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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Espionage_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Espionage (disambiguation)">Espionage (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Spy" and "Secret agent" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Spy_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Spy (disambiguation)">Spy (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Secret_agent_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Secret agent (disambiguation)">Secret agent (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject. 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1202158006">.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-heading{background:#aaddff;color:#000}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-above{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-below{padding:0.4em;border-top:1px #aaa solid;font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1202158006"> Espionage, spying, or intelligence gathering is the act of obtaining secret or <a href="/wiki/Confidentiality" title="Confidentiality">confidential information</a> (<a href="/wiki/Intelligence_assessment" title="Intelligence assessment">intelligence</a>). A person who commits espionage is called an espionage agent or spy.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Any individual or spy ring (a cooperating group of spies), in the service of a <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a>, <a href="/wiki/Company" title="Company">company</a>, <a href="/wiki/Criminal_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal organization">criminal organization</a>, or independent operation, can commit espionage. The practice is <a href="/wiki/Clandestine_operation" title="Clandestine operation">clandestine</a>, as it is by definition unwelcome. In some circumstances, it may be a legal tool of <a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">law enforcement</a> and in others, it may be <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">illegal</a> and punishable by law. Espionage is often part of an institutional effort by a government or commercial concern. However, the term tends to be associated with state spying on potential or actual enemies for <a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">military</a> purposes. Spying involving <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporations</a> is known as <a href="/wiki/Corporate_espionage" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate espionage">Corporate espionage</a>. One way to gather data and information about a targeted organization is by infiltrating its ranks. Spies can then return information such as the size and strength of <a href="/wiki/Enemy_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Enemy force">enemy forces</a>. They can also find <a href="/wiki/Dissident" title="Dissident">dissidents</a> within the organization and influence them to provide further information or to defect.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> In times of crisis, spies steal technology and <a href="/wiki/Sabotage" title="Sabotage">sabotage</a> the enemy in various ways. <a href="/wiki/Counterintelligence" title="Counterintelligence">Counterintelligence</a> is the practice of thwarting enemy espionage and intelligence-gathering. Almost all <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">sovereign states</a> have strict laws concerning espionage, including those who practice espionage in other countries, and the penalties for being caught are often severe. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#The_problem_of_defining_intelligence_and_espionage">1 The problem of defining intelligence and espionage</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#History">2 History</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Ancient_world">2.1 Ancient world</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Middle_Ages">2.2 Middle Ages</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#The_Renaissance">2.3 The Renaissance</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#United_States">2.4 United States</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#World_War_I,_World_War_II">2.5 World War I, World War II</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Cold_War">2.6 Cold War</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Modern_day">3 Modern day</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Targets_of_espionage">4 Targets of espionage</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Methods_and_terminology">5 Methods and terminology</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#How_the_United_States_defines_espionage">5.1 How the United States defines espionage</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Technology_and_techniques">5.2 Technology and techniques</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Organization">6 Organization</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Industrial_espionage">7 Industrial espionage</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Agents_in_espionage">8 Agents in espionage</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Law">9 Law</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Espionage_law_in_the_United_States">9.1 Espionage law in the United States</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Use_against_non-spies">9.2 Use against non-spies</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Espionage_law_in_the_UK">9.3 Espionage law in the UK</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Government_intelligence_law_and_its_distinction_from_espionage">9.3.1 Government intelligence law and its distinction from espionage</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Military_intelligence_and_military_justice">9.4 Military intelligence and military justice</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Spy_fiction">10 Spy fiction</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#See_also">11 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#References">12 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Citations">12.1 Citations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Works_cited">12.2 Works cited</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Further_reading">13 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#External_links">14 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="The_problem_of_defining_intelligence_and_espionage">The problem of defining intelligence and espionage</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: The problem of defining intelligence and espionage" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_studies" title="Intelligence studies">Intelligence studies</a></div>The original definition of intelligence (in English) was as to be synonymous with <a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">journalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/News" title="News">news</a>, and has morphed and transformed into whatever uses it has today.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> "Here it is up front: intelligence is, with thanks to Constantine FitzGibbon, knowledge of the enemy. No sooner is it written than the readers' rejoinders flash in the mind, form on the lips, strike the air: No, it's wrong, inadequate, misleading, or impolitic; or, So, what else is new? Rest assured, dear rejoinder-ers, that these objections will be handled long before the last page is reached... so many of those intelligencers who have tried to define intelligence have grievously botched the job. Finally, unless intelligence is properly understood, the country's intelligence agencies, faced with changing targets and priorities, may lose sight of their proper task." </div><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Thomas F. Troy, The "Correct" Definition of Intelligence</cite></div></blockquote> That modern definition of intelligence as "knowledge of the enemy" is considered problematic.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Scholars argue that it does not include any sort of inclusion of who gathers intelligence and for what purpose.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Can police detectives, inspectors, or federal agents be considered as gathering intelligence? In which case, what is the difference between a spy and a detective?<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Who is the enemy?<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> "The debate within <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_studies" title="Intelligence studies">Intelligence studies</a> over its central conceptual term is by no means a discipline-specific problem. <a href="/wiki/International_security" title="International security">International security</a> experts have debated the term “<a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a>” ad nauseam, while <a href="/wiki/Biologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Biologists">biologists</a> have been at war over the term “<a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>” for over two centuries. In contrast to these parallel debates over the respective essences of “terrorism” or “species”, scholars of intelligence add that intelligence is under-theorized. In short, they posit the following: if we think harder we could get a better, more functional, definition of intelligence." </div><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Jules J.S. Gaspard, Intelligence without Essence: Rejecting the Classical Theory of Definition</cite></div></blockquote> For centuries, there has been no single definition of intelligence, nor indeed espionage.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The definition depends on the <a href="/wiki/Scholar" title="Scholar">scholar</a>, the practitioner, the <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">citizen</a>, or any of the other <a href="/wiki/Stakeholder_analysis" title="Stakeholder analysis">stakeholders</a> who might be making remarks upon the practices of spies or <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_agency" title="Intelligence agency">intelligence agencies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Some scholars have written that the definition of intelligence is confused by the fact that intelligence agencies today are engaged in many more activities than intelligence gathering,<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> and ask whether <a href="/wiki/Sabotage" title="Sabotage">Sabotage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">Deception</a>, <a href="/wiki/Counterintelligence" title="Counterintelligence">Counterintelligence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Analysis" title="Analysis">Analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Financial_intelligence" title="Financial intelligence">Financial intelligence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a>, and even <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">Assassination</a> might be considered all forms of espionage. Is intelligence a product, or process?<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> "Formulating a brief definition of so broad a term as intelligence is like making a <a href="/wiki/Microscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Microscopic">microscopic</a> <a href="/wiki/Portrait" title="Portrait">portrait</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continent</a>, and the product of this effort is likely to have less value than the process of arriving at it, the reexamination of our own thinking as we seek to pinpoint the essentials of the concept." </div><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Martin T. Bimfort, A Definition of Intelligence</cite></div></blockquote><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wolkowski-Craucher.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Wolkowski-Craucher.jpg/220px-Wolkowski-Craucher.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="787" data-file-height="1027"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 287px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Wolkowski-Craucher.jpg/220px-Wolkowski-Craucher.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="287" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Wolkowski-Craucher.jpg/330px-Wolkowski-Craucher.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Wolkowski-Craucher.jpg/440px-Wolkowski-Craucher.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Madame <a href="/wiki/Minna_Craucher" title="Minna Craucher">Minna Craucher</a> (right), a Finnish <a href="/wiki/Socialite" title="Socialite">socialite</a> and spy, with her chauffeur Boris Wolkowski (left) in 1930s</figcaption></figure>Scholars have also been eager to point out that the United States Intelligence Community does not own the definition of intelligence, nor espionage.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> "Indeed, even today, we have no accepted definition of intelligence. The term is defined anew by each author who addresses it, and these definitions rarely refer to one another or build off what has been written before. Without a clear idea of what intelligence is, how can we develop a theory to explain how it works? ...For producers of intelligence, however, the equation "intelligence = information" is too vague to provide real guidance in their work. To professionals in the field, mere data is not intelligence; thus these definitions are incomplete. Think of how many names are in the telephone book, and how few of those names anyone ever seeks. It is what people do with data and information that gives them the special quality that we casually call "intelligence."" </div><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Michael Warner, Wanted: A Definition of "Intelligence": Understanding Our Craft</cite></div></blockquote> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="History">History</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_espionage" title="History of espionage">History of espionage</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_world">Ancient world</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient world" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Espionage has been recognized as of importance in military affairs since ancient times. The oldest known classified document was a report made by a spy disguised as a <a href="/wiki/Envoy_(title)" title="Envoy (title)">diplomatic envoy</a> in the court of <a href="/wiki/King_Hammurabi" class="mw-redirect" title="King Hammurabi">King Hammurabi</a>, who died in around 1750 BC. The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptians</a> had a developed secret service, and espionage is mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Amarna_letters" title="Amarna letters">Amarna letters</a>.<a href="#cite_note-foo-14">[14]</a> Espionage was also prevalent in the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a>, when spies employed illiterate subjects in <a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">civil services</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The thesis that espionage and intelligence has a central role in <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">peace</a> was first advanced in <a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_War" title="The Art of War">The Art of War</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Middle Ages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> European states excelled at what has later been termed counter-<a href="/wiki/Subversion" title="Subversion">subversion</a> when Catholic <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">inquisitions</a> were staged to annihilate <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a>. Inquisitions were marked by centrally organised mass <a href="/wiki/Interrogation" title="Interrogation">interrogations</a> and detailed record keeping. Western espionage changed fundamentally during the Renaissance when Italian <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-states</a> installed resident <a href="/wiki/Ambassador" title="Ambassador">ambassadors</a> in <a href="/wiki/Capital_cities" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital cities">capital cities</a> to collect intelligence. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Renaissance">The Renaissance</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Renaissance" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Renaissance <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> became so obsessed with espionage that the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ten" title="Council of Ten">Council of Ten</a>, which was nominally responsible for <a href="/wiki/Security" title="Security">security</a>, did not even allow the <a href="/wiki/Doge_(title)" title="Doge (title)">doge</a> to consult government <a href="/wiki/Archive" title="Archive">archives</a> freely. In 1481 the Council of Ten barred all Venetian government officials from making contact with ambassadors or foreigners. Those revealing <a href="/wiki/Official_secret" class="mw-redirect" title="Official secret">official secrets</a> could face the <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">death penalty</a>. Venice became obsessed with espionage because successful <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a> demanded that the city-state could protect its <a href="/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">trade secrets</a>. Under Queen <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a> of England (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1558–1603), <a href="/wiki/Francis_Walsingham" title="Francis Walsingham">Francis Walsingham</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1532–1590) was appointed foreign secretary and intelligence chief.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The novelist and journalist <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Defoe" title="Daniel Defoe">Daniel Defoe</a> (died 1731) not only spied for the British government, but also developed a theory of espionage foreshadowing modern <a href="/wiki/Police-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Police-state">police-state</a> methods.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: United States" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> During the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Hale" title="Nathan Hale">Nathan Hale</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benedict_Arnold" title="Benedict Arnold">Benedict Arnold</a> achieved their fame as spies, and there was considerable use of <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_spies" title="American Civil War spies">spies on both sides during the American Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Though not a spy himself, <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> was America's first spymaster, utilizing espionage tactics against the British.<a href="#cite_note-foo-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_I,_World_War_II">World War I, World War II</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: World War I, World War II" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In the 20th century, at the height of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, all <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great powers</a> except the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> had elaborate civilian espionage systems, and all national military establishments had intelligence units. In order to protect the country against foreign agents, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Congress">U.S. Congress</a> passed the <a href="/wiki/Espionage_Act_of_1917" title="Espionage Act of 1917">Espionage Act of 1917</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mata_Hari" title="Mata Hari">Mata Hari</a>, who obtained information for Germany by seducing French officials, was the most noted espionage agent of World War I. Prior to <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Imperial Japan</a> established elaborate espionage nets. In 1942 the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Strategic_Services" title="Office of Strategic Services">Office of Strategic Services</a> was founded by Gen. <a href="/wiki/William_J._Donovan" title="William J. Donovan">William J. Donovan</a>. However, the British system was the keystone of Allied intelligence. Numerous resistance groups such as the Austrian <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Maier" title="Heinrich Maier">Maier</a>-Messner Group, the <a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Witte_Brigade" title="Witte Brigade">Witte Brigade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milorg" title="Milorg">Milorg</a> and the Polish <a href="/wiki/Home_Army" title="Home Army">Home Army</a> worked against Nazi Germany and provided the Allied secret services with information that was very important for the war effort. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cold_War">Cold War</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Cold War" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Since the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the activity of espionage has enlarged, much of it growing out of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> between the United States and the <a href="/wiki/Former_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Former Soviet Union">former USSR</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> and its successor, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, have had a long tradition of espionage ranging from the <a href="/wiki/Okhrana" title="Okhrana">Okhrana</a> to the <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> (Committee for State Security), which also acted as a secret police force. In the United States, the 1947 National Security Act created the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (CIA) to coordinate intelligence and the National Security Agency for research into codes and electronic communication. In addition to these, the United States has 13 other intelligence gathering agencies; most of the U.S. expenditures for intelligence gathering are budgeted to various Defense Dept. agencies and their programs. Under the intelligence reorganization of 2004, the director of national intelligence is responsible for overseeing and coordinating the activities and budgets of the U.S. intelligence agencies. In the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, espionage cases included <a href="/wiki/Alger_Hiss" title="Alger Hiss">Alger Hiss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Whittaker_Chambers" title="Whittaker Chambers">Whittaker Chambers</a> and the Rosenberg Case. In 1952 the Communist Chinese captured two CIA agents and in 1960 <a href="/wiki/Francis_Gary_Powers" title="Francis Gary Powers">Francis Gary Powers</a>, <a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">flying a U-2 reconnaissance mission</a> over the Soviet Union for the CIA, was shot down and captured. During the Cold War, many Soviet intelligence officials defected to the West, including Gen. <a href="/wiki/Walter_Krivitsky" title="Walter Krivitsky">Walter Krivitsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Victor_Kravchenko_(defector)" title="Victor Kravchenko (defector)">Victor Kravchenko</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Petrov_(diplomat)" title="Vladimir Petrov (diplomat)">Vladimir Petrov</a>, Peter Deriabin, Pawel Monat and <a href="/wiki/Oleg_Penkovsky" title="Oleg Penkovsky">Oleg Penkovsky</a> of the <a href="/wiki/GRU_(Soviet_Union)" title="GRU (Soviet Union)">GRU</a>. Among Western officials who defected to the Soviet Union are <a href="/wiki/Guy_Burgess" title="Guy Burgess">Guy Burgess</a> and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Maclean_(spy)" title="Donald Maclean (spy)">Donald D. Maclean</a> of Great Britain in 1951, <a href="/wiki/Otto_John" title="Otto John">Otto John</a> of West Germany in 1954, <a href="/wiki/William_Hamilton_Martin" class="mw-redirect" title="William Hamilton Martin">William H. Martin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bernon_F._Mitchell" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernon F. Mitchell">Bernon F. Mitchell</a>, U.S. cryptographers, in 1960, and Harold (Kim) Philby of Great Britain in 1962. U.S. acknowledgment of its U-2 flights and the exchange of Francis Gary Powers for <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Abel" title="Rudolf Abel">Rudolf Abel</a> in 1962 implied the legitimacy of some espionage as an arm of foreign policy. <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> has a very cost-effective intelligence program that is especially effective in monitoring neighboring countries such as <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. Smaller countries can also mount effective and focused espionage efforts. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Vietnam" title="Communist Party of Vietnam">Vietnamese communists</a> had consistently superior intelligence during the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>. Some Islamic countries, including <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, have highly developed operations as well. <a href="/wiki/SAVAK" title="SAVAK">SAVAK</a>, the secret police of the <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi dynasty</a>, was particularly feared by Iranian dissidents before the 1979 <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a>. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Modern_day">Modern day</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Modern day" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> Today, spy agencies target the <a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade" title="Illegal drug trade">illegal drug trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorists</a> as well as state actors.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Intelligence services value certain intelligence collection techniques over others. The former Soviet Union, for example, preferred <a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence_(intelligence_gathering)" title="Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)">human sources</a> over <a href="/wiki/Open-source_intelligence" title="Open-source intelligence">research in open sources</a>, while the United States has tended to emphasize technological methods such as <a href="/wiki/Signals_intelligence" title="Signals intelligence">SIGINT</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imagery_intelligence" title="Imagery intelligence">IMINT</a>. In the Soviet Union, both political (<a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">military intelligence</a> (<a href="/wiki/GRU_(Soviet_Union)" title="GRU (Soviet Union)">GRU</a>)<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> officers were judged by the number of agents they recruited. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Targets_of_espionage">Targets of espionage</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Targets of espionage" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> Espionage agents are usually trained experts in a targeted field so they can differentiate mundane information from targets of value to their own organizational development. Correct identification of the target at its execution is the sole purpose of the espionage operation.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Broad areas of espionage targeting expertise include:[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resources</a>: strategic production identification and assessment (food, energy, materials). Agents are usually found among bureaucrats who administer these resources in their own countries</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion" title="Public opinion">Popular sentiment</a> towards domestic and foreign policies (popular, middle class, elites). Agents often recruited from field journalistic crews, exchange postgraduate students and sociology researchers</li> <li>Strategic economic strengths (production, research, manufacture, infrastructure). Agents recruited from science and technology academia, commercial enterprises, and more rarely from among military technologists</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_capability" title="Military capability">Military capability</a> intelligence (offensive, defensive, manoeuvre, naval, air, space). Agents are trained by military espionage education facilities and posted to an area of operation with covert identities to minimize prosecution</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterintelligence" title="Counterintelligence">Counterintelligence</a> operations targeting opponent's intelligence services themselves, such as breaching the confidentiality of communications and recruiting defectors or <a href="/wiki/Mole_(espionage)" title="Mole (espionage)">moles</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Methods_and_terminology">Methods and terminology</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Methods and terminology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="How_the_United_States_defines_espionage">How the United States defines espionage</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: How the United States defines espionage" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Although the news media may speak of "spy satellites" and the like, espionage is not a synonym for all intelligence-gathering disciplines. It is a specific form of human source intelligence (<a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence_(intelligence_gathering)" title="Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)">HUMINT</a>). Codebreaking (<a href="/wiki/Cryptanalysis" title="Cryptanalysis">cryptanalysis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Signals_intelligence#Communications_intelligence" title="Signals intelligence">COMINT</a>), aircraft or satellite photography (<a href="/wiki/Imagery_intelligence" title="Imagery intelligence">IMINT</a>), and analysis of publicly available data sources (<a href="/wiki/Open-source_intelligence" title="Open-source intelligence">OSINT</a>) are all intelligence gathering disciplines, but none of them is considered espionage. Many HUMINT activities, such as prisoner <a href="/wiki/Interrogation" title="Interrogation">interrogation</a>, reports from military <a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">reconnaissance</a> patrols and from diplomats, etc., are not considered espionage. Espionage is the disclosure of sensitive information (classified) to people who are not cleared for that information or access to that sensitive information. Unlike other forms of <a href="/wiki/List_of_intelligence_gathering_disciplines" title="List of intelligence gathering disciplines">intelligence collection disciplines</a>, espionage usually involves accessing the place where the desired information is stored or accessing the people who know the information and will divulge it through some kind of <a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">subterfuge</a>. There are exceptions to physical meetings, such as the <a href="/wiki/Oslo_Report" title="Oslo Report">Oslo Report</a>, or the insistence of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hanssen" title="Robert Hanssen">Robert Hanssen</a> in never meeting the people who bought his information. The US defines espionage towards itself as "the act of obtaining, delivering, transmitting, communicating, or receiving information about the national defence with an intent, or reason to believe, that the information may be used to the injury of the United States or to the advantage of any foreign nation". <a href="/wiki/Black%27s_Law_Dictionary" title="Black's Law Dictionary">Black's Law Dictionary</a> (1990) defines espionage as: "... gathering, transmitting, or losing ... information related to the <a href="/wiki/Defense_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense (military)">national defense</a>". Espionage is a violation of United States law, <a href="/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/792">§§ 792</a>–<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/798">798</a> and Article 106a of the <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Code_of_Military_Justice" title="Uniform Code of Military Justice">Uniform Code of Military Justice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> The United States, like most nations, conducts espionage against other nations, under the control of the <a href="/wiki/National_Clandestine_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="National Clandestine Service">National Clandestine Service</a>.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs to be updated. The reason given is: What about the Defense Department, and the Director of National Intelligence?. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2021)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Britain's espionage activities are controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Secret_Intelligence_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Secret Intelligence Service">Secret Intelligence Service</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technology_and_techniques">Technology and techniques</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Technology and techniques" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tradecraft" title="Tradecraft">Tradecraft</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_intelligence_gathering_disciplines" title="List of intelligence gathering disciplines">List of intelligence gathering disciplines</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent_handling" title="Agent handling">Agent handling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biographic_leverage" title="Biographic leverage">Biographic leverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealment_device" title="Concealment device">Concealment device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covert_agent" title="Covert agent">Covert agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covert_listening_device" title="Covert listening device">Covert listening device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut-out_(espionage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cut-out (espionage)">Cut-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_spying" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyber spying">Cyber spying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_drop" title="Dead drop">Dead drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">False flag</a> operations</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Front_organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Front organisation">Front organisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Human intelligence</a> (HUMINT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexpionage" title="Sexpionage">Honeypot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impersonator" title="Impersonator">Impersonation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impostor" class="mw-redirect" title="Impostor">Impostor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogation" title="Interrogation">Interrogation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-official_cover" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-official cover">Non-official cover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numbers_station" title="Numbers station">Numbers messaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_cover" class="mw-redirect" title="Official cover">Official cover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_intelligence" title="Open-source intelligence">Open-source intelligence</a> (OSINT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-way_voice_link" title="One-way voice link">One-way voice link</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabotage" title="Sabotage">Sabotage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_house" title="Safe house">Safe house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Side_channel_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Side channel attack">Side channel attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signals_intelligence" title="Signals intelligence">Signals intelligence</a> (SIGINT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spy_ship" title="Spy ship">Spy ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steganography" title="Steganography">Steganography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveillance" title="Surveillance">Surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveillance_aircraft" title="Surveillance aircraft">Surveillance aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveillance_balloon" class="mw-redirect" title="Surveillance balloon">Surveillance balloon</a></li></ul> </div> Source:<a href="#cite_note-PROTOCOL-24">[24]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Organization">Organization</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Organization" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> A spy is a person employed to seek out secret information from a source.<a href="#cite_note-bar-25">[25]</a> Within the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">United States Intelligence Community</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Asset_(intelligence)" title="Asset (intelligence)">asset</a>" is more common usage. A <a href="/wiki/Case_officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Case officer">case officer</a> or <a href="/wiki/Special_Agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Special Agent">Special Agent</a>, who may have <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_protection" title="Diplomatic protection">diplomatic status</a> (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Official_cover" class="mw-redirect" title="Official cover">official cover</a> or <a href="/wiki/Non-official_cover" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-official cover">non-official cover</a>), supports and directs the human collector. Cut-outs are <a href="/wiki/Courier" title="Courier">couriers</a> who do not know the agent or case officer but transfer messages. A <a href="/wiki/Safe_house" title="Safe house">safe house</a> is a refuge for spies. Spies often seek to obtain secret information from another source. In larger networks, the organization can be complex with many methods to avoid detection, including <a href="/wiki/Clandestine_cell_system" title="Clandestine cell system">clandestine cell systems</a>. Often the players have never met. Case officers are stationed in foreign countries to recruit and supervise intelligence agents,<a href="#cite_note-bar-25">[25]</a> who in turn spy on targets in the countries where they are assigned. A spy need not be a citizen of the target country and hence does not automatically commit <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a> when operating within it. While the more common practice is to recruit a person already trusted with access to sensitive information, sometimes a person with a well-prepared synthetic identity (cover background), called a legend<a href="#cite_note-bar-25">[25]</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tradecraft" title="Tradecraft">tradecraft</a>, may attempt to infiltrate a target organization. These agents can be moles (who are recruited before they get access to secrets), <a href="/wiki/Defection" title="Defection">defectors</a> (who are recruited after they get access to secrets and leave their country) or <a href="/wiki/Clandestine_HUMINT#Defector_in_place" class="mw-redirect" title="Clandestine HUMINT">defectors in place</a> (who get access but do not leave). A legend is also employed for an individual who is not an illegal agent, but is an ordinary citizen who is "relocated", for example, a "protected witness". Nevertheless, such a non-agent very likely will also have a case officer who will act as a controller. As in most, if not all synthetic identity schemes, for whatever purpose (illegal or legal), the assistance of a controller is required. Spies may also be used to spread disinformation in the organization in which they are planted, such as giving false reports about their country's military movements, or about a competing company's ability to bring a product to market. Spies may be given other roles that also require infiltration, such as <a href="/wiki/Sabotage" title="Sabotage">sabotage</a>. Many governments spy on their allies as well as their enemies, although they typically maintain a policy of not commenting on this. Governments also employ private companies to collect information on their behalf such as <a href="/wiki/SCG_International_Risk" title="SCG International Risk">SCG International Risk</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Intelligence_Limited" class="mw-redirect" title="International Intelligence Limited">International Intelligence Limited</a> and others. Many organizations, both national and non-national, conduct espionage operations. It should not be assumed that espionage is always directed at the most secret operations of a target country. National and terrorist organizations and other groups are also targeted.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> This is because governments want to retrieve information that they can use to be proactive in protecting their nation from potential terrorist attacks. Communications both are necessary to espionage and <a href="/wiki/Clandestine_operation" title="Clandestine operation">clandestine operations</a>, and also a great vulnerability when the adversary has sophisticated SIGINT detection and interception capability. Spies rely on COVCOM or covert communication through technically advanced spy devices.<a href="#cite_note-foo-14">[14]</a> Agents must also transfer money securely. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Industrial_espionage">Industrial espionage</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Industrial espionage" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Industrial_espionage" title="Industrial espionage">Industrial espionage</a></div> Industrial espionage, also known as economic espionage, corporate spying, or corporate espionage, is a form of espionage conducted for <a href="/wiki/Commerce" title="Commerce">commercial</a> purposes instead of purely <a href="/wiki/National_security" title="National security">national security</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> While political espionage is conducted or orchestrated by governments and is international in scope, industrial or corporate espionage is more often national and occurs between companies or <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporations</a>. It may include the acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a>, such as information on industrial manufacture, ideas, techniques and processes, recipes and formulas. Or it could include sequestration of proprietary or operational information, such as that on customer datasets, pricing, sales, marketing, research and development, policies, prospective bids, planning or marketing strategies or the changing compositions and locations of production. It may describe activities such as theft of <a href="/wiki/Trade_secrets" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade secrets">trade secrets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery">bribery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blackmail" title="Blackmail">blackmail</a> and technological surveillance. As well as orchestrating espionage on commercial organizations, governments can also be targets – for example, to determine the terms of a tender for a government contract. Reportedly <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> is losing $12 billion<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a> companies are estimated to be losing about €50 billion ($87 billion) and 30,000 jobs<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> to industrial espionage every year. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Agents_in_espionage">Agents in espionage</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Agents in espionage" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> In espionage jargon, an "agent" is the person who does the spying. They may be a citizen of a country recruited by that country to spy on another; a citizen of a country recruited by that country to carry out <a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">false flag</a> assignments disrupting his own country; a citizen of one country who is recruited by a second country to spy on or work against his own country or a third country, and more. In popular usage, this term is sometimes confused with an <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_officer" title="Intelligence officer">intelligence officer</a>, intelligence operative, or case officer who recruits and handles agents. Among the most common forms of agent are: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent_provocateur" title="Agent provocateur">Agent provocateur</a>: instigates trouble or provides information to gather as many people as possible into one location for an arrest.</li> <li>Intelligence agent: provides access to <a href="/wiki/Information_sensitivity" title="Information sensitivity">sensitive information</a> through the use of special privileges. If used in corporate intelligence gathering, this may include gathering information of a corporate business venture or <a href="/wiki/Portfolio_(finance)" title="Portfolio (finance)">stock portfolio</a>. In economic intelligence, "Economic Analysts may use their specialized skills to analyze and interpret economic trends and developments, assess and track foreign financial activities, and develop new econometric and modelling methodologies."<a href="#cite_note-Economic_intelligence-30">[30]</a> This may also include information of trade or tariff.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agent_of_influence" title="Agent of influence">Agent-of-influence</a>: provides political influence in an area of interest, possibly including <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">publications</a> needed to further an intelligence service agenda.<a href="#cite_note-bar-25">[25]</a> The use of the media to print a story to <a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">mislead</a> a foreign service into action, exposing their operations while under surveillance.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_agent" title="Double agent">Double agent</a>: engages in clandestine activity for two intelligence or security services (or more in joint operations), who provides information about one or about each to the other, and who wittingly withholds significant information from one on the instructions of the other or is unwittingly manipulated by one so that significant facts are withheld from the adversary. <a href="/wiki/Peddler" title="Peddler">Peddlers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fabricator_(intelligence)" title="Fabricator (intelligence)">fabricators</a>, and others who work for themselves rather than a service are not double agents because they are not agents. The fact that double agents have an agent relationship with both sides distinguishes them from penetrations, who normally are placed with the target service in a staff or officer capacity."<a href="#cite_note-double_agent-31">[31]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Re-doubled_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Re-doubled agent">Redoubled agent</a>: forced to mislead the foreign intelligence service after being caught as a double agent.</li> <li>Unwitting double agent: offers or is forced to recruit as a double or redoubled agent and in the process is recruited by either a third-party intelligence service or his own government without the knowledge of the intended target intelligence service or the agent. This can be useful in capturing important information from an agent that is attempting to seek allegiance with another country. The double agent usually has knowledge of both intelligence services and can identify operational techniques of both, thus making third-party recruitment difficult or impossible. The knowledge of operational techniques can also affect the relationship between the operations officer (or case officer) and the agent if the case is transferred by an operational targeting officer] to a new operations officer, leaving the new officer vulnerable to attack. This type of transfer may occur when an officer has completed his term of service or when his cover is blown.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleeper_agent" title="Sleeper agent">Sleeper agent</a>: recruited to wake up and perform a specific set of tasks or functions while living undercover in an area of interest. This type of agent is not the same as a deep cover operative, who continually contacts a case officer to file intelligence reports. A sleeper agent is not in contact with anyone until activated.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Triple agent">Triple agent</a>: works for three intelligence services.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">how?</a>]</li></ul> Less common or lesser known forms of agent include: <ul><li>Access agent: provides access to other potential agents by providing <a href="/wiki/Offender_profiling" title="Offender profiling">offender profiling</a> information that can help lead to recruitment into an intelligence service.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confusion_agent" title="Confusion agent">Confusion agent</a>: provides misleading information to an enemy intelligence service or attempts to discredit the operations of the target in an operation.</li> <li>Facilities agent: provides access to buildings, such as <a href="/wiki/Garage_(residential)" title="Garage (residential)">garages</a> or offices used for <a href="/wiki/Staging_area" title="Staging area">staging</a> operations, resupply, etc.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cover_(intelligence_gathering)#Non-official_cover" title="Cover (intelligence gathering)">Illegal agent</a>: lives in another country under <a href="/wiki/Identity_document_forgery" title="Identity document forgery">false credentials</a> and does not report to a local station. A nonofficial cover operative can be dubbed an "illegal"<a href="#cite_note-Illegal-32">[32]</a> when working in another country without diplomatic protection.</li> <li>Principal agent: functions as a <a href="/wiki/Agent_handling" title="Agent handling">handler</a> for an established network of agents, usually considered "blue chip".</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Law">Law</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Law" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_law" title="Intelligence law">Intelligence law</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject. You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit">improve this article</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Espionage" title="Talk:Espionage">talk page</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_wizard" title="Wikipedia:Article wizard">create a new article</a>, as appropriate. (August 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Espionage against a nation is a crime under the <a href="/wiki/Legal_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal code">legal code</a> of many world states. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Espionage_law_in_the_United_States">Espionage law in the United States</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Espionage law in the United States" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In the United States, it is covered by the <a href="/wiki/Espionage_Act_of_1917" title="Espionage Act of 1917">Espionage Act of 1917</a>. The risks of espionage vary. A spy violating the host country's laws may be deported, imprisoned, or even executed. A spy violating its own country's laws can be imprisoned for espionage or/and <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a> (which in the United States and some other jurisdictions can only occur if they take up arms or aids the enemy against their own country during wartime), or even executed, as the <a href="/wiki/Rosenbergs" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosenbergs">Rosenbergs</a> were. For example, when <a href="/wiki/Aldrich_Ames" title="Aldrich Ames">Aldrich Ames</a> handed a stack of dossiers of U.S. <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (CIA) agents in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> to his KGB-officer "handler", the KGB "rolled up" several networks, and at least ten people were secretly shot. When Ames was arrested by the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a> (FBI), he faced life in prison; his contact, who had <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_immunity" title="Diplomatic immunity">diplomatic immunity</a>, was declared <a href="/wiki/Persona_non_grata" title="Persona non grata">persona non grata</a> and taken to the airport. Ames' wife was threatened with life imprisonment if her husband did not cooperate; he did, and she was given a five-year sentence. <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Francis_Redmond" title="Hugh Francis Redmond">Hugh Francis Redmond</a>, a CIA officer in China, spent nineteen years in a Chinese prison for espionage—and died there—as he was operating without diplomatic cover and immunity.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> In United States law, treason,<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> espionage,<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> and spying<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> are separate crimes. Treason and espionage have graduated punishment levels. The United States in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> passed the Espionage Act of 1917. Over the years, many spies, such as the <a href="/wiki/Soble_spy_ring" class="mw-redirect" title="Soble spy ring">Soble spy ring</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lee_Johnson_(spy)" title="Robert Lee Johnson (spy)">Robert Lee Johnson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_and_Ethel_Rosenberg" title="Julius and Ethel Rosenberg">the Rosenberg ring</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aldrich_Hazen_Ames" class="mw-redirect" title="Aldrich Hazen Ames">Aldrich Hazen Ames</a>,<a href="#cite_note-jyaames-37">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Philip_Hanssen" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Philip Hanssen">Robert Philip Hanssen</a>,<a href="#cite_note-fashans-38">[38]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Pollard" title="Jonathan Pollard">Jonathan Pollard</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Anthony_Walker" title="John Anthony Walker">John Anthony Walker</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Hall_III" title="James Hall III">James Hall III</a>, and others have been prosecuted under this law. In modern times, many people convicted of espionage have been given penal sentences rather than execution. For example, <a href="/wiki/Aldrich_Hazen_Ames" class="mw-redirect" title="Aldrich Hazen Ames">Aldrich Hazen Ames</a> is an American CIA analyst, turned KGB mole, who was convicted of espionage in 1994; he is serving a <a href="/wiki/Life_sentence" class="mw-redirect" title="Life sentence">life sentence</a> without the possibility of parole in the high-security <a href="/wiki/United_States_Penitentiary,_Allenwood" title="United States Penitentiary, Allenwood">Allenwood U.S. Penitentiary</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Federal_Bureau_of_Prisons-39">[39]</a> Ames was formerly a 31-year <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a> <a href="/wiki/Counter-intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-intelligence">counterintelligence</a> officer and analyst who committed espionage against his country by <a href="/wiki/Spying" class="mw-redirect" title="Spying">spying</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> So far as it is known, Ames compromised the second-largest number of CIA agents, second only to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hanssen" title="Robert Hanssen">Robert Hanssen</a>, who also served a prison sentence until his death in 2023.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Use_against_non-spies">Use against non-spies</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Use against non-spies" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Espionage laws are also used to prosecute non-spies. In the United States, the Espionage Act of 1917 was used against socialist politician <a href="/wiki/Eugene_V._Debs" title="Eugene V. Debs">Eugene V. Debs</a> (at that time the Act had much stricter guidelines and amongst other things banned speech against military recruiting). The law was later used to suppress publication of periodicals, for example of <a href="/wiki/Father_Coughlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Father Coughlin">Father Coughlin</a> in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. In the early 21st century, the act was used to prosecute <a href="/wiki/Whistleblower" class="mw-redirect" title="Whistleblower">whistleblowers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Andrews_Drake" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Andrews Drake">Thomas Andrews Drake</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Kiriakou" title="John Kiriakou">John Kiriakou</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Snowden" title="Edward Snowden">Edward Snowden</a>, as well as officials who communicated with journalists for innocuous reasons, such as <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jin-Woo_Kim" title="Stephen Jin-Woo Kim">Stephen Jin-Woo Kim</a>.<a href="#cite_note-josh_gerstein1-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> As of 2012<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit">[update]</a>, India and Pakistan were holding several hundred prisoners of each other's country for minor violations like trespass or visa overstay, often with accusations of espionage attached. Some of these include cases where Pakistan and India both deny citizenship to these people, leaving them <a href="/wiki/Statelessness" title="Statelessness">stateless</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The BBC reported in 2012 on one such case, that of Mohammed Idrees, who was held under Indian police control for approximately 13 years for overstaying his 15-day visa by 2–3 days after seeing his ill parents in 1999. Much of the 13 years were spent in prison waiting for a hearing, and more time was spent homeless or living with generous families. The Indian <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Union_for_Civil_Liberties" title="People's Union for Civil Liberties">People's Union for Civil Liberties</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Law_Network" title="Human Rights Law Network">Human Rights Law Network</a> both decried his treatment. The BBC attributed some of the problems to tensions caused by the <a href="/wiki/Kashmir_conflict" title="Kashmir conflict">Kashmir conflict</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Espionage_law_in_the_UK">Espionage law in the UK</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Espionage law in the UK" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> From ancient times, the penalty for espionage in many countries was execution. This was true right up until the era of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>; for example, <a href="/wiki/Josef_Jakobs" title="Josef Jakobs">Josef Jakobs</a> was a Nazi spy who parachuted into Great Britain in 1941 and was executed for espionage. Espionage is illegal in the UK under the <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Act_2023" title="National Security Act 2023">National Security Act 2023</a>, which repealed prior Official Secrets Acts and creates three separate offences for espionage. A person is liable to be imprisoned for life for committing an offence under Section 1 of the Act, or 14 years for an offence under Sections 2 and 3 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Government_intelligence_law_and_its_distinction_from_espionage">Government intelligence law and its distinction from espionage</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Government intelligence law and its distinction from espionage" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Government intelligence is very much distinct from espionage, and is not illegal in the UK, providing that the organisations of individuals are registered, often with the ICO, and are acting within the restrictions of the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (RIPA). 'Intelligence' is considered legally as "information of all sorts gathered by a government or organisation to guide its decisions. It includes information that may be both public and private, obtained from much different public or secret sources. It could consist entirely of information from either publicly available or secret sources, or be a combination of the two."<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> However, espionage and intelligence can be linked. According to the MI5 website, "foreign intelligence officers acting in the UK under diplomatic cover may enjoy immunity from prosecution. Such persons can only be tried for spying (or, indeed, any criminal offence) if diplomatic immunity is waived beforehand. Those officers operating without diplomatic cover have no such immunity from prosecution". There are also laws surrounding government and organisational intelligence and surveillance. Generally, the body involved should be issued with some form of warrant or permission from the government and should be enacting their procedures in the interest of protecting national security or the safety of public citizens. Those carrying out intelligence missions should act within not only RIPA but also the Data Protection Act and Human Rights Act. However, there are spy equipment laws and legal requirements around intelligence methods that vary for each form of intelligence enacted. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_intelligence_and_military_justice">Military intelligence and military justice</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Military intelligence and military justice" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:L%27espion_-_Alphonse_de_Neuville_-_1880.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/L%27espion_-_Alphonse_de_Neuville_-_1880.jpg/250px-L%27espion_-_Alphonse_de_Neuville_-_1880.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1599" data-file-height="1047"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 144px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/L%27espion_-_Alphonse_de_Neuville_-_1880.jpg/250px-L%27espion_-_Alphonse_de_Neuville_-_1880.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="144" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/L%27espion_-_Alphonse_de_Neuville_-_1880.jpg/330px-L%27espion_-_Alphonse_de_Neuville_-_1880.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/L%27espion_-_Alphonse_de_Neuville_-_1880.jpg/500px-L%27espion_-_Alphonse_de_Neuville_-_1880.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Painting of French spy captured during the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> by <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Neuville" title="Alphonse de Neuville">Alphonse de Neuville</a>, 1880</figcaption></figure> In war, espionage is considered permissible as many nations recognize the inevitability of opposing sides seeking intelligence each about the dispositions of the other. To make the mission easier and successful, <a href="/wiki/Combatant" title="Combatant">combatants</a> wear <a href="/wiki/Disguise" title="Disguise">disguises</a> to conceal their true identity from the enemy while penetrating enemy lines for intelligence gathering. However, if they are caught behind enemy lines in disguises, they are not entitled to <a href="/wiki/Prisoner-of-war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoner-of-war">prisoner-of-war</a> status and subject to <a href="/wiki/Prosecution" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosecution">prosecution</a> and punishment—including <a href="/wiki/Execution" class="mw-redirect" title="Execution">execution</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Hague_Convention_of_1907" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague Convention of 1907">Hague Convention of 1907</a> addresses the status of wartime spies, specifically within "Laws and Customs of War on Land" (Hague IV); October 18, 1907: Chapter II Spies".<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Article 29 states that a person is considered a spy who, acts clandestinely or on false pretences, infiltrates enemy lines with the intention of acquiring intelligence about the enemy and communicate it to the <a href="/wiki/Belligerent" title="Belligerent">belligerent</a> during times of war. Soldiers who penetrate enemy lines in proper uniforms for the purpose of acquiring intelligence are not considered spies but are <a href="/wiki/Combatant#Privileged_combatants" title="Combatant">lawful combatants</a> entitled to be treated as prisoners of war upon capture by the enemy. Article 30 states that a spy captured behind enemy lines may only be punished following a trial. However, Article 31 provides that if a spy successfully rejoined his own military and is then captured by the enemy as a lawful combatant, he cannot be punished for his previous acts of espionage and must be treated as a prisoner of war. This provision does not apply to citizens who committed <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a> against their own country or co-belligerents of that country and may be captured and prosecuted at any place or any time regardless whether he rejoined the military to which he belongs or not or during or after the war.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> The ones that are excluded from being treated as spies while behind enemy lines are escaping prisoners of war and downed <a href="/wiki/Airmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Airmen">airmen</a> as <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> distinguishes between a disguised spy and a disguised escaper.<a href="#cite_note-PROTOCOL-24">[24]</a> It is permissible for these groups to wear enemy uniforms or civilian clothes in order to facilitate their escape back to friendly lines so long as they do not attack enemy forces, collect military intelligence, or engage in similar military operations while so disguised.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Soldiers who are wearing enemy uniforms or civilian clothes simply for the sake of warmth along with other purposes rather than engaging in espionage or similar military operations while so attired are also excluded from being treated as unlawful combatants.<a href="#cite_note-PROTOCOL-24">[24]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sabotage" title="Sabotage">Saboteurs</a> are treated as spies as they too wear disguises behind enemy lines for the purpose of waging destruction on an enemy's vital targets in addition to intelligence gathering.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> For example, during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, eight German agents entered the U.S. in June 1942 as part of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Pastorius" title="Operation Pastorius">Operation Pastorius</a>, a sabotage mission against U.S. economic targets. Two weeks later, all were arrested in civilian clothes by the <a href="/wiki/FBI" class="mw-redirect" title="FBI">FBI</a> thanks to two German agents betraying the mission to the U.S. Under the Hague Convention of 1907, these Germans were classified as spies and tried by a <a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">military tribunal</a> in <a href="/wiki/Washington_D.C." class="mw-redirect" title="Washington D.C.">Washington D.C.</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> On August 3, 1942, all eight were found guilty and sentenced to death. Five days later, six were executed by <a href="/wiki/Electric_chair" title="Electric chair">electric chair</a> at the District of Columbia jail. Two who had given evidence against the others had their sentences reduced by President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> to prison terms. In 1948, they were released by President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> and deported to the <a href="/wiki/American_Zone_of_Occupation#American_Zone_of_Occupation" class="mw-redirect" title="American Zone of Occupation">American Zone of occupied Germany</a>. The U.S. codification of enemy spies is Article 106 of the <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Code_of_Military_Justice" title="Uniform Code of Military Justice">Uniform Code of Military Justice</a>. This provides a mandatory death sentence if a person captured in the act is proven to be "lurking as a spy or acting as a spy in or about any place, vessel, or aircraft, within the control or jurisdiction of any of the armed forces, or in or about any shipyard, any manufacturing or industrial plant, or any other place or institution engaged in work in aid of the prosecution of the war by the United States, or elsewhere".<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="Spy_fiction">Spy fiction</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Spy fiction" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spy_fiction" title="Spy fiction">Spy fiction</a></div> Spies have long been favorite topics for novelists and filmmakers.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> An early example of espionage literature is <a href="/wiki/Kim_(novel)" title="Kim (novel)">Kim</a> by the English novelist <a href="/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling" title="Rudyard Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a>, with a description of the training of an intelligence agent in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Game" title="Great Game">Great Game</a> between the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">UK</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> in 19th century <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>. An even earlier work was <a href="/wiki/James_Fenimore_Cooper" title="James Fenimore Cooper">James Fenimore Cooper</a>'s classic novel, <a href="/wiki/The_Spy_(Cooper_novel)" title="The Spy (Cooper novel)">The Spy</a>, written in 1821, about an American spy in New York during the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a>. During the many 20th-century spy scandals, much information became publicly known about national spy agencies and dozens of real-life secret agents. These sensational stories piqued public interest in a profession largely off-limits to <a href="/wiki/Human_interest_story" class="mw-redirect" title="Human interest story">human interest news reporting</a>, a natural consequence of the secrecy inherent in their work. To fill in the blanks, the popular conception of the secret agent has been formed largely by 20th and 21st-century fiction and film. Attractive and sociable real-life agents such as <a href="/wiki/Valerie_Plame" title="Valerie Plame">Valerie Plame</a> find little employment in serious fiction, however. The fictional secret agent is more often a loner, sometimes amoral—an <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existential</a> hero operating outside the everyday constraints of society. Loner spy personalities may have been a stereotype of convenience for authors who already knew how to write loner <a href="/wiki/Private_investigator" title="Private investigator">private investigator</a> characters that sold well from the 1920s to the present.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <a href="/wiki/Johnny_Fedora" title="Johnny Fedora">Johnny Fedora</a> achieved popularity as a fictional agent of early <a href="/wiki/Cold_War_espionage" title="Cold War espionage">Cold War espionage</a>, but <a href="/wiki/James_Bond" title="James Bond">James Bond</a> is the most commercially successful of the many spy characters created by intelligence insiders during that struggle. Other fictional agents include Le Carré's <a href="/wiki/George_Smiley" title="George Smiley">George Smiley</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Harry_Palmer" title="Harry Palmer">Harry Palmer</a> as played by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Caine" title="Michael Caine">Michael Caine</a>. Jumping on the spy bandwagon, other writers also started writing about spy fiction featuring female spies as protagonists, such as <a href="/wiki/The_Baroness_(novels)" title="The Baroness (novels)">The Baroness</a>, which has more graphic action and sex, as compared to other novels featuring male protagonists. Spy fiction has permeated the <a href="/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">video game</a> world as well, in games such as <a href="/wiki/Perfect_Dark" title="Perfect Dark">Perfect Dark</a>, <a href="/wiki/GoldenEye_007_(1997_video_game)" title="GoldenEye 007 (1997 video game)">GoldenEye 007</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Operative:_No_One_Lives_Forever" title="The Operative: No One Lives Forever">No One Lives Forever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tom_Clancy%27s_Splinter_Cell" title="Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell">Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Metal_Gear" title="Metal Gear">Metal Gear series</a>. Espionage has also made its way into comedy depictions. The 1960s TV series <a href="/wiki/Get_Smart_(TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Get Smart (TV series)">Get Smart</a>, the 1983 Finnish film <a href="/wiki/Agent_000_and_the_Deadly_Curves" class="mw-redirect" title="Agent 000 and the Deadly Curves">Agent 000 and the Deadly Curves</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Johnny_English_(film_series)" title="Johnny English (film series)">Johnny English</a> film trilogy portrays an inept spy, while the 1985 movie <a href="/wiki/Spies_Like_Us" title="Spies Like Us">Spies Like Us</a> depicts a pair of none-too-bright men sent to the Soviet Union to investigate a missile. The historical novel The Emperor and the Spy highlights the adventurous life of U.S. Colonel <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Mashbir" title="Sidney Mashbir">Sidney Forrester Mashbir</a>, who during the 1920s and 1930s attempted to prevent war with Japan, and when war did erupt, he became General MacArthur's top advisor in the Pacific Theater of World War Two.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Black Widow is also a fictional agent who was introduced as a <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian</a> spy, an antagonist of the superhero <a href="/wiki/Iron_Man" title="Iron Man">Iron Man</a>. She later became an agent of the fictional spy agency <a href="/wiki/S.H.I.E.L.D." title="S.H.I.E.L.D.">S.H.I.E.L.D.</a> and a member of the superhero team the <a href="/wiki/Avengers_(comics)" title="Avengers (comics)">Avengers</a>. Real espionage is actually quite boring work.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_espionage_in_China" title="American espionage in China">American espionage in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Chinese espionage in the United States">Chinese espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clandestine_operation" title="Clandestine operation">Clandestine operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cover_(intelligence_gathering)" title="Cover (intelligence gathering)">Cover (intelligence gathering)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covert_operation" title="Covert operation">Covert operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detective" title="Detective">Detective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_agent" title="Foreign agent">Foreign agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Soviet_espionage" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Soviet espionage">History of Soviet espionage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence_(intelligence_gathering)" title="Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)">Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_assessment" title="Intelligence assessment">Intelligence assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Gannon_(author)" title="James Gannon (author)">James Gannon (author)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_intelligence_agencies" title="List of intelligence agencies">List of intelligence agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_intelligence_gathering_disciplines" title="List of intelligence gathering disciplines">List of intelligence gathering disciplines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI5" title="MI5">MI5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Military intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secret_identity" title="Secret identity">Secret identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secret_service" title="Secret service">Secret service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleeper_agent" title="Sleeper agent">Sleeper agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_agent" title="Special agent">Special agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spying_on_United_Nations_leaders_by_United_States_diplomats" class="mw-redirect" title="Spying on United Nations leaders by United States diplomats">Spying on United Nations leaders by United States diplomats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undercover_operation" class="mw-redirect" title="Undercover operation">Undercover operation</a></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Citations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/uscode-cgi/fastweb.exe?getdoc+uscview+t17t20+486+45++%28espionage%25">the original</a> on 3 December 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=espionage&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuscode.house.gov%2Fuscode-cgi%2Ffastweb.exe%3Fgetdoc%2Buscview%2Bt17t20%2B486%2B45%2B%2B%2528espionage%2525&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/uscode-cgi/fastweb.exe?getdoc+uscview+t09t12+600+1++%28spying%29%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20">spying</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121203024508/http://uscode.house.gov/uscode-cgi/fastweb.exe?getdoc+uscview+t09t12+600+1++%28spying%29%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20">Archived</a> December 3, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-jyaames-37"><a href="#cite_ref-jyaames_37-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110513222808/http://www.jya.com/ames.htm">"Aldrich Ames Criminal Complaint"</a>. John Young Architect. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jya.com/ames.htm">the original</a> on 2011-05-13. Retrieved 2011-03-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aldrich+Ames+Criminal+Complaint&rft.pub=John+Young+Architect&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jya.com%2Fames.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-fashans-38"><a href="#cite_ref-fashans_38-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/irp/ops/ci/hanssen_affidavit.html">"USA v. Robert Philip Hanssen: Affidavit in Support of Criminal Complaint, Arrest Warrant and Search Warrant"</a>. fas.org. Retrieved 2011-03-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=USA+v.+Robert+Philip+Hanssen%3A+Affidavit+in+Support+of+Criminal+Complaint%2C+Arrest+Warrant+and+Search+Warrant&rft.pub=fas.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffas.org%2Firp%2Fops%2Fci%2Fhanssen_affidavit.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Federal_Bureau_of_Prisons-39"><a href="#cite_ref-Federal_Bureau_of_Prisons_39-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120919121009/http://www.bop.gov/iloc2/InmateFinderServlet?Transaction=NameSearch&needingMoreList=false&LastName=Ames&Middle=&FirstName=Aldrich+&Race=U&Sex=U&Age=&x=23&y=24">"Aldrich Hazen Ames Register Number: 40087-083"</a>. Bop.gov. Federal Bureau of Prisons. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bop.gov/iloc2/InmateFinderServlet?Transaction=NameSearch&needingMoreList=false&LastName=Ames&Middle=&FirstName=Aldrich+&Race=U&Sex=U&Age=&x=23&y=24">the original</a> on 2012-09-19. Retrieved 2014-01-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bop.gov&rft.atitle=Aldrich+Hazen+Ames+Register+Number%3A+40087-083&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bop.gov%2Filoc2%2FInmateFinderServlet%3FTransaction%3DNameSearch%26needingMoreList%3Dfalse%26LastName%3DAmes%26Middle%3D%26FirstName%3DAldrich%2B%26Race%3DU%26Sex%3DU%26Age%3D%26x%3D23%26y%3D24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> (Search result) </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101013065115/http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/aldrich-hazen-ames">"Aldrich Hazen Ames"</a>. FBI. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/aldrich-hazen-ames">the original</a> on 2010-10-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aldrich+Hazen+Ames&rft.pub=FBI&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fbi.gov%2Fabout-us%2Fhistory%2Ffamous-cases%2Faldrich-hazen-ames&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/05/us/robert-hanssen-spy-dead.html">"Robert Hanssen, F.B.I. Agent Exposed as Spy for Moscow, Dies at 79"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 5 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Robert+Hanssen%2C+F.B.I.+Agent+Exposed+as+Spy+for+Moscow%2C+Dies+at+79&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2023%2F06%2F05%2Fus%2Frobert-hanssen-spy-dead.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-josh_gerstein1-42"><a href="#cite_ref-josh_gerstein1_42-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerstein2011" class="citation web cs1">Gerstein, Josh (2011-03-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0311/50761.html">"Obama's hard line on leaks"</a>. politico.com. Retrieved 2011-03-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Obama%27s+hard+line+on+leaks&rft.pub=politico.com&rft.date=2011-03-07&rft.aulast=Gerstein&rft.aufirst=Josh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.politico.com%2Fnews%2Fstories%2F0311%2F50761.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> See the article on <a href="/wiki/John_Kiriakou" title="John Kiriakou">John Kiriakou</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/proginfo/2012/43/ws-nowhereman.html">Your World: The Nowhere Man</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190915061632/https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/proginfo/2012/43/ws-nowhereman.html">Archived</a> 2019-09-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Rupa Jha, October 21, 2012, BBC (retrieved 2012-10-20) (Program link: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00z57wt">The Nowhere Man</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131101174455/https://www.mi5.gov.uk/home/the-threats/espionage/what-is-espionage.html">"What is espionage?"</a>. MI5 - the Security Service. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mi5.gov.uk/home/the-threats/espionage/what-is-espionage.html">the original</a> on 2013-11-01. Retrieved 2013-08-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MI5+-+the+Security+Service&rft.atitle=What+is+espionage%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mi5.gov.uk%2Fhome%2Fthe-threats%2Fespionage%2Fwhat-is-espionage.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icrc.org/ihl/385ec082b509e76c41256739003e636d/1d1726425f6955aec125641e0038bfd6?OpenDocument">"Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land. The Hague, 18 October 1907"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Convention+%28IV%29+respecting+the+Laws+and+Customs+of+War+on+Land+and+its+annex%3A+Regulations+concerning+the+Laws+and+Customs+of+War+on+Land.+The+Hague%2C+18+October+1907.&rft.pub=International+Committee+of+the+Red+Cross&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icrc.org%2Fihl%2F385ec082b509e76c41256739003e636d%2F1d1726425f6955aec125641e0038bfd6%3FOpenDocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_BattersbyJoseph_M._SiracusaSasho_Ripiloski2011" class="citation book cs1">Paul Battersby; Joseph M. Siracusa; Sasho Ripiloski (2011). Crime Wars: The Global Intersection of Crime, Political Violence, and International Law. <a href="/wiki/Praeger_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Praeger Publishers">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. p. 125.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crime+Wars%3A+The+Global+Intersection+of+Crime%2C+Political+Violence%2C+and+International+Law&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Paul+Battersby&rft.au=Joseph+M.+Siracusa&rft.au=Sasho+Ripiloski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharlesworth2006" class="citation journal cs1">Charlesworth, Lorie (2006). "2 SAS Regiment, War Crimes Investigations, and British Intelligence: Intelligence Officials and the Natzweiler Trial". The Journal of Intelligence History. 6 (2): 41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F16161262.2006.10555131">10.1080/16161262.2006.10555131</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:156655154">156655154</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Intelligence+History&rft.atitle=2+SAS+Regiment%2C+War+Crimes+Investigations%2C+and+British+Intelligence%3A+Intelligence+Officials+and+the+Natzweiler+Trial&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=41&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F16161262.2006.10555131&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A156655154%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Charlesworth&rft.aufirst=Lorie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v2_cou_us_rule62">"United States of America, Practice Relating to Rule 62. Improper Use of Flags or Military Emblems, Insignia or Uniforms of the Adversary"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=United+States+of+America%2C+Practice+Relating+to+Rule+62.+Improper+Use+of+Flags+or+Military+Emblems%2C+Insignia+or+Uniforms+of+the+Adversary&rft.pub=International+Committee+of+the+Red+Cross&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icrc.org%2Fcustomary-ihl%2Feng%2Fdocs%2Fv2_cou_us_rule62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EBTul-duLEYC&q=escaping%20POWs%20civilian%20clothes%20enemy%20uniforms&pg=PA24">2006 Operational Law Handbook</a>. DIANE. 2010. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781428910676" title="Special:BookSources/9781428910676"><bdi>9781428910676</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=2006+Operational+Law+Handbook&rft.pub=DIANE&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781428910676&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEBTul-duLEYC%26q%3Descaping%2520POWs%2520civilian%2520clothes%2520enemy%2520uniforms%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeslie_C._Green2000" class="citation book cs1">Leslie C. Green (2000). The Contemporary Law Of Armed Conflict 2nd Edition. Juris Publishing, Inc. p. 142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-929446-03-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-929446-03-2"><bdi>978-1-929446-03-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Contemporary+Law+Of+Armed+Conflict+2nd+Edition&rft.pages=142&rft.pub=Juris+Publishing%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-929446-03-2&rft.au=Leslie+C.+Green&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_P._Fletcher2002" class="citation book cs1">George P. Fletcher (September 16, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romanticsatwar00geor">Romantics at War: Glory and Guilt in the Age of Terrorism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romanticsatwar00geor/page/106">106</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691006512" title="Special:BookSources/9780691006512"><bdi>9780691006512</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Romantics+at+War%3A+Glory+and+Guilt+in+the+Age+of+Terrorism&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2002-09-16&rft.isbn=9780691006512&rft.au=George+P.+Fletcher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fromanticsatwar00geor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._H._W._Verziji1978" class="citation book cs1">J. H. W. Verziji (1978). International Law in Historical Perspective: The laws of war. Part IX-A. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. p. 143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-286-0148-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-286-0148-2"><bdi>978-90-286-0148-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Law+in+Historical+Perspective%3A+The+laws+of+war.+Part+IX-A&rft.pages=143&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-90-286-0148-2&rft.au=J.+H.+W.+Verziji&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130515214735/http://usmilitary.about.com/library/milinfo/mcm/bl106.htm">"UCMJ – Article 106 – Spies"</a>. About.com US Military. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://usmilitary.about.com/library/milinfo/mcm/bl106.htm">the original</a> on 2013-05-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=About.com+US+Military&rft.atitle=UCMJ+%E2%80%93+Article+106+%E2%80%93+Spies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusmilitary.about.com%2Flibrary%2Fmilinfo%2Fmcm%2Fbl106.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Brett F. Woods, Neutral Ground: A Political History of Espionage Fiction (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/120076034/neutral-ground-a-political-history-of-espionage">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190327091232/https://www.questia.com/library/120076034/neutral-ground-a-political-history-of-espionage">Archived</a> 2019-03-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Miller, Toby, Spyscreen: Espionage on Film and TV from the 1930s to the 1960s (Oxford University Press, 2003). </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz2019" class="citation web cs1">Katz, Stan S. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190926154509/https://theemperorandthespy.com/books/the-emperor-and-the-spy/overview/">"The Emperor and the Spy"</a>. TheEmperorAndTheSpy.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theemperorandthespy.com/books/the-emperor-and-the-spy/overview/">the original</a> on 2019-09-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TheEmperorAndTheSpy.com&rft.atitle=The+Emperor+and+the+Spy&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Stan+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheemperorandthespy.com%2Fbooks%2Fthe-emperor-and-the-spy%2Foverview%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz2019" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Stan S. (2019). The Emperor and the Spy. Horizon Productions. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9903349-4-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9903349-4-1"><bdi>978-0-9903349-4-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emperor+and+the+Spy&rft.pub=Horizon+Productions&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-9903349-4-1&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Stan+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiulevicius2011" class="citation book cs1">Liulevicius, Vejas Gabriel (October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/espionage-and-covert-operations-a-global-history">"1. Introducing the Secret World"</a>. Espionage and Covert Operations: A Global History. The Great Courses. <q>Like the old adage about war, real spionage is most often made up of vast stretches of boredom punctuated by sharp moments of fear. [...] It has been said, with some justice that good tradecraft keeps espionage, routine, and boring, which is good, because excitement actually means that something has gone terribly wrong.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1.+Introducing+the+Secret+World&rft.btitle=Espionage+and+Covert+Operations%3A+A+Global+History&rft.pub=The+Great+Courses&rft.date=2011-10&rft.aulast=Liulevicius&rft.aufirst=Vejas+Gabriel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegreatcourses.com%2Fcourses%2Fespionage-and-covert-operations-a-global-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Works cited" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1997" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, John (1997). The Evolution of British Sigint, 1653–1939. London: <a href="/wiki/HMSO" class="mw-redirect" title="HMSO">HMSO</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52130886">52130886</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+British+Sigint%2C+1653%E2%80%931939&rft.place=London&rft.pub=HMSO&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52130886&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinkler2009" class="citation journal cs1">Winkler, Jonathan Reed (July 2009). "Information Warfare in World War I". The Journal of Military History. 73 (3): 845–867. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjmh.0.0324">10.1353/jmh.0.0324</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1543-7795">1543-7795</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201749182">201749182</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Military+History&rft.atitle=Information+Warfare+in+World+War+I&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E845-%3C%2Fspan%3E867&rft.date=2009-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201749182%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1543-7795&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjmh.0.0324&rft.aulast=Winkler&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+Reed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Aldrich, Richard J., and Christopher Andrew, eds. Secret Intelligence: A Reader (2nd ed. 2018); focus on the 21st century; reprints 30 essays by scholars. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0415705681/">excerpt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Andrew_(historian)" title="Christopher Andrew (historian)">Andrew, Christopher</a>, The Secret World: A History of Intelligence, 2018.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Russell_Burnham" title="Frederick Russell Burnham">Burnham, Frederick Russell</a>, Taking Chances, 1944.</li> <li>Felix, Christopher [pseudonym for James McCarger] <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221011135100/https://www.amazon.com/Fearless-Fascinating-Story-Secret-Medieval-ebook/dp/B072BM8WQ1">Intelligence Literature: Suggested Reading List</a>. US CIA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Fearless-Fascinating-Story-Secret-Medieval-ebook/dp/B072BM8WQ1/">the original</a> on October 11, 2022. Retrieved September 2, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intelligence+Literature%3A+Suggested+Reading+List&rft.pub=US+CIA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2FFearless-Fascinating-Story-Secret-Medieval-ebook%2Fdp%2FB072BM8WQ1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEspionage" class="Z3988"> A Short Course in the Secret War, 4th Edition. Madison Books, November 19, 2001.</li> <li>Friedman, George. America's Secret War: Inside the Hidden Worldwide Struggle Between the United States and Its Enemies 2005</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Gopnik" title="Adam Gopnik">Gopnik, Adam</a>, "Spy vs. Spy vs. Spy: How valuable is espionage?", <a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a>, 2 September 2019, pp. 53–59. "There seems to be a paranoid paradox of espionage: the better your intelligence, the dumber your conduct; the more you know, the less you anticipate.... Hard-won information is ignored or wildly misinterpreted.... [It] happens again and again [that] a seeming national advance in intelligence is squandered through cross-bred confusion, political rivalry, mutual bureaucratic suspicions, intergovernmental competition, and fear of the press (as well as leaks to the press), all seasoned with dashes of sexual jealousy and adulterous intrigue." (p. 54.)</li> <li>Jeffreys-Jones, Rhodri. In Spies, We Trust: The Story of Western Intelligence (2013), covers U.S. and Britain</li> <li>Jenkins, Peter. Surveillance Tradecraft: The Professional's Guide to Surveillance Training <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9535378-2-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9535378-2-2">978-0-9535378-2-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Kahn_(writer)" title="David Kahn (writer)">Kahn, David</a>, The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet, 1996 revised edition. First published 1967.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Keegan" title="John Keegan">Keegan, John</a>, Intelligence in War: Knowledge of the Enemy from Napoleon to Al-Qaeda, 2003.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillip_Knightley" title="Phillip Knightley">Knightley, Phillip</a>, The Second Oldest Profession: Spies and Spying in the Twentieth Century, Norton, 1986.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman, Paul</a>, "The American Way of Economic war: Is Washington Overusing Its Most Powerful Weapons?" (review of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Farrell_(political_scientist)" title="Henry Farrell (political scientist)">Henry Farrell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abraham_L._Newman" title="Abraham L. Newman">Abraham Newman</a>, Underground Empire: How America Weaponized the World Economy, Henry Holt, 2023, 288 pp.), <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Affairs" title="Foreign Affairs">Foreign Affairs</a>, vol. 103, no. 1 (January/February 2024), pp. 150–156. "The [U.S.] dollar is one of the few currencies that almost all major banks will accept, and... the most widely used... As a result, the dollar is the currency that many companies must use... to do international business." (p. 150.) "[L]ocal banks facilitating that trade... normally... buy U.S. dollars and then use dollars to buy [another local currency]. To do so, however, the banks must have access to the U.S. financial system and... follow rules laid out by Washington." (pp. 151–152.) "But there is another, lesser-known reason why the [U.S.] commands overwhelming economic power. Most of the world's <a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_cables" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiber-optic cables">fiber-optic cables</a>, which carry data and messages around the planet, travel through the United States." (p. 152.) "[T]he U.S. government has installed 'splitters': <a href="/wiki/Prism_(optics)" title="Prism (optics)">prisms</a> that divide the beams of light carrying information into two streams. One... goes on to the intended recipients, ... the other goes to the <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="National Security Administration">National Security Agency</a>, which then uses high-powered <a href="/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computation</a> to analyze the data. As a result, the [U.S.] can monitor almost all international communication." (p. 154) This has allowed the U.S. "to effectively cut <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> out of the world financial system... Iran's economy stagnated... Eventually, Tehran agreed to cut back its <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear</a> programs in exchange for relief." (pp. 153–154.) "[A] few years ago, American officials... were in a panic about [the Chinese company] <a href="/wiki/Huawei" title="Huawei">Huawei</a>... which... seemed poised to supply <a href="/wiki/5G" title="5G">5G</a> equipment to much of the planet [thereby possibly] giv[ing] China the power to eavesdrop on the rest of the world – just as the [U.S.] has done.... The [U.S.] learned that Huawei had been dealing surreptitiously with Iran – and therefore violating U.S. sanctions. Then, it... used its special access to information on international bank data to [show] that [Huawei]'s <a href="/wiki/Chief_financial_officer" title="Chief financial officer">chief financial officer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meng_Wanzhou" title="Meng Wanzhou">Meng Wanzhou</a> (... the founder's daughter), had committed <a href="/wiki/Bank_fraud" title="Bank fraud">bank fraud</a> by falsely telling the British <a href="/wiki/Financial_services_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial services company">financial services company</a> <a href="/wiki/HSBC" title="HSBC">HSBC</a> that her company was not doing business with Iran. Canadian authorities, acting on a U.S. request, arrested her... in December 2018. After... almost three years under house arrest... Meng... was allowed to return to China... But by [then] the prospects for Chinese dominance of 5G had vanished..." (pp. 154–155.) Farrell and Newman, writes Krugman, "are worried about the possibility of [U.S. Underground Empire] overreach. [I]f the [U.S.] weaponizes the dollar against too many countries, they might... band together and adopt alternative methods of international payment. If countries become deeply worried about U.S. spying, they could lay fiber-optic cables that bypass the [U.S.]. And if Washington puts too many restrictions on American exports, foreign firms might turn away from U.S. technology." (p. 155.)</li> <li>Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth & K. Lee Lerner, eds. Terrorism: essential primary sources Thomas Gale 2006 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4144-0621-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4144-0621-3">978-1-4144-0621-3</a></li> <li>Lerner, K. Lee and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, eds. Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence and Security (2003), worldwide recent coverage 1100 pages.</li> <li>May, Ernest R. (ed.). Knowing One's Enemies: Intelligence Assessment Before the Two World Wars (1984).</li> <li>O'Toole, George. Honorable Treachery: A History of U.S. Intelligence, Espionage, Covert Action from the American Revolution to the CIA 1991</li> <li>Murray, Williamson, and Allan Reed Millett, eds. Calculations: net assessment and the coming of World War II (1992).</li> <li>Owen, David. Hidden Secrets: A Complete History of Espionage and the Technology Used to Support It</li> <li>Richelson, Jeffery T. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century (1977)</li> <li>Richelson, Jeffery T. The U.S. Intelligence Community (1999, fourth edition)</li> <li>Shaw, Tamsin, "Ethical Espionage" (review of Calder Walton, Spies: The Epic Intelligence War Between East and West, Simon and Schuster, 2023, 672 pp.; and <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9cile_Fabre" title="Cécile Fabre">Cécile Fabre</a>, Spying Through a Glass Darkly: The Ethics of Espionage and Counter-Intelligence, Oxford University Press, 251 pp., 2024), <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>, vol. LXXI, no. 2 (8 February 2024), pp. 32, 34–35. "[I]n Walton's view, there was scarcely a US <a href="/wiki/Covert_operation" title="Covert operation">covert action</a> that was a long-term strategic success, with the possible exception of intervention in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet-Afghan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet-Afghan War">Soviet-Afghan War</a> (a disastrous military fiasco for the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviets</a>) and perhaps support for the anti-Soviet <a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity movement</a> in <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>." (p. 34.)</li> <li>Smith, W. Thomas Jr. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Encyclopedia of the Central Intelligence Agency">Encyclopedia of the Central Intelligence Agency</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Tuchman" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbara Tuchman">Tuchman, Barbara W.</a>, The Zimmermann Telegram, New York, Macmillan, 1962.</li> <li>Warner, Michael. The Rise and Fall of Intelligence: An International Security History (2014)</li> <li>Zegart, Amy B. Spies, Lies, and Algorithms: The History and Future of American Intelligence (2022), university textbook. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://issforum.org/to/ir14-5">online reviews</a></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(14)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-14 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-14"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=mobile&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Espionage&oldid=1280238048">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Espionage&oldid=1280238048</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Espionage&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 13 March 2025, at 11:34 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spioenasie" title="Spioenasie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Spioenasie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%B3" title="تجسس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تجسس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionaxe" title="Espionaxe – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Espionaxe" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casusluq" title="Casusluq – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Casusluq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="গুপ্তচরবৃত্তি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="গুপ্তচরবৃত্তি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A0n-tia%CC%8Dp" title="Kàn-tia̍p – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kàn-tia̍p" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B6" title="Шпионаж – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Шпионаж" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B6" title="Шпіянаж – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Шпіянаж" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B6" title="Шпіянаж – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Шпіянаж" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B6" title="Шпионаж – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Шпионаж" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%89%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%9E%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%96%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="ཉུལ་ཞིབ་པ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཉུལ་ཞིབ་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0pijuna%C5%BEa" title="Špijunaža – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Špijunaža" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionatge" title="Espionatge – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Espionatge" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0pion%C3%A1%C5%BE" title="Špionáž – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Špionáž" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ysb%C3%AFwriaeth" title="Ysbïwriaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ysbïwriaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spionage" title="Spionage – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Spionage" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spionage" title="Spionage – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Spionage" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luure" title="Luure – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Luure" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Κατασκοπεία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κατασκοπεία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionaje" title="Espionaje – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Espionaje" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spionado" title="Spionado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Spionado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espioitza" title="Espioitza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Espioitza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="جاسوسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جاسوسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionner" title="Espionner – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Espionner" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiaireacht" title="Spiaireacht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Spiaireacht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionaxe" title="Espionaxe – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Espionaxe" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%84%EC%B2%A9_%ED%96%89%EC%9C%84" title="간첩 행위 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="간첩 행위" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Լրտեսություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լրտեսություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="गुप्तचर्या – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गुप्तचर्या" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0pijuna%C5%BEa" title="Špijunaža – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Špijunaža" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spionado" title="Spionado – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Spionado" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spionase" title="Spionase – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Spionase" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nj%C3%B3snir" title="Njósnir – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Njósnir" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spionaggio" title="Spionaggio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Spionaggio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%92%D7%95%D7%9C" title="ריגול – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ריגול" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telik_sandhi" title="Telik sandhi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Telik sandhi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%A2%E0%B2%9A%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%86" title="ಗೂಢಚರ್ಯೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಗೂಢಚರ್ಯೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Шпион – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Шпион" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9F%E1%83%98" title="შპიონაჟი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="შპიონაჟი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8B%D2%A3%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B" title="Тыңшылық – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Тыңшылық" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xefn%C3%AAr%C3%AE" title="Xefnêrî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Xefnêrî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B6_(%D1%82%D1%8B%D2%A3%D1%87%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA)" title="Шпионаж (тыңчылык) – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Шпионаж (тыңчылык)" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiego%C5%A1ana" title="Spiegošana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Spiegošana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spionage" title="Spionage – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Spionage" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDvalgyba" title="Žvalgyba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Žvalgyba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A9mked%C3%A9s_(b%C5%B1ncselekm%C3%A9ny)" title="Kémkedés (bűncselekmény) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kémkedés (bűncselekmény)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0" title="Шпионажа – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Шпионажа" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengintipan" title="Pengintipan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pengintipan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB" title="Тагнуул – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Тагнуул" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spionage" title="Spionage – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Spionage" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spionage" title="Spionage – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Spionage" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AB%9C%E5%A0%B1" title="諜報 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="諜報" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spionasje" title="Spionasje – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Spionasje" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spionasje" title="Spionasje – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Spionasje" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josuslik" title="Josuslik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Josuslik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="جسوسی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جسوسی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szpiegostwo" title="Szpiegostwo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Szpiegostwo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionagem" title="Espionagem – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Espionagem" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spionaj" title="Spionaj – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Spionaj" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B6" title="Шпионаж – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Шпионаж" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D1%81%D0%BF%D2%AF%D0%B9%D2%AF%D3%A9%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8D%D1%8D%D2%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Үспүйүөннээһин – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Үспүйүөннээһин" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Espionage" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiunazhi" title="Spiunazhi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Spiunazhi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiunaggiu" title="Spiunaggiu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Spiunaggiu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Espionage" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A" title="جاسوسي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="جاسوسي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0pion%C3%A1%C5%BE" title="Špionáž – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Špionáž" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vohunstvo" title="Vohunstvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vohunstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AE%D9%88%DA%95%DB%8C" title="سیخوڕی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سیخوڕی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0" title="Шпијунажа – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Шпијунажа" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0pijuna%C5%BEa" title="Špijunaža – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Špijunaža" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vakoilu" title="Vakoilu – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Vakoilu" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spioneri" title="Spioneri – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Spioneri" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espiyonahe" title="Espiyonahe – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Espiyonahe" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%A2%E0%B0%9A%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%82" title="గూఢచర్యం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="గూఢచర్యం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1" title="จารกรรม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จารกรรม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casusluk" title="Casusluk – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Casusluk" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Шпигунство – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Шпигунство" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="جاسوسی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جاسوسی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gi%C3%A1n_%C4%91i%E1%BB%87p" title="Gián điệp – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Gián điệp" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangingispiya" title="Pangingispiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Pangingispiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%97%B4%E8%B0%8D" title="间谍 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="间谍" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%96%D7%A9" title="שפיאנאזש – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="שפיאנאזש" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%96%93%E8%AB%9C" title="間諜 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="間諜" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%97%B4%E8%B0%8D" title="间谍 – Chinese" lang="zh" 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