="Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom">Indo-Sassanid Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (230–360)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vakataka_dynasty" title="Vakataka dynasty">Vakataka Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kalabhra_dynasty" title="Kalabhra dynasty">Kalabhras Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (280–550)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kadamba_dynasty" title="Kadamba dynasty">Kadamba Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (345–525)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Western_Ganga_dynasty" title="Western Ganga dynasty">Western Ganga Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (350–1000)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kamarupa" title="Kamarupa">Kamarupa Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (350–1100)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vishnukundina_dynasty" title="Vishnukundina dynasty">Vishnukundina Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (420–624)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maitraka_dynasty" title="Maitraka dynasty">Maitraka Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (475–767)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Huna_people" title="Huna people">Huna Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (475–576)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rai_dynasty" title="Rai dynasty">Rai Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (489–632)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Shahis" title="Hindu Shahis">Kabul Shahi Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500</span> – 1026)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (543–753)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maukhari_dynasty" title="Maukhari dynasty">Maukhari Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 550</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 700</span>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (606–647)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (618–841)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern Chalukya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (624–1075)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (632–661)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (650–1036)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (661–750)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mallabhum_kingdom" title="Mallabhum kingdom">Mallabhum kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (694–1947)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bhauma-Kara_dynasty" title="Bhauma-Kara dynasty">Bhauma-Kara Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (736–916)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (750–1174)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta dynasty">Rashtrakuta Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (753–982)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Paramara_dynasty" title="Paramara dynasty">Paramara Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (800–1327)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seuna_(Yadava)_dynasty" title="Seuna (Yadava) dynasty">Yadava Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (850–1334)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Somavamshi_dynasty" title="Somavamshi dynasty">Somavamshi Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (882–1110)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chaulukya_dynasty" title="Chaulukya dynasty">Chaulukya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (942–1244)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western Chalukya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (973–1189)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Lohara_dynasty" title="Lohara dynasty">Lohara Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1003–1320)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hoysala_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoysala Empire">Hoysala Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1040–1347)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sena_dynasty" title="Sena dynasty">Sena Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1070–1230)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ganga_dynasty" title="Eastern Ganga dynasty">Eastern Ganga Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1078–1434)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kakatiya_dynasty" title="Kakatiya dynasty">Kakatiya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1083–1323)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Zamorin" title="Zamorin">Zamorin Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1102–1766)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kalachuris_of_Tripuri" title="Kalachuris of Tripuri">Kalachuris of Tripuri</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (675–1210)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kalachuris_of_Kalyani" title="Kalachuris of Kalyani">Kalachuris of Kalyani</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1156–1184)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chutia_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Chutia Kingdom">Chutiya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1187–1673)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Deva_dynasty" title="Deva dynasty">Deva Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1300</span>)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Late medieval period</a> <span class="nobold">(1206–1526)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (977–1186)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1170–1206)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1206–1526)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Delhi)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)">Mamluk Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1206–1290)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Khalji_dynasty" title="Khalji dynasty">Khalji Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1290–1320)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Tughlaq_dynasty" title="Tughlaq dynasty">Tughlaq Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1320–1414)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Sayyid_dynasty" title="Sayyid dynasty">Sayyid Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1414–1451)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Lodi_dynasty" title="Lodi dynasty">Lodi Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1451–1526)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ahom_kingdom" title="Ahom kingdom">Ahom Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1228–1826)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nayakas_of_Chitradurga" title="Nayakas of Chitradurga">Chitradurga Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1300–1779)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Reddi_Kingdom" title="Reddi Kingdom">Reddy Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1325–1448)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1336–1646)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Sultanate" title="Bengal Sultanate">Bengal Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1352–1576)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Garhwal_Kingdom" title="Garhwal Kingdom">Garhwal Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1358–1803)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Mysore Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1399–1947)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gajapati_Empire" title="Gajapati Empire">Gajapati Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1434–1541)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Namgyal_dynasty_of_Ladakh" title="Namgyal dynasty of Ladakh">Ladakh Kingdom </a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1470–1842)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Deccan_sultanates" title="Deccan sultanates">Deccan sultanates</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1490–1596)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Ahmadnagar_Sultanate" title="Ahmadnagar Sultanate">Ahmadnagar Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1490–1636)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Berar_sultanate" title="Berar sultanate">Berar sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1490–1574)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Bidar_Sultanate" title="Bidar Sultanate">Bidar Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1492–1619)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Bijapur_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bijapur Sultanate">Bijapur Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1492–1686)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Golkonda_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Golkonda Sultanate">Golkonda Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1518–1687)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nayakas_of_Keladi" title="Nayakas of Keladi">Keladi Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1499–1763)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Koch_dynasty" title="Koch dynasty">Koch Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1515–1947)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a> <span class="nobold">(1526–1858)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1526–1858)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sur_Empire" title="Sur Empire">Sur Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1540–1556)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Madurai_Nayak_dynasty" title="Madurai Nayak dynasty">Madurai Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1529–1736)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Thanjavur_Nayak_kingdom" title="Thanjavur Nayak kingdom">Thanjavur Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1532–1673)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bhoi_dynasty" title="Bhoi dynasty">Bhoi dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1541–1804)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Subah" title="Bengal Subah">Bengal Subah</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1576–1757)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ramnad_estate" title="Ramnad estate">Marava Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1600–1750)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sikkim" title="Kingdom of Sikkim">Sikkim Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1642–1975)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tondaiman" title="Tondaiman">Thondaiman Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1650–1948)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1674–1818)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Misl" class="mw-redirect" title="Misl">Sikh Confederacy</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1707–1799)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Travancore" title="Travancore">Travancore Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1729–1947)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1799–1849)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">Colonial states</a> <span class="nobold">(1510–1961)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1510–1961)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_India" title="Dutch India">Dutch India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1605–1825)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Danish_India" title="Danish India">Danish India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1620–1869)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India">French India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1759–1954)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">Company Raj</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1757–1858)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">British Raj</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1858–1947)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)">National histories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan" title="History of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bangladesh" title="History of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bhutan" title="History of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India_(1947%E2%80%93present)" title="History of India (1947–present)">India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Maldives" title="History of the Maldives">Maldives</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nepal" title="History of Nepal">Nepal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pakistan" title="History of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sri_Lanka" title="History of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Regional histories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Assam" title="History of Assam">Assam</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Balochistan" title="History of Balochistan">Balochistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bengal" title="History of Bengal">Bengal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bihar" title="History of Bihar">Bihar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gujarat" title="History of Gujarat">Gujarat</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Himachal_Pradesh" title="History of Himachal Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kabul" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kabul">Kabul</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Karnataka" title="History of Karnataka">Karnataka</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kashmir" title="History of Kashmir">Kashmir</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa" title="History of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa">Khyber Pakhtunkhwa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rajasthan" title="History of Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maharashtra" title="History of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Uttar_Pradesh" title="History of Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Punjab" title="History of Punjab">Punjab</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Odisha" title="History of Odisha">Odisha</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sindh" title="History of Sindh">Sindh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_India" title="History of South India">South India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="History of Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tibet" title="History of Tibet">Tibet</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Specialised histories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of agriculture in the Indian subcontinent">Agriculture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_India" title="Architecture of India">Architecture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_India" title="Coinage of India">Coinage</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_India#History" title="Demographics of India">Demographics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_monarchs" title="List of Indian monarchs">Dynasties</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">Economy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of education in the Indian subcontinent">Education</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indology" title="Indology">Indology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indian_influence_on_Southeast_Asia" title="History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia">Influence on Southeast Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_history_of_India" title="Linguistic history of India">Language</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_literature" title="Indian literature">Literature</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">Maritime</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent">Metallurgy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_India" title="Military history of India">Military</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_studies" title="Pakistan studies">Pakistan studies</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_physical_culture" title="Indian physical culture">Physical culture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions#History" title="Indian religions">Religion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Science and technology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_South_Asian_history" title="Timeline of South Asian history">Timeline</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_South_Asia" title="Template:History of South Asia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_South_Asia" title="Template talk:History of South Asia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_South_Asia" 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.portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg/21px-British_Empire_1897.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg/32px-British_Empire_1897.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg/42px-British_Empire_1897.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1116" data-file-height="849" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:British_Empire" title="Portal:British Empire">British Empire</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/21px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/32px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/42px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:India" title="Portal:India">India</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/21px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/32px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/42px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Pakistan" title="Portal:Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg/21px-Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg/32px-Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg/42px-Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="307" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Bangladesh" title="Portal:Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li></ul></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 40em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">Colonial India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_colonial_rule" title="Direct colonial rule">Direct colonial rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_the_British_Raj" title="Glossary of the British Raj">Glossary of the British Raj</a> (Hindi-Urdu words)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_British_Empire" title="Historiography of the British Empire">Historiography of the British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislatures_of_British_India" title="Legislatures of British India">Legislatures of British India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors-general_of_India" title="List of governors-general of India">List of governors-general of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidiary_alliance" title="Subsidiary alliance">Subsidiary alliance</a>, the status of princely states</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_of_India_(flag)" class="mw-redirect" title="Star of India (flag)">Star of India flag used during the British Raj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flags_of_British_India" title="Flags of British India">Flags of British India</a></li></ul> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">a quasi-federation of <a href="/wiki/Presidencies_and_provinces_of_British_India" title="Presidencies and provinces of British India">presidencies and provinces</a> directly governed by <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">the British Crown</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Viceroy_and_Governor-General_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroy and Governor-General of India">Viceroy and Governor-General of India</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">governed by Indian rulers, under the <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerainty</a> of The British Crown exercised through the Viceroy of India)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Simla" class="mw-redirect" title="Simla">Simla</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Summer_capital" title="Summer capital">summer capital</a> of the Government of <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a>, not of the British Raj, i.e. the British Indian Empire, which included the <a href="/wiki/Princely_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Princely State">Princely States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-simla-summer-capital_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simla-summer-capital-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The proclamation for New Delhi to be the capital was made in 1911, but the city was inaugurated as the capital of the Raj in February 1931.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">English was the language of the courts and government.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Urdu was also given official status in large parts of northern India, as were vernaculars elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-lelyveld-hindustani_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lelyveld-hindustani-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dalby-andrew-hindi_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dalby-andrew-hindi-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hindi_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hindi-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-everaert-urdu-official_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-everaert-urdu-official-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dhir-urdu_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dhir-urdu-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-bayly-bentinck-era_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bayly-bentinck-era-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Outside northern India, the local vernaculars were used as official language in the lower courts and in government offices.<sup id="cite_ref-dhir-urdu_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dhir-urdu-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seated l. to r. are: Jiddhu Krisnamurthi, Besant, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Webster_Leadbeater" title="Charles Webster Leadbeater">Charles Webster Leadbeater</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The only other emperor during this period, <a href="/wiki/Edward_VIII" title="Edward VIII">Edward VIII</a> (reigned January to December 1936), did not issue any Indian currency under his name.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Interpretation_Act_1889-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Interpretation_Act_1889_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Interpretation_Act_1889_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Interpretation Act 1889 (52 & 53 Vict. c. 63), s. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-igi-calcutta-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-igi-calcutta_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?volume=9&objectid=DS405.1.I34_V09_266.gif">"Calcutta (<i>Kalikata</i>)"</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?volume=9&objectid=DS405.1.I34_V09_001.gif"><i>The Imperial Gazetteer of India</i></a>, vol. IX, Published under the Authority of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1908, p. 260, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220524220705/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?volume=9&objectid=DS405.1.I34_V09_001.gif">archived</a> from the original on 24 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2022</span>, <q>—Capital of the Indian Empire, situated in 22° 34' N and 88° 22' E, on the east or left bank of the Hooghly river, within the Twenty-four Parganas District, Bengal</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Calcutta+%28Kalikata%29&rft.btitle=The+Imperial+Gazetteer+of+India&rft.pages=260&rft.pub=Published+under+the+Authority+of+His+Majesty%27s+Secretary+of+State+for+India+in+Council%2C+Oxford+at+the+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1908&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdsal.uchicago.edu%2Freference%2Fgazetteer%2Fpager.html%3Fvolume%3D9%26objectid%3DDS405.1.I34_V09_266.gif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-simla-summer-capital-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-simla-summer-capital_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V09_266.gif">"Simla Town"</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?volume=22&objectid=DS405.1.I34_V22_001.gif"><i>The Imperial Gazetteer of India</i></a>, vol. XXII, Published under the Authority of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1908, p. 260, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220524213047/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?volume=22&objectid=DS405.1.I34_V22_001.gif">archived</a> from the original on 24 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2022</span>, <q>—Head-quarters of Simla District, Punjab, and the summer capital of the Government of India, situated on a transverse spur of the Central Himālayan system system, in 31° 6' N and 77° 10' E, at a mean elevation above sea-level of 7,084 feet.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Simla+Town&rft.btitle=The+Imperial+Gazetteer+of+India&rft.pages=260&rft.pub=Published+under+the+Authority+of+His+Majesty%27s+Secretary+of+State+for+India+in+Council%2C+Oxford+at+the+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1908&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdsal.uchicago.edu%2Freference%2Fgazetteer%2Fpager.html%3Fobjectid%3DDS405.1.I34_V09_266.gif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lelyveld-hindustani-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lelyveld-hindustani_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLelyveld1993" class="citation journal cs1">Lelyveld, David (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/179178">"Colonial Knowledge and the Fate of Hindustani"</a>. <i>Comparative Studies in Society and History</i>. <b>35</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">665–</span>682. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0010417500018661">10.1017/S0010417500018661</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0010-4175">0010-4175</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/179178">179178</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144180838">144180838</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230408220233/https://www.jstor.org/stable/179178">Archived</a> from the original on 8 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 April</span> 2023</span>. <q>The earlier grammars and dictionaries made it possible for the British government to replace Persian with vernacular languages at the lower levels of the judicial and revenue administration in 1837, that is, to standardize and index terminology for official use and provide for its translation to the language of the ultimate ruling authority, English. For such purposes, Hindustani was equated with Urdu, as opposed to any geographically defined dialect of Hindi and was given official status through large parts of north India. Written in the Persian script with a largely Persian and, via Persian, an Arabic vocabulary, Urdu stood at the shortest distance from the previous situation and was easily attainable by the same personnel. In the wake of this official transformation, the British government began to make its first significant efforts on behalf of vernacular education.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Studies+in+Society+and+History&rft.atitle=Colonial+Knowledge+and+the+Fate+of+Hindustani&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E665-%3C%2Fspan%3E682&rft.date=1993&rft.issn=0010-4175&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144180838%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F179178%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0010417500018661&rft.aulast=Lelyveld&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F179178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dalby-andrew-hindi-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dalby-andrew-hindi_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDalby2004" class="citation book cs1">Dalby, Andrew (2004) [1998]. "Hindi". <i>A Dictionary of Languages: The definitive reference to more than 400 languages</i>. A & C Black Publishers. p. 248. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7136-7841-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7136-7841-3"><bdi>978-0-7136-7841-3</bdi></a>. <q>In the government of northern India Persian ruled. Under the British Raj, Persian eventually declined, but, the administration remaining largely Muslim, the role of Persian was taken not by Hindi but by Urdu, known to the British as Hindustani. It was only as the Hindu majority in India began to assert itself that Hindi came into its own.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hindi&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Languages%3A+The+definitive+reference+to+more+than+400+languages&rft.pages=248&rft.pub=A+%26+C+Black+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7136-7841-3&rft.aulast=Dalby&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hindi-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hindi_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVejdani2015" class="citation cs2">Vejdani, Farzin (2015), <i>Making History in Iran: Education, Nationalism, and Print Culture</i>, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">24–</span>25, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-9153-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-9153-3"><bdi>978-0-8047-9153-3</bdi></a>, <q>Although the official languages of administration in India shifted from Persian to English and Urdu in 1837, Persian continued to be taught and read there through the early twentieth century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+History+in+Iran%3A+Education%2C+Nationalism%2C+and+Print+Culture&rft.place=Stanford%2C+CA&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E24-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-9153-3&rft.aulast=Vejdani&rft.aufirst=Farzin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-everaert-urdu-official-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-everaert-urdu-official_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEveraert2010" class="citation cs2">Everaert, Christine (2010), <i>Tracing the Boundaries between Hindi and Urdu</i>, Leiden and Boston: BRILL, pp. <span class="nowrap">253–</span>254, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17731-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17731-4"><bdi>978-90-04-17731-4</bdi></a>, <q>It was only in 1837 that Persian lost its position as official language of India to Urdu and to English in the higher levels of administration.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tracing+the+Boundaries+between+Hindi+and+Urdu&rft.place=Leiden+and+Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E253-%3C%2Fspan%3E254&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-90-04-17731-4&rft.aulast=Everaert&rft.aufirst=Christine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dhir-urdu-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dhir-urdu_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dhir-urdu_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDhir2022" class="citation book cs1">Dhir, Krishna S. (2022). <i>The Wonder That Is Urdu</i>. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-4301-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-4301-1"><bdi>978-81-208-4301-1</bdi></a>. <q>The British used the Urdu language to effect a shift from the prior emphasis on the Persian language. In 1837, the British East India Company adopted Urdu in place of Persian as the co-official language in India, along with English. In the law courts in Bengal and the North-West Provinces and Oudh (modern day Uttar Pradesh) a highly technical form of Urdu was used in the Nastaliq script, by both Muslims and Hindus. The same was the case in the government offices. In the various other regions of India, local vernaculars were used as official language in the lower courts and in government offices. ... In certain parts South Asia, Urdu was written in several scripts. Kaithi was a popular script used for both Urdu and Hindi. By 1880, Kaithi was used as court language in Bihar. However, in 1881, Hindi in Devanagari script replaced Urdu in the Nastaliq script in Bihar. In Panjab, Urdu was written in Nastaliq, Devanagari, Kaithi, and Gurumukhi.<br /> In April 1900, the colonial government of the North-West Provinces and Oudh granted equal official status to both, Devanagari and Nastaliq scripts. However, Nastaliq remained the dominant script. During the 1920s, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi deplored the controversy and the evolving divergence between Urdu and Hindi, exhorting the remerging of the two languages as Hindustani. However, Urdu continued to draw from Persian, Arabic, and Chagtai, while Hindi did the same from Sanskrit. Eventually, the controversy resulted in the loss of the official status of the Urdu language.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wonder+That+Is+Urdu&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-81-208-4301-1&rft.aulast=Dhir&rft.aufirst=Krishna+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bayly-bentinck-era-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bayly-bentinck-era_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBayly1988" class="citation book cs1">Bayly, C. A. (1988). <i>Indian Society and the making of the British Empire</i>. New Cambridge History of India series. Cambridge University Press. p. 122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-25092-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-25092-7"><bdi>0-521-25092-7</bdi></a>. <q>The use of Persian was abolished in official correspondence (1835); the government's weight was thrown behind English-medium education and Thomas Babington Macaulay's Codes of Criminal and Civil Procedure (drafted 1841–2, but not completed until the 1860s) sought to impose a rational, Western legal system on the amalgam of Muslim, Hindu and English law which had been haphazardly administered in British courts. The fruits of the Bentinck era were significant. But they were only of general importance in so far as they went with the grain of social changes which were already gathering pace in India. The Bombay and Calcutta intelligentsia were taking to English education well before the Education Minute of 1836. Flowery Persian was already giving way in north India to the fluid and demotic Urdu. As for changes in the legal system, they were only implemented after the Rebellion of 1857 when communications improved and more substantial sums of money were made available for education.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Society+and+the+making+of+the+British+Empire&rft.series=New+Cambridge+History+of+India+series&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-521-25092-7&rft.aulast=Bayly&rft.aufirst=C.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198609810.001.0001/acref-9780198609810-e-5890#:~:text=Source%3A%20The%20Oxford%20Dictionary%20of,'reign'.%20...">"Raj, the"</a>. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 2005. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860981-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860981-0"><bdi>978-0-19-860981-0</bdi></a>. <q>Raj, the: British sovereignty in India before 1947 (also called, the British Raj). The word is from Hindi rāj 'reign'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Raj%2C+the&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Phrase+and+Fable&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-860981-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198609810.001.0001%2Facref-9780198609810-e-5890%23%3A~%3Atext%3DSource%253A%2520The%2520Oxford%2520Dictionary%2520of%2C%27reign%27.%2520...&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/raj">"RAJ definition and meaning"</a>. <i>Collins Online Dictionary</i>. <q>raj: (often cap; in India) rule, esp. the British rule prior to 1947</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Collins+Online+Dictionary&rft.atitle=RAJ+definition+and+meaning&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.collinsdictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fraj&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-def-raj-stacked-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-def-raj-stacked_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">Hirst, Jacqueline Suthren; Zavros, John (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=voGoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT27"><i>Religious Traditions in Modern South Asia</i></a>, London and New York: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-44787-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-44787-4"><bdi>978-0-415-44787-4</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230923145150/https://books.google.com/books?id=voGoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT27">archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2022</span>, <q>As the (Mughal) empire began to decline in the mid-eighteenth century, some of these regional administrations assumed a greater degree of power. Amongst these ... was the East India Company, a British trading company established by Royal Charter of Elizabeth I of England in 1600. The Company gradually expanded its influence in South Asia, in the first instance through coastal trading posts at Surat, Madras and Calcutta. (The British) expanded their influence, winning political control of Bengal and Bihar after the Battle of Plassey in 1757. From here, the Company expanded its influence dramatically across the subcontinent. By 1857, it had direct control over much of the region. The great rebellion of that year, however, demonstrated the limitations of this commercial company's ability to administer these vast territories, and in 1858 the Company was effectively nationalized, with the British Crown assuming administrative control. Hence began the period known as the British Raj, which ended in 1947 with the partition of the subcontinent into the independent nation-states of India and Pakistan.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religious+Traditions+in+Modern+South+Asia&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-415-44787-4&rft.aulast=Hirst&rft.aufirst=Jacqueline+Suthren&rft.au=Zavros%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvoGoAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">Salomone, Rosemary (2022), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_gNREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA236"><i>The Rise of English: Global Politics and the Power of Language</i></a>, Oxford University Press, p. 236, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-062561-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-062561-0"><bdi>978-0-19-062561-0</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230923145109/https://books.google.com/books?id=_gNREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA236">archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2022</span>, <q>Between 1858, when the British East India Company transferred power to British Crown rule (the "British Raj"), and 1947, when India gained independence, English gradually developed into the language of government and education. It allowed the Raj to maintain control by creating an elite gentry schooled in British mores, primed to participate in public life, and loyal to the Crown.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+English%3A+Global+Politics+and+the+Power+of+Language&rft.pages=236&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-19-062561-0&rft.aulast=Salomone&rft.aufirst=Rosemary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_gNREAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA236&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-period-of-raj-stacked-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-period-of-raj-stacked_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">Vanderven, Elizabeth (2019), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Mc-aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA222">"National Education Systems: Asia"</a>, in Rury, John L.; Tamura, Eileen H. (eds.), <i>The Oxford Handbook of the History of Education</i>, Oxford University Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">213–</span>227, 222, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-934003-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-934003-3"><bdi>978-0-19-934003-3</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230923150112/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mc-aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA222">archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2022</span>, <q>During the British East India Company's domination of the Indian subcontinent (1757–1858) and the subsequent British Raj (1858–1947), it was Western-style education that came to be promoted by many as the base upon which a national and uniform education system should be built.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=National+Education+Systems%3A+Asia&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+History+of+Education&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E213-%3C%2Fspan%3E227%2C+222&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-19-934003-3&rft.aulast=Vanderven&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMc-aDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA222&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ira_M._Lapidus" title="Ira M. Lapidus">Lapidus, Ira M.</a> (2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkJpBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA393"><i>A History of Islamic Societies</i></a> (3 ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 393, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51430-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51430-9"><bdi>978-0-521-51430-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2022</span>, <q>Table 14. <i>Muslim India: outline chronology</i><br />Mughal Empire ... 1526–1858 <br />Akbar I ... 1556–1605 <br /> Aurengzeb ... 1658–1707 <br /> British victory at Plassey ... 1757 <br /> Britain becomes paramount power ... 1818<br />British Raj ... 1858–1947</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Islamic+Societies&rft.pages=393&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-521-51430-9&rft.aulast=Lapidus&rft.aufirst=Ira+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZkJpBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA393&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-british-raj-crown-rule-stacked-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-british-raj-crown-rule-stacked_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">Steinback, Susie L. (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5VdsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA68"><i>Understanding the Victorians: Politics, Culture and Society in Nineteenth-Century Britain</i></a>, London and New York: Routledge, p. 68, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-77408-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-77408-6"><bdi>978-0-415-77408-6</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230923145610/https://books.google.com/books?id=5VdsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA68">archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2022</span>, <q>The rebellion was put down by the end of 1858. The British government passed the Government of India Act, and began direct Crown rule. This era was referred to as the British Raj (though in practice much remained the same).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+the+Victorians%3A+Politics%2C+Culture+and+Society+in+Nineteenth-Century+Britain&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-415-77408-6&rft.aulast=Steinback&rft.aufirst=Susie+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5VdsBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">Ahmed, Omar (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GHBvEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA221"><i>Studying Indian Cinema</i></a>, Auteur (now an imprint of Liverpool University Press), p. 221, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-80034-738-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-80034-738-0"><bdi>978-1-80034-738-0</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230923145610/https://books.google.com/books?id=GHBvEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA221">archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2022</span>, <q>The film opens with what is a lengthy prologue, contextualising the time and place through a detailed voice-over by Amitabh Bachchan. We are told that the year is 1893. This is significant as it was the height of the British Raj, a period of crown rule lasting from 1858 to 1947.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studying+Indian+Cinema&rft.pages=221&rft.pub=Auteur+%28now+an+imprint+of+Liverpool+University+Press%29&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-80034-738-0&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=Omar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGHBvEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA221&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">Wright, Edmund (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=POAwBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA537"><i>A Dictionary of World History</i></a>, Oxford University Press, p. 537, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-968569-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-968569-1"><bdi>978-0-19-968569-1</bdi></a>, <q>More than 500 Indian kingdoms and principalities [...] existed during the 'British Raj' period (1858–1947) The rule is also called <i>Crown rule in India</i></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+World+History&rft.pages=537&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-968569-1&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPOAwBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA537&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">Fair, C. Christine (2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jjaTAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA61"><i>Fighting to the End: The Pakistan Army's Way of War</i></a>, Oxford University Press, p. 61, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-989270-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-989270-9"><bdi>978-0-19-989270-9</bdi></a>, <q>[...] by 1909 the Government of India, reflecting on 50 years of Crown rule after the rebellion, could boast that [...]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fighting+to+the+End%3A+The+Pakistan+Army%27s+Way+of+War&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-989270-9&rft.aulast=Fair&rft.aufirst=C.+Christine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjjaTAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-direct-rule-stacked-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-direct-rule-stacked_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">Glanville, Luke (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nX3GAQAAQBAJ"><i>Sovereignty and the Responsibility to Protect: A New History</i></a>, University of Chicago Press, p. 120, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-07708-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-07708-6"><bdi>978-0-226-07708-6</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230923145611/https://books.google.com/books?id=nX3GAQAAQBAJ">archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sovereignty+and+the+Responsibility+to+Protect%3A+A+New+History&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-226-07708-6&rft.aulast=Glanville&rft.aufirst=Luke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnX3GAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span> Quote: "Mill, who was himself employed by the British East India company from the age of seventeen until the British government assumed direct rule over India in 1858."</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">Pykett, Lyn (2006), <i>Wilkie Collins</i>, Oxford World's Classics: Authors in Context, Oxford University Press, p. 160, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-284034-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-284034-9"><bdi>978-0-19-284034-9</bdi></a>, <q>In part, the Mutiny was a reaction against this upheaval of traditional Indian society. The suppression of the Mutiny after a year of fighting was followed by the break-up of the East India Company, the exile of the deposed emperor and the establishment of the British Raj, and direct rule of the Indian subcontinent by the British.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wilkie+Collins&rft.series=Oxford+World%27s+Classics%3A+Authors+in+Context&rft.pages=160&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-284034-9&rft.aulast=Pykett&rft.aufirst=Lyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2">Lowe, Lisa (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UMMECgAAQBAJ&pg=PT71"><i>The Intimacies of Four Continents</i></a>, Duke University Press, p. 71, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-7564-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-7564-7"><bdi>978-0-8223-7564-7</bdi></a>, <q>Company rule in India lasted effectively from the Battle of Plassey in 1757 until 1858, when following the 1857 Indian Rebellion, the British Crown assumed direct colonial rule of India in the new British Raj.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Intimacies+of+Four+Continents&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-7564-7&rft.aulast=Lowe&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUMMECgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBowenManckeReid2012" class="citation cs2">Bowen, H. V.; Mancke, Elizabeth; Reid, John G. (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Oi9neJg39wcC&pg=PA106"><i>Britain's Oceanic Empire: Atlantic and Indian Ocean Worlds, C. 1550–1850</i></a>, Cambridge University Press, p. 106, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02014-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02014-6"><bdi>978-1-107-02014-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain%27s+Oceanic+Empire%3A+Atlantic+and+Indian+Ocean+Worlds%2C+C.+1550%E2%80%931850&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-107-02014-6&rft.aulast=Bowen&rft.aufirst=H.+V.&rft.au=Mancke%2C+Elizabeth&rft.au=Reid%2C+John+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOi9neJg39wcC%26pg%3DPA106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span> Quote: "British India, meanwhile, was itself the powerful 'metropolis' of its own colonial empire, 'the Indian empire'."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mansergh-UN-SanFrancisco2-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mansergh-UN-SanFrancisco2_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMansergh1974" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Mansergh" title="Nicholas Mansergh">Mansergh, Nicholas</a> (1974), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DJkOAQAAMAAJ"><i>Constitutional relations between Britain and India</i></a>, London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, p. xxx, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-11-580016-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-11-580016-0"><bdi>978-0-11-580016-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2013</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutional+relations+between+Britain+and+India&rft.place=London&rft.pages=xxx&rft.pub=His+Majesty%27s+Stationery+Office&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-11-580016-0&rft.aulast=Mansergh&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDJkOAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span> Quote: "<a href="/wiki/Viceroy%27s_Executive_Council" title="Viceroy's Executive Council">India Executive Council</a>: Sir <a href="/wiki/Arcot_Ramasamy_Mudaliar" title="Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar">Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar</a>, Sir <a href="/wiki/Firoz_Khan_Noon" class="mw-redirect" title="Firoz Khan Noon">Firoz Khan Noon</a> and Sir <a href="/wiki/V._T._Krishnamachari" title="V. T. Krishnamachari">V. T. Krishnamachari</a> served as India's delegates to the London Commonwealth Meeting, April 1945, and the U.N. San Francisco Conference on International Organisation, April–June 1945."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKaul" class="citation web cs1">Kaul, Chandrika. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/independence1947_01.shtml">"From Empire to Independence: The British Raj in India 1858–1947"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160617125740/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/independence1947_01.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=From+Empire+to+Independence%3A+The+British+Raj+in+India+1858%E2%80%931947&rft.aulast=Kaul&rft.aufirst=Chandrika&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fbritish%2Fmodern%2Findependence1947_01.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-British_India_geography-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-British_India_geography_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmith1882" class="citation book cs1">Smith, George (1882). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geographybritis00smitgoog"><i>The Geography of British India, Political & Physical</i></a>. London: John Murray<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Geography+of+British+India%2C+Political+%26+Physical&rft.place=London&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1882&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeographybritis00smitgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBaten,_Jörg2016" class="citation book cs1">Baten, Jörg (2016). <i>A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present</i>. 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Cosmo Publications. p. 1599. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7755-257-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7755-257-7"><bdi>978-81-7755-257-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indian+encyclopaedia%3A+biographical%2C+historical%2C+religious+...%2C+Volume+6&rft.pages=1599&rft.pub=Cosmo+Publications&rft.date=2002-01&rft.isbn=978-81-7755-257-7&rft.au=Subodh+Kapoor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq5ZM0nZXZEkC%26pg%3DPA1599&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-codringtonch10-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-codringtonch10_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Codrington">Codrington</a>, 1926, Chapter X:Transition to British administration</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151124082743/https://www.britannica.com/place/Nepal/Cultural-life">"Nepal: Cultural life"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica Online</i>. 2008. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bhutan&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FBhutan%2FGovernment-and-society%23toc25008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sikkim">"Sikkim | History, Map, Capital, & Population"</a>. <i>Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170801112303/https://www.britannica.com/place/Sikkim">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Wolpert, <i>Tilak and Gokhale: revolution and reform in the making of modern India</i> (1962) p 67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Edwardes, <i>High Noon of Empire: India under Curzon</i> (1965) p. 77</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moore, "Imperial India, 1858–1914", p. 435</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcLane1965" class="citation journal cs1">McLane, John R. (July 1965). 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Sharpe, Inc, 1997), 120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">V. Sankaran Nair, <i>Swadeshi movement: The beginnings of student unrest in South India</i> (1985) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YQVqo0lzq5EC">excerpt and text search</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Heehs" title="Peter Heehs">Peter Heehs</a>, <i>The lives of Sri Aurobindo</i> (2008) p. 184</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bandyo260-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bandyo260_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBandyopadhyay2004">Bandyopadhyay 2004</a>, p. 260 A distinct group within the Calcutta Anushilan Samiti ... soon started action ... robbery to raise funds ... Attempts to assassinate oppressive officials ... became the main features of the revolutionary activities ... arrest of the entire Maniktala group ... dealt a great blow to such terrorist activities. In terms of direct gains, the terrorists achieved precious little; most of their attempts were either aborted or failed.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWolpert2004">Wolpert 2004</a>, pp. 273–274</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ludden200-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ludden200_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ludden200_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ludden200_70-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ludden200_70-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLudden2002">Ludden 2002</a>, p. 200</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStein2001">Stein 2001</a>, p. 286</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ludden201-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ludden201_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ludden201_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ludden201_72-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLudden2002">Ludden 2002</a>, p. 201</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Das1964-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Das1964_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Das1964_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFManmath_Nath_Das1964" class="citation book cs1">Manmath Nath Das (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V3geAAAAMAAJ"><i>India under Morley and Minto: politics behind revolution, repression and reforms</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Muslim+Case+for+Pakistan&rft.pub=University+of+Columbia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.columbia.edu%2Fitc%2Fmealac%2Fpritchett%2F00ambedkar%2Fambedkar_partition%2F101.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobb2002">Robb 2002</a>, p. 190</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStephen_P._Cohen2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_P._Cohen" title="Stephen P. Cohen">Stephen P. Cohen</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ideaofpakistan00cohe/page/28"><i>The Idea of Pakistan</i></a>. Brookings Institution Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ideaofpakistan00cohe/page/28">28</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8157-1502-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8157-1502-3"><bdi>978-0-8157-1502-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Idea+of+Pakistan&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Brookings+Institution+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8157-1502-3&rft.au=Stephen+P.+Cohen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fideaofpakistan00cohe%2Fpage%2F28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFD._N._Panigrahi2004" class="citation book cs1">D. N. Panigrahi (2004). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indiaspartitions00grah"><i>India's partition: the story of imperialism in retreat</i></a></span>. Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indiaspartitions00grah/page/n171">151</a>–52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-280-04817-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-280-04817-3"><bdi>978-1-280-04817-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India%27s+partition%3A+the+story+of+imperialism+in+retreat&rft.pages=151-52&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-280-04817-3&rft.au=D.+N.+Panigrahi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Findiaspartitions00grah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Recruitment was especially active in the Punjab province of British India, under the leadership of Premier <a href="/wiki/Sir_Sikandar_Hayat_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan">Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan</a>, who believed in cooperating with the British to achieve eventual independence for the Indian nation. For details of various recruitment drives by Sir Sikandar between 1939 and 1942, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTarinDando2010" class="citation journal cs1">Tarin, Omer; Dando, Neal (Autumn 2010). "Memoirs of the Second World War: Major Shaukat Hayat Khan". <i>Durbar: Journal of the Indian Military Historical Society</i> (Critique). <b>27</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">136–</span>37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Durbar%3A+Journal+of+the+Indian+Military+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=Memoirs+of+the+Second+World+War%3A+Major+Shaukat+Hayat+Khan&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E136-%3C%2Fspan%3E37&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Tarin&rft.aufirst=Omer&rft.au=Dando%2C+Neal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRoy2009" class="citation journal cs1">Roy, Kaushik (2009). "Military Loyalty in the Colonial Context: A Case Study of the Indian Army during World War II". <i>Journal of Military History</i>. <b>73</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">497–</span>529. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjmh.0.0233">10.1353/jmh.0.0233</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153886117">153886117</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Military+History&rft.atitle=Military+Loyalty+in+the+Colonial+Context%3A+A+Case+Study+of+the+Indian+Army+during+World+War+II&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E497-%3C%2Fspan%3E529&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjmh.0.0233&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153886117%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Roy&rft.aufirst=Kaushik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John F. Riddick, <i>The history of British India: a chronology</i> (2006) p. 142</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGupta1972" class="citation journal cs1">Gupta, Shyam Ratna (January 1972). "New Light on the Cripps Mission". <i>India Quarterly</i>. <b>28</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">69–</span>74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F097492847202800106">10.1177/097492847202800106</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150945957">150945957</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=India+Quarterly&rft.atitle=New+Light+on+the+Cripps+Mission&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E69-%3C%2Fspan%3E74&rft.date=1972-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F097492847202800106&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A150945957%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gupta&rft.aufirst=Shyam+Ratna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-metcalf-quit-india-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-metcalf-quit-india_115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-metcalf-quit-india_115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006">Metcalf & Metcalf 2006</a>, pp. 206–07</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bandypadhya420-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bandypadhya420_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBandyopadhyay2004">Bandyopadhyay 2004</a>, pp. 418–20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010305,_325-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010305,_325_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStein2010">Stein 2010</a>, pp. 305, 325": Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Bose were among those who, impatient with Gandhi's programmes and methods, looked upon socialism as an alternative for nationalistic policies capable of meeting the country's economic and social needs, as well as a link to potential international support. (p. 325) (p. 345)"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELow2002297-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELow2002297_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLow2002">Low 2002</a>, p. 297.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELow2002313-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELow2002313_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLow2002">Low 2002</a>, p. 313.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELow199331–31-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELow199331–31_120-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELow199331–31_120-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLow1993">Low 1993</a>, pp. 31–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolpert200669-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWolpert200669_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWolpert2006">Wolpert 2006</a>, p. 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBandyopadhyay2004427-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBandyopadhyay2004427_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBandyopadhyay2004">Bandyopadhyay 2004</a>, p. 427.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaylyHarper20072-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaylyHarper20072_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaylyHarper2007">Bayly & Harper 2007</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sugata-bose-p320-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sugata-bose-p320_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBose2011" class="citation cs2">Bose, Sugata (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g-pfHRAD03AC&pg=PA320"><i>His Majesty's Opponent: Subhas Chandra Bose and India's Struggle against Empire</i></a>, Harvard University Press, p. 320, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04754-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04754-9"><bdi>978-0-674-04754-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 September</span> 2013</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=His+Majesty%27s+Opponent%3A+Subhas+Chandra+Bose+and+India%27s+Struggle+against+Empire&rft.pages=320&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-674-04754-9&rft.aulast=Bose&rft.aufirst=Sugata&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg-pfHRAD03AC%26pg%3DPA320&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2001345-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2001345_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStein2001">Stein 2001</a>, p. 345.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-judd-mutiny-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-judd-mutiny_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-judd-mutiny_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJudd2004">Judd 2004</a>, pp. 172–73</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJudd2004">Judd 2004</a>, pp. 170–71</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJudd2004">Judd 2004</a>, p. 172</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gopal1976-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gopal1976_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSarvepalli_Gopal1976" class="citation book cs1">Sarvepalli Gopal (1976). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jawaharlalnehrub01gopa"><i>Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography</i></a></span>. Harvard University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jawaharlalnehrub01gopa/page/362">362</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-47310-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-47310-2"><bdi>978-0-674-47310-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jawaharlal+Nehru%3A+A+Biography&rft.pages=362&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-674-47310-2&rft.au=Sarvepalli+Gopal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjawaharlalnehrub01gopa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hyam106-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hyam106_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHyam2007">Hyam 2007</a>, p. 106 Quote: By the end of 1945, he and the <a href="/wiki/Commander-in-Chief,_India" title="Commander-in-Chief, India">Commander-in-Chief of India</a>, General Auckinleck were advising that there was a real threat in 1946 of large-scale anti-British disorder amounting to even a well-organised rising aiming to expel the British by paralysing the administration. Quote:...it was clear to Attlee that everything depended on the spirit and reliability of the Indian Army:"Provided that they do their duty, armed insurrection in India would not be an insoluble problem. If, however, the Indian Army was to go the other way, the picture would be very different...<br /> Quote:...Thus, Wavell concluded, if the army and the police "failed" Britain would be forced to go. In theory, it might be possible to revive and reinvigorate the services, and rule for another fifteen to twenty years, but:It is a fallacy to suppose that the solution lies in trying to maintain status quo. We have no longer the resources, nor the necessary prestige or confidence in ourselves.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrown1994">Brown 1994</a>, p. 330 Quote: "India had always been a minority interest in British public life; no great body of public opinion now emerged to argue that war-weary and impoverished Britain should send troops and money to hold it against its will in an empire of doubtful value. By late 1946 both Prime Minister and Secretary of State for India recognized that neither international opinion no their own voters would stand for any reassertion of the <i>raj</i>, even if there had been the men, money, and administrative machinery with which to do so." <a href="#CITEREFSarkar2004">Sarkar 2004</a>, p. 418 Quote: "With a war weary army and people and a ravaged economy, Britain would have had to retreat; the Labour victory only quickened the process somewhat." <a href="#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006">Metcalf & Metcalf 2006</a>, p. 212 Quote: "More importantly, though victorious in war, Britain had suffered immensely in the struggle. It simply did not possess the manpower or economic resources required to coerce a restive India."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Indian_Independence_movement-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Indian_Independence_movement_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/reshelp/findhelpregion/asia/india/indianindependence/">"Indian Independence"</a>. <i>British Library: Help for Researchers</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180811194426/http://www.bl.uk/reshelp/findhelpregion/asia/india/indianindependence/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 August 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 August</span> 2014</span>. <q>portal to educational sources available in the India Office Records</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=British+Library%3A+Help+for+Researchers&rft.atitle=Indian+Independence&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bl.uk%2Freshelp%2Ffindhelpregion%2Fasia%2Findia%2Findianindependence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150214075020/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/the-road-to-partition/">"The Road to Partition 1939–1947"</a>. <i>Nationalarchives.gov.uk Classroom Resources</i>. National Archives. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/the-road-to-partition/">the original</a> on 14 February 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nationalarchives.gov.uk+Classroom+Resources&rft.atitle=The+Road+to+Partition+1939%E2%80%931947&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalarchives.gov.uk%2Feducation%2Fresources%2Fthe-road-to-partition%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ian Talbot and Gurharpal Singh, The Partition of India (2009), passim</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maria Misra, <i>Vishnu's crowded temple: India since the Great Rebellion</i> (2008) p. 237</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maclagan1963-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Maclagan1963_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Maclagan1963" class="citation book cs1">Michael Maclagan (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WUg5AQAAIAAJ"><i>"Clemency" Canning: Charles John, 1st Earl Canning, Governor-General and Viceroy of India, 1856–1862</i></a>. Macmillan. p. 212<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Clemency%22+Canning%3A+Charles+John%2C+1st+Earl+Canning%2C+Governor-General+and+Viceroy+of+India%2C+1856%E2%80%931862&rft.pages=212&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1963&rft.au=Michael+Maclagan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWUg5AQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Ford1887" class="citation book cs1">William Ford (1887). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GAYPAAAAQAAJ"><i>John Laird Mair Lawrence, a viceroy of India, by William St. Clair</i></a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">186–</span>253.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Laird+Mair+Lawrence%2C+a+viceroy+of+India%2C+by+William+St.+Clair&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E186-%3C%2Fspan%3E253&rft.date=1887&rft.au=William+Ford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGAYPAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hunter1876-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hunter1876_139-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hunter1876_139-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSir_William_Wilson_Hunter1876" class="citation book cs1">Sir William Wilson Hunter (1876). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alifeearlmayofo02huntgoog"><i>A life of the Earl of Mayo, fourth viceroy of India</i></a>. Smith, Elder, & Company. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alifeearlmayofo02huntgoog/page/n192">181</a>–310.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+life+of+the+Earl+of+Mayo%2C+fourth+viceroy+of+India&rft.pages=181-310&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder%2C+%26+Company&rft.date=1876&rft.au=Sir+William+Wilson+Hunter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falifeearlmayofo02huntgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gopal1953-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gopal1953_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSarvepalli_Gopal1953" class="citation book cs1">Sarvepalli Gopal (1953). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/viceroyaltyoflor0000gopa_w4c6"><i>The viceroyalty of Lord Ripon, 1880–1884</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+viceroyalty+of+Lord+Ripon%2C+1880%E2%80%931884&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1953&rft.au=Sarvepalli+Gopal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fviceroyaltyoflor0000gopa_w4c6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Briton Martin, Jr. "The Viceroyalty of Lord Dufferin", <i>History Today</i>, (Dec 1960) 10#12 pp. 821–30, and (Jan 1961) 11#1 pp. 56–64</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSir_Alfred_Comyn_Lyall1905" class="citation book cs1">Sir Alfred Comyn Lyall (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rq10VOw8380C&pg=PA95"><i>The life of the Marquis of Dufferin and Ava</i></a>. Vol. 2. pp. <span class="nowrap">72–</span>207.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+life+of+the+Marquis+of+Dufferin+and+Ava&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E72-%3C%2Fspan%3E207&rft.date=1905&rft.au=Sir+Alfred+Comyn+Lyall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Drq10VOw8380C%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Forrest1894-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Forrest1894_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSir_George_Forrest1894" class="citation book cs1">Sir George Forrest (1894). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/administrationm00forrgoog"><i>The administration of the Marquis of Lansdowne as Viceroy and Governor-general of India, 1888–1894</i></a>. Office of the Supdt. of Government Print. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/administrationm00forrgoog/page/n52">40</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+administration+of+the+Marquis+of+Lansdowne+as+Viceroy+and+Governor-general+of+India%2C+1888%E2%80%931894&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Office+of+the+Supdt.+of+Government+Print.&rft.date=1894&rft.au=Sir+George+Forrest&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fadministrationm00forrgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Edwardes, <i>High Noon of Empire: India under Curzon</i> (1965)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFH._Caldwell_Lipsett1903" class="citation book cs1">H. Caldwell Lipsett (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924021025436"><i>Lord Curzon in India: 1898–1903</i></a>. R.A. Everett.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lord+Curzon+in+India%3A+1898%E2%80%931903&rft.pub=R.A.+Everett&rft.date=1903&rft.au=H.+Caldwell+Lipsett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924021025436&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IGI-I-449-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IGI-I-449_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V01_479.gif"><i>The Imperial Gazetteer of India</i></a>. Vol. I. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1909. p. 449. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224125413/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V01_479.gif">Archived</a> from the original on 24 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Imperial+Gazetteer+of+India&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=449&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1909&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdsal.uchicago.edu%2Freference%2Fgazetteer%2Fpager.html%3Fobjectid%3DDS405.1.I34_V01_479.gif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ernest Hullo, "India", in <i>Catholic Encyclopedia</i> (1910) vol. 7 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07722a.htm">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210223135602/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07722a.htm">Archived</a> 23 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WDL-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WDL_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/388/">"India"</a>. World Digital Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140825030247/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/388/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 August 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 January</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=India&rft.pub=World+Digital+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F388%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><b>1.</b> <i>Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume IV, published under the authority of the <a href="/wiki/India_Office" title="India Office">Secretary of State for India-in-Council</a></i>, 1909, Oxford University Press. p. 5. Quote: "The history of British India falls, as observed by Sir C. P. Ilbert in his <i>Government of India</i>, into three periods. From the beginning of the seventeenth century to the middle of the eighteenth century the East India Company is a trading corporation, existing on the sufferance of the native powers and in rivalry with the merchant companies of Holland and France. During the next century, the Company acquires and consolidates its dominion, shares its sovereignty in increasing proportions with the Crown, and gradually loses its mercantile privileges and functions. After the mutiny of 1857 the remaining powers of the Company are transferred to the Crown, and then follows an era of peace in which India awakens to new life and progress." <b>2.</b> <i>The Statutes: From the Twentieth Year of King Henry the Third to the ...</i> by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Drayton" title="Robert Drayton">Robert Harry Drayton</a>, Statutes of the Realm – Law – 1770 p. 211 (3) "Save as otherwise expressly provided in this Act, the law of British India and of the several parts thereof existing immediately before the appointed ..." <b>3.</b> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEdney1997" class="citation book cs1">Edney, Matthew H. (1997). <i>Mapping an Empire: The Geographical Construction of British India, 1765–1843</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-18488-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-18488-3"><bdi>978-0-226-18488-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mapping+an+Empire%3A+The+Geographical+Construction+of+British+India%2C+1765%E2%80%931843&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-226-18488-3&rft.aulast=Edney&rft.aufirst=Matthew+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span> <b>4.</b> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHawes1996" class="citation book cs1">Hawes, Christopher J. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d22WUEmG49IC&q=+%22British+India%22"><i>Poor Relations: The Making of a Eurasian Community in British India, 1773–1833</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0425-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0425-5"><bdi>978-0-7007-0425-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230923150114/https://books.google.com/books?id=d22WUEmG49IC&q=+%22British+India%22">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poor+Relations%3A+The+Making+of+a+Eurasian+Community+in+British+India%2C+1773%E2%80%931833&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-0425-5&rft.aulast=Hawes&rft.aufirst=Christopher+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd22WUEmG49IC%26q%3D%2B%2522British%2BIndia%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/imperialgazette01meyegoog/page/n501/mode/1up?q=fifteen"><i>The Imperial Gazetteer of India</i></a>. Vol. II. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1908. pp. 463, 470.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Imperial+Gazetteer+of+India&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=463%2C+470&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1908&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fimperialgazette01meyegoog%2Fpage%2Fn501%2Fmode%2F1up%3Fq%3Dfifteen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span> <b>Quote1</b>: "Before passing on to the political history of British India, which properly begins with the Anglo-French Wars in the <a href="/wiki/Carnatic_region" title="Carnatic region">Carnatic</a>, ... (p. 463)" <b>Quote2</b>: "The political history of the British in India begins in the eighteenth century with the French Wars in the Carnatic. (p. 471)"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-igi-60-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-igi-60_151-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-igi-60_151-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFImperial_Gazetteer_of_India_vol._IV1909">Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1909</a>, p. 60</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-igi-46-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-igi-46_152-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-igi-46_152-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFImperial_Gazetteer_of_India_vol._IV1909">Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1909</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V04_075.gif">46</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-igi-56-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-igi-56_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFImperial_Gazetteer_of_India_vol._IV1909">Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1909</a>, p. 56</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Markovits2004-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Markovits2004_154-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Markovits2004_154-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarkovits2004">Markovits 2004</a>, pp. 386–409</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAhmedKhanUl_Haq2022" class="citation journal cs1">Ahmed, Waqas; Khan, Muhammad Hayat; Ul Haq, Sami (1 June 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.51665%2Fal-duhaa.003.01.0186">"علم الإشارة في سورة الفاتحة من خلال تفسير معارف القرآن للکاندهلوي نموذجا"</a>. <i>Al-Duhaa</i>. <b>3</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">90–</span>103. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.51665%2Fal-duhaa.003.01.0186">10.51665/al-duhaa.003.01.0186</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2710-3617">2710-3617</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251601027">251601027</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al-Duhaa&rft.atitle=%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A9+%D9%85%D9%86+%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84+%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B1+%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%81+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A2%D9%86+%D9%84%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%87%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A+%D9%86%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B0%D8%AC%D8%A7&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E90-%3C%2Fspan%3E103&rft.date=2022-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A251601027%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2710-3617&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.51665%2Fal-duhaa.003.01.0186&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=Waqas&rft.au=Khan%2C+Muhammad+Hayat&rft.au=Ul+Haq%2C+Sami&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.51665%252Fal-duhaa.003.01.0186&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKumari2016" class="citation journal cs1">Kumari, Savita (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hasp.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/ao/article/view/8820">"Art and Politics: British Patronage in Delhi (1803–1857)"</a>. <i>Art of the Orient</i>. <b>5</b>: <span class="nowrap">217–</span>229. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11588%2Fao.2016.0.8820">10.11588/ao.2016.0.8820</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2658-1671">2658-1671</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221117010850/https://hasp.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/ao/article/view/8820">Archived</a> from the original on 17 November 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Art+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=Art+and+Politics%3A+British+Patronage+in+Delhi+%281803%E2%80%931857%29&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E217-%3C%2Fspan%3E229&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11588%2Fao.2016.0.8820&rft.issn=2658-1671&rft.aulast=Kumari&rft.aufirst=Savita&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhasp.ub.uni-heidelberg.de%2Fjournals%2Fao%2Farticle%2Fview%2F8820&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoore2001a">Moore 2001a</a>, pp. 422–46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoore2001a">Moore 2001a</a>, pp. 424</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrown1994">Brown 1994</a>, p. 96</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-moore-426-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-moore-426_160-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore-426_160-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore-426_160-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-moore-426_160-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoore2001a">Moore 2001a</a>, pp. 426</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006">Metcalf & Metcalf 2006</a>, p. 104</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeers2006">Peers 2006</a>, p. 76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBayly1990">Bayly 1990</a>, p. 195</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeers2006">Peers 2006</a>, p. 72, <a href="#CITEREFBayly1990">Bayly 1990</a>, p. 72</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947103–105"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947103–105"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"_165-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947103–105"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"_165-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteinberg1947">Steinberg 1947</a>, pp. 103–105, "India – Government and Constitution".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947133–34"India_–_Currency,_Weights_and_Measures"-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947133–34"India_–_Currency,_Weights_and_Measures"_166-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteinberg1947">Steinberg 1947</a>, pp. 133–34, "India – Currency, Weights and Measures".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947106–107"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947106–107"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"_167-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947106–107"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"_167-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteinberg1947">Steinberg 1947</a>, pp. 106–107, "India – Government and Constitution".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947104–105,_108"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947104–105,_108"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"_168-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteinberg1947">Steinberg 1947</a>, pp. 104–105, 108, "India – Government and Constitution".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947108"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947108"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"_169-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESteinberg1947108"India_–_Government_and_Constitution"_169-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteinberg1947">Steinberg 1947</a>, p. 108, "India – Government and Constitution".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBaten2016" class="citation book cs1">Baten, Jörg (2016). <i>A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 267. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-50718-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-50718-0"><bdi>978-1-107-50718-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Global+Economy.+From+1500+to+the+Present&rft.pages=267&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-107-50718-0&rft.aulast=Baten&rft.aufirst=J%C3%B6rg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTomlinson1975">Tomlinson 1975</a>, pp. 337–80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMaddison2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Angus_Maddison" title="Angus Maddison">Maddison, Angus</a> (2006). <i>The World Economy Volumes 1–2</i>. OECD Publishing. p. 638. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1787%2F456125276116">10.1787/456125276116</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-64-02261-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-64-02261-4"><bdi>978-92-64-02261-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+Economy+Volumes+1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=638&rft.pub=OECD+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1787%2F456125276116&rft.isbn=978-92-64-02261-4&rft.aulast=Maddison&rft.aufirst=Angus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Robb1981" class="citation journal cs1">Peter Robb (November 1981). "British Rule and Indian "Improvement"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>The Economic History Review</i>. <b>34</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">507–</span>23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.1981.tb02016.x">10.1111/j.1468-0289.1981.tb02016.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2595587">2595587</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=British+Rule+and+Indian+%22Improvement%22&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E507-%3C%2Fspan%3E23&rft.date=1981-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.1981.tb02016.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2595587%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Peter+Robb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavis2001">Davis 2001</a>, p. 37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Bairoch, "Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes", (1995: University of Chicago Press, Chicago) p. 89</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dnb-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dnb_176-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dnb_176-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrownTomlinson2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Brown, F. H.; Tomlinson, B. R. (23 September 2004). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/36421">"Tata, Jamshed Nasarwanji [Jamsetji] (1839–1904)"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a></i> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F36421">10.1093/ref:odnb/36421</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tata%2C+Jamshed+Nasarwanji+%5BJamsetji%5D+%281839%E2%80%931904%29&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004-09-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F36421&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=F.+H.&rft.au=Tomlinson%2C+B.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F36421&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBahl1994" class="citation journal cs1">Bahl, Vinay (October 1994). "The Emergence of Large-Scale Steel Industry in India Under British Colonial Rule, 1880–1907". <i>Indian Economic and Social History Review</i>. <b>31</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">413–</span>60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001946469403100401">10.1177/001946469403100401</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144471617">144471617</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Economic+and+Social+History+Review&rft.atitle=The+Emergence+of+Large-Scale+Steel+Industry+in+India+Under+British+Colonial+Rule%2C+1880%E2%80%931907&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E413-%3C%2Fspan%3E60&rft.date=1994-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F001946469403100401&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144471617%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bahl&rft.aufirst=Vinay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeadrick1988291–92-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeadrick1988291–92_178-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeadrick1988">Headrick 1988</a>, p. 291–92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarkovits1985" class="citation book cs1">Markovits, Claude (1985). <i>Indian Business and Nationalist Politics 1931–39: The Indigenous Capitalist Class and the Rise of the Congress Party</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">160–</span>66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-56333-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-56333-1"><bdi>978-0-511-56333-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Business+and+Nationalist+Politics+1931%E2%80%9339%3A+The+Indigenous+Capitalist+Class+and+the+Rise+of+the+Congress+Party&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E160-%3C%2Fspan%3E66&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-511-56333-1&rft.aulast=Markovits&rft.aufirst=Claude&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFI._D._Derbyshire1987" class="citation journal cs1">I. D. Derbyshire (1987). "Economic Change and the Railways in North India, 1860–1914". <i>Modern Asian Studies</i>. <b>21</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">521–</span>45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0026749x00009197">10.1017/s0026749x00009197</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/312641">312641</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146480332">146480332</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Economic+Change+and+the+Railways+in+North+India%2C+1860%E2%80%931914&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E521-%3C%2Fspan%3E45&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146480332%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F312641%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0026749x00009197&rft.au=I.+D.+Derbyshire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bhandari_Chap1-2-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bhandari_Chap1-2_181-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFR.R._Bhandari2005" class="citation book cs1">R.R. Bhandari (2005). <i>Indian Railways: Glorious 150 years</i>. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-230-1254-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-230-1254-4"><bdi>978-81-230-1254-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Railways%3A+Glorious+150+years&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E19&rft.pub=Ministry+of+Information+and+Broadcasting%2C+Government+of+India&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-81-230-1254-4&rft.au=R.R.+Bhandari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESatya200872-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESatya200872_182-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESatya200872_182-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSatya2008">Satya 2008</a>, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHurd1983" class="citation book cs1">Hurd, John M. (1983). "Irrigation and Railways: Railways". In Kumar, Dharma; Desai, Meghnad (eds.). <i>The Cambridge Economic History of India</i>. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 751. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22802-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22802-2"><bdi>978-0-521-22802-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Irrigation+and+Railways%3A+Railways&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Economic+History+of+India&rft.pages=751&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22802-2&rft.aulast=Hurd&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thorner-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thorner_184-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThorner2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Thorner" title="Daniel Thorner">Thorner, Daniel</a> (2001). "The pattern of railway development in India". In Kerr, Ian J. (ed.). <i>Railways in Modern India</i>. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">83–</span>85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-564828-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-564828-7"><bdi>978-0-19-564828-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+pattern+of+railway+development+in+India&rft.btitle=Railways+in+Modern+India&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E83-%3C%2Fspan%3E85&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-564828-7&rft.aulast=Thorner&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hurd-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hurd_185-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHurd2001" class="citation book cs1">Hurd, John (2001). "Railways". In Kerr, Ian J. (ed.). <i>Railways in Modern India</i>. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-564828-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-564828-7"><bdi>978-0-19-564828-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Railways&rft.btitle=Railways+in+Modern+India&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=149&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-564828-7&rft.aulast=Hurd&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barbara D Metcalf and Thomas R Metcalf, <i>A Concise History of India</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ian Derbyshire, 'The Building of India's Railways: The Application of Western Technology in the Colonial Periphery, 1850–1920', in <i>Technology and the Raj: Western Technology and Technical Transfers to India 1700–1947</i> ed, Roy Macleod and Deepak Kumar (London: Sage, 1995), 203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Indian_railways-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Indian_railways_188-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Indian_railways_188-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121125155234/http://irfca.org/~mrinal/history_ir.html">"History of Indian Railways"</a>. <i>Irfca.org</i>. IRFCA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irfca.org/~mrinal/history_ir.html">the original</a> on 25 November 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Irfca.org&rft.atitle=History+of+Indian+Railways&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.irfca.org%2F~mrinal%2Fhistory_ir.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeadrick198878–79-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeadrick198878–79_189-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeadrick1988">Headrick 1988</a>, p. 78–79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/1862appletonsan02newyuoft#page/n697/mode/1up"><i>Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and register of important events of the year: 1862</i></a>. New York: D. Appleton & Company. 1863. p. 690.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Appletons%27+annual+cyclopaedia+and+register+of+important+events+of+the+year%3A+1862&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=690&rft.pub=D.+Appleton+%26+Company&rft.date=1863&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2F1862appletonsan02newyuoft%23page%2Fn697%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-h1-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-h1_191-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-h1_191-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKhan,_Shaheed2002" class="citation web cs1">Khan, Shaheed (18 April 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080716010813/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mp/2002/04/18/stories/2002041800430100.htm">"The great Indian Railway bazaar"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hindu" title="The Hindu">The Hindu</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mp/2002/04/18/stories/2002041800430100.htm">the original</a> on 16 July 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=The+great+Indian+Railway+bazaar&rft.date=2002-04-18&rft.au=Khan%2C+Shaheed&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hinduonnet.com%2Fthehindu%2Fmp%2F2002%2F04%2F18%2Fstories%2F2002041800430100.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESatya200873-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESatya200873_192-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSatya2008">Satya 2008</a>, p. 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Derbyshire, 157-67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeadrick198881–82-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeadrick198881–82_194-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeadrick1988">Headrick 1988</a>, p. 81–82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChristensen1981" class="citation journal cs1">Christensen, R. O. (September 1981). "The State and Indian Railway Performance, 1870–1920: Part I, Financial Efficiency and Standards of Service". <i>The Journal of Transport History</i>. <b>2</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002252668100200201">10.1177/002252668100200201</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:168461253">168461253</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Transport+History&rft.atitle=The+State+and+Indian+Railway+Performance%2C+1870%E2%80%931920%3A+Part+I%2C+Financial+Efficiency+and+Standards+of+Service&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E15&rft.date=1981-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002252668100200201&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A168461253%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Christensen&rft.aufirst=R.+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">for the historiography, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFD'Souza2006" class="citation journal cs1">D'Souza, Rohan (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sussex.ac.uk/cweh/documents/hcomroh.pdf">"Water in British India: the making of a 'colonial hydrology'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>History Compass</i>. <b>4</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">621–</span>28. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.629.7369">10.1.1.629.7369</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1478-0542.2006.00336.x">10.1111/j.1478-0542.2006.00336.x</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230923150333/https://www.sussex.ac.uk/webteam/gateway/file.php?name=hcomroh.pdf&site=253">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Compass&rft.atitle=Water+in+British+India%3A+the+making+of+a+%27colonial+hydrology%27&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E621-%3C%2Fspan%3E28&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.629.7369%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1478-0542.2006.00336.x&rft.aulast=D%27Souza&rft.aufirst=Rohan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sussex.ac.uk%2Fcweh%2Fdocuments%2Fhcomroh.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGilmour2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Gilmour_(historian)" title="David Gilmour (historian)">Gilmour, David</a> (2007) [First published 2005]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xEzx2zVHXSwC&pg=PA9"><i>The Ruling Caste: Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj</i></a>. Macmillan. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-53080-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-374-53080-8"><bdi>978-0-374-53080-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ruling+Caste%3A+Imperial+Lives+in+the+Victorian+Raj&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-374-53080-8&rft.aulast=Gilmour&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxEzx2zVHXSwC%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-British_expansion_in_India-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-British_expansion_in_India_198-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-British_expansion_in_India_198-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h50imp2.htm">"Britain in India, Ideology and Economics to 1900"</a>. <i>Fsmitha</i>. 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Garratt. <i>Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India</i> (1934) 690 pages; scholarly survey, 1599–1933 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=93fnssiWvjoC">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWolpert2004" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Wolpert" title="Stanley Wolpert">Wolpert, Stanley</a> (2004), <i>A New History of India</i> (7th ed.), Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516677-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516677-4"><bdi>978-0-19-516677-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+History+of+India&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-516677-4&rft.aulast=Wolpert&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>Wolpert, Stanley, ed. <i>Encyclopedia of India</i> (4 vol. 2005) comprehensive coverage by scholars</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWolpert2006" class="citation cs2">Wolpert, Stanley A. 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Harper, Timothy (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qXH9xGCWjYUC"><i>Forgotten Armies: The Fall of British Asia, 1941–1945</i></a>, Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01748-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01748-1"><bdi>978-0-674-01748-1</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230712062737/https://books.google.com/books?id=qXH9xGCWjYUC">archived</a> from the original on 12 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 September</span> 2013</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forgotten+Armies%3A+The+Fall+of+British+Asia%2C+1941%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01748-1&rft.aulast=Bayly&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Harper%2C+Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqXH9xGCWjYUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBaylyHarper2007" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Alan_Bayly" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Alan Bayly">Bayly, Christopher</a>; Harper, Timothy (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0M4Pl_VCExgC"><i>Forgotten Wars: Freedom and Revolution in Southeast Asia</i></a>, Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02153-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02153-2"><bdi>978-0-674-02153-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 September</span> 2013</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forgotten+Wars%3A+Freedom+and+Revolution+in+Southeast+Asia&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02153-2&rft.aulast=Bayly&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Harper%2C+Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0M4Pl_VCExgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bayly, Christopher Alan. <i>Imperial Meridian: The British Empire and the World 1780–1830</i>. 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(2001a), "Imperial India, 1858–1914", in Porter, Andrew N. (ed.), <i>Oxford History of the British Empire</i>, vol. III, Oxford University Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">422–</span>446, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924678-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924678-6"><bdi>978-0-19-924678-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Imperial+India%2C+1858%E2%80%931914&rft.btitle=Oxford+History+of+the+British+Empire&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E422-%3C%2Fspan%3E446&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-924678-6&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Robin+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Moore, Robin J. "India in the 1940s", in Robin Winks, ed. <i>Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography</i>, (2001b), pp. 231–242</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNehru1946" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Nehru, Jawaharlal</a> (1946), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/DiscoveryOfIndia"><i>Discovery of India</i></a>, Delhi: Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discovery+of+India&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1946&rft.aulast=Nehru&rft.aufirst=Jawaharlal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FDiscoveryOfIndia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPorter2001" class="citation cs2">Porter, Andrew, ed. (2001), <i>Oxford History of the British Empire: Nineteenth Century</i>, Oxford University Press. pp. 800, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924678-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924678-6"><bdi>978-0-19-924678-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+History+of+the+British+Empire%3A+Nineteenth+Century&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press.+pp.+800&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-924678-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Raghavan, Srinath. <i>India's War: World War II and the Making of Modern South Asia</i> (2016). wide-ranging scholarly survey <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/046503022X/">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230923151120/https://www.amazon.com/dp/046503022X/">Archived</a> 23 September 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRai2008" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Lajpat_Rai" class="mw-redirect" title="Lajpat Rai">Rai, Lajpat</a> (2008), <i>England's Debt to India: A Historical Narrative of Britain's Fiscal Policy in India</i>, BiblioBazaar, LLC, pp. <span class="nowrap">263–</span>281, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-559-80001-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-559-80001-6"><bdi>978-0-559-80001-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=England%27s+Debt+to+India%3A+A+Historical+Narrative+of+Britain%27s+Fiscal+Policy+in+India&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E263-%3C%2Fspan%3E281&rft.pub=BiblioBazaar%2C+LLC&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-559-80001-6&rft.aulast=Rai&rft.aufirst=Lajpat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRaja2010" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Masood_Ashraf_Raja" title="Masood Ashraf Raja">Raja, Masood Ashraf</a> (2010), <i>Constructing Pakistan: Foundational Texts and the Rise of Muslim National Identity, 1857–1947</i>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-547811-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-547811-2"><bdi>978-0-19-547811-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constructing+Pakistan%3A+Foundational+Texts+and+the+Rise+of+Muslim+National+Identity%2C+1857%E2%80%931947&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-547811-2&rft.aulast=Raja&rft.aufirst=Masood+Ashraf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRamusack2004" class="citation cs2">Ramusack, Barbara (2004), <i>The Indian Princes and their States (The New Cambridge History of India)</i>, Cambridge University Press. pp. 324, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-03989-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-03989-5"><bdi>978-0-521-03989-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indian+Princes+and+their+States+%28The+New+Cambridge+History+of+India%29&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press.+pp.+324&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-03989-5&rft.aulast=Ramusack&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Read, Anthony, and David Fisher; <i>The Proudest Day: India's Long Road to Independence</i> (W. W. Norton, 1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/proudestdayindia0000read">Archive.org, borrowable</a></li> <li>Riddick, John F. <i>The History of British India: A Chronology</i> (2006) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Es6x4u_g19UC">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230923150852/https://books.google.com/books?id=Es6x4u_g19UC">Archived</a> 23 September 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Riddick, John F. <i>Who Was Who in British India</i> (1998); 5000 entries <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LI8UAQAAIAAJ">excerpt</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSatya2008" class="citation journal cs1">Satya, Laxman D. (2008). "British Imperial Railways in Nineteenth Century South Asia". <i>Economic and Political Weekly</i>. <b>43</b> (47): <span class="nowrap">69–</span>77. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-9976">0012-9976</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40278213">40278213</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economic+and+Political+Weekly&rft.atitle=British+Imperial+Railways+in+Nineteenth+Century+South+Asia&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=47&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E69-%3C%2Fspan%3E77&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40278213%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0012-9976&rft.aulast=Satya&rft.aufirst=Laxman+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShaikh1989" class="citation cs2">Shaikh, Farzana (1989), <i>Community and Consensus in Islam: Muslim Representation in Colonial India, 1860–1947</i>, Cambridge University Press. pp. 272., <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36328-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36328-0"><bdi>978-0-521-36328-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Community+and+Consensus+in+Islam%3A+Muslim+Representation+in+Colonial+India%2C+1860%E2%80%931947&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press.+pp.+272.&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-521-36328-0&rft.aulast=Shaikh&rft.aufirst=Farzana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTalbotSingh1999" class="citation cs2">Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal, eds. (1999), <i>Region and Partition: Bengal, Punjab and the Partition of the Subcontinent</i>, Oxford University Press. pp. 420, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-579051-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-579051-1"><bdi>978-0-19-579051-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Region+and+Partition%3A+Bengal%2C+Punjab+and+the+Partition+of+the+Subcontinent&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press.+pp.+420&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-19-579051-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>Thatcher, Mary. <i>Respected Memsahibs: an Anthology</i> (Hardinge Simpole, 2008)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTinker1968" class="citation cs2">Tinker, Hugh (October 1968), "India in the First World War and after", <i>Journal of Contemporary History</i>, <b>3</b> (4, 1918–19: From War to Peace): <span class="nowrap">89–</span>107, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002200946800300407">10.1177/002200946800300407</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/259853">259853</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150456443">150456443</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+History&rft.atitle=India+in+the+First+World+War+and+after&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4%2C+1918%E2%80%9319%3A+From+War+to+Peace&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E89-%3C%2Fspan%3E107&rft.date=1968-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A150456443%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F259853%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002200946800300407&rft.aulast=Tinker&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>Voigt, Johannes. <i>India in The Second World War</i> (1988)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWolpert2007" class="citation cs2">Wolpert, Stanley A. (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-47042/India">"India: British Imperial Power 1858–1947 (Indian nationalism and the British response, 1885–1920; Prelude to Independence, 1920–1947)"</a>, <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080607195200/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-47042/India">archived</a> from the original on 7 June 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 June</span> 2022</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=India%3A+British+Imperial+Power+1858%E2%80%931947+%28Indian+nationalism+and+the+British+response%2C+1885%E2%80%931920%3B+Prelude+to+Independence%2C+1920%E2%80%931947%29&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Wolpert&rft.aufirst=Stanley+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-47042%2FIndia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li>Wolpert, Stanley A. <i>Jinnah of Pakistan</i> (2005)</li> <li>Wolpert, Stanley A. <i>Tilak and Gokhale: revolution and reform in the making of modern India</i> (1962) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cmV6KLzEZNAC">full text online</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_and_social_history">Economic and social history</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Anstey, Vera. <i>The economic development of India</i> (4th ed. 1952), 677 pp. thorough scholarly coverage; focus on 20th century down to 1939</li> <li>Ballhatchet, Kenneth. <i>Race, Sex, and Class under the Raj: Imperial Attitudes and Policies and Their Critics, 1793–1905</i> (1980).</li> <li>Chaudhary, Latika, et al. eds. <i>A New Economic History of Colonial India</i> (2015)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDerbyshire1987" class="citation cs2">Derbyshire, I. D. (1987), "Economic Change and the Railways in North India, 1860–1914", <i>Population Studies</i>, <b>21</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">521–</span>545, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0026749x00009197">10.1017/s0026749x00009197</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/312641">312641</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146480332">146480332</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Population+Studies&rft.atitle=Economic+Change+and+the+Railways+in+North+India%2C+1860%E2%80%931914&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E521-%3C%2Fspan%3E545&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146480332%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F312641%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0026749x00009197&rft.aulast=Derbyshire&rft.aufirst=I.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Chaudhuri, Nupur. "Imperialism and Gender." in <i>Encyclopedia of European Social History,</i> edited by Peter N. Stearns, (vol. 1, 2001), pp. 515–521. online emphasis on Raj.</li> <li>Dutt, Romesh C. <i>The Economic History of India under early British Rule</i> (1901); <i>The Economic History of India in the Victorian Age</i> (1906) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28Dutt%2C%20Romesh%20C.%20%27%27The%20Economic%20History%20of%20India%22%29%20AND%20creator%3A%28Dutt%2C%20Romesh%20%29">online</a></li> <li>Gupta, Charu, ed. <i>Gendering Colonial India: Reforms, Print, Caste and Communalism</i> (2012)</li> <li>Hyam, Ronald. <i>Empire and Sexuality: The British Experience</i> (1990).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKumarDesai1983" class="citation cs2">Kumar, Dharma; Desai, Meghnad (1983), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9ew8AAAAIAAJ"><i>The Cambridge Economic History of India</i></a>, vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22802-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22802-2"><bdi>978-0-521-22802-2</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230923150851/https://books.google.com/books?id=9ew8AAAAIAAJ">archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 September</span> 2018</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Economic+History+of+India&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22802-2&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=Dharma&rft.au=Desai%2C+Meghnad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9ew8AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Lockwood, David. <i>The Indian Bourgeoisie: A Political History of the Indian Capitalist Class in the Early Twentieth Century</i> (I.B. Tauris, 2012) 315 pages; focus on Indian entrepreneurs who benefited from the Raj, but ultimately sided with the Indian National Congress.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFO'Dell2014" class="citation journal cs1">O'Dell, Benjamin D (2014). 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+History&rft.atitle=Financing+the+Raj%3A+the+City+of+London+and+colonial+India+1858%E2%80%931940&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1024-%3C%2Fspan%3E1026&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00076791.2013.828424&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153716644%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Tirthankar&rft.aufirst=Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTomlinson1993" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Tomlinson, Brian Roger (1993), <i>The Economy of Modern India, 1860–1970</i>, New Cambridge History of India, vol. III.3, Cambridge University Press, p. 109, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a 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"Early Eighteenth-Century British India: Antimeridian or antemeridiem?". <i>Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History</i> 21.2 (2020), pp. 1–26, focus on C.A. Bayly, <i>Imperial Meridian</i> online.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWhitehead2005" class="citation journal cs1">Whitehead, Clive (2005). "The historiography of British imperial education policy, Part I: India". <i>History of Education</i>. <b>34</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">315–</span>329. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00467600500065340">10.1080/00467600500065340</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144515505">144515505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Education&rft.atitle=The+historiography+of+British+imperial+education+policy%2C+Part+I%3A+India&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E315-%3C%2Fspan%3E329&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00467600500065340&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144515505%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Whitehead&rft.aufirst=Clive&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Winks, Robin, ed. <i>Historiography</i> (1999), vol. 5 in William Roger Louis, eds. <i>The Oxford History of the British Empire</i>.</li> <li>Winks, Robin W. <i>The Historiography of the British Empire-Commonwealth: Trends, Interpretations and Resources</i> (1966).</li> <li>Young, Richard Fox, ed. (2009). <i>Indian Christian Historiography from Below, from Above, and in Between India and the Indianness of Christianity: Essays on Understanding – Historical, Theological, and Bibliographical – in Honor of Robert Eric Frykenberg</i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Miscellaneous">Miscellaneous</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSteinberg1947" class="citation book cs1">Steinberg, S. H. (1947). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NNjMDQAAQBAJ"><i>The Statesman's Year-Book: Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1947</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-27076-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-27076-3"><bdi>978-0-230-27076-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Statesman%27s+Year-Book%3A+Statistical+and+Historical+Annual+of+the+States+of+the+World+for+the+Year+1947&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1947&rft.isbn=978-0-230-27076-3&rft.aulast=Steinberg&rft.aufirst=S.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNNjMDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:British_Raj" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:British Raj">British Raj</a> at Wikimedia Commons <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span> Quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/British_Raj" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Special:Search/British Raj">British Raj</a> at Wikiquote <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/16px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/24px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/32px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></a></span> <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/British_Raj#Q129286" class="extiw" title="voy:British Raj">British Raj</a> travel guide from Wikivoyage <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> The dictionary definition of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/british_raj" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/british raj"><i>british raj</i></a> at Wiktionary </p> <ul><li>Judd, Denis. <i>The lion and the tiger: the rise and fall of the British Raj, 1600–1947</i> (Oxford University Press, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/liontigerrisefal0000judd_h7u5">online</a></li> <li>Malone, David M., C. Raja Mohan, and Srinath Raghavan, eds. <i>The Oxford handbook of Indian foreign policy (2015)</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-Indian-Foreign-Policy/dp/0198799063/">excerpt</a> pp 55–79.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015027588329;view=1up;seq=5">Simon Report (1930) vol 1</a>, wide-ranging survey of conditions</li> <li>Editors, Charles Rivers (2016). The British Raj: The History and Legacy of Great Britain's Imperialism in India and the Indian subcontinent.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKeith,_Arthur_Berriedale1912" class="citation book cs1">Keith, Arthur Berriedale (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/responsiblegove00keitgoog"><i>Responsible government in the dominions</i></a>. The Clarendon press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Responsible+government+in+the+dominions&rft.pub=The+Clarendon+press&rft.date=1912&rft.au=Keith%2C+Arthur+Berriedale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fresponsiblegove00keitgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span>, major primary source</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Year_books_and_statistical_records">Year books and statistical records</h3></div> <ul><li><i>Indian Year-book for 1862: A review of social, intellectual, and religious progress in India and Ceylon</i> (1863), ed. by John Murdoch online edition <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uqAEAAAAQAAJ">1861 edition</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i25MAAAAYAAJ"><i>The Year-book of the Imperial Institute of the United Kingdom, the colonies and India: a statistical record of the resources and trade of the colonial and Indian possessions of the British Empire</i></a> (2nd ed.). 1893. pp. <span class="nowrap">375–</span>462.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Year-book+of+the+Imperial+Institute+of+the+United+Kingdom%2C+the+colonies+and+India%3A+a+statistical+record+of+the+resources+and+trade+of+the+colonial+and+Indian+possessions+of+the+British+Empire&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E375-%3C%2Fspan%3E462&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=1893&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di25MAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABritish+Raj" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><i>The Imperial Gazetteer of India</i> (26 vol, 1908–31), highly detailed description of all of India in 1901. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/">online edition</a></li> <li><i>Statistical abstract relating to British India, from 1895 to 1896 to 1904–05</i> (London, 1906) full text online,</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U9bkAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Cyclopedia of India: biographical, historical, administrative, commercial</i></a> (1908) business history, biographies, illustrations</li> <li><i>The Indian Year Book: 1914</i> (1914)</li> <li><i>The Indian Annual Register: A digest of public affairs of India regarding the nation's activities in the matters, political, economic, industrial, educational, etc. during the period 1919–1947</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.40427">online</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.40427">1930 edition</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.110101">1921 edition</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A%28%22+Indian+Annual+Register%22%29&sort=-date&page=4">1919–1947 editions</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indian_independence_movement250" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indian_Independence_Movement" title="Template:Indian Independence Movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indian_Independence_Movement" title="Template talk:Indian Independence Movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indian_Independence_Movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indian Independence Movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indian_independence_movement250" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence movement</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_India#Indian_independence_movement_(1885–1947)" title="History of India">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">Colonisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_settlement_in_Chittagong" title="Portuguese settlement in Chittagong">Porto Grande de Bengala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Bengal" title="Dutch Bengal">Dutch Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">British Raj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India">French India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Battle of Plassey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Buxar" title="Battle of Buxar">Battle of Buxar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Mysore_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Mysore Wars">Anglo-Mysore Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="First Anglo-Mysore War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="Second Anglo-Mysore War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="Third Anglo-Mysore War">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="Fourth Anglo-Mysore War">Fourth</a></li></ul></li> <li>Anglo-Maratha Wars <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="First Anglo-Maratha War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="Second Anglo-Maratha War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="Third Anglo-Maratha War">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwalior_campaign" title="Gwalior campaign">Gwalior</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygar_Wars" title="Polygar Wars">Polygar Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vellore_Mutiny" title="Vellore Mutiny">Vellore Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Sikh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Anglo-Sikh War">First Anglo-Sikh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Sikh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Anglo-Sikh War">Second Anglo-Sikh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sannyasi_rebellion" title="Sannyasi rebellion">Sannyasi rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Rebellion of 1857</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radcliffe_Line" title="Radcliffe Line">Radcliffe Line</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:British_India" title="Category:British India">more</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophies<br />and ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhism" title="Gandhism">Gandhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_nationalism" title="Hindu nationalism">Hindu nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_nationalism" title="Indian nationalism">Indian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khilafat_Movement" title="Khilafat Movement">Khilafat Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_nationalism_in_South_Asia" title="Muslim nationalism in South Asia">Muslim nationalism in South Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_India" title="Socialism in India">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swadeshi_movement" title="Swadeshi movement">Swadeshi movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaraj" title="Swaraj">Swaraj</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events and<br /> movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1905)" title="Partition of Bengal (1905)">Partition of Bengal (1905)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1947)" title="Partition of Bengal (1947)">Partition of Bengal (1947)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_movement_for_Indian_independence" title="Revolutionary movement for Indian independence">Revolutionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_Action_Day" title="Direct Action Day">Direct Action Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delhi_conspiracy_case" title="Delhi conspiracy case">Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Indian_Sociologist" title="The Indian Sociologist">The Indian Sociologist</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1915_Singapore_Mutiny" title="1915 Singapore Mutiny">Singapore Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93German_Conspiracy" title="Hindu–German Conspiracy">Hindu–German Conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champaran_Satyagraha" title="Champaran Satyagraha">Champaran Satyagraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kheda_Satyagraha_of_1918" title="Kheda Satyagraha of 1918">Kheda Satyagraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rowlatt_Committee" title="Rowlatt Committee">Rowlatt Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rowlatt_Act" title="Rowlatt Act">Rowlatt Bills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jallianwala_Bagh_massacre" title="Jallianwala Bagh massacre">Jallianwala Bagh massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noakhali_riots" title="Noakhali riots">Noakhali riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cooperation_movement_(1919%E2%80%931922)" title="Non-cooperation movement (1919–1922)">Non-cooperation movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_Day_Plot" title="Christmas Day Plot">Christmas Day Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie-Begar_movement" title="Coolie-Begar movement">Coolie-Begar movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauri_Chaura_incident" title="Chauri Chaura incident">Chauri Chaura incident, 1922</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakori_conspiracy" title="Kakori conspiracy">Kakori conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qissa_Khwani_massacre" title="Qissa Khwani massacre">Qissa Khwani massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_Satyagraha" title="Flag Satyagraha">Flag Satyagraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bardoli_Satyagraha" title="Bardoli Satyagraha">Bardoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Commission" title="Simon Commission">1928 Protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nehru_Report" title="Nehru Report">Nehru Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteen_Points_of_Jinnah" title="Fourteen Points of Jinnah">Fourteen Points of Jinnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purna_Swaraj" title="Purna Swaraj">Purna Swaraj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_March" title="Salt March">Salt March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharasana_Satyagraha" title="Dharasana Satyagraha">Dharasana Satyagraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedaranyam_March" title="Vedaranyam March">Vedaranyam March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagong_armoury_raid" title="Chittagong armoury raid">Chittagong armoury raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhi%E2%80%93Irwin_Pact" title="Gandhi–Irwin Pact">Gandhi–Irwin Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round_Table_Conferences_(India)" title="Round Table Conferences (India)">Round table conferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1935" title="Government of India Act 1935">Act of 1935</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aundh_Experiment" title="Aundh Experiment">Aundh Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Legion" title="Indian Legion">Indian Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cripps_Mission" title="Cripps Mission">Cripps Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quit_India_Movement" title="Quit India Movement">Quit India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Indian_Navy_mutiny" title="Royal Indian Navy mutiny">Bombay Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force_strikes_of_1946" title="Royal Air Force strikes of 1946">Royal Air Force strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_of_Yanaon" title="Coup d'état of Yanaon">Coup d'état of Yanaon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_India" title="Provisional Government of India">Provisional Government of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Day_(India)" title="Independence Day (India)">Independence Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All_India_States_Peoples%27_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="All India States Peoples' Conference">Praja Mandala movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucknow_Pact" title="Lucknow Pact">Lucknow Pact</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All_India_Kisan_Sabha" title="All India Kisan Sabha">All India Kisan Sabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-India_Muslim_League" title="All-India Muslim League">All-India Muslim League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anushilan_Samiti" title="Anushilan Samiti">Anushilan Samiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arya_Samaj" title="Arya Samaj">Arya Samaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azad_Hind" title="Azad Hind">Azad Hind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Committee" title="Berlin Committee">Berlin Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghadar_Movement" title="Ghadar Movement">Ghadar Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustan_Socialist_Republican_Association" title="Hindustan Socialist Republican Association">Hindustan Socialist Republican Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Indian_National_Congress" title="History of the Indian National Congress">Indian National Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_House" title="India House">India House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Home_Rule_movement" title="Indian Home Rule movement">Indian Home Rule movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Independence_League" title="Indian Independence League">Indian Independence League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_National_Army" title="Indian National Army">Indian National Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jugantar" title="Jugantar">Jugantar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khaksar_movement" title="Khaksar movement">Khaksar movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khudai_Khidmatgar" title="Khudai Khidmatgar">Khudai Khidmatgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaraj_Party" title="Swaraj Party">Swaraj Party</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Indian_independence_movement" title="Category:Indian independence movement">more</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social<br />reformers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashfaqulla_Khan" title="Ashfaqulla Khan">Ashfaqulla Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Vaidyanatha_Iyer" title="A. Vaidyanatha Iyer">A. Vaidyanatha Iyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayya_Vaikundar" title="Ayya Vaikundar">Ayya Vaikundar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyankali" title="Ayyankali">Ayyankali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baba_Amte" title="Baba Amte">Baba Amte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bal_Gangadhar_Tilak" title="Bal Gangadhar Tilak">Bal Gangadhar Tilak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayananda_Saraswati" title="Dayananda Saraswati">Dayananda Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhondo_Keshav_Karve" title="Dhondo Keshav Karve">Dhondo Keshav Karve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._Subramania_Iyer" title="G. Subramania Iyer">G. Subramania Iyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gazulu_Lakshminarasu_Chetty" title="Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty">Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gopal_Ganesh_Agarkar" title="Gopal Ganesh Agarkar">Gopal Ganesh Agarkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gopal_Hari_Deshmukh" title="Gopal Hari Deshmukh">Gopal Hari Deshmukh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gopaldas_Ambaidas_Desai" title="Gopaldas Ambaidas Desai">Gopaldas Ambaidas Desai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishwar_Chandra_Vidyasagar" title="Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar">Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._B._Kripalani" title="J. B. Kripalani">J. B. Kripalani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyotirao_Phule" title="Jyotirao Phule">Jyotirao Phule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandukuri_Veeresalingam" title="Kandukuri Veeresalingam">Kandukuri Veeresalingam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahadev_Govind_Ranade" title="Mahadev Govind Ranade">Mahadev Govind Ranade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muthulakshmi_Reddy" title="Muthulakshmi Reddy">Muthulakshmi Reddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narayana_Guru" title="Narayana Guru">Narayana Guru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niralamba_Swami" title="Niralamba Swami">Niralamba Swami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandita_Ramabai" title="Pandita Ramabai">Pandita Ramabai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periyar" title="Periyar">Periyar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram_Mohan_Roy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ram Mohan Roy">Ram Mohan Roy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rettamalai_Srinivasan" title="Rettamalai Srinivasan">Rettamalai Srinivasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahajanand_Saraswati" title="Sahajanand Saraswati">Sahajanand Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savitribai_Phule" title="Savitribai Phule">Savitribai Phule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahu_of_Kolhapur" title="Shahu of Kolhapur">Shahu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sister_Nivedita" title="Sister Nivedita">Sister Nivedita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Sri Aurobindo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syed_Ahmad_Khan" title="Syed Ahmad Khan">Syed Ahmad Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vakkom_Moulavi" title="Vakkom Moulavi">Vakkom Moulavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinayak_Damodar_Savarkar" title="Vinayak Damodar Savarkar">Vinayak Damodar Savarkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinoba_Bhave" title="Vinoba Bhave">Vinoba Bhave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitthal_Ramji_Shinde" title="Vitthal Ramji Shinde">Vitthal Ramji Shinde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Independence<br /> activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abul_Kalam_Azad" class="mw-redirect" title="Abul Kalam Azad">Abul Kalam Azad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accamma_Cherian" title="Accamma Cherian">Accamma Cherian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achyut_Patwardhan" title="Achyut Patwardhan">Achyut Patwardhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._K._Fazlul_Huq" title="A. K. Fazlul Huq">A. K. Fazlul Huq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alluri_Sitarama_Raju" title="Alluri Sitarama Raju">Alluri Sitarama Raju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annapurna_Maharana" title="Annapurna Maharana">Annapurna Maharana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Besant" title="Annie Besant">Annie Besant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashfaqulla_Khan" title="Ashfaqulla Khan">Ashfaqulla Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunwar_Singh" title="Kunwar Singh">Babu Kunwar Singh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagha_Jatin" title="Bagha Jatin">Bagha Jatin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahadur_Shah_Zafar" title="Bahadur Shah Zafar">Bahadur Shah II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bakht_Khan" title="Bakht Khan">Bakht Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bal_Gangadhar_Tilak" title="Bal Gangadhar Tilak">Bal Gangadhar Tilak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basawon_Singh" title="Basawon Singh">Basawon Singh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Begum_Hazrat_Mahal" title="Begum Hazrat Mahal">Begum Hazrat Mahal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhagat_Singh" title="Bhagat Singh">Bhagat Singh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharathidasan" title="Bharathidasan">Bharathidasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhavabhushan_Mitra" title="Bhavabhushan Mitra">Bhavabhushan Mitra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhikaiji_Cama" title="Bhikaiji Cama">Bhikaiji Cama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhupendra_Kumar_Datta" title="Bhupendra Kumar Datta">Bhupendra Kumar Datta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bidhan_Chandra_Roy" title="Bidhan Chandra Roy">Bidhan Chandra Roy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipin_Chandra_Pal" title="Bipin Chandra Pal">Bipin Chandra Pal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Rajagopalachari" title="C. Rajagopalachari">C. Rajagopalachari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandra_Shekhar_Azad" title="Chandra Shekhar Azad">Chandra Shekhar Azad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chetram_Jatav" title="Chetram Jatav">Chetram Jatav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittaranjan_Das" title="Chittaranjan Das">Chittaranjan Das</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dadabhai_Naoroji" title="Dadabhai Naoroji">Dadabhai Naoroji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayananda_Saraswati" title="Dayananda Saraswati">Dayananda Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhan_Singh" title="Dhan Singh">Dhan Singh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dukkipati_Nageswara_Rao" title="Dukkipati Nageswara Rao">Dukkipati Nageswara Rao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gopal_Krishna_Gokhale" title="Gopal Krishna Gokhale">Gopal Krishna Gokhale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Govind_Ballabh_Pant" title="Govind Ballabh Pant">Govind Ballabh Pant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Har_Dayal" title="Har Dayal">Har Dayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemu_Kalani" title="Hemu Kalani">Hemu Kalani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inayatullah_Khan_Mashriqi" title="Inayatullah Khan Mashriqi">Inayatullah Khan Mashriqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jatindra_Mohan_Sengupta" title="Jatindra Mohan Sengupta">Jatindra Mohan Sengupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jatindra_Nath_Das" title="Jatindra Nath Das">Jatindra Nath Das</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K._Kamaraj" title="K. Kamaraj">K. Kamaraj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanaiyalal_Maneklal_Munshi" title="Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi">Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Ghaffar_Khan" title="Abdul Ghaffar Khan">Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khudiram_Bose" title="Khudiram Bose">Khudiram Bose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shri_Krishna_Sinha" title="Shri Krishna Sinha">Shri Krishna Singh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lala_Lajpat_Rai" title="Lala Lajpat Rai">Lala Lajpat Rai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._Bhaktavatsalam" title="M. Bhaktavatsalam">M. Bhaktavatsalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._N._Roy" title="M. N. Roy">M. N. Roy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghfoor_Ahmad_Ajazi" title="Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi">Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahadaji_Shinde" title="Mahadaji Shinde">Mahadaji Shinde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangal_Pandey" title="Mangal Pandey">Mangal Pandey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mir_Qasim" title="Mir Qasim">Mir Qasim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithuben_Petit" title="Mithuben Petit">Mithuben Petit‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Jauhar" title="Mohammad Ali Jauhar">Mohammad Ali Jauhar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah" title="Muhammad Ali Jinnah">Muhammad Ali Jinnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Mian_Mansoor_Ansari" title="Muhammad Mian Mansoor Ansari">Muhammad Mian Mansoor Ansari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagnath_Naikwadi" title="Nagnath Naikwadi">Nagnath Naikwadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nana_Fadnavis" title="Nana Fadnavis">Nana Fadnavis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nana_Saheb_Peshwa_II" title="Nana Saheb Peshwa II">Nana Saheb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._Kakkan" title="P. Kakkan">P. Kakkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prafulla_Chaki" title="Prafulla Chaki">Prafulla Chaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pritilata_Waddedar" title="Pritilata Waddedar">Pritilata Waddedar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purushottam_Das_Tandon" title="Purushottam Das Tandon">Purushottam Das Tandon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafi_Ahmed_Kidwai" title="Rafi Ahmed Kidwai">Rafi Ahmed Kidwai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramaswamy_Venkataraman" title="Ramaswamy Venkataraman">R. Venkataraman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rahul_Sankrityayan" title="Rahul Sankrityayan">Rahul Sankrityayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajendra_Prasad" title="Rajendra Prasad">Rajendra Prasad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram_Prasad_Bismil" title="Ram Prasad Bismil">Ram Prasad Bismil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rani_of_Jhansi" title="Rani of Jhansi">Rani Lakshmibai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rash_Behari_Bose" title="Rash Behari Bose">Rash Behari Bose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahajanand_Saraswati" title="Sahajanand Saraswati">Sahajanand Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangolli_Rayanna" title="Sangolli Rayanna">Sangolli Rayanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarojini_Naidu" title="Sarojini Naidu">Sarojini Naidu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyapal_Dang" title="Satyapal Dang">Satyapal Dang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuja-ud-Daula" title="Shuja-ud-Daula">Shuja-ud-Daula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shyamji_Krishna_Varma" title="Shyamji Krishna Varma">Shyamji Krishna Varma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pir_of_Pagaro_VI" title="Pir of Pagaro VI">Sibghatullah Shah Rashidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siraj_ud-Daulah" class="mw-redirect" title="Siraj ud-Daulah">Siraj ud-Daulah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subhas_Chandra_Bose" title="Subhas Chandra Bose">Subhas Chandra Bose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subramania_Bharati" title="Subramania Bharati">Subramania Bharati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subramaniya_Siva" title="Subramaniya Siva">Subramaniya Siva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surya_Sen" title="Surya Sen">Surya Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syama_Prasad_Mukherjee" title="Syama Prasad Mukherjee">Syama Prasad Mukherjee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_Rani_Srivastava" title="Tara Rani Srivastava">Tara Rani Srivastava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarak_Nath_Das" title="Tarak Nath Das">Tarak Nath Das</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatya_Tope" title="Tatya Tope">Tatya Tope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiruppur_Kumaran" title="Tiruppur Kumaran">Tiruppur Kumaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaidullah_Sindhi" title="Ubaidullah Sindhi">Ubaidullah Sindhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V._O._Chidambaram_Pillai" title="V. O. Chidambaram Pillai">V. O. Chidamabaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V._K._Krishna_Menon" title="V. K. Krishna Menon">V. K. Krishna Menon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vallabhbhai_Patel" title="Vallabhbhai Patel">Vallabhbhai Patel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanchinathan" title="Vanchinathan">Vanchinathan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veeran_Sundaralingam" title="Veeran Sundaralingam">Veeran Sundaralingam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinayak_Damodar_Savarkar" title="Vinayak Damodar Savarkar">Vinayak Damodar Savarkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virendranath_Chattopadhyaya" title="Virendranath Chattopadhyaya">Virendranath Chattopadhyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yashwantrao_Holkar" title="Yashwantrao Holkar">Yashwantrao Holkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogendra_Shukla" title="Yogendra Shukla">Yogendra Shukla</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Indian_independence_activists" title="Category:Indian independence activists">more</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">British leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Wavell,_1st_Earl_Wavell" title="Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell">Wavell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Canning,_1st_Earl_Canning" title="Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning">Canning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cornwallis,_1st_Marquess_Cornwallis" title="Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis">Cornwallis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Wood,_1st_Earl_of_Halifax" title="Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax">Irwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Thesiger,_1st_Viscount_Chelmsford" title="Frederic Thesiger, 1st Viscount Chelmsford">Chelmsford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Curzon,_1st_Marquess_Curzon_of_Kedleston" title="George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston">Curzon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Robinson,_1st_Marquess_of_Ripon" title="George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon">Ripon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound,_1st_Earl_of_Minto" title="Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 1st Earl of Minto">Minto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Broun-Ramsay,_1st_Marquess_of_Dalhousie" title="James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie">Dalhousie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_William_Bentinck" title="Lord William Bentinck">Bentinck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Mountbatten" title="Lord Mountbatten">Mountbatten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Wellesley,_1st_Marquess_Wellesley" title="Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley">Wellesley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bulwer-Lytton,_1st_Earl_of_Lytton" title="Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton">Lytton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Clive" title="Robert Clive">Clive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_James_Outram,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir James Outram, 1st Baronet">Outram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_Cripps" title="Stafford Cripps">Cripps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Hope,_2nd_Marquess_of_Linlithgow" title="Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow">Linlithgow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_Hastings" title="Warren Hastings">Hastings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Independence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1946_Cabinet_Mission_to_India" title="1946 Cabinet Mission to India">Cabinet Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India_(1947%E2%80%93present)" title="History of India (1947–present)">Republic of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Goa" title="Annexation of Goa">Indian annexation of Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Independence_Act_1947" title="Indian Independence Act 1947">Indian Independence Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_integration_of_India" title="Political integration of India">Political integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simla_Conference" title="Simla Conference">Simla Conference</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Former_British_Empire_and_Current_British_Overseas_Territories685" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:British_overseas_territories" title="Template:British overseas territories"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:British_overseas_territories" title="Template talk:British overseas territories"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:British_overseas_territories" title="Special:EditPage/Template:British overseas territories"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Former_British_Empire_and_Current_British_Overseas_Territories685" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Former <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> and Current <a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories" title="British Overseas Territories">British Overseas Territories</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold">Legend</span></dt> <dd>Former territory</dd> <dd><b>Current territory</b></dd> <dd>*Current <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_realm" title="Commonwealth realm">Commonwealth realm</a></dd> <dd><sup>†</sup>Current member of the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Europe6" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Europe</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia" title="Akrotiri and Dhekelia">Akrotiri and Dhekelia</a></b> since 1960 (before as part of <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Corsican_Kingdom" title="Anglo-Corsican Kingdom">Corsica</a> 1794–1796</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/British_Cyprus" title="British Cyprus">Cyprus</a> 1878–1960</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></b> since 1713</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heligoland" title="Heligoland">Heligoland</a> 1807–1890</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_the_Ionian_Islands" title="United States of the Ionian Islands">Ionian Islands</a> 1809–1864</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Ireland" title="Lordship of Ireland">Lordship of Ireland</a> 1177–1542</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland" title="Kingdom of Ireland">Kingdom of Ireland</a> 1542–1800 <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Act_of_Union_1800" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Union 1800">integrated into the UK</a>)</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Free_State" title="Irish Free State">Free State</a> 1921–1931</li></ul></li> <li><sup>†</sup>Malta <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malta_Protectorate" title="Malta Protectorate">Protectorate</a> 1800–1813</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Malta" title="Crown Colony of Malta">Colony</a> 1813–1964</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menorca" title="Menorca">Minorca</a> 1708–1757, 1763–1782 and 1798–1802</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Africa667" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Africa</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ascension_Island" title="Ascension Island">Ascension Island</a></b><sup>23</sup> since 1815</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basutoland" title="Basutoland">Basutoland</a> (<sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Lesotho" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a>) 1868–1966</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bechuanaland_Protectorate" title="Bechuanaland Protectorate">Bechuanaland</a> (<sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>) 1884–1966</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Cameroons" title="British Cameroons">Cameroons</a><sup>13</sup> 1919–1961</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a> 1795–1803</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape of Good Hope</a> 1806–1910</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Central_Africa_Protectorate" title="British Central Africa Protectorate">Central Africa</a> 1891–1907</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Africa_Protectorate" title="East Africa Protectorate">East Africa</a> 1895–1920</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Egypt" title="Sultanate of Egypt">Egypt</a> 1882–1922</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Gambia_Colony_and_Protectorate" title="Gambia Colony and Protectorate">The Gambia</a> 1816–1965</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_(British_colony)" title="Gold Coast (British colony)">Gold Coast</a> (<sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>) 1874–1957</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Kenya_Colony" title="Kenya Colony">Kenya</a> 1920–1963</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagos_Colony" title="Lagos Colony">Lagos</a> 1862–1906</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Madeira" title="History of Madeira">Madeira</a> 1807–1808</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/British_Mauritius" title="British Mauritius">Mauritius</a> 1810–1968</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Natal" title="Colony of Natal">Natal</a> 1856–1910</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger_Coast_Protectorate" title="Niger Coast Protectorate">Niger Coast</a> 1884–1900</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Nigeria" title="Colonial Nigeria">Nigeria</a> 1914–1960</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Northern Nigeria Protectorate">Northern Nigeria</a> 1900–1914</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Rhodesia" title="Northern Rhodesia">Northern Rhodesia</a><sup>15</sup> 1924–1964</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyasaland" title="Nyasaland">Nyasaland</a> 1891–1964</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_River_Colony" title="Orange River Colony">Orange River</a> 1900–1910</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a></b><sup>23</sup> since 1658</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/History_of_Seychelles" title="History of Seychelles">Seychelles</a> 1903–1976</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Colony_and_Protectorate" title="Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate">Sierra Leone</a> 1792–1961</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">Somaliland</a> 1884–1960</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">South Africa</a> 1910–1931</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South-West_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="South-West Africa">South-West Africa</a><sup>12</sup> 1915–1931</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia" title="Southern Rhodesia">Southern Rhodesia</a><sup>14</sup> 1923–1965 and 1979–1980</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Southern Nigeria Protectorate">Southern Nigeria</a> 1900–1914</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/History_of_Swaziland" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Swaziland">Swaziland</a> 1893–1968</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan" title="Anglo-Egyptian Sudan">Sudan</a> 1899–1956</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanganyika_Territory" title="Tanganyika Territory">Tanganyika</a><sup>13</sup> 1922–1961</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvaal_Colony" title="Transvaal Colony">Transvaal</a> 1900–1910</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a></b><sup>23</sup> since 1816</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Uganda_Protectorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Uganda Protectorate">Uganda</a> 1890–1962</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> 1890–1963</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_Kingdom" title="Zulu Kingdom">Zululand</a> 1887–1897</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><sup>12</sup>Now <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><sup>13</sup><a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">League of Nations mandate</a>. British Cameroons is now part of <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>, while Tanganyika is part of <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>.</li> <li><sup>14</sup><a href="/wiki/Responsible_government" title="Responsible government">Self-governing</a> Southern Rhodesia <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia%27s_Unilateral_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence">unilaterally declared independence</a> in 1965 (as <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia" title="Rhodesia">Rhodesia</a>) and continued as an <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_recognition" title="Diplomatic recognition">unrecognised</a> state until the 1979 <a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Agreement" title="Lancaster House Agreement">Lancaster House Agreement</a>. After recognised independence in 1980, Zimbabwe was a member of the Commonwealth until it withdrew in 2003.</li> <li><sup>15</sup>Now <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Asia334" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Asia</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Colony" title="Aden Colony">Aden Colony</a> 1839–1967</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="First Anglo-Afghan War">Afghanistan</a> 1839–1842 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_influence_in_Afghanistan" title="European influence in Afghanistan">Protectorate</a> 1879–1919</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Bencoolen" title="British Bencoolen">Bencoolen</a> 1685–1824</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangka_Island" title="Bangka Island">Banka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belitung" title="Belitung">Billiton</a> 1812–1824</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Presidency" title="Bengal Presidency">Bengal</a> 1757–1947</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bhutan" title="History of Bhutan">Bhutan</a> (protectorate) 1907–1949</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Borneo" title="British Borneo">Borneo</a> 1874–1963</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Ocean_Territory" title="British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></b> since 1965 (before as part of <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a>)<sup>26</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma" title="British rule in Burma">Burma</a> 1824–1948</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruneian Empire">Brunei</a> 1888–1984</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/British_Ceylon" title="British Ceylon">Ceylon</a> 1795–1948</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/British_Cyprus" title="British Cyprus">Cyprus</a> 1878–1960</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Hong_Kong" title="British Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> 1841–1997</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a class="mw-selflink selflink">India</a><sup>18</sup> 1858–1947</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a> 1811–1816</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheikhdom_of_Kuwait" title="Sheikhdom of Kuwait">Kuwait</a> 1918–1961</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Labuan" title="Crown Colony of Labuan">Labuan</a> 1848–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">Malaya</a> 1819–1826 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federated_Malay_States" title="Federated Malay States">Federated States</a> 1895–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unfederated_Malay_States" title="Unfederated Malay States">Unfederated States</a> 1885–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Union" title="Malayan Union">Union</a> 1946–1948</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya" title="Federation of Malaya">Federation</a> 1948–1957</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malacca" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Malacca">Malacca</a> 1824–1946 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Malacca" title="Crown Colony of Malacca">Crown Colony</a> 1946–1957</li></ul></li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Independence_of_the_Maldives" title="Independence of the Maldives">Maldives</a> 1796–1965</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_occupation_of_Manila" title="British occupation of Manila">Manila and Cavite</a> 1762–1764</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Mesopotamia" title="Mandate for Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a><sup>19</sup> 1920–1932</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat_and_Oman" title="Muscat and Oman">Muscat and Oman</a> 1891–1971</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Borneo" title="North Borneo">North Borneo</a> 1882–1963 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_North_Borneo" title="Crown Colony of North Borneo">Crown Colony</a> 1946–1963</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padang" title="Padang">Padang</a> 1781–1784 and 1795–1819</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Palestine</a><sup>19</sup> 1923–1948</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Penang" title="History of Penang">Penang</a> 1786–1946 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Penang" title="Crown Colony of Penang">Crown Colony</a> 1946–1957</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%B4n_S%C6%A1n_Island" title="Côn Sơn Island">Pulo Condore</a> 1702–1705</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raj_of_Sarawak" title="Raj of Sarawak">Sarawak</a> 1841–1946 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Sarawak" title="Crown Colony of Sarawak">Crown Colony</a> 1946–1963</li></ul></li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Singapore" title="Colony of Singapore">Singapore</a> 1946–1963</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">South Vietnam</a> 1945–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straits_Settlements" title="Straits Settlements">Straits Settlements</a> 1826–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Transjordan" title="Emirate of Transjordan">Transjordan</a> 1921–1946</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trucial_States" title="Trucial States">Trucial States</a> 1892–1971</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weihaiwei_under_British_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Weihaiwei under British rule">Weihai</a> 1898–1930</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><sup>18</sup>Now <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><sup>19</sup><a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">League of Nations mandate</a>. Iraq's mandate was not enacted and replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Iraqi Treaty">Anglo-Iraqi Treaty</a></li> <li><sup>26</sup>Legitimacy of territorial establishment <a href="/wiki/Chagos_Archipelago_sovereignty_dispute" title="Chagos Archipelago sovereignty dispute">disputed</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_America13" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">North America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Anguilla" title="Anguilla">Anguilla</a></b> since 1650</li> <li>*<a href="/wiki/Antigua" title="Antigua">Antigua</a> 1632–1860</li> <li>*<a href="/wiki/History_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="History of Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a> 1860–1981</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Bahamas" title="History of the Bahamas">Bahamas</a> 1670–1973</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/History_of_Barbados" title="History of Barbados">Barbados</a> 1624–1966</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_Islands_Department" title="Bay Islands Department">Bay Islands</a> 1643–1860</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/British_Honduras" title="British Honduras">Belize</a> 1871–1981</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a></b> since 1619</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Arctic_Territories" title="British Arctic Territories">British Arctic Territories</a> 16th c.–1880</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_British_Columbia_(1858%E2%80%931866)" title="Colony of British Columbia (1858–1866)">British Columbia</a> 1858–1866 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_British_Columbia_(1866%E2%80%931871)" title="Colony of British Columbia (1866–1871)">1866–1871</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Breton_Island" title="Cape Breton Island">Cape Breton Island</a> 1754–1820</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/History_of_Dominica" title="History of Dominica">Dominica</a> 1763–1978</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Florida" title="East Florida">East Florida</a> 1763–1783</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/History_of_Grenada" title="History of Grenada">Grenada</a> 1762–1974</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Canada" title="Lower Canada">Lower</a> 1791–1841</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Canada" title="Upper Canada">Upper</a> 1791–1841</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Canada" title="Province of Canada">Province</a> 1841–1867</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Confederation_Canada_(1867%E2%80%931914)" title="Post-Confederation Canada (1867–1914)">Dominion</a> 1867–1931</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Carolina" title="Province of Carolina">Carolina</a> 1663–1712</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cayman_Islands" title="Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></b> since 1670</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_District" title="Columbia District">Columbia District</a>/<a href="/wiki/Oregon_Country" title="Oregon Country">Oregon Country</a> 1818–1846</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Colony" title="Connecticut Colony">Connecticut</a> 1636–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delaware_Colony" title="Delaware Colony">Delaware</a> 1701–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Jersey" title="East Jersey">East Jersey</a> 1674–1702</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Georgia" title="Province of Georgia">Georgia</a> 1733–1776</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Jamaica" title="Colony of Jamaica">Jamaica</a> 1655–1962</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Leeward_Islands" title="British Leeward Islands">Leeward Islands</a> 1671–1816, 1833–1960</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">Massachusetts Bay</a> 1629–1691 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Massachusetts_Bay" title="Province of Massachusetts Bay">Province</a>, 1691–1776</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Maryland" title="Province of Maryland">Maryland</a> 1632–1776</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Montserrat" title="Montserrat">Montserrat</a></b> since 1632</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosquito_Coast" title="Mosquito Coast">Mosquito Coast</a> 1655–1860</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevis" title="Nevis">Nevis</a> 1628–1983</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Albion" title="New Albion">New Albion</a> 1579</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Brunswick" title="History of New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a> 1784–1867</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_New_England" title="Dominion of New England">New England</a> 1686–1689</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_Hampshire" title="Province of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a> 1680–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Haven_Colony" title="New Haven Colony">New Haven</a> 1637–1662</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_Jersey" title="Province of New Jersey">New Jersey</a> 1665–1674 and 1702–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_York" title="Province of New York">New York</a> 1664–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_Newfoundland" title="Dominion of Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a> 1907–1949</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="History of Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland and Labrador</a> 1583–1907</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_North_Carolina" title="Province of North Carolina">North Carolina</a> 1712–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North-Western_Territory" title="North-Western Territory">North-Western Territory</a> 1859–1870</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nova_Scotia" title="History of Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a> 1713–1867</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paulet_affair_(1843)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paulet affair (1843)">Paulet affair</a> 1843</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Prince_Edward_Island" title="History of Prince Edward Island">Prince Edward Island</a> 1763–1873</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Pennsylvania" title="Province of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> 1681–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Colony" title="Plymouth Colony">Plymouth</a> 1620–1691</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Quebec_(1763%E2%80%931791)" title="Province of Quebec (1763–1791)">Quebec</a> 1763–1791* <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_the_Queen_Charlotte_Islands" title="Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands">Queen Charlotte Islands</a> 1853–1863</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Rhode_Island_and_Providence_Plantations" title="Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations">Rhode Island</a> 1636–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupert%27s_Land" title="Rupert's Land">Rupert's Land</a> 1670–1870</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Croix,_U.S._Virgin_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands">Saint Croix</a> 1625–1650</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Kitts" title="Saint Kitts">Saint Kitts</a> 1623–1983</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/History_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="History of Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a> 1882–1983</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/British_Saint_Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="British Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a> 1605–1979</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/History_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="History of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a> 1627–1979</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saybrook_Colony" title="Saybrook Colony">Saybrook</a> 1635–1644</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_South_Carolina" title="Province of South Carolina">South Carolina</a> 1712–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stickeen_Territories" title="Stickeen Territories">Stickeen</a> 1862–1863</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/History_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="History of Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a> 1889–1962</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" title="Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></b> since 1799</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Vancouver_Island" title="Colony of Vancouver Island">Vancouver Island</a> 1849–1866</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/British_Virgin_Islands" title="British Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a></b> since 1666</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia" title="Colony of Virginia">Virginia</a> 1607–1776</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_West_Florida" title="British West Florida">West Florida</a> 1763–1783</li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Indies_Federation" title="West Indies Federation">West Indies Federation</a> 1958–1962 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Indies_Associated_States" title="West Indies Associated States">Associated States</a> 1967–1983</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Jersey" title="West Jersey">West Jersey</a> 1674–1702</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Windward_Islands" title="British Windward Islands">Windward Islands</a> 1833–1960</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Navbox_with_columns" title="Template:Navbox with columns"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Navbox_with_columns" title="Template talk:Navbox with columns"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Navbox_with_columns" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Navbox with columns"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Oceania230" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Oceania</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;">18th and 19th centuries</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;">20th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_New_South_Wales" title="Colony of New South Wales">New South Wales</a> 1788–1901</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Diemen%27s_Land" title="Van Diemen's Land">Van Diemen's Land</a>/<a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Tasmania" title="Colony of Tasmania">Tasmania</a> 1803–1901</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auckland_Islands" title="Auckland Islands">Auckland Islands</a><sup>20</sup> 1807–1863</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Hebrides" title="New Hebrides">New Hebrides</a><sup>21</sup> 1824–1980</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Queensland" title="Colony of Queensland">Queensland</a> 1824–1901</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swan_River_Colony" title="Swan River Colony">Swan River</a>/<a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Western_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Colony of Western Australia">Western Australia</a> 1829–1901</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_South_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Colony of South Australia">South Australia</a> 1836–1901</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Pitcairn_Islands" title="History of the Pitcairn Islands">Pitcairn Islands</a></b> since 1838</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_New_Zealand" title="Colony of New Zealand">New Zealand</a> 1841–1907</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Australia" title="North Australia">North Australia</a> 1846–1847</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Victoria" title="Colony of Victoria">Victoria</a> 1851–1901</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Fiji" title="Colony of Fiji">Fiji</a> 1874–1970</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Western_Pacific_Territories" title="British Western Pacific Territories">Western Pacific Territories</a> 1877–1976</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Papua" title="Territory of Papua">Papua</a> 1884–1902</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rarotonga" title="Kingdom of Rarotonga">Rarotonga</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands_Federation" title="Cook Islands Federation">Cook Islands</a><sup>20</sup> 1888–1901</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Islands">Union Islands</a><sup>20</sup> 1889–1948</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Ellice_Islands" title="Gilbert and Ellice Islands">Gilbert and Ellice Islands</a><sup>22</sup> 1892–1979</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/British_Solomon_Islands" title="British Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a> 1893–1978</li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tonga" title="History of Tonga">Tonga</a> 1900–1970</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Niue" title="History of Niue">Niue</a><sup>20</sup> 1900–1974</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/History_of_Australia_(1901%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Australia (1901–1945)">Australia</a> 1901–1942</li> <li><sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_New_Zealand" title="Dominion of New Zealand">New Zealand</a> 1907–1947</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Western_Samoa_Trust_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Samoa Trust Territory">Samoa</a> 1914–1962</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nauru" title="History of Nauru">Nauru</a> 1919–1942 and 1945–1968</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><sup>20</sup>Now part of the <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Realm_of_New_Zealand" title="Realm of New Zealand">Realm of New Zealand</a></li> <li><sup>21</sup>Now <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Vanuatu" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li> <li><sup>22</sup>Now <sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Kiribati" title="Kiribati">Kiribati</a> and <sup>†</sup>*<a href="/wiki/Tuvalu" title="Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="South_America174" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">South America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Providence_Island_colony" title="Providence Island colony">Providence Island</a> 1631–1641</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willoughbyland" class="mw-redirect" title="Willoughbyland">Willoughbyland</a> 1651–1667</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archipelago_of_San_Andr%C3%A9s,_Providencia_and_Santa_Catalina" title="Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina">Saint Andrew and Providence Islands</a><sup>4</sup> 1670–1688</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/British_Guiana" title="British Guiana">Guiana</a> 1831–1966</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></b><sup>5</sup> since 1833</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands" title="South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a></b><sup>5</sup> since 1908</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><sup>4</sup>Now a <a href="/wiki/Departments_of_Colombia" title="Departments of Colombia">department</a> of <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><sup>5</sup>Occupied by Argentina during the <a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a> of April–June 1982.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Antarctica_and_the_South_Atlantic463" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Antarctica and the South Atlantic</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a></b><sup>23</sup> since 1658</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ascension_Island" title="Ascension Island">Ascension Island</a></b><sup>23</sup> since 1815</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a></b><sup>23</sup> since 1816</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></b> since 1833</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Australian_Antarctic_Territory" title="Australian Antarctic Territory">Australian Antarctic Territory</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Commonwealth of Australia</a>)</span> 1841–1933</li> <li><sup>†</sup><a href="/wiki/Ross_Dependency" title="Ross Dependency">Ross Dependency</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Realm_of_New_Zealand" title="Realm of New Zealand">Realm of New Zealand</a>)</span> 1841–1947</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/British_Antarctic_Territory" title="British Antarctic Territory">British Antarctic Territory</a></b><sup>24</sup> since 1908</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands" title="South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a></b><sup>25</sup> since 1908</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><sup>23</sup>Since 2009 part of <b><a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena,_Ascension_and_Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha">Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha</a></b>; Ascension Island (1922–) and Tristan da Cunha (1938–) were previously dependencies of Saint Helena.</li> <li><sup>24</sup>Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1962; overlaps portions of Argentine and Chilean claims, borders not enforced but claim not renounced under the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Antarctic Treaty">Antarctic Treaty</a>.</li> <li><sup>25</sup>Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1985</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_flags_of_the_British_Empire_and_the_overseas_territories" title="Historical flags of the British Empire and the overseas territories">Historical flags of the British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglosphere" title="Anglosphere">Anglosphere</a> culture</li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:British_Empire" title="Category:British Empire">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:British_Empire" title="Portal:British Empire">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Monarchies295" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Monarchies" title="Template:Monarchies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Monarchies" title="Template talk:Monarchies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Monarchies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Monarchies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Monarchies295" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarch" title="Monarch">Monarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial,_royal_and_noble_ranks" title="Imperial, royal and noble ranks">Imperial, royal and noble ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_monarchs_of_sovereign_states" title="List of current monarchs of sovereign states">List of current sovereign monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_non-sovereign_monarchs" title="List of current non-sovereign monarchs">List of current non-sovereign monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchy_referendums" title="List of monarchy referendums">List of monarchy referendums</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Type</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diarchy" title="Diarchy">Diarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elective_monarchy" title="Elective monarchy">Elective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_monarchy" title="Federal monarchy">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy" title="Hereditary monarchy">Hereditary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-sovereign_monarchy" title="Non-sovereign monarchy">Non-sovereign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">Personal union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">Regency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdication" title="Abdication">Abdication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_monarchy" title="Abolition of monarchy">Abolition of monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy_(class)" title="Aristocracy (class)">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_monarchy" title="Criticism of monarchy">Criticism of monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">Head of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy (political)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_succession" title="Order of succession">Order of succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-proclaimed_monarchy" title="Self-proclaimed monarchy">Self-proclaimed monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Titles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chhatrapati" title="Chhatrapati">Chhatrapati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor" title="Emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King" title="King">King</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_regnant" title="Queen regnant">Queen regnant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_regnant" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince regnant">Prince regnant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raja" title="Raja">Raja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shah" title="Shah">Shah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">Tsar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Africa145" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monarchies_in_Africa" title="Monarchies in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ngwenyama" title="Ngwenyama">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Lesotho" class="mw-redirect" title="List of monarchs of Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Morocco" title="King of Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_constituent_African_monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="List of current constituent African monarchs">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monarchies_in_Asia" title="Monarchies in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Bahrain" title="King of Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Bhutan" title="King of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sultans_of_Brunei" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Sultans of Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Cambodia" title="Monarchy of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Japan" title="Emperor of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Jordan" title="List of kings of Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emir_of_Kuwait" title="Emir of Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong" class="mw-redirect" title="Yang di-Pertuan Agong">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Oman" title="List of rulers of Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emir_of_Qatar" title="Emir of Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="King of Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Thailand" title="Monarchy of Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="President of the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_non-sovereign_Asian_monarchs" title="List of current non-sovereign Asian monarchs">list</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monarchies_in_Europe" title="Monarchies in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Co-Princes_of_Andorra" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-Princes of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Belgium" title="Monarchy of Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Denmark" title="Monarchy of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Liechtenstein" title="Monarchy of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Luxembourg" title="Monarchy of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Monaco" title="Monarchy of Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_Netherlands" title="Monarchy of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Norway" title="Monarchy of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Spain" title="Monarchy of Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Sweden" title="Monarchy of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereigns_of_Vatican_City_State" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sovereigns of Vatican City State">Vatican City (Holy See)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monarchies_in_Oceania" title="Monarchies in Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Tonga" title="List of monarchs of Tonga">Tonga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_realm" title="Commonwealth realm">Commonwealth realms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Monarchy of Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Australia" title="Monarchy of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_Bahamas" title="Monarchy of the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Belize" title="Monarchy of Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Canada" title="Monarchy of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Grenada" title="Monarchy of Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Jamaica" title="Monarchy of Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_New_Zealand" title="Monarchy of New Zealand">New Zealand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_in_the_Cook_Islands" title="Monarchy in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Niuean_monarchs" title="List of Niuean monarchs">Niue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Monarchy of Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Monarchy of Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Saint_Lucia" title="Monarchy of Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Monarchy of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Solomon_Islands" title="Monarchy of Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Tuvalu" title="Monarchy of Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_monarchy" title="Abolition of monarchy">Former</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adamawa_Emirate" title="Adamawa Emirate">Adamawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ankole" title="Ankole">Ankole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Aussa" title="Sultanate of Aussa">Aussa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Bagirmi" title="Sultanate of Bagirmi">Bagirmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barotseland" title="Barotseland">Barotseland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Burundi" title="Kingdom of Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahomey" title="Dahomey">Dahomey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Kingdom of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gomma" title="Kingdom of Gomma">Gomma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gumma" title="Kingdom of Gumma">Gumma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islands_of_Refreshment" title="Islands of Refreshment">Islands of Refreshment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kaffa" title="Kingdom of Kaffa">Kaffa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Libya" title="Kingdom of Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Luba" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Luba">Luba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merina_Kingdom" title="Merina Kingdom">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayotte#History" title="Mayotte">Maore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maravi" title="Maravi">Maravi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moh%C3%A9li#History" title="Mohéli">Mwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anjouan#Early_and_colonial_history" title="Anjouan">Ndzuwani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grande_Comore#History" title="Grande Comore">Ngazidja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rwanda" title="Kingdom of Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shilluk_Kingdom" title="Shilluk Kingdom">Shilluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tunisia" title="Kingdom of Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wituland" title="Wituland">Wituland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wassoulou_Empire" title="Wassoulou Empire">Wassoulou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeke_Kingdom" title="Yeke Kingdom">Yeke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Zanzibar" title="Sultanate of Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Zimbabwe" title="Kingdom of Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_pre-colonial_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa">and other</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Araucan%C3%ADa_and_Patagonia" title="Kingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia">Araucanía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosquito_Coast" title="Mosquito Coast">Miskito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriname_(Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands)" title="Suriname (Kingdom of the Netherlands)">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Talamanca" title="Kingdom of Talamanca">Talamanca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Trinidad" title="Principality of Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_Emirate_of_Asir" title="Idrisid Emirate of Asir">Asir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Sultanate" title="Bengal Sultanate">Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Bukhara" title="Emirate of Bukhara">Bukhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cebu_(historical_polity)" title="Cebu (historical polity)">Cebu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihab_dynasty" title="Shihab dynasty">Chehab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_China" title="Monarchy of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dapitan_Kingdom" title="Dapitan Kingdom">Dapitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hejaz" title="Kingdom of Hejaz">Hejaz</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indonesian_monarchies" title="List of Indonesian monarchies">Indonesia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Iran</a> (<a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Jabal_Shammar" title="Emirate of Jabal Shammar">Jabal Shammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathiri" title="Kathiri">Kathiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Khiva" title="Khanate of Khiva">Khiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumul_Khanate" title="Kumul Khanate">Kumul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kurdistan" title="Kingdom of Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Laos" title="Kingdom of Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Maguindanao" title="Sultanate of Maguindanao">Maguindanao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahra_Sultanate" title="Mahra Sultanate">Mahra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Maldivian_monarchs" title="List of Maldivian monarchs">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Najran" title="Principality of Najran">Najran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nepal" title="Kingdom of Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qu%27aiti" title="Qu'aiti">Qu'aiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Kingdom" title="Ryukyu Kingdom">Ryukyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raj_of_Sarawak" title="Raj of Sarawak">Sarawak</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shan_States" title="Shan States">Shan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sikkim" title="Kingdom of Sikkim">Sikkim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_monarchy" title="Sinhalese monarchy">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sip_Song_Chau_Tai" title="Sip Song Chau Tai">Sip Song Chau Tai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sulu" title="Sultanate of Sulu">Sulu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Kingdom_of_Syria" title="Arab Kingdom of Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheikdom_of_Upper_Asir" title="Sheikdom of Upper Asir">Upper Asir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Yafa" title="Upper Yafa">Upper Yafa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Vietnam" title="List of monarchs of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yemen" title="Kingdom of Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirates_of_South_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirates of South Arabia">Emirates of South Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_South_Arabia" title="Federation of South Arabia">South Arabia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_Kingdom_(1928%E2%80%931939)" title="Albanian Kingdom (1928–1939)">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Asturias" title="Kingdom of Asturias">Asturias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria">Bavaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bosnia" title="Kingdom of Bosnia">Bosnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brittany" title="Duchy of Brittany">Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Corsica_(1736)" title="Kingdom of Corsica (1736)">Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cyprus" title="Kingdom of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Finland_(1918)" title="Kingdom of Finland (1918)">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia" title="Kingdom of Galicia">Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Granada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece" title="Kingdom of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hanover" title="Kingdom of Hanover">Hanover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iceland" title="Kingdom of Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Imereti" title="Kingdom of Imereti">Imereti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Ireland" title="Monarchy of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kartli-Kakheti" title="Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti">Kartli-Kakheti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lithuania_(1918)" title="Kingdom of Lithuania (1918)">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Isles" title="Kingdom of the Isles">Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Montenegro" title="Kingdom of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Navarre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Neuch%C3%A2tel#History" title="Canton of Neuchâtel">Neuchâtel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Piedmont-Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Poland–Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Samos" title="Principality of Samos">Samos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony" title="Kingdom of Saxony">Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia" title="Kingdom of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tavolara" title="Kingdom of Tavolara">Tavolara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Two Sicilies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Baltic_Duchy" title="United Baltic Duchy">United Baltic Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Kingdom of Württemberg">Württemberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia" title="Kingdom of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abemama" title="Abemama">Abemama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bora_Bora" title="Kingdom of Bora Bora">Bora Bora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Easter_Island" title="King of Easter Island">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Fiji" title="Kingdom of Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Kingdom" title="Hawaiian Kingdom">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huahine" title="Huahine">Huahine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangareva" title="Mangareva">Mangareva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niue" title="Niue">Niuē-Fekai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuku_Hiva" title="Nuku Hiva">Nuku Hiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Raiatea" title="List of monarchs of Raiatea">Raiatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_Iti" title="Rapa Iti">Rapa Iti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rarotonga" title="Kingdom of Rarotonga">Rarotonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rimatara" title="Rimatara">Rimatara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rurutu" title="Rurutu">Rurutu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tahiti" title="Kingdom of Tahiti">Tahiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahuata" title="Tahuata">Tahuata</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commonwealth realms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Barbados" title="Monarchy of Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Ceylon_(1948%E2%80%931972)" title="Monarchy of Ceylon (1948–1972)">Ceylon</a> (Sri Lanka)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Fiji" title="Monarchy of Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_the_Gambia" title="Queen of the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Ghana" title="Queen of Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Guyana" title="Queen of Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_India" title="Dominion of India">India</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">British Raj</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_princely_states_of_British_India_(alphabetical)" title="List of princely states of British India (alphabetical)">princely states</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Free_State" title="Irish Free State">Irish Free State</a> / <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Kenya" title="Queen of Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Malawi" title="Queen of Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Malta" title="Queen of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Mauritius" title="Queen of Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen of Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Pakistan" title="Monarchy of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Rhodesia" title="Queen of Rhodesia">Rhodesia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Sierra_Leone" title="Queen of Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_South_Africa" title="Monarchy of South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Tanganyika" title="Queen of Tanganyika">Tanganyika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Queen of Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Uganda" title="Queen of Uganda">Uganda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="South_Asian_topics540" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:South_Asian_topics" title="Template:South Asian topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:South_Asian_topics" title="Template talk:South Asian topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:South_Asian_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:South Asian topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="South_Asian_topics540" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asian topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:South_Asian_countries" title="Category:South Asian countries">Countries and regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> (sometimes not included)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Regions of India">Regions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_units_of_Pakistan" title="Administrative units of Pakistan">Regions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asia#Regions" title="South Asia">South Asian regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_South_Asia" title="Northwestern South Asia">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_South_Asia" title="Northern South Asia">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_South_Asia" title="Eastern South Asia">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_South_Asia" title="Southern South Asia">Southern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:GeoSouthAsia" title="Template:GeoSouthAsia">General geography</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="11" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries%2C_with_ambiguities_indicated.svg/80px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries%2C_with_ambiguities_indicated.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries%2C_with_ambiguities_indicated.svg/120px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries%2C_with_ambiguities_indicated.svg.png 1.5x, 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groups">Austronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_peoples" title="Dravidian peoples">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_ethnic_groups#Iranic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian ethnic groups">Iranic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuristani_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuristani peoples">Nuristani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_ethnic_groups#Tibeto-Burman_people" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian ethnic groups">Tibeto-Burman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a></li> <li>Other groups <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Asians_in_South_Asia" title="Afro-Asians in South Asia">Afro-Asians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_ethnic_groups#Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian ethnic groups">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_ethnic_groups#European_and_Eurasian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian ethnic groups">European and Eurasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_ethnic_groups#Semitic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian ethnic groups">Semitic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_diaspora" title="South Asian diaspora">Diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_South_Asia" title="Culture of South Asia">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:South_Asian_architecture" title="Category:South Asian architecture">Architecture‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_art" title="Indian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_cinema" title="South Asian cinema">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_cuisine" title="South Asian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Cultural sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Clothing_in_South_Asia" title="Template:Clothing in South Asia">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_South_Asia" title="Languages of South Asia">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_literature" title="South Asian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Music_of_South_Asia" title="Category:Music of South Asia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:South_Asian_mythology" title="Category:South Asian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:South_Asian_philosophy" title="Category:South Asian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Scripts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Surnames_of_South_Asian_origin" title="Category:Surnames of South Asian origin">Surnames</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Environment_of_South_Asia" title="Category:Environment of South Asia">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Monsoon" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian Monsoon">Monsoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in South Asia">Climate change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_South_Asia" title="Economy of South Asia">Economy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics_of_South_Asia" title="Category:Politics of South Asia">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights in South Asia">Human rights in South Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_nationalism" title="Religious nationalism">Religious nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_nationalism_in_South_Asia" title="Muslim nationalism in South Asia">Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalistan_movement" title="Khalistan movement">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Asian_stock_exchanges#Southern_Asia" title="List of Asian stock exchanges">Stock exchanges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste#In_South_Asia" title="Caste">Caste system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Asia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeology_of_South_Asia" title="Category:Archaeology of South Asia">Archaeology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeological_cultures_of_South_Asia" title="Category:Archaeological cultures of South Asia">Archaeological cultures</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">Middle kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India#Early_modern_India" title="India">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">Colonial era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asia#Contemporary_era" title="South Asia">Contemporary era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_countries_in_South_Asia" title="Category:Former countries in South Asia">Former countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Asia" title="Religion in South Asia">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharmic_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmic religions">Dharmic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism in South Asia">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_South_Asia" title="Hinduism in South Asia">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_South_Asia" title="Islam in South Asia">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Bangladesh#Persecution" title="Freedom of religion in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence_in_India#Modern_India" title="Religious violence in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_in_Pakistan" title="Religious discrimination in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_South_Asia" title="Sport in South Asia">Sports</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cricket_in_South_Asia" title="Cricket in South Asia">Cricket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Football_Federation" title="South Asian Football Federation">South Asian Football Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Games" title="South Asian Games">South Asian Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_martial_arts" title="Indian martial arts">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_physical_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_games_of_South_Asia" title="Traditional games of South Asia">Traditional games</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Education_in_South_Asia" title="Category:Education in South Asia">Education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian studies">South Asian studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of education in the Indian subcontinent">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_wars_and_conflicts" title="Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts">Indo-Pakistani conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_border_dispute" title="Sino-Indian border dispute">Sino-Indian border dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan%E2%80%93Pakistan_border_skirmishes" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghanistan–Pakistan border skirmishes">Afghanistan–Pakistan skirmishes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Science and technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Institutes_of_Technology" title="Indian Institutes of Technology">Indian Institutes of Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Indian inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:South_Asian_swords" title="Category:South Asian swords">Swords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:South_Asian_traditional_medicine" title="Category:South Asian traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="India_topics12" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:India_topics" title="Template:India topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:India_topics" title="Template talk:India topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:India_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:India topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="India_topics12" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">India topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History12" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Indian_history" title="Timeline of Indian history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_India" title="List of years in India">Years</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_clothing_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of clothing in the Indian subcontinent">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_India" title="Coinage of India">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in India">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_history_of_India" title="Linguistic history of India">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_mathematics" title="Indian mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_India" title="Military history of India">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paper_currency_in_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of paper currency in Indian subcontinent">Paper currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_India" title="Postage stamps and postal history of India">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_on_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of science and technology on the Indian subcontinent">Science and technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient </a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age" title="South Asian Stone Age">Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Mauryas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavana_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavana Kingdom">Yavana Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_conquest_of_the_Indus_Valley" title="Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley">Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Mauryan_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid–Mauryan war">Seleucid–Mauryan war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">Middle kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoysala_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoysala Empire">Hoysala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakatiya_dynasty" title="Kakatiya dynasty">Kakatiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern">Early Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Marathas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">European trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_War" title="Bengal War">Bengal War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Late modern">Late modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_state" title="Princely state">Princely state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Plassey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">1857 rebellion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">British Raj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_India#History" title="Rail transport in India">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_India_under_the_British_Raj" title="Economy of India under the British Raj">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commander-in-Chief,_India" title="Commander-in-Chief, India">Commander-in-Chief</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamindar#British_era" title="Zamindar">Zamindari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_Renaissance" title="Bengal Renaissance">Bengal Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Councils_Act_1909" title="Indian Councils Act 1909">Political reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1905)" title="Partition of Bengal (1905)">Partition of Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">1943 famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Republic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_integration_of_India" title="Political integration of India">Integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_and_the_Non-Aligned_Movement" title="India and the Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-Year_Plans_of_India" title="Five-Year Plans of India">Five-Year Plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_wars_and_conflicts" title="Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts">Indo-Pakistani wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution_in_India" title="Green Revolution in India">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Flood" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Flood">White Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxalite" class="mw-redirect" title="Naxalite">Naxal Insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smiling_Buddha" title="Smiling Buddha">Smiling Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">Space programme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emergency_(India)" title="The Emergency (India)">The Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Peace_Keeping_Force" title="Indian Peace Keeping Force">Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India_(1947%E2%80%93present)" title="History of India (1947–present)">History of India (1947–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalisation_in_India" title="Economic liberalisation in India">Economic liberalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pokhran-II" title="Pokhran-II">Pokhran-II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_India" title="COVID-19 pandemic in India">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography12" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_India" title="Geography of India">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Geology_of_India" title="Category:Geology of India">Geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_Parks_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil Parks of India">Fossil Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_India" title="Geology of India">Geology of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Plate">Indian Plate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Heritage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Geological_Monuments_of_India" title="National Geological Monuments of India">National Geological Monuments of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_groves_of_India" title="Sacred groves of India">Sacred groves of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_mountains#India" title="Sacred mountains">Sacred mountains of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River#Sacred" title="River">Sacred rivers of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stones_of_India" title="Stones of India">Stones of India</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_India" title="Environment of India">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_classification_of_India" title="Biogeographic classification of India">Biogeographic classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere_reserves_of_India" title="Biosphere reserves of India">Biosphere reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_India" title="Climate of India">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_India" title="Climate change in India">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_India" title="List of earthquakes in India">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_India" title="List of ecoregions in India">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_India" title="Environmental issues in India">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_India" title="Fauna of India">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_forests_in_India" title="List of forests in India">Forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_India" title="Flora of India">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_India" title="Geology of India">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_India" title="List of national parks of India">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_India" title="Protected areas of India">Protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_India" title="Wildlife of India">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wildlife_sanctuaries_of_India" title="List of wildlife sanctuaries of India">sanctuaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Landforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_India" title="List of beaches in India">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_canals_in_India" title="List of canals in India">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_India" title="Coastal India">Coasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thar_Desert" title="Thar Desert">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone_of_India" title="Exclusive economic zone of India">ECZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_India" title="List of extreme points of India">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_glaciers_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of glaciers of India">Glaciers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_states_and_union_territories_by_highest_point" title="List of Indian states and union territories by highest point">Highest point by states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_India" title="List of islands of India">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_India" title="List of lakes of India">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_India" title="List of mountains in India">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_passes_of_India" title="List of mountain passes of India">Mountain passes</a></li> <li>Plains <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain" title="Indo-Gangetic Plain">Indo-Gangetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Coastal_Plains" title="Eastern Coastal Plains">Eastern coastal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Coastal_Plains" title="Western Coastal Plains">Western coastal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_India" title="List of rivers of India">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_valleys_in_India" title="List of valleys in India">Valleys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_India" title="List of volcanoes in India">Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="List of waterfalls of India">Waterfalls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Administrative divisions of India">Regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_India" title="Central India">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_India" title="East India">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_India" title="Northwest India">Northwest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_India" title="Northeast India">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southwest_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwest India">Southwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeast India">Southeast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_India" title="Western India">West</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Administrative divisions of India">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_divisions_of_India" title="Autonomous administrative divisions of India">Autonomous administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_India" title="Template:Borders of India">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_in_India_by_population" title="List of towns in India by population">Towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_India_by_population" title="List of cities in India by population">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_districts_in_India" title="List of districts in India">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_governance_in_India" title="Municipal governance in India">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/States_and_union_territories_of_India" title="States and union territories of India">States and union territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monuments_of_National_Importance_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Monuments of National Importance of India">National monuments of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_India" title="List of national parks of India">National parks of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_worship" title="Nature worship">Nature worship</a> in <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian-origin religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Sites_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="World Heritage Sites in India">World Heritage Sites in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_India" title="Culture of India">Culture of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">History of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_India" title="Tourism in India">Tourism in India</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics12" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_India" title="Politics of India">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_India" title="Government of India">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agencies_of_the_government_of_India" title="List of agencies of the government of India">Agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_India" title="Energy policy of India">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_India" title="Foreign relations of India">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_India" title="Parliament of India">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lok_Sabha" title="Lok Sabha">Lok Sabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajya_Sabha" title="Rajya Sabha">Rajya Sabha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_India" title="President of India">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_India" title="Vice President of India">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India" title="Prime Minister of India">Prime Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Council_of_Ministers" title="Union Council of Ministers">Union Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Services_of_India" title="Civil Services of India">Civil Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_Secretary_(India)" title="Cabinet Secretary (India)">Cabinet Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_India" title="State governments of India">State governments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_legislative_assemblies_of_India" title="State legislative assemblies of India">State legislative assemblies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_legislative_councils_of_India" title="State legislative councils of India">State legislative councils</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(India)" title="Governor (India)">Governors, Lieutenant Governors and Administrators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_minister_(India)" title="Chief minister (India)">Chief Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_secretary_(India)" title="Chief secretary (India)">Chief Secretaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_India" title="Law of India">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_India" title="Constitution of India">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code" title="Indian Penal Code">Penal Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India" title="Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India">Fundamental rights, principles and duties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_India" title="Human rights in India">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in India">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India" title="Supreme Court of India">Supreme Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_India" title="Chief Justice of India">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_courts_of_India" title="High courts of India">High Courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_courts_of_India" title="District courts of India">District Courts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_India" title="Law enforcement in India">Enforcement</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Federal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Border_Security_Force" title="Border Security Force">Border Security Force (BSF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Industrial_Security_Force" title="Central Industrial Security Force">Central Industrial Security Force (CISF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Reserve_Police_Force" title="Central Reserve Police Force">Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Tibetan_Border_Police" title="Indo-Tibetan Border Police">Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Guard" title="National Security Guard">National Security Guard (NSG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_Protection_Force" title="Railway Protection Force">Railway Protection Force (RPF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sashastra_Seema_Bal" title="Sashastra Seema Bal">Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Protection_Group" title="Special Protection Group">Special Protection Group (SPG)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_intelligence_agencies" title="List of Indian intelligence agencies">Intelligence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Police_Research_and_Development" title="Bureau of Police Research and Development">Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPR&D)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Central Bureau of Investigation">Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directorate_of_Revenue_Intelligence" title="Directorate of Revenue Intelligence">Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Directorate" title="Enforcement Directorate">Enforcement Directorate (ED)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_Bureau_(India)" title="Intelligence Bureau (India)">Intelligence Bureau (IB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Council_(India)" title="National Security Council (India)">Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcotics_Control_Bureau" title="Narcotics Control Bureau">Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Investigation_Agency" title="National Investigation Agency">National Investigation Agency (NIA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_and_Analysis_Wing" title="Research and Analysis Wing">Research and Analysis Wing (R&AW)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indian_Armed_Forces" title="Indian Armed Forces">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Army" title="Indian Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Navy" title="Indian Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Air_Force" title="Indian Air Force">Air Force</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_India" title="Politics of India">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_India" title="Censorship in India">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_nationality_law" title="Indian nationality law">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_India" title="Elections in India">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_India" title="Democracy in India">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_nationalism" title="Indian nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_India" title="List of political parties in India">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_in_India" title="Reservation in India">Reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_scandals_in_India" title="List of scandals in India">Scandals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scheduled_Castes_and_Scheduled_Tribes" title="Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes">Scheduled groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_India" title="Secularism in India">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_political_participation_in_India" title="Women's political participation in India">Women in politics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy12" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_India" title="Economy of India">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_India" title="List of companies of India">Companies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BSE_SENSEX" title="BSE SENSEX">BSE SENSEX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIFTY_50" title="NIFTY 50">NIFTY 50</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_(India)" title="Ministry of Finance (India)">Ministry of Finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Finance_(India)" title="Minister of Finance (India)">Finance ministers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Commerce_and_Industry_(India)" title="Ministry of Commerce and Industry (India)">Ministry of Commerce and Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finance_Commission" title="Finance Commission">Finance Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Advisory_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic Advisory Council">Economic Advisory Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Statistics_Office_(India)" title="Central Statistics Office (India)">Central Statistical Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Securities_and_Exchange_Board_of_India" title="Securities and Exchange Board of India">Securities and Exchange Board of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Directorate" title="Enforcement Directorate">Enforcement Directorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/External_debt_of_India" title="External debt of India">External debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_India" title="Foreign trade of India">Foreign trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment_in_India" title="Foreign direct investment in India">Foreign direct investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign-exchange_reserves_of_India" title="Foreign-exchange reserves of India">Foreign exchange reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remittances_to_India" title="Remittances to India">Remittances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_India" title="Taxation in India">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidies_in_India" title="Subsidies in India">Subsidies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_licensing_in_India" title="Industrial licensing in India">Industrial licensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voluntary_Guidelines_on_Social,_Environmental_and_Economic_Responsibilities_of_Business" title="National Voluntary Guidelines on Social, Environmental and Economic Responsibilities of Business">Voluntary guidelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NITI_Aayog" title="NITI Aayog">NITI Aayog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Make_in_India" title="Make in India">Make in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmanirbhar_Bharat" title="Atmanirbhar Bharat">Atmanirbhar Bharat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rupee" title="Indian rupee">Indian rupee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rupee_sign" title="Indian rupee sign">Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_rupee" title="History of the rupee">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exchange_rate_history_of_the_Indian_rupee" title="Exchange rate history of the Indian rupee">Historical Forex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rupee" title="Digital rupee">Digital rupee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coinage_of_India" title="Coinage of India">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_paisa" title="Indian paisa">Paisa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_Bank_of_India" title="Reserve Bank of India">Reserve Bank of India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_the_Reserve_Bank_of_India" title="List of governors of the Reserve Bank of India">Governor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_Government_Mint" title="India Government Mint">Mint</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflation_in_India" title="Inflation in India">Inflation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Financial services</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_India" title="Banking in India">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_India" title="Insurance in India">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi_Commodity_Exchange" title="Multi Commodity Exchange">Multi Commodity Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gold_(Control)_Act,_1968" title="The Gold (Control) Act, 1968">Bullion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_black_money" title="Indian black money">Black money</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombay_Stock_Exchange" title="Bombay Stock Exchange">Bombay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Stock_Exchange_of_India" title="National Stock Exchange of India">National</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India" title="Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_development_in_India" title="Economic development in India">Economic development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalisation_in_India" title="Economic liberalisation in India">Liberalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licence_Raj" title="Licence Raj">Licence Raj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution_in_India" title="Green Revolution in India">Green revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_schemes_of_the_government_of_India" title="List of schemes of the government of India">Government initiatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_numbering_system" title="Indian numbering system">Numbering system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indians_by_net_worth" title="List of Indians by net worth">By net worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_India" title="Demographics of India">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_in_India" title="Income in India">Income</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_India" title="Poverty in India">Poverty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_labour_law" title="Indian labour law">Labour law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pensions_in_India" title="Pensions in India">Pensions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Employees%27_Provident_Fund_Organisation" title="Employees' Provident Fund Organisation">EPFO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pension_Scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="National Pension Scheme">NPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Provident_Fund_(India)" title="Public Provident Fund (India)">PPF</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Andhra_Pradesh" title="Economy of Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Assam" title="Economy of Assam">Assam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Bihar" title="Economy of Bihar">Bihar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Delhi" title="Economy of Delhi">Delhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Goa" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Goa">Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Gujarat" title="Economy of Gujarat">Gujarat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Haryana" title="Economy of Haryana">Haryana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Himachal_Pradesh" title="Economy of Himachal Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Jammu_and_Kashmir" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Jammu and Kashmir">Jammu and Kashmir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Jharkhand" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Jharkhand">Jharkhand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Karnataka" title="Economy of Karnataka">Karnataka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Kerala" title="Economy of Kerala">Kerala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Ladakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Ladakh">Ladakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Madhya_Pradesh" title="Economy of Madhya Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Maharashtra" title="Economy of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Mizoram" title="Economy of Mizoram">Mizoram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Odisha" title="Economy of Odisha">Odisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Punjab,_India" title="Economy of Punjab, India">Punjab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Rajasthan" title="Economy of Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Economy of Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Telangana" title="Economy of Telangana">Telangana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Uttarakhand" title="Economy of Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Uttar_Pradesh" title="Economy of Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_West_Bengal" title="Economy of West Bengal">West Bengal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sectors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_India" title="Agriculture in India">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry_in_India" title="Animal husbandry in India">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_in_India" title="Fishing in India">Fishing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_India" title="Automotive industry in India">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry_in_India" title="Chemical industry in India">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_India" title="Construction industry of India">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_industry_of_India" title="Defence industry of India">Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_India" title="Education in India">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_India" title="Energy in India">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India" title="Electricity sector in India">Electricity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_India" title="Nuclear power in India">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_and_gas_industry_in_India" title="Oil and gas industry in India">Oil and gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_India" title="Solar power in India">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_India" title="Wind power in India">Wind</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronics_and_semiconductor_manufacturing_industry_in_India" title="Electronics and semiconductor manufacturing industry in India">Electronics and semiconductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_industry_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Entertainment industry in India">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_India" title="Forestry in India">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_India" title="Gambling in India">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_India" title="Healthcare in India">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hospitals_in_India" title="List of hospitals in India">Hospitals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_technology_in_India" title="Information technology in India">Information technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of India">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_India" title="Cinema of India">Cinema</a></li> <li><a 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