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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Traditional_dictatorship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Origin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nomination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nomination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Nomination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nomination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Insignia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insignia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Insignia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insignia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Powers_and_limitations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Powers_and_limitations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Powers and limitations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Powers_and_limitations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline_and_disappearance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_and_disappearance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Decline and disappearance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline_and_disappearance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_republican_dictatorship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_republican_dictatorship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Late republican dictatorship</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Late_republican_dictatorship-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Late republican dictatorship subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Late_republican_dictatorship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Lucius Cornelius Sulla</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Between_Sulla_and_Caesar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Between_Sulla_and_Caesar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Between Sulla and Caesar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Between_Sulla_and_Caesar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caesar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caesar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Caesar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caesar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abolition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abolition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Abolition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abolition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magister_equitum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magister_equitum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span><i>Magister equitum</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magister_equitum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_Roman_dictators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_Roman_dictators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>List of Roman dictators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_Roman_dictators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Roman dictator</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">46 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeinse_diktator" title="Romeinse diktator – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Romeinse diktator" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="دكتاتور روماني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دكتاتور روماني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diktator_(Q%C9%99dim_Roma)" title="Diktator (Qədim Roma) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Diktator (Qədim Roma)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80_(%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC)" title="Диктатор (Древен Рим) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Диктатор (Древен Рим)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictador_rom%C3%A0" title="Dictador romà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dictador romà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%98%C3%ADmsk%C3%BD_dikt%C3%A1tor" title="Římský diktátor – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Římský diktátor" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diktator_(Rom)" title="Diktator (Rom) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Diktator (Rom)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6mischer_Diktator" title="Römischer Diktator – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Römischer Diktator" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diktaator_(Vana-Rooma)" title="Diktaator (Vana-Rooma) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Diktaator (Vana-Rooma)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictador_(Antigua_Roma)" title="Dictador (Antigua Roma) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dictador (Antigua Roma)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romia_diktatoro" title="Romia diktatoro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Romia diktatoro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diktadore_(Antzinako_Erroma)" title="Diktadore (Antzinako Erroma) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Diktadore (Antzinako Erroma)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_(%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85)" title="دیکتاتور (روم) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دیکتاتور (روم)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictateur_(Rome_antique)" title="Dictateur (Rome antique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Dictateur (Rome antique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%85%EC%9E%AC%EA%B4%80" title="독재관 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="독재관" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diktator_Romawi" title="Diktator Romawi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Diktator Romawi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dittatore_(storia_romana)" title="Dittatore (storia romana) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dittatore (storia romana)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8_(%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%90_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94)" title="דיקטטור (רומא העתיקה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="דיקטטור (רומא העתיקה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_(%E1%83%AB%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98)" title="დიქტატორი (ძველი რომი) – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="დიქტატორი (ძველი რომი)" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Диктатор – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Диктатор" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diktatorius_(Senov%C4%97s_Roma)" title="Diktatorius (Senovės Roma) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Diktatorius (Senovės Roma)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictator" title="Dictator – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Dictator" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Римски диктатор – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Римски диктатор" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diktator_Rom" title="Diktator Rom – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Diktator Rom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictator_(Rome)" title="Dictator (Rome) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Dictator (Rome)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8B%AC%E8%A3%81%E5%AE%98" title="独裁官 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="独裁官" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diktator_(romersk)" title="Diktator (romersk) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Diktator (romersk)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictator_(Roma_antica)" title="Dictator (Roma antica) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Dictator (Roma antica)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditador_romano" title="Ditador romano – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ditador romano" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictator_roman" title="Dictator roman – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dictator roman" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80_(%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%A3%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC)" title="Диктатор (старовѣкый Рим) – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Диктатор (старовѣкый Рим)" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80_(%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC)" title="Диктатор (Древний Рим) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Диктатор (Древний Рим)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diktatori_romak" title="Diktatori romak – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Diktatori romak" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Roman dictator" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dikt%C3%A1tor_(starovek%C3%BD_R%C3%ADm)" title="Diktátor (staroveký Rím) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Diktátor (staroveký Rím)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimski_diktator" title="Rimski diktator – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rimski diktator" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C_%DA%95%DB%86%D9%85" title="دیکتاتۆری ڕۆم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="دیکتاتۆری ڕۆم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80_(%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82)" title="Диктатор (магистрат) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Диктатор (магистрат)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimski_diktator" title="Rimski diktator – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rimski diktator" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Extraordinary magistrate of the Roman Republic</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Dictatores" redirects here. For the medieval rhetoricians, see <a href="/wiki/Ars_dictaminis" title="Ars dictaminis">Ars dictaminis</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gaius_Julius_Caesar,_denarius,_44_BC,_RRC_480-10.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Gaius_Julius_Caesar%2C_denarius%2C_44_BC%2C_RRC_480-10.jpg/260px-Gaius_Julius_Caesar%2C_denarius%2C_44_BC%2C_RRC_480-10.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Gaius_Julius_Caesar%2C_denarius%2C_44_BC%2C_RRC_480-10.jpg/390px-Gaius_Julius_Caesar%2C_denarius%2C_44_BC%2C_RRC_480-10.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Gaius_Julius_Caesar%2C_denarius%2C_44_BC%2C_RRC_480-10.jpg/520px-Gaius_Julius_Caesar%2C_denarius%2C_44_BC%2C_RRC_480-10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="414" /></a><figcaption><i>Denarius</i> of Publius Sepullius Macer, 44 BC, with the head of <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> on the obverse. The legend mentions that Caesar was <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Dictator_perpetuo" title="Dictator perpetuo">dictator perpetuo</a></i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrawford1974490_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrawford1974490-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><table class="sidebar nomobile vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="adr"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of ancient Rome">Politics of ancient Rome</a></div></th></tr><tr><th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_SPQR_banner.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/150px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/225px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/300px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="289" data-file-height="229" /></a></span></th></tr><tr><th style="border-bottom: #aaa 1px solid"></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> Periods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a></b><br />753–509 BC</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></b><br />509–27 BC</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></b><br />27 BC – AD 395</li></ul> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a><br />27 BC – AD 284</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a><br />AD 284–641</li></ul> </div> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire"><b>Western</b></a><br />AD 395–476</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire"><b>Eastern</b></a><br />AD 395–1453</li></ul> </div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></b></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Sulla" title="Constitutional reforms of Sulla">Sullan republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Augustus" title="Constitutional reforms of Augustus">Augustan reforms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Political institutions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Assemblies</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Ordinary magistrates</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Extraordinary magistrates</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corrector" title="Corrector">Corrector</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Dictator</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumviri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></i></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Public law</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ius" title="Ius">Ius</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Senatus_consultum" title="Senatus consultum">Senatus consultum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quaestio_perpetua" title="Quaestio perpetua">Quaestio perpetua</a></i></li></ul> </div> <i><a href="/wiki/Senatus_consultum_ultimum" title="Senatus consultum ultimum">Senatus consultum ultimum</a></i></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> Titles and honours</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li></ul> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Praeses" title="Praeses">Praeses</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Triumvir_monetalis" title="Triumvir monetalis">Triumvir monetalis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid"> <div class="hlist" style="text-align:center;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science#Politics_by_region" title="Outline of political science">Other countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_of_ancient_Rome" title="Template:Politics of ancient Rome"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_of_ancient_Rome" title="Template talk:Politics of ancient Rome"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_of_ancient_Rome" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics of ancient Rome"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>Roman dictator</b> was an extraordinary <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrate</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> endowed with full authority to resolve some specific problem to which he had been assigned. He received the full powers of the state, subordinating the other magistrates, <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consuls</a> included, for the specific purpose of resolving that issue, and that issue only, and then dispensing with those powers immediately. </p><p>A dictator was still controlled and accountable during his term in office: the Senate still exercised some oversight authority, and the rights of <a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">plebeian tribunes</a> to veto his actions or of the people to appeal them were retained. The extent of a dictator's mandate strictly controlled the ends to which his powers could be directed. Dictators were also liable to prosecution after their terms completed. </p><p>Dictators were frequently appointed from the earliest period of the Republic down to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a> (218–201 BC), but the magistracy then went into abeyance for over a century. It was later revived in a significantly modified form, first by <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Sulla</a> between 82 and 79 BC and then by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> between 49 and 44 BC, who became <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Dictator_perpetuo" title="Dictator perpetuo">dictator perpetuo</a></i></span> just before his death. This later dictatorship was used to effect wide-ranging and semi-permanent changes across Roman society. After <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Assassination of Julius Caesar">Caesar's assassination</a> in 44, the office was formally abolished and never revived. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Traditional_dictatorship">Traditional dictatorship</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_dictator&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Traditional dictatorship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The reasons for which someone might be appointed dictator were varied. The purpose of the dictatorship was to return Rome to the status quo before some threat emerged.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021333,_334_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021333,_334-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dictatorship existed "to eliminate whatever had arisen that was out of bounds and then eliminate themselves so that normal operation of the ordinary government" could resume.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021334_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021334-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin">Origin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_dictator&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">Overthrow of the Roman monarchy</a></div> <p>The abolition of the Roman monarchy <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 509 BC</span>, according to tradition, devolved the royal powers onto two annually elected <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consuls</a>. The creation of the dictatorship is part of this tradition, which is somewhat confused.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999109_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999109-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its original title was <i>magister populi</i>, "master of the infantry"<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999110_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999110-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His lieutenant was the <i><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">magister equitum</a></i>, "master of the horse"<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999110_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999110-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dictator may have also been called the <i>praetor maximus</i>, as mentioned by Livy, referring to an old law requiring the <i>praetor maximus</i> to put a nail into the wall of a temple on the <a href="/wiki/September_(Roman_month)" title="September (Roman month)">ides of September</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is not certain who the first dictator was or in what year he was appointed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979303_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1979303-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Livy gives two versions: in one, the first dictator was <a href="/wiki/Titus_Larcius" title="Titus Larcius">Titus Larcius</a> in 501 BC. His other version states that the first dictator was <a href="/wiki/Manius_Valerius_Maximus" title="Manius Valerius Maximus">Manius Valerius Maximus</a>, although Livy thought this improbable, as he had not previously been consul and, had a Valerius been desired, Manius' father, Marcus, who was consul in 505 BC, could have been chosen instead.<sup id="cite_ref-Livy_ii_18_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Livy_ii_18-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson202135_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson202135-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, few modern scholars put much faith in these traditional accounts: by the time Roman history started being written down, the dictatorship as a military commander had already lapsed out of living memory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979304_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1979304-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The dictatorship seems to have been conceived as a way to bypass normal Roman politics and create a short-term magistrate with special powers,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999110_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999110-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> serving to defend the Republic in war, or otherwise to cow internal civil unrest,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999109–10_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999109–10-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> especially if such unrest imperilled the conduct of war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979303_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1979303-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are broadly two views on the dictatorship's origin: that it descends from the <a href="/wiki/Latins" title="Latins">Latins</a>, or that it was a uniquely Roman institution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979304_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1979304-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Roman view stresses that the dictatorship is said to have existed from the earliest years of the Republic, created as "an integral part of the republican constitution".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And while other Latin cities had dictatorships, they emerged from their abolished monarchies as ordinary magistrates rather than as an extraordinary magistrate only appointed in time of crisis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979304_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1979304-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others have argued that the dictatorship existed as a means to slip through the inefficiency of a new collegiate magistracy, arguing that the Romans would not have made it – with regal powers – an <i>integral</i> part of their constitution in the immediate aftermath of the monarchy's abolition, confining it therefore to a peripheral and extraordinary role.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979304,_305_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1979304,_305-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other scholars have advanced theories that the consuls came <i>after</i> the dictatorship rather than before.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979305_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1979305-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Latin view argues that the dictatorship emerged from the need to rotate command between Latin states in the role of commanding the <a href="/wiki/Latin_League" title="Latin League">Latin League</a>'s united armies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979306_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1979306-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Rome was not a formal member of the League, it did require the Latins to serve in Rome's wars under a Roman commander, which could have been a dictator appointed for the occasion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrogula201529–30_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrogula201529–30-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One argument of this is the siege of Veii: for nine years of siege, Rome did not resort to a dictator, until the last year when Etruscan intervention compelled Rome to call in its Latin allies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979307_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1979307-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, it is plausible that the dictatorship was borrowed from other Latin municipalities that had a <i>dictator</i> serving as a military commander.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979307_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1979307-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view also stresses continuity between the Roman kingdom and the succeeding republic, with the dictatorship as a bridge between the two periods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979307,_308_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1979307,_308-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:N26FabiusCunctator.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/N26FabiusCunctator.jpg/170px-N26FabiusCunctator.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/N26FabiusCunctator.jpg/255px-N26FabiusCunctator.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/N26FabiusCunctator.jpg/340px-N26FabiusCunctator.jpg 2x" data-file-width="808" data-file-height="1625" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Maximus_Verrucosus" title="Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus">Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus</a>. Fabius was dictator in 217 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951243_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951243-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nomination">Nomination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_dictator&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nomination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The dictator was the only important official in the Roman state that was appointed.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The power to appoint a dictator vested in the consuls, one of whom could nominate a man to serve in the office; he did not need to consult his colleague, and no other magistrates had such authority. A dictator, however, could be created by comitial legislation at the proposal of other magistrates, as Sulla and Caesar later were.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999110_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999110-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021124_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021124-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Consular nomination occurred in a nocturnal ritual, usually preceded by advice from the Senate asking for a specific person to be appointed,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this was not strictly necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021131_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021131-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers",_paragraph_1_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers",_paragraph_1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A vote of the people could be held, but this was unusual, perhaps except in cases with a non-consular nominator.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999110_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999110-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Maximus_Verrucosus" title="Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus">Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus</a>, the people may have created him dictator directly by legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021132_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021132-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span> most attested dictators were ex-consuls; it does not appear, however, that this emerged from any kind of legislation, as implied in Livy, to that effect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_2_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dictatorial powers likely extended beyond the term of the nominating magistrate, and most dictators are recorded to have given up their powers as quickly as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999110-11_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999110-11-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Customary law may have required dictators to give up their powers immediately after completion of their assigned task.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Key_Features_as_a_Magistracy_of_the_People"_paragraph_2_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Key_Features_as_a_Magistracy_of_the_People"_paragraph_2-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A dictator could be nominated for different reasons, or <i>causae</i>. These <i>causae</i> were akin to <i>provinciae</i>, spheres of command assigned to a magistrate which bound their freedom of action.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_3_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The various <i>causae</i> were: </p> <ul><li><i>rei gerundae causa</i>, "for the conduct of the matter", used for military emergencies,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Key_Features_as_a_Magistracy_of_the_People"_para_2_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Key_Features_as_a_Magistracy_of_the_People"_para_2-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>comitiorum habendorum causa</i>, for holding the <i>comitia</i>, or elections, when the consuls were unable to do so;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_para_3_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_para_3-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clavum_fingere" class="mw-redirect" title="Clavum fingere">clavi figendi causa</a></i>, to create a dictator for an important religious rite involving the driving of a nail into the wall of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_Optimus_Maximus" title="Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus">Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus</a>, as a protection against pestilence;</li> <li>for quelling of sedition;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951112_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951112-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>for establishing a religious holiday;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951132_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951132-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>for holding the <a href="/wiki/Ludi_Romani" title="Ludi Romani">Roman games</a>, an ancient religious festival;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951150_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951150-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>for investigating certain actions;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951152_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951152-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and,</li> <li>in one extraordinary case, for appointment of senators, after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cannae" title="Battle of Cannae">Battle of Cannae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951248_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951248-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>These reasons could be combined (e.g., <i>seditionis sedandae et rei gerundae causa</i>, for quelling sedition and for war).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951112_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951112-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, by the middle Republic the historical record clearly shows that dictators were appointed more as temporary extraordinary magistrates to do some very specifically defined action before resigning, acting as proxies or substitutes for the ordinary magistrates of that year; the historicity of the dictators appointed in the early period to quell sedition—who usually took the side of the protestors—is also debated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_paragraph_3_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_paragraph_3-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Romans were not consistent in classifying specific threats and then appointing a dictator if they met some criteria. Rather, they judged the matter subjectively such that a dictator in military matters would only be appointed if there were converging threats from multiple enemies, all-consuming ongoing wars, or extinction-level threats to the city which could be handled by a man "whose empowerment with the dictatorship offered more assurance of success than the incumbent magistrates".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson202170_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson202170-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternatively, dictators might be appointed if another consul-like magistrate was needed.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Normally there was only one dictator at a time, although a new dictator could be appointed following the resignation of another.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A dictator could be compelled to resign his office without accomplishing his task or serving out his term if there were found to be a fault in the <a href="/wiki/Augury" title="Augury">auspices</a> under which he had been nominated.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After nomination, a dictator would have his <i>imperium</i> ratified by <i><a href="/wiki/Comitia_curiata" class="mw-redirect" title="Comitia curiata">comitia curiata</a></i>—bringing that matter before the Assembly himself—in a manner akin to that of the consuls.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021166_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021166-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Insignia">Insignia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_dictator&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Insignia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like other curule magistrates, the dictator was entitled to the <i><a href="/wiki/Toga_praetexta" class="mw-redirect" title="Toga praetexta">toga praetexta</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Curule_chair" class="mw-redirect" title="Curule chair">sella curulis</a></i>. The dictator, however, was accompanied by twenty-four lictors rather than the normal twelve lictors of the consul. However, within the <i><a href="/wiki/Pomerium" title="Pomerium">pomerium</a></i> he may have displayed twelve.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999111_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999111-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a notable exception to the Roman reluctance to reconstitute the symbols of the kings, the lictors of the dictator never removed the axes from their fasces, even within the <i>pomerium</i>, symbolising their power over life and death and setting the dictator apart from the ordinary magistrates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021158_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021158-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="citation-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">In an extraordinary sign of deference,</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the lictors of other magistrates could not bear fasces at all when appearing before the dictator.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999111_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999111-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Latin theory of the dictatorship's origin has also suggested that the twenty-four lictors emerged from the uniting of "two governments".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979306_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1979306-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may have also simply signalled that a dictator's <i>imperium</i> was superior to that of the consuls<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Key_Features_as_a_Magistracy_of_the_People"_para_1_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Key_Features_as_a_Magistracy_of_the_People"_para_1-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or that he was endowed with the power of both consuls.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESherwin-WhiteLintott2012_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESherwin-WhiteLintott2012-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the kings had been accustomed to appear on horseback, this right was forbidden to the dictator unless he first received permission from the <i>comitia</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999110_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999110-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Powers_and_limitations">Powers and limitations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_dictator&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Powers and limitations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The full extent of the dictatorial power was considerable, but not unlimited. It was circumscribed by the conditions of a dictator's appointment, as well as by the evolving traditions of <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>, and to a considerable degree depended on the dictator's ability to work together with other magistrates. The precise limitations of this power were not sharply defined, but subject to debate, contention, and speculation throughout Roman history.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999112_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999112-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the pursuit of his <i>causa</i>, the dictator's authority was nearly absolute. However, as a rule he could not exceed the mandate for which he was appointed; a dictator nominated to hold the <i>comitia</i> could not then take up a military command against the wishes of the Senate.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dictators could carry out functions which fell outside the scope of their initial appointments, but only at the direction of the Senate; this included the drawing of funds from the public treasury, which a dictator could only do with the Senate's authorisation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_3_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>imperium</i> of the other magistrates was not vacated by the nomination of a dictator. They continued to perform the duties of their office, although subject to the dictator's authority, and continued in office until the expiration of their year, by which time the dictator had typically resigned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999111_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999111-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dictatorial power also did not override that of the tribunes. While some sources assert there was no appeal to the tribunes from a dictator's actions, other sources document the extent of a dictator's powers within the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Pomerium" title="Pomerium">pomerium</a></i></span>, appeals against dictatorial action, and threats by tribunes to veto elections held by dictators.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most authorities hold that a dictator could not be held to account for his actions after resigning his office. However, there are cases where this is asserted in the literary sources and the surviving text of the <i>lex repetundarium</i> implies the dictator and his magister equitum could be prosecuted after their terms ended.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999112_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999112-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather, some modern scholars hold the position that unaccountability is a "legalistic illusion".<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some sources, both ancient and modern in summaries of the office, assert that the dictator was limited to a term for six months, but this is contradicted by recorded practice and Livy has a dictator object to a six-month limitation explicitly as objectionably unorthodox.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021248_et_seq,_252–53,_256_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021248_et_seq,_252–53,_256-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline_and_disappearance">Decline and disappearance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_dictator&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Decline and disappearance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before the <a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First Punic War</a> starting in 264 BC, when Rome established hegemony over Italy, dictators were overwhelmingly appointed to conduct military campaigns and also appointed regularly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_para_2_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_para_2-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, these dictators were not given the best commands—they rarely won triumphs: only five of some 75 triumphs between 363 and 264 BC—suggesting that they functioned as substitutes for the ordinary magistrates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_paragraphs_3,_4_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_paragraphs_3,_4-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The middle Republic also shows significant use of the dictatorship to hold elections in place of consuls: this occurred twelve times during the First Punic War and eight times during the following Second.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_paragraph_4_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_paragraph_4-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Magistri equitum</i> had a knack of winning elections when held by dictators, which may explain why this limited dictatorship also fell into abeyance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_paragraph_3_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_paragraph_3-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In domestic affairs, the dictators were at times—according to tradition—appointed to resolve issue between the <a href="/wiki/Patricians" class="mw-redirect" title="Patricians">patricians</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">plebeians</a> during the so-called <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_para_5_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_para_5-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this role, the dictators always took the side of the plebs, implying that the later tradition of the dictatorship as a tool of patrician tyranny is a post-Sullan anachronism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_para_5_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_para_5-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their efforts may have been decisive in that legislation passed in the Assemblies called by dictators did not need the approval of the Senate, serving to break impasses between an obstinate patrician-heavy Senate and popular demands.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Second Punic War and the <a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War" title="Third Macedonian War">Third Macedonian War</a>, all major wars were then conducted by <a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">promagistrates</a> and usually lasted several years, making the short term of the dictatorship unsuitable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999112_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999112-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, the fact that these conflicts occurred far from Rome radically limited the possibility of panicked tumult that could result in a dictatorial appointment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021268_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021268-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rise of <a href="/wiki/Prorogatio" class="mw-redirect" title="Prorogatio">prorogation</a> also meant that the Romans had, by jettisoning the annual term, more generals in the field than they had in the past.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021268_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021268-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These promagistrates resembled archaic dictators as well, being exempt from normal consular responsibilities while being assigned a limited task—<i>provincia</i>—to complete.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021269_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021269-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the same time, the new promagistrates also meant the consuls could spend more time in Rome, meaning it became less necessary to appoint dictators to conduct elections.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021270_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021270-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the various wars of the 140s BC, the ability to have more commanders under praetorian or proconsular leadership meant it was possible to keep at least one consul in Rome while the other fought abroad.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021275_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021275-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even when the Senate wanted to act against men such as <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Gracchus" title="Tiberius Gracchus">Tiberius Gracchus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Gracchus" title="Gaius Gracchus">Gaius Gracchus</a>, dictators were not appointed: in the former, the consul refused to act, precluding a dictatorial nomination, and in the latter, the Senate authorised the consul to use force via the so-called <i><a href="/wiki/Senatus_consultum_ultimum" title="Senatus consultum ultimum">senatus consultum ultimum</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999112–13_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999112–13-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The religious purpose of the dictatorship in undertaking rituals to appease the gods in cases of pestilence or other disasters also was replaced. Dictators appointed to appease the gods was highly reactive but, over time, the accumulation of precedent formalised a spiritual process.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021285_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021285-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead of an ad hoc approach, the Senate would advise—in moments of need—consultation of the <a href="/wiki/Sibylline_Oracles" title="Sibylline Oracles">Sibylline Books</a> and direct implementation of the Books' recommendations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021286,_287_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021286,_287-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_republican_dictatorship">Late republican dictatorship</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_dictator&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Late republican dictatorship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Late_republican_dictatorship"></span> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sulla_Glyptothek_Munich_309.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Sulla_Glyptothek_Munich_309.jpg/170px-Sulla_Glyptothek_Munich_309.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Sulla_Glyptothek_Munich_309.jpg/255px-Sulla_Glyptothek_Munich_309.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Sulla_Glyptothek_Munich_309.jpg/340px-Sulla_Glyptothek_Munich_309.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1645" data-file-height="2508" /></a><figcaption>Head presumed to be that of <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla">Lucius Cornelius Sulla</a>. Sulla was dictator from 82 to 79 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton195266,_74,_79,_82_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton195266,_74,_79,_82-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The new dictatorships of Sulla and Caesar differed greatly from the traditional dictatorship. The long period of abeyance in which the dictatorship had lain meant that men like Sulla and Caesar were no longer bound by the chains of centuries of tradition requiring any man appointed to the dictatorship—traditionally a man trusted by all Romans—to act for all Romans, resolve the issue to which he was appointed, and then immediately resign.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021334–336_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021334–336-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla">Lucius Cornelius Sulla</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_dictator&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Lucius Cornelius Sulla"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sulla%27s_civil_war" title="Sulla's civil war">Sulla's civil war</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Sulla" title="Constitutional reforms of Sulla">Constitutional reforms of Sulla</a></div> <p>Following <a href="/wiki/Sulla%27s_civil_war" title="Sulla's civil war">Sulla's civil war</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla">Lucius Cornelius Sulla</a> had the dictatorship revived. In 82 BC the consuls were absent from the city, he induced the <i><a href="/wiki/Comitia_centuriata" class="mw-redirect" title="Comitia centuriata">comitia centuriata</a></i>, called by <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Valerius_Flaccus_(consul_100_BC)" title="Lucius Valerius Flaccus (consul 100 BC)">Lucius Valerius Flaccus</a> as <i>interrex</i>, to pass a law directly appointing Sulla as dictator<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to write laws and reconstitute the state (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">legibus scribundis et rei publicae constituendae</i>);<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton195266_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton195266-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he was also given immunity for all actions (including those past and future)<sup id="cite_ref-ocd4th_sulla_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocd4th_sulla-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Sulla" title="Constitutional reforms of Sulla">significant changes to the laws</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proscription" title="Proscription">proscriptions</a>, he completed this task on 1 January 79 BC and resigned to take up an ordinary consulship.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"The_Dictatorship_of_L._Cornelius_Sulla,_82–79_BCE"_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"The_Dictatorship_of_L._Cornelius_Sulla,_82–79_BCE"-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This dictatorship aligned with one aspect of the archaic dictatorship—restoring stability—as the state was, in fact, in a shambles after the domination and proscriptions of <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Cinna" title="Lucius Cornelius Cinna">Lucius Cornelius Cinna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Gaius Marius</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Papirius_Carbo_(consul_85_BC)" title="Gnaeus Papirius Carbo (consul 85 BC)">Gnaeus Papirius Carbo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021291–293_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021291–293-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Sulla never aimed at permanent tyranny";<sup id="cite_ref-ocd4th_sulla_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocd4th_sulla-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wishing his settlement to succeed, and conceiving of it in quasi-republican terms, he resigned the dictatorship in place of ordinary magistrates.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sulla's reforms and proscriptions did stabilize a republic—albeit on radically reformed grounds<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower2010120_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower2010120-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with Sulla as a "law-giver" who gave Rome "a new constitution that would put an end to political and social strife"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower2010133_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower2010133-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—and restore somewhat free elections for the next few decades, at an enormous cost. But the precedent that he set by twice marching on Rome with his armies would prove an equally destabilizing influence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021301-2_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021301-2-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Between_Sulla_and_Caesar">Between Sulla and Caesar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_dictator&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Between Sulla and Caesar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After Sulla's dictatorship, there are a few cases where a dictatorship was supposedly considered as a means of effecting regime change. </p><p>One version of the supposed <a href="/wiki/First_Catilinarian_conspiracy" title="First Catilinarian conspiracy">First Catilinarian conspiracy</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 65 BC</span> (which itself is now held in modern scholarship to be fictitious<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021303_n._1_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021303_n._1-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) related by Suetonius would have had the creation of a dictatorship led by <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus" title="Marcus Licinius Crassus">Marcus Licinius Crassus</a> with <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> as magister equitum.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Suetonius' version of events may be anachronistic, with Crassus and Caesar's involvement being an embellishment. Regardless, the suggestion of a dictatorship "belongs, perhaps to a late-republican school of thought that saw the antiquated office of the consulship as an ineffective path to the mastery of Rome" with the dictatorship as an "obvious tool for republican regime change" informed by Sulla's proscriptions and reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021305_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021305-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The phraseology of how Crassus would supposedly have been elevated to the dictatorship also suggests it was seen as an available instrument for ambitious factional leaders to force through self-serving change.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The later consulship of <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> in 52 BC also is reported to have been initially intended as a dictatorship; it was, however, aborted by his election as sole consul (without colleague) to restore order.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021307,_308_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021307,_308-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars disagree as to the reasons why Pompey was made sole consul: ancient sources (Appian, Dio, and Plutarch) all believed this occurred to deny him a dictatorship; "recent scholarship has emphasised Pompey’s consulship rather as a means of resolving a political impasse".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021308_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021308-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If this were an abortive dictatorship, it would have been "a final echo of the archaic dictators" with the sole goal of restoring order to the city.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021308_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021308-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caesar">Caesar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_dictator&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Caesar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_civil_war" title="Caesar's civil war">Caesar's civil war</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dictator_perpetuo" title="Dictator perpetuo">Dictator perpetuo</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Caesar" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar">Caesar</a> also revived the dictatorship during the <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_civil_war" title="Caesar's civil war">Civil War</a>, first to hold the elections—in which he was returned as consul for the following year—and on multiple occasions between October 48 BC and his death in 44.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021309_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021309-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is unclear which of Caesar's acts were undertaken under his overlapping dictatorial, proconsular, consular, or private authority.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021315_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021315-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the consulship, which was limited by hundreds of years of precedent, the dictatorship, by virtue of its "separat[ion] from its foundations by 120 years of disuse", as well as Sulla's example, offered Caesar a position that gave him vast, ill-defined, and largely unconstrained powers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021325_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021325-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His dictatorship built on that of Sulla's as well: he changed the number of magistracies and reformed the state,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021326_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021326-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but Caesar's dictatorship was administrative rather than one given up at the completion of a task.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021328_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021328-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To that end, shortly before his death Caesar had himself appointed <i>dictator perpetuo</i>, i.e., in a dictatorship that continued each year without the need to seek the senate's approval or appointment by one of the consuls.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021328–29_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021328–29-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This new and transformed dictatorship, endowed with a kingly power, ended with <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_assassination" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's assassination">Caesar's assassination</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021331_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021331-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Abolition">Abolition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_dictator&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Abolition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_The_Death_of_Caesar_-_Walters_37884.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_The_Death_of_Caesar_-_Walters_37884.jpg/220px-Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_The_Death_of_Caesar_-_Walters_37884.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_The_Death_of_Caesar_-_Walters_37884.jpg/330px-Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_The_Death_of_Caesar_-_Walters_37884.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_The_Death_of_Caesar_-_Walters_37884.jpg/440px-Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_The_Death_of_Caesar_-_Walters_37884.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1798" data-file-height="1057" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of the <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Assassination of Julius Caesar">Assassination of Julius Caesar</a> in 44 BC, by Jean-Léon Gérôme (mid 19th century).</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Assassination of Julius Caesar">Assassination of Julius Caesar</a></div> <p>After Caesar's death, it became unlawful to propose, vote for, or accept any dictatorship. Any person who became dictator also could be summarily executed. Essentially, the title was cursed and excised from the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">republican constitution</a>. Curiously, the person who did this was not one of the <i><a href="/wiki/Liberatores" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberatores">liberatores</a></i> but rather, Caesar's own former magister equitum, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021329_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021329-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Antony's supporters lionised him for having rid the Republic of this instrument of tyranny.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021330_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021330-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The need for the dictatorship—especially as an instrument of pseudo-royal power—was clearly already gone: in 22 BC, a senatorial delegation begged <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> to accept the dictatorship, and Augustus refused, knowing that the title would bring only hatred, and that his own informal authority, "encumbered by neither ancient nor recent precedent", would be sufficient.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021330_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021330-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Magister_equitum"><i>Magister equitum</i></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_dictator&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Magister equitum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></div> <p>The dictator's lieutenant was the <i>magister equitum</i>, or "master of the horse". The first act of a dictator was to choose this lieutenant, usually at his own discretion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_4_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_4-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was customary for the dictator to nominate a magister equitum, even if he were appointed for a non-military reason.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The magister equitum was also a curule magistrate, with powers to summon the Senate and perhaps also powers to summon the Assembly; however, he had only six lictors,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999112_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999112-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> symbolizing his subordination to the dictator, and his expectation of quickly vacating office.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_4_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_4-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The magister equitum was necessarily subordinate to the dictator, although this did not always prevent the two from disagreeing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999112_51-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999112-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In theory, the magister equitum was commander of the cavalry, but he was not limited to that role. The dictator and magister equitum did not always take the field together; in some instances the magister equitum was assigned the defense of the city while the dictator took an army into the field, while on other occasions the dictator remained at Rome to see to some important duty, and entrusted the magister equitum with an army in the field. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_Roman_dictators">List of Roman dictators</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_dictator&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: List of Roman dictators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">List of Roman dictators</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_dictator&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/32px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/48px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/64px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Constitution of the Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_dictatorship" title="Constitutional dictatorship">Constitutional dictatorship</a> – Form of government in which emergency dictatorial powers are limited by the constitution</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictator" title="Dictator">Dictator</a> – Political leader who possesses absolute power</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_dictator&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Literally, of the "people", referring to the common soldiers, as opposed to the cavalry.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Literally, of the <i>equites</i>, sometimes translated as "knights".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Every other [ie not the dictator] important official in the Roman state was elected... the <i>interrex</i> was elected by, and from among, the patrician senators; the <i>princeps senatus</i> was originally elected by the <i>curiae</i> ... the <i>pontifices</i> and <i>flamens</i> were elected. Dictators, however, were appointed by the sole discretion of one consul".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021124_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021124-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There is indication that the consuls could appoint anyone they wished. For example, after being defeated in a naval battle, <a href="/wiki/Publius_Claudius_Pulcher_(consul_249_BC)" title="Publius Claudius Pulcher (consul 249 BC)">Publius Claudius Pulcher</a> was told to nominate a dictator; he nominated a lowborn subordinate of his, <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Claudius_Glicia" title="Marcus Claudius Glicia">Marcus Claudius Glicia</a>, who resigned in the ensuing outrage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951215_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951215-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_1_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_1-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The chief exception occurred in 216 BC, when <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Fabius_Buteo" title="Marcus Fabius Buteo">Marcus Fabius Buteo</a> was nominated dictator in order to fill up the ranks of the Senate following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cannae" title="Battle of Cannae">Battle of Cannae</a>, even as the dictator <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Junius_Pera" title="Marcus Junius Pera">Marcus Junius Pera</a> held the military command against <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951248_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951248-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For instance, Lucius Manlius Capitolinus was appointed <i>clavi figendi causa</i> in 363 BC, but wished to lead an army against the <a href="/wiki/Hernici" title="Hernici">Hernici</a>. He proceeded to levy troops, but was compelled to resign before he could take the field, and was prosecuted the following year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951117_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951117-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A dictator could also be appointed for a reason other than the one publicly announced; for example, <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Iulus_(dictator_352_BC)" title="Gaius Julius Iulus (dictator 352 BC)">Gaius Julius Iulus</a> was nominated in 352 BC in order to carry on a war but was actually appointed to procure the election of two patrician consuls, in violation of the <i><a href="/wiki/Lex_Licinia_Sextia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lex Licinia Sextia">lex Licinia Sextia</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951125_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951125-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Specifically, Pompey was made sole consul by means of election from the <i>comitia</i>, contra certain ancient accounts, to prevent Milo from becoming consul and acquiring immunity from prosecution.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_dictator&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_dictator&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrawford1974490-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrawford1974490_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrawford1974">Crawford 1974</a>, p. 490.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021333,_334-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021333,_334_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, pp. 333, 334. "<i>A dictator's purpose was to move Rome backward</i>, reverting it to the condition of normality in which it existed before the need or crisis arose that required resolution" (emphasis in original).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021334-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021334_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 334.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999109-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999109_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLintott1999">Lintott 1999</a>, p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999110-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999110_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999110_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999110_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999110_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999110_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999110_6-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLintott1999">Lintott 1999</a>, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDrogula2015">Drogula 2015</a>, pp. 27–28. (citing <a href="#CITEREFLivy">Livy</a>, 7.3.5; see also <a href="#CITEREFDrogula2015">Drogula 2015</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1979303-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979303_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979303_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRidley1979">Ridley 1979</a>, p. 303.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Livy_ii_18-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Livy_ii_18_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLivy">Livy</a>, 2.18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson202135-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson202135_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1979304-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979304_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979304_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979304_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRidley1979">Ridley 1979</a>, p. 304.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999109–10-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999109–10_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLintott1999">Lintott 1999</a>, pp. 109–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRidley1979">Ridley 1979</a>, p. 304. Ridley attributes this view to Mommsen; he also adds "The often quoted line that the dictatorship was a 'temporary restoration of monarchy' was not in fact Mommsen's real view".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1979304,_305-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979304,_305_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRidley1979">Ridley 1979</a>, pp. 304, 305.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1979305-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979305_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRidley1979">Ridley 1979</a>, p. 305.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1979306-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979306_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979306_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRidley1979">Ridley 1979</a>, p. 306.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrogula201529–30-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrogula201529–30_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDrogula2015">Drogula 2015</a>, pp. 29–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1979307-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979307_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979307_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRidley1979">Ridley 1979</a>, p. 307.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERidley1979307,_308-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidley1979307,_308_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRidley1979">Ridley 1979</a>, pp. 307, 308.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951243-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951243_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBroughton1951">Broughton 1951</a>, p. 243.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021124-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021124_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021124_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951215-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951215_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBroughton1951">Broughton 1951</a>, p. 215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_1-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_1_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVervaet2015">Vervaet 2015</a>, "Procedures and Powers" para 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021131-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021131_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers",_paragraph_1-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers",_paragraph_1_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVervaet2015">Vervaet 2015</a>, "Procedures and Powers", paragraph 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021132-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021132_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_2-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_2_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVervaet2015">Vervaet 2015</a>, "Procedures and Powers" para 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999110-11-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999110-11_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLintott1999">Lintott 1999</a>, p. 110-11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Key_Features_as_a_Magistracy_of_the_People"_paragraph_2-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Key_Features_as_a_Magistracy_of_the_People"_paragraph_2_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVervaet2015">Vervaet 2015</a>, "Key Features as a Magistracy of the People" paragraph 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_3-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_3_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_3_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVervaet2015">Vervaet 2015</a>, "Procedures and Powers" para 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Key_Features_as_a_Magistracy_of_the_People"_para_2-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Key_Features_as_a_Magistracy_of_the_People"_para_2_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVervaet2015">Vervaet 2015</a>, "Key Features as a Magistracy of the People" para 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_para_3-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_para_3_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVervaet2015">Vervaet 2015</a>, "Role and Significance in the Early and Middle Republic" para 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951112-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951112_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951112_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBroughton1951">Broughton 1951</a>, p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951132-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951132_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBroughton1951">Broughton 1951</a>, p. 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951150-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951150_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBroughton1951">Broughton 1951</a>, p. 150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951152-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951152_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBroughton1951">Broughton 1951</a>, p. 152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951248-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951248_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951248_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBroughton1951">Broughton 1951</a>, p. 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_paragraph_3-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_paragraph_3_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_paragraph_3_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVervaet2015">Vervaet 2015</a>, "Role and Significance in the Early and Middle Republic" paragraph 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson202170-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson202170_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 89. If a consul were trapped, there would be only one consul able to move about, necessitating a dictator; if the consuls are both occupied at war, a dictator might be appointed to hold elections; if one of the consuls were killed, a dictator might be appointed as substitute before a successor could be elected.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eg <a href="#CITEREFBroughton1951">Broughton 1951</a>, p. 145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021166-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021166_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999111-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999111_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999111_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999111_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLintott1999">Lintott 1999</a>, p. 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021158-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021158_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Key_Features_as_a_Magistracy_of_the_People"_para_1-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Key_Features_as_a_Magistracy_of_the_People"_para_1_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVervaet2015">Vervaet 2015</a>, "Key Features as a Magistracy of the People" para 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESherwin-WhiteLintott2012-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESherwin-WhiteLintott2012_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSherwin-WhiteLintott2012">Sherwin-White & Lintott 2012</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999112-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999112_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999112_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999112_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999112_51-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999112_51-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLintott1999">Lintott 1999</a>, p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951117-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951117_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBroughton1951">Broughton 1951</a>, p. 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLivy">Livy</a>, 7.3.9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951125-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton1951125_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBroughton1951">Broughton 1951</a>, p. 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLintott1999">Lintott 1999</a>, p. 111. "The quarrel between <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Papirius_Cursor" title="Lucius Papirius Cursor">L. Papirius Cursor</a> and his master of horse <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Maximus_Rullianus" title="Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus">Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus</a> seems [to illustrate] that the dictator's supreme power did not necessarily extend into the city... [it also showed] that the power of a dictator did not override that of the tribunes—a point attested also by the tradition about appeals against the dictator <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Maenius" title="Gaius Maenius">C. Maenius</a>, and by the threat of a tribune to veto an election held by a dictator". On the threatened veto of elections, see Livy 27.6.2–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eg <a href="#CITEREFBroughton1951">Broughton 1951</a>, p. 118 (noting prosecution <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Manlius_Capitolinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Manlius Capitolinus">Lucius Manlius Capitolinus</a> in 362 BC).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eg <a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 333.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021248_et_seq,_252–53,_256-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021248_et_seq,_252–53,_256_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, pp. 248 et seq, 252–53, 256.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_para_2-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_para_2_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVervaet2015">Vervaet 2015</a>, "Role and Significance in the Early and Middle Republic" para 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_paragraphs_3,_4-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_paragraphs_3,_4_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVervaet2015">Vervaet 2015</a>, "Role and Significance in the Early and Middle Republic" paragraphs 3, 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_paragraph_4-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_paragraph_4_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVervaet2015">Vervaet 2015</a>, "Role and Significance in the Early and Middle Republic" paragraph 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_para_5-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_para_5_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Role_and_Significance_in_the_Early_and_Middle_Republic"_para_5_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVervaet2015">Vervaet 2015</a>, "Role and Significance in the Early and Middle Republic" para 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHartfield1982" class="citation thesis cs1">Hartfield, Marianne (1982). <i>The Roman dictatorship: its character and its evolution</i> (PhD). University of California, Berkeley.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+Roman+dictatorship%3A+its+character+and+its+evolution&rft.inst=University+of+California%2C+Berkeley&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Hartfield&rft.aufirst=Marianne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+dictator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021268-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021268_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021268_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 269. "It is not a coincidence that the first years of extensive use of the proconsulship overlapped with the last years of reliance on the dictatorship".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021269-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021269_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021270-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021270_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021275-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021275_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 275.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELintott1999112–13-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELintott1999112–13_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLintott1999">Lintott 1999</a>, pp. 112–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021285-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021285_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 285.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021286,_287-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021286,_287_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 286, 287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton195266,_74,_79,_82-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton195266,_74,_79,_82_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBroughton1952">Broughton 1952</a>, pp. 66, 74, 79, 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021334–336-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021334–336_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, pp. 334–336.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 290-91. "Valerius likely oversaw not an election per se... but the passage of a law naming Sulla dictator, following the manner established for Fabius Maximus".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroughton195266-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroughton195266_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBroughton1952">Broughton 1952</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ocd4th_sulla-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ocd4th_sulla_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ocd4th_sulla_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBadian2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Badian, Ernst (2012). "Cornelius, Sulla Felix, Lucius". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). <i>The Oxford classical dictionary</i> (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 384, 385. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954556-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954556-8"><bdi>978-0-19-954556-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/959667246">959667246</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cornelius%2C+Sulla+Felix%2C+Lucius&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+classical+dictionary&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=384%2C+385&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F959667246&rft.isbn=978-0-19-954556-8&rft.aulast=Badian&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+dictator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"The_Dictatorship_of_L._Cornelius_Sulla,_82–79_BCE"-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"The_Dictatorship_of_L._Cornelius_Sulla,_82–79_BCE"_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVervaet2015">Vervaet 2015</a>, "The Dictatorship of L. Cornelius Sulla, 82–79 BCE".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021291–293-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021291–293_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 291–293.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlower2010">Flower 2010</a>, p. 133. "As has been persuasively argued, Sulla conceived of his dictatorship in quasi-republican terms, as a special office undertaken to perform a specific task, namely, the establishment of a constitutional (republican) form of government".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower2010120-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower2010120_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlower2010">Flower 2010</a>, p. 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlower2010133-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlower2010133_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlower2010">Flower 2010</a>, p. 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021301-2-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021301-2_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 301-2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021303_n._1-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021303_n._1_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 303 n. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 304. Citing Suet. <i>Iul.</i> 9.1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021305-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021305_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 305.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 305, describing the dictatorship as "a sword lying ready for any[one] with the stature and ambition to take it up [to the benefit] of the dictator and his faction".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021307,_308-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021307,_308_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, pp. 307, 308.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021308-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021308_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021308_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 308.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamsey2016" class="citation journal cs1">Ramsey, John T (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/45019234">"How and why was Pompey made sole consul in 52 BC?"</a>. <i>Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte</i>. <b>65</b> (3): 298–324. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.25162%2Fhistoria-2016-0017">10.25162/historia-2016-0017</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2311">0018-2311</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/45019234">45019234</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:252459421">252459421</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia%3A+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Alte+Geschichte&rft.atitle=How+and+why+was+Pompey+made+sole+consul+in+52+BC%3F&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=298-324&rft.date=2016&rft.issn=0018-2311&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A252459421%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F45019234%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.25162%2Fhistoria-2016-0017&rft.aulast=Ramsey&rft.aufirst=John+T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F45019234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+dictator" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021309-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021309_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 309.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021315-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021315_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 315.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021325-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021325_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 325.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021326-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021326_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 326.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021328-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021328_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 328.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021328–29-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021328–29_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, pp. 328–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021331-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021331_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 331.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021329-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021329_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 329.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2021330-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021330_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2021330_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2021">Wilson 2021</a>, p. 330.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_4-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_4_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVervaet2015"Procedures_and_Powers"_para_4_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVervaet2015">Vervaet 2015</a>, "Procedures and Powers" para 4.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_dictator&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Modern sources</b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroughton1951" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Shannon_Broughton" title="Thomas Robert Shannon Broughton">Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon</a> (1951). <i>The magistrates of the Roman republic</i>. Vol. 1. New York: American Philological Association.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+magistrates+of+the+Roman+republic&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=American+Philological+Association&rft.date=1951&rft.aulast=Broughton&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Robert+Shannon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+dictator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroughton1952" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Shannon_Broughton" title="Thomas Robert Shannon Broughton">Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon</a> (1952). <i>The magistrates of the Roman republic</i>. Vol. 2. New York: American Philological Association.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+magistrates+of+the+Roman+republic&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=American+Philological+Association&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Broughton&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Robert+Shannon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+dictator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrawford1974" class="citation book cs1">Crawford, Michael H (1974). <i>Roman republican coinage</i>. London: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-07492-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-07492-4"><bdi>0-521-07492-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1288923">1288923</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+republican+coinage&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1288923&rft.isbn=0-521-07492-4&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.aufirst=Michael+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+dictator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrogula2015" class="citation book cs1">Drogula, Fred (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/905949529"><i>Commanders & command in the Roman republic and early empire</i></a>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-2314-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-2314-6"><bdi>978-1-4696-2314-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/905949529">905949529</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commanders+%26+command+in+the+Roman+republic+and+early+empire&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F905949529&rft.isbn=978-1-4696-2314-6&rft.aulast=Drogula&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F905949529&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+dictator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlower2010" class="citation book cs1">Flower, Harriet (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p2eYDwAAQBAJ"><i>Roman republics</i></a>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14043-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14043-8"><bdi>978-0-691-14043-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+republics&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-691-14043-8&rft.aulast=Flower&rft.aufirst=Harriet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp2eYDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+dictator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLintott1999" class="citation book cs1">Lintott, Andrew (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/39706770"><i>The constitution of the Roman Republic</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-815068-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-815068-7"><bdi>0-19-815068-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39706770">39706770</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+constitution+of+the+Roman+Republic&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F39706770&rft.isbn=0-19-815068-7&rft.aulast=Lintott&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F39706770&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+dictator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRidley1979" class="citation journal cs1">Ridley, Ronald T (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41244992">"The origin of the Roman dictatorship: an overlooked opinion"</a>. <i>Rheinisches Museum für Philologie</i>. <b>122</b> (3/4): 303–309. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0035-449X">0035-449X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41244992">41244992</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rheinisches+Museum+f%C3%BCr+Philologie&rft.atitle=The+origin+of+the+Roman+dictatorship%3A+an+overlooked+opinion&rft.volume=122&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=303-309&rft.date=1979&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41244992%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0035-449X&rft.aulast=Ridley&rft.aufirst=Ronald+T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41244992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+dictator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSherwin-WhiteLintott2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Sherwin-White, AN; Lintott, Andrew (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-2151">"dictator"</a>. In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). <i>The Oxford classical dictionary</i> (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 448. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.2151">10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.2151</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954556-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954556-8"><bdi>978-0-19-954556-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/959667246">959667246</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=dictator&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+classical+dictionary&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=448&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F959667246&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.2151&rft.isbn=978-0-19-954556-8&rft.aulast=Sherwin-White&rft.aufirst=AN&rft.au=Lintott%2C+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Fclassics%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199381135-e-2151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+dictator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVervaet2015" class="citation web cs1">Vervaet, Frederik Juliaan (2015-12-22). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-2151">"dictator"</a>. <i>Oxford Classical Dictionary</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.2151">10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.2151</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938113-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938113-5"><bdi>978-0-19-938113-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-02-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Classical+Dictionary&rft.atitle=dictator&rft.date=2015-12-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.2151&rft.isbn=978-0-19-938113-5&rft.aulast=Vervaet&rft.aufirst=Frederik+Juliaan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Fclassics%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199381135-e-2151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+dictator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2021" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Mark (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1243162549"><i>Dictator: the evolution of the Roman dictatorship</i></a>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-12920-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-12920-1"><bdi>978-0-472-12920-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1243162549">1243162549</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictator%3A+the+evolution+of+the+Roman+dictatorship&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1243162549&rft.isbn=978-0-472-12920-1&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1243162549&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+dictator" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <p><b> Ancient sources </b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLivy" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> (1905) [1st century AD]. <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:en:From the Founding of the City"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/en:From_the_Founding_of_the_City"><i>History of Rome</i> </a></span>. Translated by Roberts, Canon – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Rome&rft.date=1905&rft.au=Livy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+dictator" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDionysius_of_Halicarnassus1937" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a> (1937) [1st century BC]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/dionysius_of_halicarnassus/home.html"><i>Roman Antiquities</i></a>. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Cary, Earnest. Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Antiquities&rft.series=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1937&rft.au=Dionysius+of+Halicarnassus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2Fe%2Froman%2Ftexts%2Fdionysius_of_halicarnassus%2Fhome.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+dictator" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed 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Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> 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