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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solar_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coronal_mass_ejections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coronal_mass_ejections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Coronal mass ejections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coronal_mass_ejections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flares" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flares"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Flares</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flares-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solar_proton_events" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solar_proton_events"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Solar proton events</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solar_proton_events-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prominences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prominences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Prominences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prominences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sunspots" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sunspots"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Sunspots</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sunspots-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wind" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wind"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Wind</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wind-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Space_weather" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_weather"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Space weather</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space_weather-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Solar_storms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solar_storms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Solar storms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solar_storms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aurora" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aurora"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Aurora</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aurora-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geomagnetic_storm" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geomagnetic_storm"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>Geomagnetic storm</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geomagnetic_storm-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sudden_ionospheric_disturbance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sudden_ionospheric_disturbance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.4</span> <span>Sudden ionospheric disturbance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sudden_ionospheric_disturbance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geomagnetically_induced_currents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geomagnetically_induced_currents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.5</span> <span>Geomagnetically induced currents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geomagnetically_induced_currents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbon-14" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon-14"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Carbon-14</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon-14-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Observation_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Observation_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Observation history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Observation_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button 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class="mw-collapsible-content"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Misleading plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may have misleading content</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" 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class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may lack focus or may be about more than one topic</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help improve this article, possibly by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">splitting</a> the article and/or by introducing a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Disambiguation" title="Wikipedia:Disambiguation">disambiguation page</a>, or discuss this issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Solar_phenomena" title="Talk:Solar phenomena">talk page</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Activity_Continues_On_the_Sun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Activity_Continues_On_the_Sun.jpg/300px-Activity_Continues_On_the_Sun.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Activity_Continues_On_the_Sun.jpg/450px-Activity_Continues_On_the_Sun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Activity_Continues_On_the_Sun.jpg/600px-Activity_Continues_On_the_Sun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Solar activity: <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Solar_Dynamics_Observatory" title="Solar Dynamics Observatory">Solar Dynamics Observatory</a> captured this image of the X1.2 class <a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">solar flare</a> on May 14, 2013. The image shows light with a wavelength of 304 <a href="/wiki/Angstrom" title="Angstrom">angstroms</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Solar phenomena</b> are <a href="/wiki/Natural_phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural phenomena">natural phenomena</a> which occur within the <a href="/wiki/Stellar_atmosphere" title="Stellar atmosphere">atmosphere</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>. They take many forms, including <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_radio_emission" title="Solar radio emission">radio wave flux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">solar flares</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">coronal mass ejections</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-heliophysics_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heliophysics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Stellar_corona#Coronal_heating_problem" title="Stellar corona">coronal heating</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sunspots" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunspots">sunspots</a>. </p><p>These phenomena are believed to be generated by a helical <a href="/wiki/Solar_dynamo" title="Solar dynamo">dynamo</a>, located near the center of the Sun's mass, which generates strong magnetic fields, as well as a chaotic dynamo, located near the surface, which generates smaller magnetic field fluctuations.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All solar fluctuations together are referred to as solar variation, producing <a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">space weather</a> within the Sun's gravitational field. </p><p>Solar activity and related events have been recorded since the eighth century BCE. Throughout history, observation technology and methodology advanced, and in the 20th century, interest in <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a> surged and many solar telescopes were constructed. The 1931 invention of the <a href="/wiki/Coronagraph" title="Coronagraph">coronagraph</a> allowed the corona to be studied in full daylight. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sun">Sun</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Sun"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.jpg/230px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.jpg/345px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.jpg/460px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4044" data-file-height="3860" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/False_color" title="False color">False-color image</a> of the Sun showing its turbulent surface. (credit: <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>-<a href="/wiki/Solar_Dynamics_Observatory" title="Solar Dynamics Observatory">SDO</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The Sun is a <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">star</a> located at the center of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>. It is almost perfectly spherical and consists of hot <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic fields</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has a diameter of about 1,392,684 kilometres (865,374 mi),<sup id="cite_ref-arxiv1203_4898_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arxiv1203_4898-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> around 109 times that of <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, and its mass (1.989<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7001300000000000000♠"></span>30</span></sup> kilograms, approximately 330,000 times that of Earth) accounts for some 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System.<sup id="cite_ref-Woolfson00_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woolfson00-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chemically, about three quarters of the Sun's mass consists of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, while the rest is mostly <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>. The remaining 1.69% (equal to 5,600 times the mass of Earth) consists of heavier elements, including <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">neon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-basu2008_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-basu2008-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sun formed about 4.567 billion<sup id="cite_ref-short_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-short-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Connelly2012_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Connelly2012-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> years ago from the gravitational collapse of a region within a large <a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">molecular cloud</a>. Most of the matter gathered in the center, while the rest flattened into an orbiting disk that became <a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">the balance of the Solar System</a>. The central mass became increasingly hot and dense, eventually initiating <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_fusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermonuclear fusion">thermonuclear fusion</a> in its core. </p><p>The Sun is a <a href="/wiki/G-type_main-sequence_star" title="G-type main-sequence star">G-type main-sequence star</a> (G2V) based on <a href="/wiki/Stellar_classification" title="Stellar classification">spectral class</a>, and it is informally designated as a <i>yellow dwarf</i> because its visible <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a> is most intense in the yellow-green portion of the <a href="/wiki/Spectrum" title="Spectrum">spectrum</a>. It is actually white, but from the Earth's surface, it appears yellow because of <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_sky_radiation" title="Diffuse sky radiation">atmospheric scattering</a> of blue light.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the spectral class label, <i>G2</i> indicates its <a href="/wiki/Effective_temperature" title="Effective temperature">surface temperature</a>, of approximately 5770 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pas.rochester.edu/~emamajek/EEM_dwarf_UBVIJHK_colors_Teff.txt">K</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0067-0049/208/1/9">[3]</a> ( the UAI will accept in 2014 5772 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iau.org/static/resolutions/IAU2015_English.pdf">K</a> ) and <i>V</i> indicates that the Sun, like most stars, is a <a href="/wiki/Main-sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Main-sequence">main-sequence</a> star, and thus generates its energy via fusing hydrogen into helium. In its core, the Sun fuses about 620 million metric tons of hydrogen each second.<sup id="cite_ref-Phillips1995-47_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phillips1995-47-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Earth's mean distance from the Sun is approximately 1 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">astronomical unit</a> (about 150,000,000 km; 93,000,000 mi), though the distance varies as the Earth moves from <a href="/wiki/Perihelion" class="mw-redirect" title="Perihelion">perihelion</a> in January to <a href="/wiki/Aphelion" class="mw-redirect" title="Aphelion">aphelion</a> in July.<sup id="cite_ref-USNO_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNO-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this average distance, <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> travels from the Sun to Earth in about 8 minutes, 19 seconds. The <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> of this <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> supports almost all life<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on Earth by <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Simon2001_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simon2001-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and drives Earth's climate and weather.<sup id="cite_ref-Portman1952_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Portman1952-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As recent as the 19th century, scientists had little knowledge of the Sun's physical composition and source of energy. This understanding is still developing; a number of <a href="/wiki/Sun#Unsolved_problems" title="Sun">present-day anomalies</a> in the Sun's behavior remain unexplained. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Solar_cycle">Solar cycle</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Solar cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Solar_cycle" title="Solar cycle">Solar cycle</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solar_Cycle_Prediction.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Solar_Cycle_Prediction.gif/300px-Solar_Cycle_Prediction.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Solar_Cycle_Prediction.gif/450px-Solar_Cycle_Prediction.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Solar_Cycle_Prediction.gif/600px-Solar_Cycle_Prediction.gif 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Prediction of sunspot cycle</figcaption></figure> <p>Many solar phenomena change periodically over an average interval of about 11 years. This solar cycle affects <a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar irradiation">solar irradiation</a> and influences space weather, terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">weather</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>. </p><p>The solar cycle also modulates the flux of short-wavelength solar radiation, from <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> to <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> and influences the frequency of <a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">solar flares</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">coronal mass ejections</a> and other solar eruptive phenomena. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series of articles about</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Heliophysics" title="Heliophysics">Heliophysics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Heliospheric current sheet"><img alt="Heliospheric current sheet" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif/190px-Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif" decoding="async" width="190" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif/285px-Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif/380px-Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif 2x" data-file-width="866" data-file-height="676" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption" style="font-size:90%;padding-top:0.4em;font-style;"><a href="/wiki/Heliospheric_current_sheet" title="Heliospheric current sheet">Heliospheric current sheet</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist" style="display:block;margin-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heliosphere" title="Heliosphere">Heliosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_climate" title="Space climate">Space climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Space weather</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Fundamentals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">Plasma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flux_tube" title="Flux tube">Flux tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_reconnection" title="Magnetic reconnection">Magnetic reconnection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_acceleration" title="Particle acceleration">Particle acceleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_medium" title="Interplanetary medium">Interplanetary medium</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_magnetic_field" title="Interplanetary magnetic field">IMF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parker_spiral" class="mw-redirect" title="Parker spiral">Parker spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">Solar wind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">Cosmic ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">ICME</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forbush_decrease" title="Forbush decrease">Forbush decrease</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">Magnetospherics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere_chronology" title="Magnetosphere chronology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere_particle_motion" title="Magnetosphere particle motion">Particle motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosheath" title="Magnetosheath">Magnetosheath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmasphere" title="Plasmasphere">Plasmasphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt" title="Van Allen radiation belt">Van Allen radiation belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_current" title="Ring current">Ring current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birkeland_current" title="Birkeland current">Birkeland current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_storm" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic storm">Magnetic storm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aurora" title="Aurora">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetically_induced_current" title="Geomagnetically induced current">GIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_storm_time_index" title="Disturbance storm time index">Dst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substorm" title="Substorm">Substorm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_tornado" title="Space tornado">Space tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_hurricane" title="Space hurricane">Space hurricane</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_wind" title="Polar wind">Polar wind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flux_transfer_event" title="Flux transfer event">Flux transfer event</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Solar phenomena</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cycle" title="Solar cycle">Solar cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_maximum" title="Solar maximum">max</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_minimum" title="Solar minimum">min</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_storm" title="Solar storm">Solar storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_hole" title="Coronal hole">Coronal hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">CME</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_prominence" title="Solar prominence">Solar prominence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_particle_event" title="Solar particle event">Solar particle event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_radio_emission" title="Solar radio emission">Radio emission</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Heliophysics" title="Template:Heliophysics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Heliophysics" title="Template talk:Heliophysics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Heliophysics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Heliophysics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coronal_mass_ejections">Coronal mass ejections</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Coronal mass ejections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">Coronal mass ejection</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Solar_Storm_on_August_1%2C_2010.ogv/260px--Solar_Storm_on_August_1%2C_2010.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="260" height="146" data-durationhint="20" data-mwtitle="Solar_Storm_on_August_1,_2010.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Solar_Storm_on_August_1,_2010.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/dd/Solar_Storm_on_August_1%2C_2010.ogv/Solar_Storm_on_August_1%2C_2010.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/dd/Solar_Storm_on_August_1%2C_2010.ogv/Solar_Storm_on_August_1%2C_2010.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Solar_Storm_on_August_1%2C_2010.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/dd/Solar_Storm_on_August_1%2C_2010.ogv/Solar_Storm_on_August_1%2C_2010.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/dd/Solar_Storm_on_August_1%2C_2010.ogv/Solar_Storm_on_August_1%2C_2010.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/dd/Solar_Storm_on_August_1%2C_2010.ogv/Solar_Storm_on_August_1%2C_2010.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/dd/Solar_Storm_on_August_1%2C_2010.ogv/Solar_Storm_on_August_1%2C_2010.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>A video of the series of <a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">coronal mass ejections</a> in <a href="/wiki/Solar_Cycle_24" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar Cycle 24">August 2010</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A coronal mass ejection (CME) is a massive burst of <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a> and magnetic fields rising above the <a href="/wiki/Solar_corona" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar corona">solar corona</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Near <a href="/wiki/Solar_maximum" title="Solar maximum">solar maxima</a>, the Sun produces about three CMEs every day, whereas <a href="/wiki/Solar_minimum" title="Solar minimum">solar minima</a> feature about one every five days.<sup id="cite_ref-Fox_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fox-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> CMEs, along with solar flares of other origin, can disrupt <a href="/wiki/Radio_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio transmission">radio transmissions</a> and damage <a href="/wiki/Satellites" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellites">satellites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electrical_transmission_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical transmission line">electrical transmission line</a> facilities, resulting in potentially massive and long-lasting <a href="/wiki/Power_outage" title="Power outage">power outages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coronal mass ejections often appear with other forms of solar activity, most notably <a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">solar flares</a>, but no causal relationship has been established. Most weak flares do not have CMEs; however, most powerful ones do. Most ejections originate from <a href="/wiki/Active_region" title="Active region">active regions</a> on the Sun's surface, such as sunspot groupings associated with frequent flares. Other forms of solar activity frequently associated with coronal mass ejections are eruptive prominences, coronal dimming, coronal waves and <a href="/wiki/Moreton_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Moreton waves">Moreton waves</a>, also called solar tsunami. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_reconnection" title="Magnetic reconnection">Magnetic reconnection</a> is responsible for CME and <a href="/wiki/Solar_flares" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar flares">solar flares</a>. Magnetic reconnection is the name given to the rearrangement of magnetic field lines when two oppositely directed magnetic fields are brought together. This rearrangement is accompanied with a sudden release of energy stored in the original oppositely directed fields.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When a CME impacts the Earth's magnetosphere, it temporarily deforms the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a>, changing the direction of compass needles and inducing large electrical ground currents in Earth itself; this is called a <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">geomagnetic storm</a>, and it is a global phenomenon. CME impacts can induce <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_reconnection" title="Magnetic reconnection">magnetic reconnection</a> in Earth's <a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere#Magnetic_tails" title="Magnetosphere">magnetotail</a> (the midnight side of the magnetosphere); this launches protons and electrons downward toward Earth's atmosphere, where they form the <a href="/wiki/Aurora_(phenomenon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurora (phenomenon)">aurora</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flares">Flares</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Flares"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></div> <p>A solar flare is a sudden flash of brightness observed over the Sun's surface or the <a href="/wiki/Solar_limb" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar limb">solar limb</a>, which is interpreted as an <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> release of up to 6 × 10<sup>25</sup> <a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">joules</a> (about a sixth of the <a href="/wiki/1_E24_J" class="mw-redirect" title="1 E24 J">total Sun's energy output each second</a> or 160 billion megatons of <a href="/wiki/TNT" title="TNT">TNT</a> equivalent, over 25,000 times more energy than released from the impact of <a href="/wiki/Comet_Shoemaker%E2%80%93Levy_9" title="Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9">Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9</a> with Jupiter). It may be followed by a <a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">coronal mass ejection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kopp2005_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kopp2005-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The flare ejects clouds of electrons, ions and atoms through the corona into space. These clouds typically reach <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> a day or two after the event.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar phenomena in other stars are known as stellar flares. </p><p>Solar flares strongly influence space weather near the Earth. They can produce streams of highly energetic particles in the solar wind, known as a <a href="/wiki/Solar_proton_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar proton event">solar proton event</a>. These particles can impact the Earth's magnetosphere in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">geomagnetic storm</a> and present <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a> hazards to spacecraft and astronauts. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerycaption">A solar flare</li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 295px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 290px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Magnificent_CME_Erupts_on_the_Sun_-_August_31.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="On August 31, 2012, a long prominence/filament of solar material that had been hovering in the Sun's atmosphere, the corona, erupted out into space at 4:36 p.m. EDT."><img alt="On August 31, 2012, a long prominence/filament of solar material that had been hovering in the Sun's atmosphere, the corona, erupted out into space at 4:36 p.m. EDT." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Magnificent_CME_Erupts_on_the_Sun_-_August_31.jpg/260px-Magnificent_CME_Erupts_on_the_Sun_-_August_31.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Magnificent_CME_Erupts_on_the_Sun_-_August_31.jpg/390px-Magnificent_CME_Erupts_on_the_Sun_-_August_31.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Magnificent_CME_Erupts_on_the_Sun_-_August_31.jpg/520px-Magnificent_CME_Erupts_on_the_Sun_-_August_31.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">On August 31, 2012, a long prominence/filament of solar material that had been hovering in the Sun's atmosphere, the corona, erupted out into space at 4:36 p.m. EDT.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 295px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 290px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sunspot_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Diagram of the magnetic-field structure of a solar flare and its origin, inferred to result from the deformation of such a magnetic structure linking the solar interior with the solar atmosphere up through the corona."><img alt="Diagram of the magnetic-field structure of a solar flare and its origin, inferred to result from the deformation of such a magnetic structure linking the solar interior with the solar atmosphere up through the corona." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Sunspot_diagram.svg/179px-Sunspot_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="179" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Sunspot_diagram.svg/268px-Sunspot_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Sunspot_diagram.svg/358px-Sunspot_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="580" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Diagram of the magnetic-field structure of a solar flare and its origin, inferred to result from the deformation of such a magnetic structure linking the solar interior with the solar atmosphere up through the <a href="/wiki/Solar_corona" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar corona">corona</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 295px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 290px; height: 190px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:STEREO-Solar_Flare_in_2D.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A complete 2D-Image taken by STEREO (High Resolution)"><img alt="A complete 2D-Image taken by STEREO (High Resolution)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/STEREO-Solar_Flare_in_2D.jpg/260px-STEREO-Solar_Flare_in_2D.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/STEREO-Solar_Flare_in_2D.jpg/390px-STEREO-Solar_Flare_in_2D.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/STEREO-Solar_Flare_in_2D.jpg/520px-STEREO-Solar_Flare_in_2D.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A complete 2D-Image taken by <a href="/wiki/STEREO" title="STEREO">STEREO</a> (High Resolution)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solar_proton_events">Solar proton events</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Solar proton events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Solar_proton_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar proton event">Solar proton event</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Magnetosphere_rendition.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Magnetosphere_rendition.jpg/220px-Magnetosphere_rendition.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Magnetosphere_rendition.jpg/330px-Magnetosphere_rendition.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Magnetosphere_rendition.jpg/440px-Magnetosphere_rendition.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="656" /></a><figcaption>Solar particles interact with Earth's <a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">magnetosphere</a>. Sizes not to scale.</figcaption></figure> <p>A solar proton event (SPE), or "proton storm", occurs when particles (mostly protons) emitted by the Sun become accelerated either close to the Sun during a flare or in interplanetary space by CME shocks. The events can include other nuclei such as helium ions and <a href="/wiki/HZE_ions" class="mw-redirect" title="HZE ions">HZE ions</a>. These particles cause multiple effects. They can penetrate the Earth's magnetic field and cause <a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">ionization</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">ionosphere</a>. The effect is similar to auroral events, except that protons rather than electrons are involved. Energetic protons are a significant radiation hazard to spacecraft and astronauts.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA/TP-1999-209320_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA/TP-1999-209320-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Energetic <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> can reach Earth within 30 minutes of a major flare's peak. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prominences">Prominences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Prominences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Solar_prominence" title="Solar prominence">Solar prominence</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Solar_prominence.ogv/220px--Solar_prominence.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="32" data-mwtitle="Solar_prominence.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Solar_prominence.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a7/Solar_prominence.ogv/Solar_prominence.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a7/Solar_prominence.ogv/Solar_prominence.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Solar_prominence.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a7/Solar_prominence.ogv/Solar_prominence.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a7/Solar_prominence.ogv/Solar_prominence.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a7/Solar_prominence.ogv/Solar_prominence.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>A video clip of an erupting solar prominence, a CME.</figcaption></figure> <p>A prominence is a large, bright, gaseous feature extending outward from the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>'s surface, often in the shape of a <a href="/wiki/Coronal_loops" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronal loops">loop</a>. Prominences are anchored to the Sun's surface in the photosphere and extend outwards into the corona. While the corona consists of high temperature <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a>, which does not emit much <a href="/wiki/Visible_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Visible light">visible light</a>, prominences contain much cooler plasma, similar in composition to that of the <a href="/wiki/Chromosphere" title="Chromosphere">chromosphere</a>. </p><p>Prominence plasma is typically a hundred times cooler and denser than coronal plasma. A prominence forms over timescales of about an earthly day and may persist for weeks or months. Some prominences break apart and form CMEs. </p><p>A typical prominence extends over many thousands of kilometers; the largest on record was estimated at over 800,000 kilometres (500,000 mi) long <sup id="cite_ref-univtoday_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-univtoday-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – roughly the solar radius. </p><p>When a prominence is viewed against the Sun instead of space, it appears darker than the background. This formation is called a solar filament.<sup id="cite_ref-univtoday_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-univtoday-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is possible for a projection to be both a filament and a prominence. Some prominences are so powerful that they eject matter at speeds ranging from 600 km/s to more than 1000 km/s. Other prominences form huge loops or arching columns of glowing gases over sunspots that can reach heights of hundreds of thousands of kilometers.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sunspots">Sunspots</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sunspots"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sunspots" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunspots">Sunspots</a></div> <p>Sunspots are relatively dark areas on the Sun's radiating 'surface' (<a href="/wiki/Photosphere" title="Photosphere">photosphere</a>) where intense magnetic activity inhibits convection and cools the <a href="/wiki/Photosphere" title="Photosphere">Photosphere</a>. <a href="/wiki/Solar_facula" title="Solar facula">Faculae</a> are slightly brighter areas that form around sunspot groups as the flow of energy to the photosphere is re-established and both the normal flow and the sunspot-blocked energy elevate the radiating 'surface' temperature. Scientists began speculating on possible relationships between sunspots and solar luminosity in the 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Luminosity decreases caused by sunspots (generally < - 0.3%) are correlated with increases (generally < + 0.05%) caused both by faculae that are associated with active regions as well as the magnetically active 'bright network'.<sup id="cite_ref-Willson812_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Willson812-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The net effect during periods of enhanced solar magnetic activity is increased radiant solar output because faculae are larger and persist longer than sunspots. Conversely, periods of lower solar magnetic activity and fewer sunspots (such as the <a href="/wiki/Maunder_Minimum" title="Maunder Minimum">Maunder Minimum</a>) may correlate with times of lower irradiance.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sunspot activity has been measured using the <a href="/wiki/Wolf_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolf number">Wolf number</a> for about 300 years. This index (also known as the Zürich number) uses both the number of sunspots and the number of sunspot groups to compensate for measurement variations. A 2003 study found that sunspots had been more frequent since the 1940s than in the previous 1150 years.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sunspots usually appear as pairs with opposite magnetic polarity.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Detailed observations reveal patterns, in yearly minima and maxima and in relative location. As each cycle proceeds, the latitude of spots declines, from 30 to 45° to around 7° after the <a href="/wiki/Solar_maximum" title="Solar maximum">solar maximum</a>. This latitudinal change follows <a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%B6rer%27s_law" title="Spörer's law">Spörer's law</a>. </p><p>For a sunspot to be visible to the human eye it must be about 50,000 km in diameter, covering 2,000,000,000 square kilometres (770,000,000 sq mi) or 700 millionths of the visible area. Over recent cycles, approximately 100 sunspots or compact sunspot groups are visible from Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BOM_Naked_Eye_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BOM_Naked_Eye-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sunspots expand and contract as they move about and can travel at a few hundred meters per second when they first appear. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 255px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 250px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sunspot_butterfly_graph.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Spörer's law noted that at the start of an 11-year sunspot cycle, the spots appeared first at higher latitudes and later in progressively lower latitudes."><img alt="Spörer's law noted that at the start of an 11-year sunspot cycle, the spots appeared first at higher latitudes and later in progressively lower latitudes." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Sunspot_butterfly_graph.gif/220px-Sunspot_butterfly_graph.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Sunspot_butterfly_graph.gif/330px-Sunspot_butterfly_graph.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Sunspot_butterfly_graph.gif/440px-Sunspot_butterfly_graph.gif 2x" data-file-width="2150" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Sp%C3%B6rer%27s_law" title="Spörer's law">Spörer's law</a> noted that at the start of an 11-year sunspot cycle, the spots appeared first at higher latitudes and later in progressively lower latitudes.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 255px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 250px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sunspots_1302_Sep_2011_by_NASA.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A report in the Daily Mail characterized sunspot 1302 as a "behemoth" unleashing huge solar flares."><img alt="A report in the Daily Mail characterized sunspot 1302 as a "behemoth" unleashing huge solar flares." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Sunspots_1302_Sep_2011_by_NASA.jpg/220px-Sunspots_1302_Sep_2011_by_NASA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Sunspots_1302_Sep_2011_by_NASA.jpg/330px-Sunspots_1302_Sep_2011_by_NASA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Sunspots_1302_Sep_2011_by_NASA.jpg/440px-Sunspots_1302_Sep_2011_by_NASA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="301" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A report in the <i>Daily Mail</i> characterized sunspot 1302 as a "behemoth" unleashing huge solar flares.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 255px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 250px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sunspots.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Detail of the Sun's surface, analog photography with a 4" Refractor, yellow glass filter and foil filter ND 4, Observatory Großhadern, Munich"><img alt="Detail of the Sun's surface, analog photography with a 4" Refractor, yellow glass filter and foil filter ND 4, Observatory Großhadern, Munich" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Sunspots.JPG/87px-Sunspots.JPG" decoding="async" width="87" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Sunspots.JPG/130px-Sunspots.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Sunspots.JPG/174px-Sunspots.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1315" data-file-height="2565" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Detail of the Sun's surface, analog photography with a 4" Refractor, yellow glass filter and foil filter ND 4, Observatory <a href="/wiki/Gro%C3%9Fhadern" title="Großhadern">Großhadern</a>, Munich</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 255px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 250px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:172197main_NASA_Flare_Gband_lg-withouttext.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Detailed view of sunspot, 13 December 2006"><img alt="Detailed view of sunspot, 13 December 2006" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/172197main_NASA_Flare_Gband_lg-withouttext.jpg/220px-172197main_NASA_Flare_Gband_lg-withouttext.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/172197main_NASA_Flare_Gband_lg-withouttext.jpg/330px-172197main_NASA_Flare_Gband_lg-withouttext.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/172197main_NASA_Flare_Gband_lg-withouttext.jpg/440px-172197main_NASA_Flare_Gband_lg-withouttext.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1220" data-file-height="808" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Detailed view of sunspot, 13 December 2006</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wind">Wind</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Wind"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">Solar wind</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_LanguageSwitch.svg%3Flang%3Den" title="File:Structure of the magnetosphere LanguageSwitch.svg?lang=en"><img resource="/wiki/File:Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_LanguageSwitch.svg?lang=en" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_LanguageSwitch.svg/330px-Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_LanguageSwitch.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_LanguageSwitch.svg/495px-Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_LanguageSwitch.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_LanguageSwitch.svg/660px-Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_LanguageSwitch.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="393" /></a><figcaption>Schematic of <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s magnetosphere. The solar wind flows from left to right.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Animati3.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Animati3.gif/220px-Animati3.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Animati3.gif/330px-Animati3.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Animati3.gif/440px-Animati3.gif 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>Simulation of Earth's magnetic field in interaction with (solar) interplanetary magnetic field that illustrates the dynamical changes of the global magnetic field in the course of a disturbance: a temporary compression of the magnetosphere by enhanced flow of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a> is followed by a tailward stretching of the field lines.</figcaption></figure> <p>The solar wind is a stream of plasma released from the Sun's <a href="/wiki/Stellar_atmosphere" title="Stellar atmosphere">upper atmosphere</a>. It consists of mostly <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> and protons with energies usually between 1.5 and 10 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">keV</a>. The stream of particles varies in density, temperature and speed over time and over solar longitude. These particles can escape the Sun's gravity because of their high energy. </p><p>The solar wind is divided into the slow solar wind and the fast solar wind. The slow solar wind has a velocity of about 400 kilometres per second (250 mi/s), a temperature of 2<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000500000000000000♠"></span>5</span></sup> K and a composition that is a close match to the corona. The fast solar wind has a typical velocity of 750 km/s, a temperature of 8<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000500000000000000♠"></span>5</span></sup> K and nearly matches the photosphere's.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The slow solar wind is twice as dense and more variable in intensity than the fast solar wind. The slow wind has a more complex structure, with turbulent regions and large-scale organization.<sup id="cite_ref-kallenrode_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kallenrode-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both the fast and slow solar winds can be interrupted by large, fast-moving bursts of plasma called interplanetary CMEs, or ICMEs. They cause shock waves in the thin plasma of the <a href="/wiki/Heliosphere" title="Heliosphere">heliosphere</a>, generating electromagnetic waves and accelerating particles (mostly protons and electrons) to form showers of <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> that precede the CME. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space_weather">Space weather</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Space weather"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Space weather</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg/250px-Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg/375px-Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg/500px-Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1782" data-file-height="1173" /></a><figcaption>An example of space weather: <a href="/wiki/Aurora_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurora (astronomy)">Aurora australis</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> observed by <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Discovery" title="Space Shuttle Discovery">Space Shuttle <i>Discovery</i></a>, May 1991</figcaption></figure> <p>Space weather is the environmental condition within the Solar System, including the <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a>. It is studied especially surrounding the Earth, including conditions from the magnetosphere to the ionosphere and <a href="/wiki/Thermosphere" title="Thermosphere">thermosphere</a>. Space weather is distinct from terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">weather</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a>. The term was not used until the 1990s. Prior to that time, such phenomena were considered to be part of physics or <a href="/wiki/Aeronomy" title="Aeronomy">aeronomy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Solar_storms">Solar storms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Solar storms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_solar_storms" title="List of solar storms">List of solar storms</a></div> <p>Solar storms are caused by disturbances on the Sun, most often <a href="/wiki/Coronal_cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronal cloud">coronal clouds</a> associated with <a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">solar flare</a> CMEs emanating from active sunspot regions, or less often from <a href="/wiki/Coronal_hole" title="Coronal hole">coronal holes</a>. The Sun can produce intense <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">geomagnetic</a> and proton storms capable of causing <a href="/wiki/Power_outage" title="Power outage">power outages</a>, disruption or <a href="/wiki/Communications_blackouts" class="mw-redirect" title="Communications blackouts">communications blackouts</a> (including <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a> systems) and temporary/permanent disabling of satellites and other spaceborne technology. Solar storms may be hazardous to high-latitude, high-altitude aviation and to <a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">human spaceflight</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geomagnetic storms cause aurorae.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most significant known solar storm occurred in September 1859 and is known as the <a href="/wiki/Carrington_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Carrington event">Carrington event</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aurora">Aurora</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Aurora"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aurora_(phenomenon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurora (phenomenon)">Aurora (phenomenon)</a></div> <p>An aurora is a natural light display in the sky, especially in the high latitude (<a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antarctic" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a>) regions, in the form of a large circle around the pole. It is caused by the collision of <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a> and charged magnetospheric particles with the high altitude atmosphere (<a href="/wiki/Thermosphere" title="Thermosphere">thermosphere</a>). </p><p>Most auroras occur in a band known as the <i>auroral zone</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-feldstein63_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-feldstein63-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-feldstein86_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-feldstein86-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is typically 3° to 6° wide in latitude and observed at 10° to 20° from the <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_pole" title="Geomagnetic pole">geomagnetic poles</a> at all longitudes, but often most vividly around the spring and autumn <a href="/wiki/Equinox" title="Equinox">equinoxes</a>. The charged particles and solar wind are directed into the atmosphere by the Earth's magnetosphere. A geomagnetic storm expands the auroral zone to lower latitudes. </p><p>Auroras are associated with the solar wind. The Earth's magnetic field traps its particles, many of which travel toward the poles where they are accelerated toward Earth. Collisions between these ions and the atmosphere release energy in the form of auroras appearing in large circles around the poles. Auroras are more frequent and brighter during the solar cycle's intense phase when CMEs increase the intensity of the solar wind.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geomagnetic_storm">Geomagnetic storm</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Geomagnetic storm"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">Geomagnetic storm</a></div> <p>A geomagnetic storm is a temporary disturbance of the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">magnetosphere</a> caused by a <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a> shock wave and/or cloud of magnetic field that interacts with the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a>. The increase in solar wind pressure compresses the magnetosphere and the solar wind's magnetic field interacts with the Earth's magnetic field to transfer increased energy into the magnetosphere. Both interactions increase plasma movement through the magnetosphere (driven by increased electric fields) and increase the electric current in the magnetosphere and ionosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The disturbance in the interplanetary medium that drives a storm may be due to a CME or a high speed stream (co-rotating interaction region or CIR)<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the solar wind originating from a region of weak magnetic field on the solar surface. The frequency of geomagnetic storms increases and decreases with the <a href="/wiki/Wolf_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolf number">sunspot</a> cycle. CME driven storms are more common during the solar maximum of the solar cycle, while CIR-driven storms are more common during the solar minimum. </p><p>Several space weather phenomena are associated with geomagnetic storms. These include Solar Energetic Particle (SEP) events, <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetically_induced_current" title="Geomagnetically induced current">geomagnetically induced currents</a> (GIC), ionospheric disturbances that cause radio and radar <a href="/wiki/Twinkling" title="Twinkling">scintillation</a>, disruption of compass navigation and auroral displays at much lower latitudes than normal. A <a href="/wiki/March_1989_geomagnetic_storm" title="March 1989 geomagnetic storm">1989 geomagnetic storm</a> energized <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetically_induced_current" title="Geomagnetically induced current">ground induced currents</a> that disrupted electric power distribution throughout most of the province of <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a><sup id="cite_ref-cbc.ca_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cbc.ca-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and caused aurorae as far south as <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Earth_dodges_magnetic_storm_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Earth_dodges_magnetic_storm-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sudden_ionospheric_disturbance">Sudden ionospheric disturbance</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sudden ionospheric disturbance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sudden_ionospheric_disturbance" title="Sudden ionospheric disturbance">Sudden ionospheric disturbance</a></div> <p>A sudden ionospheric disturbance (SID) is an abnormally high ionization/plasma density in the <a href="/wiki/D_region" class="mw-redirect" title="D region">D region</a> of the ionosphere caused by a solar flare. The SID results in a sudden increase in radio-wave absorption that is most severe in the upper <a href="/wiki/Medium_frequency" title="Medium frequency">medium frequency</a> (MF) and lower <a href="/wiki/High_frequency" title="High frequency">high frequency</a> (HF) ranges, and as a result, often interrupts or interferes with <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunication">telecommunications</a> systems.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geomagnetically_induced_currents">Geomagnetically induced currents</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Geomagnetically induced currents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetically_induced_currents" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomagnetically induced currents">Geomagnetically induced currents</a></div> <p>Geomagnetically induced currents are a manifestation at ground level of space weather, which affect the normal operation of long electrical conductor systems. During space weather events, electric currents in the magnetosphere and ionosphere experience large variations, which manifest also in the Earth's magnetic field. These variations <a href="/wiki/Electric_induction" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric induction">induce</a> currents (GIC) in earthly conductors. <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">Electric transmission grids</a> and buried <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipeline transport">pipelines</a> are common examples of such conductor systems. GIC can cause problems such as increased <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> of pipeline steel and damaged high-voltage power transformers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon-14">Carbon-14</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Carbon-14"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carbon14-sunspot-1000px.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Carbon14-sunspot-1000px.png/300px-Carbon14-sunspot-1000px.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Carbon14-sunspot-1000px.png/450px-Carbon14-sunspot-1000px.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Carbon14-sunspot-1000px.png/600px-Carbon14-sunspot-1000px.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="570" /></a><figcaption>Sunspot record (blue) with <sup>14</sup>C (inverted).</figcaption></figure> <p>The production of <a href="/wiki/Carbon-14" title="Carbon-14">carbon-14</a> (radiocarbon: <sup>14</sup>C) is related to solar activity. Carbon-14 is produced in the upper atmosphere when cosmic ray bombardment of atmospheric nitrogen (<sup>14</sup>N) induces the nitrogen to undergo <a href="/wiki/%CE%92%2B_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Β+ decay">β+ decay</a>, thus transforming into an unusual isotope of carbon with an atomic weight of 14 rather than the more common 12. Because galactic cosmic rays are partially excluded from the Solar System by the outward sweep of magnetic fields in the solar wind, increased solar activity reduces <sup>14</sup>C production.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Atmospheric <sup>14</sup>C concentration is lower during solar maxima and higher during solar minima. By measuring the captured <sup>14</sup>C in wood and counting tree rings, production of radiocarbon relative to recent wood can be measured and dated. A reconstruction of the past 10,000 years shows that the <sup>14</sup>C production was much higher during the mid-<a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> 7,000 years ago and decreased until 1,000 years ago. In addition to variations in solar activity, long-term trends in carbon-14 production are influenced by changes in the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomagnetic field">geomagnetic field</a> and by changes in carbon cycling within the <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a> (particularly those associated with changes in the extent of vegetation between <a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">ice ages</a>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Observation_history">Observation history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Observation history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Solar_observation" title="Solar observation">Solar observation</a></div><p> Solar activity and related events have been regularly recorded since the time of the <a href="/wiki/Babylonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonians">Babylonians</a>. Early records described solar eclipses, the corona and sunspots.</p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Athanasius_Kircher_sunspots.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Athanasius_Kircher_sunspots.jpg/290px-Athanasius_Kircher_sunspots.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="376" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Athanasius_Kircher_sunspots.jpg/435px-Athanasius_Kircher_sunspots.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Athanasius_Kircher_sunspots.jpg/580px-Athanasius_Kircher_sunspots.jpg 2x" data-file-width="616" data-file-height="799" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of sunspots drawn by 17th-century German Jesuit scholar <a href="/wiki/Athanasius_Kircher" title="Athanasius Kircher">Athanasius Kircher</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Soon after the invention of telescopes, in the early 1600s, astronomers began observing the Sun. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Harriot" title="Thomas Harriot">Thomas Harriot</a> was the first to observe sunspots, in 1610. Observers confirmed the less-frequent sunspots and aurorae during the Maunder minimum.<sup id="cite_ref-HAO_timeline_0_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HAO_timeline_0-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>One of these observers was the renowned astronomer <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Hevelius" title="Johannes Hevelius">Johannes Hevelius</a> who recorded a number of sunspots from 1653 to 1679 in the early Maunder minimum, listed in the book Machina Coelestis (1679).<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Solar spectrometry began in 1817.<sup id="cite_ref-HAO_timeline_1800_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HAO_timeline_1800-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Wolf" title="Rudolf Wolf">Rudolf Wolf</a> gathered sunspot observations as far back as the 1755–1766 cycle. He established a relative sunspot number formulation (the <a href="/wiki/Wolf_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolf number">Wolf or Zürich sunspot number</a>) that became the standard measure. Around 1852, Sabine, Wolf, Gautier and von Lamont independently found a link between the solar cycle and geomagnetic activity.<sup id="cite_ref-HAO_timeline_1800_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HAO_timeline_1800-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 2 April 1845, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Fizeau" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Fizeau">Fizeau</a> and <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Foucault" title="Léon Foucault">Foucault</a> first photographed the Sun. Photography assisted in the study of solar prominences, <a href="/wiki/Solar_granule" title="Solar granule">granulation</a>, spectroscopy and solar eclipses.<sup id="cite_ref-HAO_timeline_1800_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HAO_timeline_1800-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 1 September 1859, Richard C. Carrington and separately R. Hodgson first observed a solar flare.<sup id="cite_ref-HAO_timeline_1800_55-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HAO_timeline_1800-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carrington and <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Sp%C3%B6rer" title="Gustav Spörer">Gustav Spörer</a> discovered that the Sun exhibits <a href="/wiki/Solar_rotation" title="Solar rotation">differential rotation</a>, and that the outer layer must be fluid.<sup id="cite_ref-HAO_timeline_1800_55-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HAO_timeline_1800-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1907–08, <a href="/wiki/George_Ellery_Hale" title="George Ellery Hale">George Ellery Hale</a> uncovered the Sun's magnetic cycle and the magnetic nature of sunspots. Hale and his colleagues later deduced Hale's polarity laws that described its magnetic field.<sup id="cite_ref-HAO_timeline_1800_55-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HAO_timeline_1800-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bernard Lyot's 1931 invention of the <a href="/wiki/Coronagraph" title="Coronagraph">coronagraph</a> allowed the corona to be studied in full daylight.<sup id="cite_ref-HAO_timeline_1800_55-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HAO_timeline_1800-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sun was, until the 1990s, the only star whose surface had been resolved.<sup id="cite_ref-BURNS_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BURNS-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other major achievements included understanding of:<sup id="cite_ref-Ground-based_Solar_Research_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ground-based_Solar_Research-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>X-ray-emitting loops (<i>e.g.</i>, by <a href="/wiki/Yohkoh" title="Yohkoh">Yohkoh</a>)</li> <li>Corona and solar wind (<i>e.g.</i>, by <a href="/wiki/Solar_and_Heliospheric_Observatory" title="Solar and Heliospheric Observatory">SoHO</a>)</li> <li>Variance of solar brightness with level of activity, and verification of this effect in other solar-type stars (<i>e.g.</i>, by <a href="/wiki/ACRIM" class="mw-redirect" title="ACRIM">ACRIM</a>)</li> <li>The intense <a href="/wiki/Solar_spicule" title="Solar spicule">fibril</a> state of the magnetic fields at the visible surface of a star like the Sun (<i>e.g.</i>, by <a href="/wiki/Hinode_(satellite)" title="Hinode (satellite)">Hinode</a>)</li> <li>The presence of magnetic fields of 0.5×10<sup>5</sup> to 1×10<sup>5</sup> gauss at the base of the conductive zone, presumably in some fibril form, inferred from the dynamics of rising azimuthal flux bundles.</li> <li>Low-level <a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino">electron neutrino</a> emission from the Sun's core.<sup id="cite_ref-Ground-based_Solar_Research_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ground-based_Solar_Research-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In the later twentieth century, satellites began observing the Sun, providing many insights. For example, modulation of solar luminosity by magnetically active regions was confirmed by satellite measurements of total solar irradiance (TSI) by the ACRIM1 experiment on the <a href="/wiki/Solar_Maximum_Mission" title="Solar Maximum Mission">Solar Maximum Mission</a> (launched in 1980).<sup id="cite_ref-Willson812_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Willson812-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attribution_of_recent_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Attribution of recent climate change">Attribution of recent climate change</a> (section <a href="/wiki/Attribution_of_recent_climate_change#Solar_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Attribution of recent climate change">Solar activity</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> (section <a href="/wiki/Climate_change#Solar_output" title="Climate change">Solar output</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_articles_related_to_the_Sun" title="List of articles related to the Sun">List of articles related to the Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy" title="Outline of astronomy">Outline of astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiative_levitation" title="Radiative levitation">Radiative levitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cycle" title="Solar cycle">Solar cycle</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-short-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-short_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">All numbers in this article are short scale. One billion is 10<sup>9</sup>, or 1,000,000,000.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal vent communities">Hydrothermal vent communities</a> live so deep under the sea that they have no access to sunlight. Bacteria instead use sulfur compounds as an energy source, via <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">chemosynthesis</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This is based on the hypothesis that the average human eye may have a resolution of 3.3×10<sup>−4</sup> radians or 70 arc seconds, with a 1.5 millimetres (0.059 in) maximum pupil dilation in relatively bright light.<sup id="cite_ref-BOM_Naked_Eye_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BOM_Naked_Eye-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-heliophysics-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-heliophysics_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSiscoeSchrijver2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Siscoe" title="George Siscoe">Siscoe, George L.</a>; Schrijver, Carolus J., eds. 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(1995-09-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00732815">"Overlooked sunspot observations by Hevelius in the early Maunder Minimum, 1653–1684"</a>. <i>Solar Physics</i>. <b>160</b> (2): 371–378. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00732815">10.1007/BF00732815</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-093X">1573-093X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Solar+Physics&rft.atitle=Overlooked+sunspot+observations+by+Hevelius+in+the+early+Maunder+Minimum%2C+1653%E2%80%931684&rft.volume=160&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=371-378&rft.date=1995-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00732815&rft.issn=1573-093X&rft.aulast=Hoyt&rft.aufirst=Douglas+V.&rft.au=Schatten%2C+Kenneth+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2FBF00732815&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolar+phenomena" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HAO_timeline_1800-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HAO_timeline_1800_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HAO_timeline_1800_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HAO_timeline_1800_55-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HAO_timeline_1800_55-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HAO_timeline_1800_55-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HAO_timeline_1800_55-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HAO_timeline_1800_55-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140818180035/http://www.hao.ucar.edu/education/TimelineD.php">"History of Solar Physics: A Time Line of Great Moments: 1800–1999"</a>. <i>High Altitude Observatory</i>. University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hao.ucar.edu/education/TimelineD.php">the original</a> on 18 August 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=High+Altitude+Observatory&rft.atitle=History+of+Solar+Physics%3A+A+Time+Line+of+Great+Moments%3A+1800%E2%80%931999&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hao.ucar.edu%2Feducation%2FTimelineD.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolar+phenomena" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BURNS-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BURNS_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns,_D.Baldwin,_J._E.Boysen,_R._C.Haniff,_C._A.1997" class="citation journal cs1">Burns, D.; Baldwin, J. E.; Boysen, R. C.; Haniff, C. A.; et al. (September 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2F290.1.l11">"The surface structure and limb-darkening profile of Betelgeuse"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Monthly_Notices_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a></i>. <b>290</b> (1): L11–L16. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997MNRAS.290L..11B">1997MNRAS.290L..11B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2F290.1.l11">10.1093/mnras/290.1.l11</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monthly+Notices+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society&rft.atitle=The+surface+structure+and+limb-darkening+profile+of+Betelgeuse&rft.volume=290&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=L11-L16&rft.date=1997-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmnras%2F290.1.l11&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997MNRAS.290L..11B&rft.au=Burns%2C+D.&rft.au=Baldwin%2C+J.+E.&rft.au=Boysen%2C+R.+C.&rft.au=Haniff%2C+C.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fmnras%252F290.1.l11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolar+phenomena" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ground-based_Solar_Research-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ground-based_Solar_Research_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ground-based_Solar_Research_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Research_Council_(U.S.)._Task_Group_on_Ground-based_Solar_Research1998" class="citation book cs1">National Research Council (U.S.). Task Group on Ground-based Solar Research (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mqArAAAAYAAJ"><i>Ground-based Solar Research: An Assessment and Strategy for the Future</i></a>. Washington D.C.: National Academy Press. p. 10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ground-based+Solar+Research%3A+An+Assessment+and+Strategy+for+the+Future&rft.place=Washington+D.C.&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=National+Academy+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.au=National+Research+Council+%28U.S.%29.+Task+Group+on+Ground-based+Solar+Research&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmqArAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolar+phenomena" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarlMelilloPeterson2009" class="citation web cs1">Karl, Thomas R.; Melillo, Jerry M.; Peterson, Thomas C. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML1006/ML100601201.pdf">"Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Cambridge University Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Global+Climate+Change+Impacts+in+the+United+States&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Karl&rft.aufirst=Thomas+R.&rft.au=Melillo%2C+Jerry+M.&rft.au=Peterson%2C+Thomas+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrc.gov%2Fdocs%2FML1006%2FML100601201.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolar+phenomena" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillsonH.S._Hudson1991" class="citation journal cs1">Willson, Richard C.; H.S. Hudson (1991). "The Sun's luminosity over a complete solar cycle". <i>Nature</i>. <b>351</b> (6321): 42–4. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991Natur.351...42W">1991Natur.351...42W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F351042a0">10.1038/351042a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4273483">4273483</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+Sun%27s+luminosity+over+a+complete+solar+cycle&rft.volume=351&rft.issue=6321&rft.pages=42-4&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4273483%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F351042a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1991Natur.351...42W&rft.aulast=Willson&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rft.au=H.S.+Hudson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolar+phenomena" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoukal1977" class="citation journal cs1">Foukal, Peter; et al. (1977). "The effects of sunspots and faculae on the solar constant". <i>Astrophysical Journal</i>. <b>215</b>: 952. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977ApJ...215..952F">1977ApJ...215..952F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F155431">10.1086/155431</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astrophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+effects+of+sunspots+and+faculae+on+the+solar+constant&rft.volume=215&rft.pages=952&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F155431&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977ApJ...215..952F&rft.aulast=Foukal&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolar+phenomena" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDziembowskiP.R._GoodeJ._Schou2001" class="citation journal cs1">Dziembowski, W.A.; P.R. Goode; J. Schou (2001). "Does the sun shrink with increasing magnetic activity?". <i>Astrophysical Journal</i>. <b>553</b> (2): 897–904. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0101473">astro-ph/0101473</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001ApJ...553..897D">2001ApJ...553..897D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F320976">10.1086/320976</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8177954">8177954</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astrophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=Does+the+sun+shrink+with+increasing+magnetic+activity%3F&rft.volume=553&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=897-904&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0101473&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8177954%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F320976&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001ApJ...553..897D&rft.aulast=Dziembowski&rft.aufirst=W.A.&rft.au=P.R.+Goode&rft.au=J.+Schou&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolar+phenomena" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStetson,_H.T.1937" class="citation book cs1">Stetson, H.T. (1937). <i>Sunspots and Their Effects</i>. New York: McGraw Hill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sunspots+and+Their+Effects&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.date=1937&rft.au=Stetson%2C+H.T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolar+phenomena" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYaskell2012" class="citation book cs1">Yaskell, Steven Haywood (31 December 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HlylqHME5SMC"><i>Grand Phases On The Sun: The case for a mechanism responsible for extended solar minima and maxima</i></a>. Trafford Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4669-6300-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4669-6300-9"><bdi>978-1-4669-6300-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grand+Phases+On+The+Sun%3A+The+case+for+a+mechanism+responsible+for+extended+solar+minima+and+maxima&rft.pub=Trafford+Publishing&rft.date=2012-12-31&rft.isbn=978-1-4669-6300-9&rft.aulast=Yaskell&rft.aufirst=Steven+Haywood&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHlylqHME5SMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolar+phenomena" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarpedia.org/article/Solar_activity">Solar activity</a> Hugh Hudson <a href="/wiki/Scholarpedia" title="Scholarpedia">Scholarpedia</a>, 3(3):3967. <a href="//doi.org/10.4249/scholarpedia.3967" class="extiw" title="doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.3967">doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.3967</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solar_phenomena&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>NOAA / NESDIS / NGDC (2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/stp/CDROM/solar_variability.html">Solar Variability Affecting Earth</a> NOAA CD-ROM NGDC-05/01. This CD-ROM contains over 100 solar-terrestrial and related global data bases covering the period through April 1990.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lasp.colorado.edu/sorce/data/tsi_data.htm">Recent Total Solar Irradiance data</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130706054409/http://lasp.colorado.edu/sorce/data/tsi_data.htm">Archived</a> 2013-07-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> updated every Monday</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sidc.be/LatestSWData/LatestSWData.php">Latest Space Weather Data</a> – from the Solar Influences Data Analysis Center (Belgium)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bbso.njit.edu/cgi-bin/LatestImages">Latest images from Big Bear Solar Observatory</a> (California)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/data/realtime-images.html">The Very Latest SOHO Images</a> – from the <a href="/wiki/ESA" class="mw-redirect" title="ESA">ESA</a>/<a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> Solar & Heliospheric Observatory</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://observethesun.com">Map of Solar Active Regions</a> – from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.solarstation.ru/">Kislovodsk Mountain Astronomical Station</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="The_Sun" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:The_Sun" title="Template:The Sun"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:The_Sun" title="Template talk:The Sun"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:The_Sun" title="Special:EditPage/Template:The Sun"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="The_Sun" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">The Sun</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_articles_related_to_the_Sun" title="List of articles related to the Sun">List</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_solar_model" title="Standard solar model">Internal structure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_core" title="Solar core">Core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation zone">Radiation zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachocline" title="Tachocline">Tachocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convection_zone" title="Convection zone">Convection zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_atmosphere" title="Stellar atmosphere">Atmosphere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Photosphere" title="Photosphere">Photosphere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supergranulation" title="Supergranulation">Supergranulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_granule" title="Solar granule">Granule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_facula" title="Solar facula">Faculae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunspot" title="Sunspot">Sunspot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellerman_bomb" title="Ellerman bomb">Ellerman bomb</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Chromosphere" title="Chromosphere">Chromosphere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_plage" title="Solar plage">Plage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_spicule" title="Solar spicule">Spicule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moreton_wave" title="Moreton wave">Moreton wave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_corona" title="Stellar corona">Corona</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_transition_region" title="Solar transition region">Transition region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_hole" title="Coronal hole">Coronal hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_loop" title="Coronal loop">Coronal loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">Coronal mass ejection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanoflare" title="Nanoflare">Nanoflare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_prominence" title="Solar prominence">Prominence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmet_streamer" title="Helmet streamer">Helmet streamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supra-arcade_downflows" title="Supra-arcade downflows">Supra-arcade downflows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfv%C3%A9n_surface" title="Alfvén surface">Alfvén surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_moss" title="Solar moss">Moss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Solar_variation" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar variation">Variation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cycle" title="Solar cycle">Solar cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar_cycles" title="List of solar cycles">List of solar cycles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active_region" title="Active region">Active region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_maximum" title="Solar maximum">Solar maximum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_minimum" title="Solar minimum">Solar minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunspot_number" title="Sunspot number">Sunspot number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">Solar wind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_wind_turbulence" title="Solar wind turbulence">Solar wind turbulence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_switchback" title="Magnetic switchback">Magnetic switchback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helioseismology" title="Helioseismology">Helioseismology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heliosphere" title="Heliosphere">Heliosphere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heliospheric_current_sheet" title="Heliospheric current sheet">Current sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliosphere#Termination_shock" title="Heliosphere">Termination shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliosphere#Heliosheath" title="Heliosphere">Heliosheath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliopause_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliopause (astronomy)">Heliopause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_shock" title="Bow shock">Bow shock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_eclipse" title="Solar eclipse">Eclipse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eclipses_in_mythology_and_culture" title="Eclipses in mythology and culture">In mythology and culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_eclipse" title="Lunar eclipse">Lunar eclipse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliophysics" title="Heliophysics">Heliophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sun_in_culture" title="The Sun in culture">In culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_deity" title="Solar deity">Solar deity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar_deities" title="List of solar deities">List</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_in_fiction" title="Sun in fiction">Sun in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar activity">Solar activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar astronomy">Solar astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_dynamo" title="Solar dynamo">Solar dynamo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_neutrino" title="Solar neutrino">Solar neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_observation" title="Solar observation">Solar observation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Solar phenomena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_physics" title="Solar physics">Solar physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_radio_emission" title="Solar radio emission">Solar radio emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_telescope" title="Solar telescope">Solar telescope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_time" title="Solar time">Solar time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_climate" title="Space climate">Space climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Space weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_solar_model" title="Standard solar model">Standard solar model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">Star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight radiation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_classification" title="Stellar classification">Spectral class</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/G-type_main-sequence_star" title="G-type main-sequence star">G-type main-sequence star</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Exploration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_observatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar observatory">Solar observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heliophysics_missions" title="List of heliophysics missions">List of heliophysics missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Missions_to_the_Sun" title="Category:Missions to the Sun">Category:Missions to the Sun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Sun" title="Category:Sun">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/15px-Solar_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="15" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/23px-Solar_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/30px-Solar_system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="5600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Solar_System" title="Portal:Solar System">Solar System</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:He1523a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/16px-He1523a.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/25px-He1523a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/33px-He1523a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="207" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Star" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Star">Star</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/19px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/29px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/38px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/17px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/26px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/34px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/29px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/38px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>Solar phenomena</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Solar_phenomena" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Solar phenomena">Media</a></b> from Commons</span></li><li 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