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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" class="no-js"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"> <meta name="applicable-device" content="pc,mobile"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:large"> <meta name="access" content="Yes"> <meta name="360-site-verification" content="1268d79b5e96aecf3ff2a7dac04ad990" /> <title>Use of Carica papaya waste as bio-adsorbent for sewage wastewater treatment | Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery </title> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@SpringerLink"/> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"/> <meta name="twitter:image:alt" content="Content cover image"/> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Use of Carica papaya waste as bio-adsorbent for sewage wastewater treatment"/> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery - A large amount of wastewater is generated, with the rapid increase in the human population, industrialization, and agricultural development, that leads to a..."/> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13399-024-06300-y/MediaObjects/13399_2024_6300_Fig1_HTML.png"/> <meta name="journal_id" content="13399"/> <meta name="dc.title" content="Use of Carica papaya waste as bio-adsorbent for sewage wastewater treatment"/> <meta name="dc.source" content="Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery 2024"/> <meta name="dc.format" content="text/html"/> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Springer"/> <meta name="dc.date" content="2024-11-22"/> <meta name="dc.type" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="dc.language" content="En"/> <meta name="dc.copyright" content="2024 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="dc.rights" content="2024 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="dc.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="dc.description" content="A large amount of wastewater is generated, with the rapid increase in the human population, industrialization, and agricultural development, that leads to a decrease in freshwater amount at an alarming rate. Hence, the current research aims to investigate the effect of the mark of natural bio-sorbent on the improvement of the physicochemical properties of sewage wastewater. The obtained powder was characterized by a Fourier transmission infrared spectrophotometer (FTIR), field emission scanning electron microscopy (SEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), X-ray diffractometer (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), and zeta potential. The batch adsorption process was carried out to study the effect of adsorbent dose (0.25–1.5 g/mL) and contact time (0–180 min) at a constant temperature of 23 ± 2 °C and a stirring speed of 150 rpm. After treatment with the obtained powder, the physicochemical properties of wastewater were significantly improved, and 77, 79.2, 95, 37.4, 50, and 38.1% reductions of COD, BOD, TSS, TDS, TN, and TP were reached, respectively, at an adsorbent dose of 0.5 g/500 mL and contact time of 180 min. The adsorption equilibrium data were examined, and the adsorption data was well represented by the Langmuir isotherm model, and the most appropriate kinetic model was pseudo-second order. The current research proves that Carica papaya seeds are considered a potential recyclable adsorbent to improve the physicochemical properties of wastewater."/> <meta name="prism.issn" content="2190-6823"/> <meta name="prism.publicationName" content="Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery"/> <meta name="prism.publicationDate" content="2024-11-22"/> <meta name="prism.section" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="prism.startingPage" content="1"/> <meta name="prism.endingPage" content="18"/> <meta name="prism.copyright" content="2024 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="prism.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="prism.url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y"/> <meta name="prism.doi" content="doi:10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y"/> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y.pdf"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y"/> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery"/> <meta name="citation_journal_abbrev" content="Biomass Conv. Bioref."/> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Springer Berlin Heidelberg"/> <meta name="citation_issn" content="2190-6823"/> <meta name="citation_title" content="Use of Carica papaya waste as bio-adsorbent for sewage wastewater treatment"/> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2024/11/22"/> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="1"/> <meta name="citation_lastpage" content="18"/> <meta name="citation_article_type" content="Original Article"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_world_readable" content=""/> <meta name="citation_language" content="en"/> <meta name="dc.identifier" content="doi:10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y"/> <meta name="DOI" content="10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y"/> <meta name="size" content="302794"/> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y"/> <meta name="citation_springer_api_url" content="http://api.springer.com/xmldata/jats?q=doi:10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y&api_key="/> <meta name="description" content="A large amount of wastewater is generated, with the rapid increase in the human population, industrialization, and agricultural development, that leads to "/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Nady, Doaa Sayed"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Abdel-Halim, Sally"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Hegazy, Mohamed-Elamir F."/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="El-Desouky, Mohamed A."/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Hanna, Demiana H."/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Renewable and Green Energy"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Biotechnology"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Environ Sci Pollut Res; citation_title=Recent advances in new generation nanocomposite materials for adsorption of pharmaceuticals from aqueous environment; citation_author=A Bhuyan, M Ahmaruzzaman; citation_volume=30; citation_publication_date=2023; citation_pages=39377-39417; citation_doi=10.1007/s11356-023-25707-0; citation_id=CR1"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Prog Agric Eng Sci; citation_title=Adsorption and coagulation in wastewater treatment - review; citation_author=H Sukmana, N Bellahsen, F Pantoja, C Hodur; citation_volume=17; citation_publication_date=2021; citation_pages=49-68; citation_doi=10.1556/446.2021.00029; citation_id=CR2"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Solangi NH, Kumar J, Mazari SA et al (2021) Development of fruit waste derived bio-adsorbents for wastewater treatment: a review. 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Int Res J Eng Technol"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Colloid Interface Sci; citation_title=Tetracycline removal from aqueous solution using zirconium-based metal-organic frameworks (Zr-MOFs) with different pore size and topology: adsorption isotherm, kinetic and mechanism studies; citation_author=J Xia, Y Gao, G Yu; citation_volume=590; citation_publication_date=2021; citation_pages=495-505; citation_doi=10.1016/j.jcis.2021.01.046; citation_id=CR90"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Nady, Doaa Sayed"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Abdel-Halim, Sally"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Chemistry of Medicinal Plants Department, Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Institute, National Research Centre, Dokki, Egypt"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Hegazy, Mohamed-Elamir F."/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Chemistry of Medicinal Plants Department, Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Institute, National Research Centre, Dokki, Egypt"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="El-Desouky, Mohamed A."/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Hanna, Demiana H."/> <meta name="citation_author_email" content="dhelmy@sci.cu.edu.eg"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt"/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y"/> <meta property="og:type" content="article"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="SpringerLink"/> <meta property="og:title" content="Use of Carica papaya waste as bio-adsorbent for sewage wastewater treatment - Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery"/> <meta property="og:description" content="A large amount of wastewater is generated, with the rapid increase in the human population, industrialization, and agricultural development, that leads to a decrease in freshwater amount at an alarming rate. Hence, the current research aims to investigate the effect of the mark of natural bio-sorbent on the improvement of the physicochemical properties of sewage wastewater. The obtained powder was characterized by a Fourier transmission infrared spectrophotometer (FTIR), field emission scanning electron microscopy (SEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), X-ray diffractometer (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), and zeta potential. The batch adsorption process was carried out to study the effect of adsorbent dose (0.25–1.5 g/mL) and contact time (0–180 min) at a constant temperature of 23 ± 2 °C and a stirring speed of 150 rpm. After treatment with the obtained powder, the physicochemical properties of wastewater were significantly improved, and 77, 79.2, 95, 37.4, 50, and 38.1% reductions of COD, BOD, TSS, TDS, TN, and TP were reached, respectively, at an adsorbent dose of 0.5 g/500 mL and contact time of 180 min. The adsorption equilibrium data were examined, and the adsorption data was well represented by the Langmuir isotherm model, and the most appropriate kinetic model was pseudo-second order. The current research proves that Carica papaya seeds are considered a potential recyclable adsorbent to improve the physicochemical properties of wastewater."/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13399-024-06300-y/MediaObjects/13399_2024_6300_Fig1_HTML.png"/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/apple-touch-icon-92e819bf8a.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="192x192" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/android-chrome-192x192-6f081ca7e5.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-32x32-1435da3e82.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-16x16-ed57f42bd2.png> <link rel="shortcut icon" data-test="shortcut-icon" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-c6d59aafac.ico> <meta name="theme-color" 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Hence, the current research aims to investigate the effect of the mark of natural bio-sorbent on the improvement of the physicochemical properties of sewage wastewater. The obtained powder was characterized by a Fourier transmission infrared spectrophotometer (FTIR), field emission scanning electron microscopy (SEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), X-ray diffractometer (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), and zeta potential. The batch adsorption process was carried out to study the effect of adsorbent dose (0.25–1.5 g/mL) and contact time (0–180 min) at a constant temperature of 23 ± 2 °C and a stirring speed of 150 rpm. After treatment with the obtained powder, the physicochemical properties of wastewater were significantly improved, and 77, 79.2, 95, 37.4, 50, and 38.1% reductions of COD, BOD, TSS, TDS, TN, and TP were reached, respectively, at an adsorbent dose of 0.5 g/500 mL and contact time of 180 min. The adsorption equilibrium data were examined, and the adsorption data was well represented by the Langmuir isotherm model, and the most appropriate kinetic model was pseudo-second order. 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width="120" height="159" srcset="https://media.springernature.com/w120/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/13399?as=webp, https://media.springernature.com/w316/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/13399?as=webp 2x"> <img width="72" height="95" src="https://media.springernature.com/w72/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/13399?as=webp" srcset="https://media.springernature.com/w144/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/13399?as=webp 2x" alt=""> </picture> <span class="app-article-masthead__journal-title">Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery</span> </a> <a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/13399/aims-and-scope" class="app-article-masthead__submission-link" data-track="click_aims_and_scope" data-track-action="aims and scope" data-track-context="article page" data-track-label="link"> Aims and scope <svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" 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bio-adsorbent for sewage wastewater treatment </div> <div data-test="inCoD" data-track-context="sticky banner"> <div class="c-pdf-container"> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both u-mb-16"> <a href="/content/pdf/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="pdf-link" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="button" data-track-external download> <span class="c-pdf-download__text">Download PDF</span> <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"/></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="c-article-header"> <header> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Doaa_Sayed-Nady-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Doaa_Sayed-Nady-Aff1" data-author-search="Nady, Doaa Sayed">Doaa Sayed Nady</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Sally-Abdel_Halim-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Sally-Abdel_Halim-Aff2" data-author-search="Abdel-Halim, Sally">Sally Abdel-Halim</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Mohamed_Elamir_F_-Hegazy-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Mohamed_Elamir_F_-Hegazy-Aff2" data-author-search="Hegazy, Mohamed-Elamir F.">Mohamed-Elamir F. Hegazy</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Mohamed_A_-El_Desouky-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Mohamed_A_-El_Desouky-Aff1" data-author-search="El-Desouky, Mohamed A.">Mohamed A. El-Desouky</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup> & </li><li class="c-article-author-list__show-more" aria-label="Show all 5 authors for this article" title="Show all 5 authors for this article">…</li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Demiana_H_-Hanna-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Demiana_H_-Hanna-Aff1" data-author-search="Hanna, Demiana H." data-corresp-id="c1">Demiana H. Hanna<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8334-7330"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0001-8334-7330</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup> </li></ul><button aria-expanded="false" class="c-article-author-list__button"><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-down-medium"></use></svg><span>Show authors</span></button> <div data-test="article-metrics"> <ul class="app-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset"> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-accesses-medium"></use> </svg>728 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Accesses</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item app-article-metrics-bar__item--metrics"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__details"><a href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/metrics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view metrics" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Explore all metrics <svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__arrow-icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use> </svg></a></p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="u-mt-32"> </div> </header> </div> <div data-article-body="true" data-track-component="article body" class="c-article-body"> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs1">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"><p>A large amount of wastewater is generated, with the rapid increase in the human population, industrialization, and agricultural development, that leads to a decrease in freshwater amount at an alarming rate. Hence, the current research aims to investigate the effect of the mark of natural bio-sorbent on the improvement of the physicochemical properties of sewage wastewater. The obtained powder was characterized by a Fourier transmission infrared spectrophotometer (FTIR), field emission scanning electron microscopy (SEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), X-ray diffractometer (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), and zeta potential. The batch adsorption process was carried out to study the effect of adsorbent dose (0.25–1.5 g/mL) and contact time (0–180 min) at a constant temperature of 23 ± 2 °C and a stirring speed of 150 rpm. After treatment with the obtained powder, the physicochemical properties of wastewater were significantly improved, and 77, 79.2, 95, 37.4, 50, and 38.1% reductions of COD, BOD, TSS, TDS, TN, and TP were reached, respectively, at an adsorbent dose of 0.5 g/500 mL and contact time of 180 min. The adsorption equilibrium data were examined, and the adsorption data was well represented by the Langmuir isotherm model, and the most appropriate kinetic model was pseudo-second order. The current research proves that <i>Carica papaya</i> seeds are considered a potential recyclable adsorbent to improve the physicochemical properties of wastewater.</p></div></div></section> <div data-test="cobranding-download"> </div> <section aria-labelledby="inline-recommendations" data-title="Inline Recommendations" class="c-article-recommendations" data-track-component="inline-recommendations"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-title" id="inline-recommendations">Similar content being viewed by others</h3> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs43832-024-00080-2/MediaObjects/43832_2024_80_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s43832-024-00080-2?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_1" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 1" data-track-label="10.1007/s43832-024-00080-2">Banana peels as a green bioadsorbent for removing metals ions from wastewater </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__access-type">Open access</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">12 June 2024</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13399-020-01173-3/MediaObjects/13399_2020_1173_Fig1_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s13399-020-01173-3?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_2" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 2" data-track-label="10.1007/s13399-020-01173-3">Waste <i>Musa acuminata</i> residue as a potential biosorbent for the removal of hexavalent chromium from synthetic wastewater </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">25 November 2020</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w92h120/springer-static/cover-hires/book/978-3-031-64006-3?as=webp" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-64006-3_25?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_3" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 3" data-track-label="10.1007/978-3-031-64006-3_25">Leachate Treatment Using Low-Cost Adsorbents: A Comparative Study </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Chapter</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">© 2024</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </section> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; window.dataLayer.push({ recommendations: { recommender: 'semantic', model: 'specter', policy_id: 'NA', timestamp: 1739739502, embedded_user: 'null' } }); </script> <div class="app-card-service" data-test="article-checklist-banner"> <div> <a class="app-card-service__link" data-track="click_presubmission_checklist" data-track-context="article page top of reading companion" data-track-category="pre-submission-checklist" data-track-action="clicked article page checklist banner test 2 old version" data-track-label="link" href="https://beta.springernature.com/pre-submission?journalId=13399" data-test="article-checklist-banner-link"> <span class="app-card-service__link-text">Use our pre-submission checklist</span> <svg class="app-card-service__link-icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-small"></use></svg> </a> <p class="app-card-service__description">Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.</p> </div> <div class="app-card-service__icon-container"> <svg class="app-card-service__icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-clipboard-check-medium"></use> </svg> </div> </div> <div class="main-content"> <section data-title="Introduction"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec1"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">1 </span>Introduction</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec1-content"><p>Water is one of the greatest natural gifts for the sustainability of human beings and ecological systems, which is essential to all living organisms and human survival as it is almost connected to all activities such as drinking, bathing, washing, and plant irrigation, as well as varied industrial applications [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Solangi NH, Kumar J, Mazari SA et al (2021) Development of fruit waste derived bio-adsorbents for wastewater treatment: a review. J Hazard Mater 416. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125848
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e356">3</a>]. Unfortunately, rapid world population growth, industrial globalization, extensive agricultural activities, increasing commercial and residential areas, and other environmental and domestic changes led to enormous wastewater production, which has deteriorated the quality of water [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title="Bhuyan A, Ahmaruzzaman M (2023) Recent advances in new generation nanocomposite materials for adsorption of pharmaceuticals from aqueous environment. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30:39377–39417. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-25707-0
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e359">1</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="Sukmana H, Bellahsen N, Pantoja F, Hodur C (2021) Adsorption and coagulation in wastewater treatment - review. Prog Agric Eng Sci 17:49–68. 
 https://doi.org/10.1556/446.2021.00029
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e362">2</a>]. The availability of clean and safe water was reported as the major challenge of the twenty-first century particularly in developing countries [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Solangi NH, Kumar J, Mazari SA et al (2021) Development of fruit waste derived bio-adsorbents for wastewater treatment: a review. J Hazard Mater 416. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125848
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e365">3</a>]. In Egypt, the amount of sewage and industrial wastewater is expected to increase from 3.5 billion m<sup>3</sup> in 1995 to 7.9 billion m<sup>3</sup> in 2030 which ranks first among environmental pollutants [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="Mahmoud AS, Farag RS, Elshfai MM (2020) Reduction of organic matter from municipal wastewater at low cost using green synthesis nano iron extracted from black tea: artificial intelligence with regression analysis. Egypt J Pet 29:9–20. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2019.09.001
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e373">4</a>].</p><p>Various parameters indicate the water quality, which can be used as a reference for determining policies to control pollution, including biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), total phosphorus (TP), total nitrogen (TN), turbidity, PH, and color [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 5" title="Harefa N, Gulo A, Silaban S (2021) Analysis of BOD and COD levels for home industry wastewater: a case study in a sewage streams Article history. Jurnal Pendidikan Kimia 13:38–47. 
 https://doi.org/10.24114/jpkim.v13i1.24142
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e379">5</a>]. Hence, it is important to treat the wastewater before being discharged into the water system. In this regard, there are numerous methods available to treat wastewater, such as filtration, sedimentation, coagulation-flocculation, ion exchange, crystallization, oxidation, adsorption, solvent extraction, and reverse osmosis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Solangi NH, Kumar J, Mazari SA et al (2021) Development of fruit waste derived bio-adsorbents for wastewater treatment: a review. J Hazard Mater 416. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125848
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e382">3</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Fereja WM, Tagesse W, Benti G (2020) Treatment of coffee processing wastewater using Moringa stenopetala seed powder: removal of turbidity and chemical oxygen demand. Cogent Food Agric 6. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2020.1816420
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e385">6</a>]. However, adsorption has been rapidly gaining importance as the most efficient and popular wastewater treatment method [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Fereja WM, Tagesse W, Benti G (2020) Treatment of coffee processing wastewater using Moringa stenopetala seed powder: removal of turbidity and chemical oxygen demand. Cogent Food Agric 6. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2020.1816420
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e388">6</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Mittal J, Ahmad R, Mariyam A et al (2021) Expeditious and enhanced sequestration of heavy metal ions from aqueous environment by papaya peel carbon: a green and low-cost adsorbent. Desalination Water Treat 210:365–376. 
 https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2021.26562
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e391">7</a>].</p><p>Adsorption is a surface phenomenon through which the adsorbate molecules accumulate on the adsorbent surface, which takes place at solid/liquid or solid/gas interface [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Wang J, Guo X (2020) Adsorption kinetic models: physical meanings, applications, and solving methods. J Hazard Mater 390. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122156
 
 " href="#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e397">8</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Aryee AA, Mpatani FM, Kani AN et al (2021) A review on functionalized adsorbents based on peanut husk for the sequestration of pollutants in wastewater: modification methods and adsorption study. J Clean Prod 310. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127502
 
 " href="#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e397_1">9</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Khee YL, Kiew PL, Chung YT (2023) Valorizing papaya seed waste for wastewater treatment: a review. Int J Environ Sci Technol 20:2327–2346. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-022-04178-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e400">10</a>]. When the adsorption process is compared to other types of wastewater treatment processes, it was reported to be simple to operate [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Wang J, Guo X (2020) Adsorption kinetic models: physical meanings, applications, and solving methods. J Hazard Mater 390. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122156
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e403">8</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Safwat SM, Mohamed NY, Meshref MNA, Elawwad A (2022) Adsorption of phenol onto aluminum oxide nanoparticles: performance evaluation, mechanism exploration, and principal component analysis (PCA) of thermodynamics. Adsorpt Sci Technol 2022. 
 https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/1924117
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e406">11</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="Gaye AA, Ayessou NC (2020) Bio-sorption of methylene blue and basic fuchsin from aqueous solution onto defatted Carica papaya seeds: mechan bio-sorption of methylene blue and basic fuchsin from aqueous solution onto defatted Carica papaya seeds: mechanism and effect of operating parameters on the adsorption yield. IOSR J Environ Sci 14:24–33. 
 https://doi.org/10.9790/2402-1402042433
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e409">12</a>], low cost [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Khee YL, Kiew PL, Chung YT (2023) Valorizing papaya seed waste for wastewater treatment: a review. Int J Environ Sci Technol 20:2327–2346. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-022-04178-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e413">10</a>], successful in the removal of both inorganic and organic pollutants [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Safwat SM, Mohamed NY, Meshref MNA, Elawwad A (2022) Adsorption of phenol onto aluminum oxide nanoparticles: performance evaluation, mechanism exploration, and principal component analysis (PCA) of thermodynamics. Adsorpt Sci Technol 2022. 
 https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/1924117
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e416">11</a>], and highly efficient at low contaminant concentrations with minimal biological sludge production [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Wang J, Guo X (2020) Adsorption kinetic models: physical meanings, applications, and solving methods. J Hazard Mater 390. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122156
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e419">8</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Safwat SM, Mohamed NY, Meshref MNA, Elawwad A (2022) Adsorption of phenol onto aluminum oxide nanoparticles: performance evaluation, mechanism exploration, and principal component analysis (PCA) of thermodynamics. Adsorpt Sci Technol 2022. 
 https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/1924117
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e422">11</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 13" title="Am P, Sk N (2021) Treatment of dairy wastewater by using banana stems, papaya seeds and jack fruit seeds. Int Res J Eng Technol 8:4072–4077" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e425">13</a>]. Also, it is able to remove the pollutant in its molecular or ionic form without converting or breaking it into another by-product, and treatment equipment is simple in design and flexible [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Mittal J, Ahmad R, Mariyam A et al (2021) Expeditious and enhanced sequestration of heavy metal ions from aqueous environment by papaya peel carbon: a green and low-cost adsorbent. Desalination Water Treat 210:365–376. 
 https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2021.26562
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e428">7</a>]. It is an established fact that the efficiency of the adsorption process depends mainly upon the quality of the adsorbent [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="Sukmana H, Bellahsen N, Pantoja F, Hodur C (2021) Adsorption and coagulation in wastewater treatment - review. Prog Agric Eng Sci 17:49–68. 
 https://doi.org/10.1556/446.2021.00029
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e432">2</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Mittal J, Ahmad R, Mariyam A et al (2021) Expeditious and enhanced sequestration of heavy metal ions from aqueous environment by papaya peel carbon: a green and low-cost adsorbent. Desalination Water Treat 210:365–376. 
 https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2021.26562
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e435">7</a>]. Adsorbents could be categorized into conventional and non-conventional adsorbents. The conventional adsorbents could be inorganic materials such as silica gel, polymeric organic resins, activated alumina, and zeolites, while the non-conventional adsorbents consist of biological by-products, industrial/agriculture by-products, and fruit waste-derived adsorbent [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="Sukmana H, Bellahsen N, Pantoja F, Hodur C (2021) Adsorption and coagulation in wastewater treatment - review. Prog Agric Eng Sci 17:49–68. 
 https://doi.org/10.1556/446.2021.00029
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e438">2</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Buhani, Istikomah, Suharso et al (2023) Cationic surfactant-modified Tetraselmis sp. for the removal of organic dyes from aqueous solution. Molecules 28. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28237839
 
 " href="#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e441">14</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Elwakeel KZ, Ahmed MM, Akhdhar A et al (2023) Effect of the magnetic core in alginate/gum composite on adsorption of divalent copper, cadmium, and lead ions in the aqueous system. Int J Biol Macromol 253. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126884
 
 " href="#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e441_1">15</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 16" title="Benettayeb A, Morsli A, Elwakeel KZ et al (2021) Recovery of heavy metal ions using magnetic glycine-modified chitosan—application to aqueous solutions and tailing leachate. Appl Sci (Switzerland) 11. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/app11188377
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e444">16</a>]. The non-conventional adsorbent or bio-adsorbent is encouraging nowadays because of its dual environmental remediation (water purification and waste management) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Solangi NH, Kumar J, Mazari SA et al (2021) Development of fruit waste derived bio-adsorbents for wastewater treatment: a review. J Hazard Mater 416. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125848
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e447">3</a>], low cost, easy of synthesis, sustainability, high efficiency, and renewability [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="Sukmana H, Bellahsen N, Pantoja F, Hodur C (2021) Adsorption and coagulation in wastewater treatment - review. Prog Agric Eng Sci 17:49–68. 
 https://doi.org/10.1556/446.2021.00029
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e451">2</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Solangi NH, Kumar J, Mazari SA et al (2021) Development of fruit waste derived bio-adsorbents for wastewater treatment: a review. J Hazard Mater 416. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125848
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e454">3</a>]. At present, the researchers are focused on developing a natural bio-adsorbent as an alternative to a chemical one.</p><p>In fact, the world population is increasing tremendously day by day, so the use and requirement of fruit, food, and vegetables have reached billions of tons per year. This leads to the generation of huge amounts of fruit waste such as seeds, peels, stones, leaves, and stalks. These waste materials become a big problem for the world, so we all need a suitable method for the treatment of this waste [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="Mishra K, Siwal SS, Nayaka SC et al (2023) Waste-to-chemicals: green solutions for bioeconomy markets. Sci Total Environ 887. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164006
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e460">17</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 18" title="Muthusamy P, Murugan S, Mandal SK et al (2024) Utilizing banana peduncle as an affordable bio-adsorbent for efficient removal of lead ions from water and industrial effluents. Sustain Chem Environ 7. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scenv.2024.100150
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e463">18</a>]. A huge amount of papaya is consumed across the world owing to its huge nutritive value and is considered one of the most important medicinal plants that are used in various pharmacological activities, like antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and more [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Phang YK, Aminuzzaman M, Akhtaruzzaman M et al (2021) Green synthesis and characterization of CuO nanoparticles derived from papaya peel extract for the photocatalytic degradation of palm oil mill effluent (POME). Sustainability (Switzerland) 13:1–15. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020796
 
 " href="#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e466">19</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Kaur M, Talniya NC, Sahrawat S et al (2019) Ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Carica papaya plant: a compendious review. Mini Rev Org Chem 16:463–480. 
 https://doi.org/10.2174/1570193X15666180816110733
 
 " href="#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e466_1">20</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Memudu AE, Oluwole TJ (2021) The contraceptive potential of Carica papaya seed on oestrus cycle, progesterone, and histomorphology of the utero-ovarian tissue of adult Wistar rats. J Bras Reprod Assist 25:34–43. 
 https://doi.org/10.5935/1518-0557.20200023
 
 " href="#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e466_2">21</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 22" title="Hashem MA, Mim S, Payel S et al (2024) Thermally activated adsorbent over chemically modified Carica papaya tree adsorbents for removal of chromium from tannery wastewater. Bioresour Technol Rep 25. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biteb.2023.101692
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e469">22</a>]. The papaya, pawpaw, or papaw is the most cultivated species of the Caricaceae family (<i>Carica papaya</i> L.) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Agada R, Usman WA, Shehu S, Thagariki D (2020) In vitro and in vivo inhibitory effects of Carica papaya seed on α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes. Heliyon 6. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03618
 
 " href="#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e476">23</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Asghar N, Naqvi SAR, Hussain Z et al (2016) Compositional difference in antioxidant and antibacterial activity of all parts of the Carica papaya using different solvents. Chem Cent J 10. 
 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13065-016-0149-0
 
 " href="#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e476_1">24</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 25" title="Nirosha N, Mangalanayoki R (2013) Antibacterial activity of leaves and stem extract of Carica papaya L. Int J Adv Pharm Biol Chem 2:473–476" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e479">25</a>]. Nowadays, it has been widely distributed throughout tropical and subtropical regions, including more than 57 countries in the world [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 20" title="Kaur M, Talniya NC, Sahrawat S et al (2019) Ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Carica papaya plant: a compendious review. Mini Rev Org Chem 16:463–480. 
 https://doi.org/10.2174/1570193X15666180816110733
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e482">20</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 26" title="Alara OR, Abdurahman NH, Alara JA (2022) Carica papaya: comprehensive overview of the nutritional values, phytochemicals and pharmacological activities. Adv Tradit Med 22:17–47" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e485">26</a>]. <i>Carica papaya</i> L. is polygamous [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="Krishna KL, Paridhavi M, Patel JA (2008) Review on nutritional, medicinal and pharmacological properties of Papaya (Carica papaya Linn.). Nat Prod Radiance 7:364–373" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e491">27</a>], short-lived [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Egbuonu A, Harry E, Orji I (2016) Comparative proximate and antibacterial properties of milled Carica papaya (Pawpaw) peels and seeds. Br J Pharm Res 12:1–8. 
 https://doi.org/10.9734/bjpr/2016/26808
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e495">28</a>], and an evergreen plant [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Egbuonu A, Harry E, Orji I (2016) Comparative proximate and antibacterial properties of milled Carica papaya (Pawpaw) peels and seeds. Br J Pharm Res 12:1–8. 
 https://doi.org/10.9734/bjpr/2016/26808
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e498">28</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 29" title="MMA A, Khairy H (2019) Numerical and economic evaluation of some papaya genotypes trees grown in Qalyubia region. Middle East J Agric Res. 
 https://doi.org/10.36632/mejar/2019.8.4.40
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e501">29</a>], that is widely distributed in nature [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 20" title="Kaur M, Talniya NC, Sahrawat S et al (2019) Ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Carica papaya plant: a compendious review. Mini Rev Org Chem 16:463–480. 
 https://doi.org/10.2174/1570193X15666180816110733
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e504">20</a>]. Also, papaya is characterized by an herbaceous nature, where it is an herb in nature but its structure is not like an herb [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Sharma A, Bachheti A, Sharma P et al (2020) Phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, nanoparticle fabrication, commercial products and waste utilization of Carica papaya L.: a comprehensive review. Curr Res Biotechnol 2:145–160. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crbiot.2020.11.001
 
 " href="#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e507">30</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Kong YR, Jong YX, Balakrishnan M et al (2021) Beneficial role of Carica papaya extracts and phytochemicals on oxidative stress and related diseases: a mini review. Biology (Basel) 10. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10040287
 
 " href="#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e507_1">31</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 32" title="Fauziya S, Krishnamurthy R (2013) Papaya (Carica papaya): source material for anticancer. CIBTech J Pharm Sci 2:25–34" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR32" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e510">32</a>]. The papaya tree is naturally cylindrical, hollow, fast-growing, and grows to a height of 3–10 m [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="Krishna KL, Paridhavi M, Patel JA (2008) Review on nutritional, medicinal and pharmacological properties of Papaya (Carica papaya Linn.). Nat Prod Radiance 7:364–373" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e514">27</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Egbuonu A, Harry E, Orji I (2016) Comparative proximate and antibacterial properties of milled Carica papaya (Pawpaw) peels and seeds. Br J Pharm Res 12:1–8. 
 https://doi.org/10.9734/bjpr/2016/26808
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e517">28</a>], with spirally arranged leaves attached to the top of the trunks [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 33" title="Rahman S, Imran M, Muhammad N, Hassan N, Christhi AK, Khan AF, Khan SM (2011) Antibacetial screening of leaves and stem of Carica papaya. J Med Plants Res 5:5167–5171. 
 https://doi.org/10.5897/JMPR.9000119
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e520">33</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 34" title="Abdelhamid A, Fakai IM, Ogwihi OJ (2017) Phytochemical screening, chromatographic studies and antibacterial activity of Carica papaya leaves extracts. Int J Med Plants Nat Prod 3. 
 https://doi.org/10.20431/2454-7999.0301002
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR34" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e523">34</a>]. Papaya fruit is a spherical or pear-shaped fruit [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 35" title="Saba S (2022) The potential health benefits of papaya seeds. Int J Res Appl Sci Eng Technol 10:44–50. 
 https://doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2022.39271
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e526">35</a>], with sweet, attractive striking odors, high fiber content, and high vitamin content (A and C) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 36" title="Balavijayalakshmi J, Ramalakshmi V (2017) Carica papaya peel mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles and its antibacterial activity against human pathogens. J Appl Res Technol 15:413–422. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jart.2017.03.010
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR36" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e529">36</a>]. The skin (peel) covers the orange edible pulp that surrounds a central cavity filled with brown to black-colored seeds [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Egbuonu A, Harry E, Orji I (2016) Comparative proximate and antibacterial properties of milled Carica papaya (Pawpaw) peels and seeds. Br J Pharm Res 12:1–8. 
 https://doi.org/10.9734/bjpr/2016/26808
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e533">28</a>]. The content of seeds ranges from heavily seeded to seedless, depending on the way the cultivar has been hybridized [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 37" title="Anwar M, Rasul MG, Ashwath N, Nabi MDN (2019) The potential of utilising papaya seed oil and stone fruit kernel oil as non-edible feedstock for biodiesel production in Australia—a review. Energy Rep 5:280–297. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2019.02.007
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e536">37</a>]. As shown in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Fig1">1</a>, the papaya fruits have about 68% pulp, which is used for jams, jelly, juices, and pepin production [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 38" title="Gaikwad AB, Tiwari RK, Choudhary P, Kaur N (2023) A comprehensive review on papaya seed oil extraction and recent applications in food industry. Pharma Innov 12:1520–1527. 
 https://doi.org/10.22271/tpi.2023.v12.i5s.20106
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR38" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e542">38</a>]. The papaya peel accounts for approximately 12% of agricultural waste, but several studies have reported that it has different bioactive compounds that can be used as animal feed [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Mittal J, Ahmad R, Mariyam A et al (2021) Expeditious and enhanced sequestration of heavy metal ions from aqueous environment by papaya peel carbon: a green and low-cost adsorbent. Desalination Water Treat 210:365–376. 
 https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2021.26562
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e545">7</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 39" title="Jiao M, Liu C, Prieto MA et al (2023) Biological functions and utilization of different part of the papaya: a review. Food Rev Intl 39:6781–6804. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2022.2124415
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR39" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e548">39</a>]. Papaya seeds represent around 20% of the weight of fresh fruit, which is also agricultural waste but can be processed by the food industry [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 38" title="Gaikwad AB, Tiwari RK, Choudhary P, Kaur N (2023) A comprehensive review on papaya seed oil extraction and recent applications in food industry. Pharma Innov 12:1520–1527. 
 https://doi.org/10.22271/tpi.2023.v12.i5s.20106
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR38" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e552">38</a>].</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-1" data-title="Fig. 1"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig1" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 1</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/figures/1" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13399-024-06300-y/MediaObjects/13399_2024_6300_Fig1_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig1" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13399-024-06300-y/MediaObjects/13399_2024_6300_Fig1_HTML.png" alt="figure 1" loading="lazy" width="685" height="301"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-1-desc"><p>The anatomical composition of the papaya fruit</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/figures/1" data-track-dest="link:Figure1 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 1" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>The seeds of papaya fruit are edible and found to be small and round; they change from white to black during fruit ripening [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 20" title="Kaur M, Talniya NC, Sahrawat S et al (2019) Ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Carica papaya plant: a compendious review. Mini Rev Org Chem 16:463–480. 
 https://doi.org/10.2174/1570193X15666180816110733
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e576">20</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 21" title="Memudu AE, Oluwole TJ (2021) The contraceptive potential of Carica papaya seed on oestrus cycle, progesterone, and histomorphology of the utero-ovarian tissue of adult Wistar rats. J Bras Reprod Assist 25:34–43. 
 https://doi.org/10.5935/1518-0557.20200023
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e579">21</a>], enclosed in transparent gelatinous aril [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 35" title="Saba S (2022) The potential health benefits of papaya seeds. Int J Res Appl Sci Eng Technol 10:44–50. 
 https://doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2022.39271
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e582">35</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 40" title="Tan CX, Tan ST, Tan SS (2021) Bioactive phytochemicals from papaya seed oil processing by-products. Ref Ser Phytochem 1:1–12. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63961-7_17-1
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR40" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e585">40</a>], having a very pungent and peppery taste that is similar to black pepper [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 41" title="Peter JK, Kumar Y, Pandey P, Masih H (2014) Antibacterial activity of seed and leaf extract of Carica papaya var. Pusa dwarf Linn. IOSR J Pharm Biol Sci 9:29–37. 
 https://doi.org/10.9790/3008-09272937
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e588">41</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Yanty NAM, Marikkar JMN, Nusantoro BP et al (2014) Physico-chemical characteristics of papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed oil of the Hong Kong/Sekaki variety. J Oleo Sci 63:885–892. 
 https://doi.org/10.5650/jos.ess13221
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e592">42</a>], and small amounts of these seeds are beneficial for overall health [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 35" title="Saba S (2022) The potential health benefits of papaya seeds. Int J Res Appl Sci Eng Technol 10:44–50. 
 https://doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2022.39271
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e595">35</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 43" title="Doughari JH, Manzara AM (2007) Studies on the antibacterial activity of root extracts of Carica papaya L. Afr J Microbiol Res 1:37–41" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e598">43</a>]. The seeds of papaya mainly consist of crude protein, crude fiber, tocopherols, carotenoids, β-sitosterol, benzyl glucosinates, benzyl iothiocynate (BITC), and myrosin enzyme [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="Krishna KL, Paridhavi M, Patel JA (2008) Review on nutritional, medicinal and pharmacological properties of Papaya (Carica papaya Linn.). Nat Prod Radiance 7:364–373" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e601">27</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 44" title="Dwivedi MK, Sonter S, Mishra S et al (2020) Antioxidant, antibacterial activity, and phytochemical characterization of Carica papaya flowers. Beni Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci 9. 
 https://doi.org/10.1186/s43088-020-00048-w
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e604">44</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 45" title="Goriainov S, Orlova S, Nikitina E et al (2023) Study of the chemical composition of Carica papaya L. seed oils of various geographic origins. Horticulturae 9. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9111227
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e607">45</a>]. Also, they have the potential to produce oil (30–34%) with functional and nutritional properties highly similar to olive oil [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 35" title="Saba S (2022) The potential health benefits of papaya seeds. Int J Res Appl Sci Eng Technol 10:44–50. 
 https://doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2022.39271
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e611">35</a>]. Studies have reported that, compared to other parts of the papaya plant, the papaya seeds have the most medicinal properties due to their strong antibacterial, antioxidant, anthelmintic, nephroprotective, and liver protection effects [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 21" title="Memudu AE, Oluwole TJ (2021) The contraceptive potential of Carica papaya seed on oestrus cycle, progesterone, and histomorphology of the utero-ovarian tissue of adult Wistar rats. J Bras Reprod Assist 25:34–43. 
 https://doi.org/10.5935/1518-0557.20200023
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e614">21</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 43" title="Doughari JH, Manzara AM (2007) Studies on the antibacterial activity of root extracts of Carica papaya L. Afr J Microbiol Res 1:37–41" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e617">43</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 46" title="Jassim AMN, Mohammed MT, Farhan SA, Dadoosh RM, Majeed ZN, Abdula AM (2019) Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Carica papaya juice and study of their biochemical application. J Pharm Sci Res 11:1025–1034" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e620">46</a>]. It is reported that the extracted essential oils from papaya seeds have many beneficial biological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, antioxidant, antibacterial, and antitumor activity against different cell lines [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="He X, Ma Y, Yi G et al (2017) Chemical composition and antifungal activity of Carica papaya Linn. seed essential oil against Candida spp. Lett Appl Microbiol 64:350–354. 
 https://doi.org/10.1111/lam.12711
 
 " href="#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e623">47</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Yi G, Yin C, Lao Y et al (2022) Antibacterial and antitumor activities of chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol films containing microemulsion of papaya seed essential oil. Mater Today Commun 31:103475. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2022.103475
 
 " href="#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e623_1">48</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Yao Y, Xu B (2021) New insights into chemical compositions and health promoting effects of edible oils from new resources. Food Chem 364:130363" href="#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e623_2">49</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 50" title="Varadarajan S, Madapusi BT, Narasimhan M et al (2022) Anticancer effects of Carica papaya L. and benzyl isothiocyanate on an oral squamous cell carcinoma cell line: an in vitro study. J Contemp Dent Pract 23:839–844. 
 https://doi.org/10.5005/jp-journals-10024-3384
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e626">50</a>].</p><p>The using of <i>Carica papaya</i> seeds as a bio-adsorbent has a high environmental impact; first of all, using the seeds in any treatment is considered a recycling process, which helps in reducing agricultural waste; second, using papaya seeds as bio-adsorbent in wastewater treatment helps in the reduction of many pollutants such as dyes, different heavy metals, COD, BOD, nitrogen products, and phosphorous, which approved by several studies using different types of seed extract and also different treatment methods and different condition, as discussed below.</p><p>The main aim of the present study is to investigate the efficacy of the mark of papaya seeds as a bio-adsorbent in the treatment of sewage wastewater by determining the reduction percentages of PH, COD, BOD, TDS, TSS, TN, and TP. The powder of the mark of papaya seeds is characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transmission infrared spectrophotometer (FTIR), X-ray diffractometer (XRD), dynamic light scattering (DLS), zeta potential, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET). The effect of the adsorbent dose and the contact time on the batch adsorption process was investigated. In addition, the adsorption mechanism of the mark of papaya seeds was explained using isotherm and kinetic studies.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Material and methods"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec2-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec2"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">2 </span>Material and methods</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec2-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec3"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">2.1 </span>Chemicals and reagents</h3><p>All chemicals, reagents, buffers, solvents, and medium components were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (USA).</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec4"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">2.2 </span>Collection of a wastewater sample</h3><p>Raw sewage wastewater (SW) was collected from the Abu Rawash wastewater treatment plant in Giza, Egypt, on June 1, 2023. The samples were collected at the point after the grease chamber and stored in containers at 2 °C to avoid degradation or any change in their physicochemical properties upon usage. The wastewater samples were taken out without any pretreatment as sewage wastewater was collected after the grease chamber where grease, oil, or any solids were removed. All steps that are related to the treatment process for domestic wastewater using the mark of papaya seed as a bio- adsorbent are presented in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Fig2">2</a>.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-2" data-title="Fig. 2"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig2" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 2</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/figures/2" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13399-024-06300-y/MediaObjects/13399_2024_6300_Fig2_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig2" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13399-024-06300-y/MediaObjects/13399_2024_6300_Fig2_HTML.png" alt="figure 2" loading="lazy" width="685" height="270"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-2-desc"><p>The flowchart of the treatment process for domestic wastewater using the mark of papaya seed as a bio-adsorbent</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/figures/2" data-track-dest="link:Figure2 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 2" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec5"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">2.3 </span>Collection and preparation of plant samples</h3><p>Plant material samples of ripened <i>Carica papaya Linn</i>. fresh fruits were collected in July 2022 from the plants cultivated in AL-Aziziyah-Alexandria desert road, Kilo 63. They were identified and certified under the supervision of Dr. Kamal Zayed, professor of ecology, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt, with a voucher specimen (No. 3237) kept at the Herbarium National Research Center (NRC). The papaya fruits were thoroughly washed gently with tap water and then distilled water. They were wiped with tissue paper, then sliced longitudinally into two equal parts and peeled using a home knife. The black seeds were picked from the pulp and then washed with distilled water three times to remove dust and impurities [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 51" title="Anilkumar A, Bhanu P AA (2022) In vitro anticancer activity of “methanolic extract of papaya blackseeds” (MPB) in Hep G2 cell lines and its effect in the regulation of bcl-2, caspase-3 and p53 gene expression. Adv Cancer Biol - Metastasis 4. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adcanc.2021.100025
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e689">51</a>]. The seeds were dried for 5 days at room temperature to preserve the physiochemical properties of natural waste samples, then dried for 48 h in a convection oven at less than 60 °C until they reached constant weight. Following that, the oven-dried seeds were pulverized with an electric mill into fine particles with an approximate size of 0.85 mm. Then, the grounded seeds were kept in a tightly closed container in a refrigerator (2–3 °C) until further use, and the obtained powder was labeled as papaya seed powder (PSP) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Subbaiah Munagapati V, Wen HY, Gollakota ARK et al (2022) Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles loaded papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed powder as an effective and recyclable adsorbent material for the separation of anionic azo dye (Congo Red) from liquid phase: evaluation of adsorption properties. J Mol Liq 345. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118255
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e692">52</a>].</p><p>Finally, to determine the percentage of yield and moisture content of both samples, the following equations (Eqs. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Equ1">1</a> and <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Equ2">2</a>) were used, respectively [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Egbuonu A, Harry E, Orji I (2016) Comparative proximate and antibacterial properties of milled Carica papaya (Pawpaw) peels and seeds. Br J Pharm Res 12:1–8. 
 https://doi.org/10.9734/bjpr/2016/26808
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e704">28</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 53" title="Adesola MO, Akande EA, Adejugitan JA (2019) Effect of fermentation on the chemical composition of Pawpaw (Carica papaya) seeds. Int J Gen Eng Technol 9:1–8" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e707">53</a>]:</p><div id="Equ1" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$$\mathrm{Yield }\left({\%}\right)=\frac{\text{weight of dry sample}}{\text{weight of wet sample}} \times 100$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (1) </div></div><div id="Equ2" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$$\text{Moisture content }\left({\%}\right)=\frac{\text{weight of wet sample}-\text{weight of dry sample }}{\text{weight of wet sample}}\times 100$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (2) </div></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec6"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">2.4 </span>Extraction of volatile oil from papaya seeds</h3><p>The volatile oil from the seeds of <i>Carica papaya Linn</i>. was extracted by hydrodistillation using a Clevenger-type apparatus for 3 h after boiling. A batch of 100 g was mixed with 200 mL of water at 70 °C. The oily layer was separated using diethyl ether and dried with hydrous sodium sulfate, and the mark part was dried by leaving it under a fume hood for 24 h to remove the solvent residue. The extracted samples of volatile oils were stored in a sealed airtight glass vial at − 30 °C for analysis, and mark parts were kept in a tightly closed container at − 3 °C until further use and labeled as Mark [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 54" title="Mohamed TA, Saleh I, Ali S et al (2022) A comparative evaluation of the antimicrobial activities of the essential oils of three Salvia species growing in Egypt, obtained by hydrodistillation and microwave-assisted hydro-distillation. J Essent Oil-Bearing Plants 25:1109–1121. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/0972060X.2022.2135388
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e822">54</a>]. The weight and volume of the extracted oil were determined by using a pipette and an electric balance. The oil yield was estimated using the following equation (Eq. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Equ3">3</a>) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 55" title="Sultana N, Hossain SMZ, Taher S et al (2020) Modeling and optimization of non-edible papaya seed waste oil synthesis using data mining approaches. S Afr J Chem Eng 33:151–159. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajce.2020.07.009
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e828">55</a>]:</p><div id="Equ3" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$$\text{Oil yeild }\left({\%}\right)=\frac{\text{mass of the oil }}{\text{mass of the initial sample}}\times 100$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (3) </div></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec7"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">2.5 </span>Characterization of the mark of papaya seed powder as a natural adsorbent</h3><p>As is vital, the characterization of bio-adsorbent is carried out using various techniques. The surface functional groups of the mark before and after sewage wastewater treatment were determined using a Jascoo 4100 Fourier transmission infrared spectrophotometer (FTIR) in the medium infrared region of 4000–400 cm<sup>−1</sup> with 4 cm<sup>−1</sup> resolutions [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 56" title="Yimer A, Dame B (2021) Papaya seed extract as coagulant for potable water treatment in the case of Tulte River for the community of Yekuset district, Ethiopia. Environ Challenges 4. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100198
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR56" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e894">56</a>]. The surface morphology of the mark was characterized by using Zeiss/LEO 1530 field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) equipment to detect the morphological changes before and after adsorption reactions with an image capture system that reproduced images at × 12,000 and × 3000 magnification, respectively [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Solangi NH, Kumar J, Mazari SA et al (2021) Development of fruit waste derived bio-adsorbents for wastewater treatment: a review. J Hazard Mater 416. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125848
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e897">3</a>]. The crystalline structure and amorphous nature of the natural adsorbent were investigated by X-ray diffractometer (XRD, D8-Find, Bruker) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Fereja WM, Tagesse W, Benti G (2020) Treatment of coffee processing wastewater using Moringa stenopetala seed powder: removal of turbidity and chemical oxygen demand. Cogent Food Agric 6. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2020.1816420
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e900">6</a>]. The surface area and pore size distribution were carried out by Barrett-Joyner Halenda (BJH) and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Subbaiah Munagapati V, Wen HY, Gollakota ARK et al (2022) Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles loaded papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed powder as an effective and recyclable adsorbent material for the separation of anionic azo dye (Congo Red) from liquid phase: evaluation of adsorption properties. J Mol Liq 345. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118255
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e904">52</a>]. Zeta potential (electrokinetic potential) was carried out by a zeta sizer analyzer manufactured by Malvern Panalytical Ltd. Model of Nanosight NS500 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Eslek Koyuncu DD, Okur M (2021) Removal of AV 90 dye using ordered mesoporous carbon materials prepared via nanocasting of KIT-6: adsorption isotherms, kinetics and thermodynamic analysis. Sep Purif Technol 257. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2020.117657
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e907">57</a>]. Measurement of the elemental composition of the mark was conducted by Oxford Instruments handheld X-ray fluorescence (XRF) using the X-MET 7500, and also, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) (JEOL JCM-6000 plus) was used to detect the elemental composition of bio-adsorbent before and after adsorption treatment methods. Finally, the size distribution of the particles in a suspension or solution was determined by a spectroscopic method called dynamic light scattering (DLS) using the Malvern Panalytical Ltd. Model of Nanosight NS500 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 58" title="Safwat SM, Medhat M, Abdel-Halim H (2019) Adsorption of phenol onto aluminium oxide and zinc oxide: a comparative study with titanium dioxide. Sep Sci Technol (Philadelphia) 54:2840–2852. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/01496395.2018.1549572
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e910">58</a>].</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec8"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">2.6 </span>Batch adsorption treatment of sewage wastewater</h3><p>The batch adsorption experiments were carried out to study the effect of an adsorbent mass of the mark of natural bio-sorbent and contact time using an incubated shaker (1s-971R) made in Egypt. All the experiments were performed at a steady temperature (23 ± 2 °C) and constant stirring speed (150 rpm) for each run to ensure equal mixing throughout the experiment [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="Gaye AA, Ayessou NC (2020) Bio-sorption of methylene blue and basic fuchsin from aqueous solution onto defatted Carica papaya seeds: mechan bio-sorption of methylene blue and basic fuchsin from aqueous solution onto defatted Carica papaya seeds: mechanism and effect of operating parameters on the adsorption yield. IOSR J Environ Sci 14:24–33. 
 https://doi.org/10.9790/2402-1402042433
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e921">12</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 59" title="Garba ZN, Magami SM, Ibrahim BM (2019) Equilibrium adsorption of malachite green dye onto defatted papaya seed. FUDMA J Sci 3:67–76" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e924">59</a>]. To determine the effect of the adsorbent mass on the reduction of physicochemical parameters, 500 mL of sewage wastewater sample was treated with different masses of adsorbent (0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, and 1.50 g) for 180 min. Also, the effect of contact time on the adsorption process was investigated by using 500 mL of wastewater sample and 0.50 g of the mark of papaya seeds for different periods varying from 30 to 180 min. At the end of the adsorption process, the liquid phase was separated from the adsorbent by filtration through a 0.45-micron filter paper (Whatman no.1), and then, some physicochemical parameters were analyzed [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Fereja WM, Tagesse W, Benti G (2020) Treatment of coffee processing wastewater using Moringa stenopetala seed powder: removal of turbidity and chemical oxygen demand. Cogent Food Agric 6. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2020.1816420
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e927">6</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Safwat SM, Mohamed NY, Meshref MNA, Elawwad A (2022) Adsorption of phenol onto aluminum oxide nanoparticles: performance evaluation, mechanism exploration, and principal component analysis (PCA) of thermodynamics. Adsorpt Sci Technol 2022. 
 https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/1924117
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e930">11</a>].</p><p>The experimental data were used to calculate the removal capacity and removal efficiency of the studied physicochemical parameters at equilibrium or at time <i>t</i> using the following equations (Eqs. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Equ4">4</a> and <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Equ5">5</a>), respectively [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Subbaiah Munagapati V, Wen HY, Gollakota ARK et al (2022) Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles loaded papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed powder as an effective and recyclable adsorbent material for the separation of anionic azo dye (Congo Red) from liquid phase: evaluation of adsorption properties. J Mol Liq 345. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118255
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e945">52</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 56" title="Yimer A, Dame B (2021) Papaya seed extract as coagulant for potable water treatment in the case of Tulte River for the community of Yekuset district, Ethiopia. Environ Challenges 4. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100198
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR56" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e948">56</a>]:</p><div id="Equ4" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$$\text{Removal efficiency at equilibrium }({\%})=\frac{{C}_{0 }- {C}_{\mathrm{e}} }{{C}_{0 }}\times 100$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (4) </div></div><div id="Equ5" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$$\text{Removal efficiency at time }t ({\%})=\frac{{C}_{0 }- {C}_{\mathrm{t}} }{{C}_{0 }}\times 100$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (5) </div></div><p>where <i>C</i><sub>0</sub>, <i>C</i><sub>e</sub>, and <i>C</i><sub>t</sub> (mg/L) are the initial, equilibrium, and time concentrations of different physicochemical parameters, respectively, and <i>V</i> (L) is the volume of wastewater sample used.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec9"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">2.7 </span>Measurement of the physicochemical properties of wastewater</h3><p>The physicochemical properties of sewage wastewater were determined before and after treatment with both natural adsorbents using specific methods to optimize experiment parameters. The pH of the wastewater sample was measured using a Bench pH meter (Jenway 3505), calibrated with pH 4.0, 7.0, and 10.0 standard buffer solutions [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 60" title="Devi R, Singh V, Kumar A (2008) COD and BOD reduction from coffee processing wastewater using avacado peel carbon. Bioresour Technol 99:1853–1860. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2007.03.039
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1121">60</a>]. Chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD), total dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solids (TSS), total nitrogen (TN), and total phosphorous (TP) were measured in the laboratory of the wastewater treatment department at the National Research Center in Giza, Egypt, according to the standard methods described by the American Public Health Association (APHA) in 1998 before and after the adsorption treatment experiment [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 61" title="Baird R, Eaton AD, Rice EW, Bridgewater L (2017) American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater 10. 
 https://books.google.com.eg/books?id=V2LhtAEACAAJ
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1124">61</a>].</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec10"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">2.8 </span>Adsorption isotherm studies</h3><p>An equilibrium experiment was performed by having various adsorbent masses of the mark of natural bio-sorbent (0.25–1.50 g) added to 500 mL of sewage wastewater sample at a constant temperature of 23 ± 2 °C for 180 min and shaken at 150 rpm to achieve the equilibrium condition (Safwat et al. 2018). Analysis of filtrates was undertaken to calculate the amount of COD, BOD, TSS, TDS, TP, and TN adsorbed per unit mass of adsorbent at equilibrium (<i>q</i><sub>e</sub>), using the following equation (Eq. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Equ6">6</a>):</p><div id="Equ6" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$${q}_{\mathrm{e}} (\mathrm{mg}/\mathrm{g})=\frac{{C}_{0 }- {C}_{\mathrm{e}} }{{m}_{0 }}\times V$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (6) </div></div><p>where <i>C</i><sub>0</sub> (mg/L) is the initial concentration, <i>C</i><sub>e</sub> (mg/L) is the equilibrium concentration, <i>V</i> (L) is the solution volume, and <i>m</i><sub>0</sub> (g) is the adsorbent mass used [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Idohou EA, Fatombi JK, Osseni SA et al (2020) Preparation of activated carbon/chitosan/Carica papaya seeds composite for efficient adsorption of cationic dye from aqueous solution. Surf Interfaces 21. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2020.100741
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1241">62</a>].</p><p>In the present work, Langmuir, Freundlich, Dubinin-Radushkevich, and Temkin isotherm models were applied to the experimental data, and the isotherm constants were calculated. When the process reaches equilibrium, the term isotherm is used to describe the correlation between the concentration of adsorbate in the liquid phase and the adsorption quantity in the solid phase at a constant temperature [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title="Bhuyan A, Ahmaruzzaman M (2023) Recent advances in new generation nanocomposite materials for adsorption of pharmaceuticals from aqueous environment. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30:39377–39417. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-25707-0
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1247">1</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Khee YL, Kiew PL, Chung YT (2023) Valorizing papaya seed waste for wastewater treatment: a review. Int J Environ Sci Technol 20:2327–2346. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-022-04178-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1250">10</a>].</p><p>The Langmuir isotherm model is one of the widely applied isotherm models, used to describe the process of adsorption occurring on homogenous surfaces by monolayer sorption [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="Gaye AA, Ayessou NC (2020) Bio-sorption of methylene blue and basic fuchsin from aqueous solution onto defatted Carica papaya seeds: mechan bio-sorption of methylene blue and basic fuchsin from aqueous solution onto defatted Carica papaya seeds: mechanism and effect of operating parameters on the adsorption yield. IOSR J Environ Sci 14:24–33. 
 https://doi.org/10.9790/2402-1402042433
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1256">12</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 63" title="Rathi BS, Kumar PS (2021) Application of adsorption process for effective removal of emerging contaminants from water and wastewater. Environ Pollut 280. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116995
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1259">63</a>]. The linear Langmuir adsorption model is expressed with the following equation (Eq. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Equ7">7</a>):</p><div id="Equ7" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$$\frac{1}{{q}_{\mathrm{e}}}=\frac{1}{{K}_{\mathrm{L}}{\mathrm{q}}_{\mathrm{max}}{C}_{e}}+ \frac{1}{{q}_{\mathrm{max}}}$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (7) </div></div><p>where <i>q</i><sub>e</sub> (mg/g) is the amount of pollutant adsorbed at equilibrium time, <i>q</i><sub>m</sub> (mg/g) is the maximum adsorption capacity, <i>C</i><sub>e</sub> (mg/L) is the concentration of a pollutant at equilibrium, and <i>K</i><sub>L</sub> (L\mg) is the Langmuir constant, which represents the affinity of binding sites [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Solangi NH, Kumar J, Mazari SA et al (2021) Development of fruit waste derived bio-adsorbents for wastewater treatment: a review. J Hazard Mater 416. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125848
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1364">3</a>].</p><p>A dimensionless separation constant factor (<i>R</i><sub>L</sub>) of the Langmuir was used to predict the adsorption favorability, where no-desorption or favorable adsorption if 0 < <i>R</i><sub>L</sub> < 1, unfavorable adsorption if <i>R</i><sub>L</sub> ˃ 1, linear or reversible adsorption if <i>R</i><sub>L</sub> = 1, and too strong or irreversible adsorption process if <i>R</i><sub>L</sub> = 0 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Idohou EA, Fatombi JK, Osseni SA et al (2020) Preparation of activated carbon/chitosan/Carica papaya seeds composite for efficient adsorption of cationic dye from aqueous solution. Surf Interfaces 21. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2020.100741
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1391">62</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 64" title="Nandiyanto AB, Fiandini M, Ragadhita R, Maulani H, Nurbaiti, M, Al-Obaidi, AS, Yunas J, Bilad MR (2023) Sustainable biochar carbon biosorbent based on tamarind (Tamarindusindica L) Seed: Literature review, preparation, and adsorption isotherm. J Adv Res Appl Sci Eng Technol 2023:395–410. 
 https://doi.org/10.48317/IMIST
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR64" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1394">64</a>]. The Freundlich adsorption equation can be used to instigate the adsorption process on multilayer sorption as well as heterogeneous surfaces (Khee et al. 2023), and this equation can be expressed by the following equation (Eq. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Equ8">8</a>):</p><div id="Equ8" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$$\mathrm{ln}{q}_{\mathrm{e }}=\mathrm{ln}{K}_{\mathrm{f}}+ \frac{1}{n}\mathrm{ln}{C}_{\mathrm{e}}$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (8) </div></div><p>where <i>q</i><sub>e</sub> (mg/g) is the amount of polluted adsorbed at equilibrium time, <i>K</i><sub>f</sub> (mg<sup>1−1/n</sup> L<sup>1/n</sup> g<sup>−1</sup>) is the Freundlich adsorption constant, <i>C</i><sub>e</sub> (mg/L) is the equilibrium concentration of pollutant, and <span class="mathjax-tex">$\frac{1}{n}$</span> is the indicator of the sorbent system’s favorability and efficiency [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Solangi NH, Kumar J, Mazari SA et al (2021) Development of fruit waste derived bio-adsorbents for wastewater treatment: a review. J Hazard Mater 416. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125848
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1507">3</a>].</p><p>The magnitude of <i>n</i> provides an imperative scenario of the favorability of the sorbent or adsorbate, where <i>n</i> is used to slow the degree of adsorption strength and non-linearity, suggesting that the adsorption process is chemisorption if <i>n</i> < 1, physisorption if <i>n</i> ˃ 1, or linear adsorption if <i>n</i> = 1 [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 64" title="Nandiyanto AB, Fiandini M, Ragadhita R, Maulani H, Nurbaiti, M, Al-Obaidi, AS, Yunas J, Bilad MR (2023) Sustainable biochar carbon biosorbent based on tamarind (Tamarindusindica L) Seed: Literature review, preparation, and adsorption isotherm. J Adv Res Appl Sci Eng Technol 2023:395–410. 
 https://doi.org/10.48317/IMIST
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR64" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1530">64</a>]. The Temkin adsorption isotherm model is used to investigate the indirect interaction between adsorbate molecules on the adsorbent surface [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="Gaye AA, Ayessou NC (2020) Bio-sorption of methylene blue and basic fuchsin from aqueous solution onto defatted Carica papaya seeds: mechan bio-sorption of methylene blue and basic fuchsin from aqueous solution onto defatted Carica papaya seeds: mechanism and effect of operating parameters on the adsorption yield. IOSR J Environ Sci 14:24–33. 
 https://doi.org/10.9790/2402-1402042433
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1533">12</a>]. The Temkin isotherm is expressed according to the following equation (Eq. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Equ9">9</a>):</p><div id="Equ9" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$${q}_{\mathrm{e}}=B\mathrm{ln}{K}_{\mathrm{t}}+B\mathrm{ln}{C}_{\mathrm{e}}$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (9) </div></div><p>where <i>q</i><sub>e</sub> (mg/g) is the amount of polluted adsorbed at equilibrium time, <i>B</i> is a differential surface capacity for polluted adsorption perun energy (<span class="mathjax-tex">$B= \frac{RT}{b}$</span>), <i>K</i> (L\mg) is the Temkin equilibrium constant, which is referred to as the maximum energy of adsorption, <i>C</i><sub>e</sub> (mg/L) is the equilibrium concentration of pollutant, <i>R</i> (J\mol K) is the ideal gas constant equal to 8.314 J\mol K, <i>T</i> (k<sup>0</sup>) is the absolute temperature, and <i>b</i> (J\mol) is the Temkin constant relies on the heat of the adsorption process [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Solangi NH, Kumar J, Mazari SA et al (2021) Development of fruit waste derived bio-adsorbents for wastewater treatment: a review. J Hazard Mater 416. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125848
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1658">3</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Mittal J, Ahmad R, Mariyam A et al (2021) Expeditious and enhanced sequestration of heavy metal ions from aqueous environment by papaya peel carbon: a green and low-cost adsorbent. Desalination Water Treat 210:365–376. 
 https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2021.26562
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1661">7</a>].</p><p>The Dubinin-Radushkevich isotherm model is mainly based on the gas’s adsorption by the pore-filling mechanism. From the D-R model constant (<i>K</i>), the free adsorption energy <i>E</i> can be calculated, where <i>E</i> = 2<i>K</i><sup>−1/2</sup>. The value of <i>E</i> is usually used to discriminate between physical and chemical adsorption processes. If <i>E</i> < 8 kJ, this indicates that the adsorption process is physical, and if 8 < <i>E</i> < 16 kJ, this indicates that the adsorption process is chemical adsorption [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Mittal J, Ahmad R, Mariyam A et al (2021) Expeditious and enhanced sequestration of heavy metal ions from aqueous environment by papaya peel carbon: a green and low-cost adsorbent. Desalination Water Treat 210:365–376. 
 https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2021.26562
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1690">7</a>]. The linear form of the Dubinin-Radushkevich isotherm can be expressed by the following equation (Eq. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Equ10">10</a>):</p><div id="Equ10" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$$\mathrm{ln}{q}_{\mathrm{e}}=\mathrm{ln}{q}_{\mathrm{s}}-K{\varepsilon }^{2}$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (10) </div></div><p>where <i>q</i><sub>e</sub> (mg/g) is the amount of polluted adsorbed at equilibrium time, <i>q</i><sub>s</sub> (mg/g) is the saturation capacity, <i>K</i> (mol<sup>2</sup> J<sup>−2</sup>) is the Dubinin-Radushkevich constant correlating to the average free adsorption energy, and <i>ε</i> is the Polanyi potential that represents the equilibrium conditions in which the value associated with adsorption energy (<i>ε</i> = <i>RT</i>ln[1 + <span class="mathjax-tex">$\frac{1}{{C}_{\mathrm{e}}}$</span>]) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="Mahmoud AS, Farag RS, Elshfai MM (2020) Reduction of organic matter from municipal wastewater at low cost using green synthesis nano iron extracted from black tea: artificial intelligence with regression analysis. Egypt J Pet 29:9–20. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2019.09.001
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1809">4</a>].</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec11"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">2.9 </span>Adsorption kinetic studies</h3><p>To determine the suitable time for reaching the equilibrium state, 500 mL of sewage wastewater sample was placed in contact with a constant mass of 0.5 g of the mark of natural bio-sorbent at different times (30–180 min) at a constant temperature of 23 ± 2 °C and 150 rpm stirring speed. The amount of COD, BOD, TSS, TDS, TP, and TN adsorbed per unit mass of adsorbent at time <i>t</i> (<i>q</i><sub>t</sub>) was calculated using the following equation (Eq. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Equ11">11</a>):</p><div id="Equ11" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$${\mathrm{q}}_{\mathrm{t}}(\mathrm{mg}/\mathrm{g})=\frac{{C}_{0 }- {C}_{\mathrm{t}} }{{m}_{0 }}\times V$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (11) </div></div><p>where <i>C</i><sub>0</sub> (mg/L) is the initial concentration, <i>C</i><sub>t</sub> (mg/L) is the concentration at time <i>t</i>, <i>V</i> (L) is the used volume of solution, and <i>m</i><sub>0</sub> is the adsorbent dosage [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="Mahmoud AS, Farag RS, Elshfai MM (2020) Reduction of organic matter from municipal wastewater at low cost using green synthesis nano iron extracted from black tea: artificial intelligence with regression analysis. Egypt J Pet 29:9–20. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2019.09.001
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1934">4</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Safwat SM, Mohamed NY, Meshref MNA, Elawwad A (2022) Adsorption of phenol onto aluminum oxide nanoparticles: performance evaluation, mechanism exploration, and principal component analysis (PCA) of thermodynamics. Adsorpt Sci Technol 2022. 
 https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/1924117
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1937">11</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Subbaiah Munagapati V, Wen HY, Gollakota ARK et al (2022) Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles loaded papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed powder as an effective and recyclable adsorbent material for the separation of anionic azo dye (Congo Red) from liquid phase: evaluation of adsorption properties. J Mol Liq 345. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118255
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1940">52</a>].</p><p>The kinetic adsorption process of wastewater on the surface of a natural adsorbent was investigated with the following kinetic techniques: Pseudo-first order (PFO), pseudo-second order (PSO), interparticle diffusion, liquid film diffusion, and Elovich models. The first order (PFO) model is used as a function of unoccupied binding sites on the adsorbent surface [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Wang J, Guo X (2020) Adsorption kinetic models: physical meanings, applications, and solving methods. J Hazard Mater 390. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122156
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1946">8</a>]. The PFO model assumes physisorption as a rate-limiting step [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 65" title="Yousef R, Qiblawey H, El-Naas MH (2020) Adsorption as a process for produced water treatment: a review. Processes 8:1–22. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8121657
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e1949">65</a>] and can be described as the following equation (Eq. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Equ12">12</a>):</p><div id="Equ12" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$$\mathrm{ln}\left({q}_{\mathrm{e}}-{q}_{\mathrm{t}}\right)=\mathrm{ln}{q}_{\mathrm{e}}-{K}_{1}t$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (12) </div></div><p>where <i>q</i><sub>t</sub> (mg/g) is the amount of adsorb solute per adsorb mass at any time, <i>q</i><sub>e</sub> (mg/g) is the quantity of adsorb solute per adsorb mass at equilibrium, <i>K</i><sub>1</sub> (min<sup>−1</sup>) is the first order sorption rate constant, and <i>t</i> (min) is a time process [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="Sukmana H, Bellahsen N, Pantoja F, Hodur C (2021) Adsorption and coagulation in wastewater treatment - review. Prog Agric Eng Sci 17:49–68. 
 https://doi.org/10.1556/446.2021.00029
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2042">2</a>].</p><p>The pseudo-second order (PSO) model called Blanchard’s model assumes that chemisorption is a rate-limiting step that can be described as the following equation (Eq. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Equ13">13</a>):</p><div id="Equ13" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$$\frac{t}{{q}_{\mathrm{t}}}= \frac{1}{{K}_{2}{q}_{e}^{2}}+\frac{t}{{q}_{\mathrm{e}}}$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (13) </div></div><p>where <i>q</i><sub>t</sub> (mg/g) is the adsorption capacity at any time, <i>q</i><sub>e</sub> (mg/g) is the adsorption capacity at equilibrium, <i>K</i><sub>2</sub> (g\(mg min)) is the second order sorption rate constant, and <i>t</i> (min) is a time of adsorption [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Idohou EA, Fatombi JK, Osseni SA et al (2020) Preparation of activated carbon/chitosan/Carica papaya seeds composite for efficient adsorption of cationic dye from aqueous solution. Surf Interfaces 21. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2020.100741
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2144">62</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 63" title="Rathi BS, Kumar PS (2021) Application of adsorption process for effective removal of emerging contaminants from water and wastewater. Environ Pollut 280. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116995
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2147">63</a>].</p><p>The intra-particle diffusion model, also known as Weber-Morris, assumes that the intramolecular diffusion process is involved in the adsorption process [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 63" title="Rathi BS, Kumar PS (2021) Application of adsorption process for effective removal of emerging contaminants from water and wastewater. Environ Pollut 280. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116995
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2153">63</a>]. The linear form of the intraparticle diffusion model can be represented by the following equation (Eq. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Equ14">14</a>):</p><div id="Equ14" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$${q}_{\mathrm{t}}=C+ {K}_{\mathrm{P}} {t}^{1/2}$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (14) </div></div><p>where <i>q</i><sub>t</sub> (mg/g) is the quantity of solute adsorb per adsorbate weight at any time, <i>K</i><sub>p</sub> (mg/g min<sup>1/2</sup>) is the intraparticle diffusion rate constant, <i>t</i> (min) is the time of the process, and <i>C</i> (mg/g) is the boundary layer thickness and mainly provides the data of the film thickness between the adsorbate and adsorbent [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="Sukmana H, Bellahsen N, Pantoja F, Hodur C (2021) Adsorption and coagulation in wastewater treatment - review. Prog Agric Eng Sci 17:49–68. 
 https://doi.org/10.1556/446.2021.00029
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2237">2</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 65" title="Yousef R, Qiblawey H, El-Naas MH (2020) Adsorption as a process for produced water treatment: a review. Processes 8:1–22. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8121657
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2240">65</a>].</p><p>The kinetics of rate cycles, when the reaction mixture containing the sorbent particles moves through a liquid film, are mainly determined by using the liquid film diffusion model, which can be represented by the following equation (Eq. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Equ15">15</a>):</p><div id="Equ15" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$$\mathrm{ln}\left(1-F\right)= -{K}_{\mathrm{fd }}t$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (15) </div></div><p>where <i>F</i> is the fractional achievement of stability (<span class="mathjax-tex">$F=\frac{{q}_{\mathrm{t}}}{{q}_{\mathrm{e}}}$</span>), <i>K</i><sub>df</sub> (min<sup>−1</sup>) is the film diffusion rate constant, and <i>t</i> (min) is the time of adsorption reaction [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Solangi NH, Kumar J, Mazari SA et al (2021) Development of fruit waste derived bio-adsorbents for wastewater treatment: a review. J Hazard Mater 416. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125848
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2351">3</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 63" title="Rathi BS, Kumar PS (2021) Application of adsorption process for effective removal of emerging contaminants from water and wastewater. Environ Pollut 280. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116995
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2354">63</a>].</p><p>The last kinetic adsorption model in this study is the Elovich model, which is used to describe the chemisorption reaction on the heterogeneous surface of adsorbents [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 63" title="Rathi BS, Kumar PS (2021) Application of adsorption process for effective removal of emerging contaminants from water and wastewater. Environ Pollut 280. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116995
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2360">63</a>]. The linear form of the Elovich model can be represented by the following equation (Eq. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Equ16">16</a>):</p><div id="Equ16" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$${q}_{\mathrm{t}}= \frac{1}{\beta }\mathrm{ln}\left(\alpha \beta \right)+ \frac{1}{\beta }\mathrm{ ln}(t)$$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (16) </div></div><p>where <i>q</i><sub>t</sub> (mg/g) is the quantity of adsorb solute per adsorb mass at any time, <i>β</i> (mg/g) is the adsorption constant for any single experiment and refers to the number of available sites for the adsorption, <i>α</i> (mg/g min) is the initial adsorption rate of biosorption constant, and <i>t</i> (min) is the time of the adsorption reaction [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Khee YL, Kiew PL, Chung YT (2023) Valorizing papaya seed waste for wastewater treatment: a review. Int J Environ Sci Technol 20:2327–2346. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-022-04178-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2451">10</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Idohou EA, Fatombi JK, Osseni SA et al (2020) Preparation of activated carbon/chitosan/Carica papaya seeds composite for efficient adsorption of cationic dye from aqueous solution. Surf Interfaces 21. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2020.100741
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2454">62</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 63" title="Rathi BS, Kumar PS (2021) Application of adsorption process for effective removal of emerging contaminants from water and wastewater. Environ Pollut 280. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116995
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2457">63</a>].</p><p><b>2.10.</b>Statistical analysis.</p><p>The experiments in this study were carried out three times each time independently. The mean and standard deviation (S.D.) of the triplicate research were calculated using the results from each experiment.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Result and discussion"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec12-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec12"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">3 </span>Result and discussion</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec12-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec13"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">3.1 </span>Physiochemical characteristics of papaya waste</h3><p><i>Carica papaya</i> seeds showed a high yield with a recorded initial weight of 297.1 g and a dry weight of 200.12 g, and the resulting percentage yield was 67.36%, which was accessible to be used as a natural adsorbent. A higher yield is better, as less fruit waste is required to be used as a bio-adsorbent to treat wastewater [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 66" title="Khan NH (2021) Phytochemical analysis, antioxidant and antibacterial activity determination of ethanolic extract of Carica papaya seeds. Biomed J Sci Tech Res 33. 
 https://doi.org/10.26717/bjstr.2021.33.005459
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2483">66</a>]. <i>Carica papaya</i> seeds had a moisture content with a percentage of 32.53%. The high moisture content led to a decrease in the adsorbing ability of the natural adsorbent, which was by blocking the active sites by water molecules [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 66" title="Khan NH (2021) Phytochemical analysis, antioxidant and antibacterial activity determination of ethanolic extract of Carica papaya seeds. Biomed J Sci Tech Res 33. 
 https://doi.org/10.26717/bjstr.2021.33.005459
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2489">66</a>]. Based on these results, it was expected that the <i>Carica papaya</i> seeds could act as a good bio-adsorbent. This was due to the essential oil (EO) extracted from the <i>Carica papaya</i> seeds using the hydrodistillation method being yellow. The over-yield was 0.12% (w\w based on the weight of the dried papaya seeds (100 g)), and the weight of the residuals remaining after oil extraction was 83 g with a percentage yield of 83%.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec14"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">3.2 </span>Characterization of natural adsorbents</h3><p>The effectiveness of the mark of natural bio-sorbent depends mainly on the number of functional groups present on the adsorbent surface, which were identified in FTIR spectrum ranges 400–4000 cm<sup>−1</sup> [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 67" title="Amran AH, Zaidi NS, Syafiuddin A et al (2021) Potential of Carica papaya seed-derived bio-coagulant to remove turbidity from polluted water assessed through experimental and modeling-based study. Appl Sci (Switzerland) 11. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/app11125715
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2508">67</a>]. The presence of the functional groups on the adsorbent surface plays a critical role in the adsorption process as they act as sites for attachment of the adsorbate molecules and increase their ability for further modification [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 9" title="Aryee AA, Mpatani FM, Kani AN et al (2021) A review on functionalized adsorbents based on peanut husk for the sequestration of pollutants in wastewater: modification methods and adsorption study. J Clean Prod 310. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127502
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2511">9</a>]. The FTIR spectrum of the mark of natural bio-sorbent before the adsorption process exhibits adsorption bands at 3421, 2924, 2853, 1652, 1543, 1462, 1240, 1159, and 1100 cm<sup><b>−</b>1</sup> (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Fig3">3</a>a). The broad adsorption peak around 3421 cm<sup>−1</sup> was ascribed to the antisymmetric stretching of the hydroxyl functional group. The bands at 2924 and 2853 cm<sup>−1</sup> were attributed to the symmetric and asymmetric vibration of C-H, which represented the presence of an aliphatic functional group of carboxylic acid. The intense bands at 1652 and 1543 cm<sup>−1</sup> and the low-intensity band at 1462 cm<sup>−1</sup> represented the stretching vibration of the (-C = O) carbonyl group in primary, secondary, and tertiary amide functional groups, respectively. Bands at 1240, 1159, and 1100 cm<sup>−1</sup> were relative to the ester, ether, or phenol groups [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 9" title="Aryee AA, Mpatani FM, Kani AN et al (2021) A review on functionalized adsorbents based on peanut husk for the sequestration of pollutants in wastewater: modification methods and adsorption study. J Clean Prod 310. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127502
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2533">9</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Subbaiah Munagapati V, Wen HY, Gollakota ARK et al (2022) Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles loaded papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed powder as an effective and recyclable adsorbent material for the separation of anionic azo dye (Congo Red) from liquid phase: evaluation of adsorption properties. J Mol Liq 345. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118255
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2537">52</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Idohou EA, Fatombi JK, Osseni SA et al (2020) Preparation of activated carbon/chitosan/Carica papaya seeds composite for efficient adsorption of cationic dye from aqueous solution. Surf Interfaces 21. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2020.100741
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2540">62</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 67" title="Amran AH, Zaidi NS, Syafiuddin A et al (2021) Potential of Carica papaya seed-derived bio-coagulant to remove turbidity from polluted water assessed through experimental and modeling-based study. Appl Sci (Switzerland) 11. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/app11125715
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2543">67</a>]. By comparing the FTIR spectrum of the mark of natural bio-sorbent before and after the wastewater adsorption treatment process, some peaks are slightly shifted, and some new peaks appear (3911, 3875, 3743, 2349, 2335, 1577, 1330, 1058, 889, 848, and 745 cm<sup>−1</sup>) (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Fig3">3</a>b). The bands at 3911, 3875, and 3743 cm<sup>−1</sup> can be attributed to the stretching vibration of the hydroxyl functional group banded onto the adsorbent surface. The new bands at 2349 and 2335 cm<sup>−1</sup> were attributed to the stretching vibrations of aliphatic primary and secondary amines, respectively. The band at 1577 cm<sup>−1</sup> was ascribed to the C = N (imine) functional group. In addition, the bands observed at 848 and 745 cm<sup>−1</sup> were assigned to the stretching vibration of C–C and C-H functional groups in the aromatic rings, while the two bands at 1330 and 889 cm<sup>−1</sup> could be attributed to the stretching vibration of the N–H functional groups amide (III) and amine groups, respectively. The peak at 1058 cm<sup>−1</sup> was earmarked to the stretching vibration of the C-O functional group in -C–OH [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Subbaiah Munagapati V, Wen HY, Gollakota ARK et al (2022) Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles loaded papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed powder as an effective and recyclable adsorbent material for the separation of anionic azo dye (Congo Red) from liquid phase: evaluation of adsorption properties. J Mol Liq 345. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118255
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2564">52</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Idohou EA, Fatombi JK, Osseni SA et al (2020) Preparation of activated carbon/chitosan/Carica papaya seeds composite for efficient adsorption of cationic dye from aqueous solution. Surf Interfaces 21. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2020.100741
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2568">62</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 68" title="Abbaszadeh S, Nodeh HR, Alwi SRW (2018) Bio-adsorbent derived from papaya peel waste and magnetic nanoparticles fabricated for lead determination. In: Pure and applied chemistry. Walter de Gruyter GmbH 90(2):79–92. 
 https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2017-0503
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2571">68</a>]. Finally, the FTIR spectrum analysis of the mark of natural bio-sorbent revealed that OH, -C = O, -C-O, N–H, and C = N are the dominant functional groups on the studied natural adsorbent surface, which facilitated the removal of dissolved suspended substance and capable of absorbing a wide range of contaminates from sewage wastewater.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-3" data-title="Fig. 3"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig3" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 3</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/figures/3" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13399-024-06300-y/MediaObjects/13399_2024_6300_Fig3_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig3" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13399-024-06300-y/MediaObjects/13399_2024_6300_Fig3_HTML.png" alt="figure 3" loading="lazy" width="685" height="683"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-3-desc"><p>FTIR spectra of the mark of <i>Carica papaya</i> seed powder: <b>a</b> before adsorption process and <b>b</b> after sewage wastewater adsorption treatment using 0.5 g/500 mL for 3 h, at 150 rpm and 23 ± 2 °C</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/figures/3" data-track-dest="link:Figure3 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 3" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>The surface morphology of the mark of natural bio-sorbent before and after the adsorption process was studied by using FT-SEM with magnifications of × 12,000 and × 3000. Figure <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Fig4">4</a> displays the SEM images of the bio-adsorbent before and after the adsorption treatment. It can be seen from Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Fig4">4</a>a that the surface of the mark before the adsorption treatment was found to be a heterogeneous, irregular, and rough surface with several pores and dents, where the wastewater molecules can adsorb and diffuse. The porous structure also eases the extraction of oil from the seeds [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 67" title="Amran AH, Zaidi NS, Syafiuddin A et al (2021) Potential of Carica papaya seed-derived bio-coagulant to remove turbidity from polluted water assessed through experimental and modeling-based study. Appl Sci (Switzerland) 11. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/app11125715
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2610">67</a>]. Surface roughness plays a fundamental role in the binding of wastewater molecules, that is by increasing the contact area, which may help to facilitate waste sorption on the surface as well as improve the mechanism of charge neutralization. As a consequence, the adsorption efficiency could increase [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Subbaiah Munagapati V, Wen HY, Gollakota ARK et al (2022) Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles loaded papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed powder as an effective and recyclable adsorbent material for the separation of anionic azo dye (Congo Red) from liquid phase: evaluation of adsorption properties. J Mol Liq 345. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118255
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2613">52</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 67" title="Amran AH, Zaidi NS, Syafiuddin A et al (2021) Potential of Carica papaya seed-derived bio-coagulant to remove turbidity from polluted water assessed through experimental and modeling-based study. Appl Sci (Switzerland) 11. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/app11125715
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2616">67</a>]. After the adsorption treatment, the surface of the bio-adsorbent (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Fig4">4</a>b) was considerably smoother and non-porous as a result of the loading of wastewater molecules on the bio-adsorbent surface [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 58" title="Safwat SM, Medhat M, Abdel-Halim H (2019) Adsorption of phenol onto aluminium oxide and zinc oxide: a comparative study with titanium dioxide. Sep Sci Technol (Philadelphia) 54:2840–2852. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/01496395.2018.1549572
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2623">58</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Idohou EA, Fatombi JK, Osseni SA et al (2020) Preparation of activated carbon/chitosan/Carica papaya seeds composite for efficient adsorption of cationic dye from aqueous solution. Surf Interfaces 21. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2020.100741
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2626">62</a>]. The morphological changes of the natural adsorbent surface, which are revealed by SEM images, confirmed the effectiveness of the adsorption process in wastewater treatment.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-4" data-title="Fig. 4"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig4" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 4</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/figures/4" rel="nofollow"><picture><img aria-describedby="Fig4" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13399-024-06300-y/MediaObjects/13399_2024_6300_Fig4_HTML.png" alt="figure 4" loading="lazy" width="685" height="277"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-4-desc"><p>SEM micrographs of the mark of <i>Carica papaya</i> seed powder: <b>a</b> before the adsorption process and <b>b</b> after sewage wastewater adsorption treatment using 0.5 g/500 mL for 3 h, at 150 rpm and 23 ± 2 °C</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/figures/4" data-track-dest="link:Figure4 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 4" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>The X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of the mark of natural bio-sorbent illustrated in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Fig5">5</a> depicts the structure of the bio-adsorbent, whether it is a crystalline or amorphous structure [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Idohou EA, Fatombi JK, Osseni SA et al (2020) Preparation of activated carbon/chitosan/Carica papaya seeds composite for efficient adsorption of cationic dye from aqueous solution. Surf Interfaces 21. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2020.100741
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2662">62</a>]. The XRD pattern of the natural adsorbent has shown a highly intense peak at 22.4°, which was assigned to the reflection from (002) planes [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 68" title="Abbaszadeh S, Nodeh HR, Alwi SRW (2018) Bio-adsorbent derived from papaya peel waste and magnetic nanoparticles fabricated for lead determination. In: Pure and applied chemistry. Walter de Gruyter GmbH 90(2):79–92. 
 https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2017-0503
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2665">68</a>]. Finally, the XRD pattern showed that the prepared bio-adsorbent has an amorphous structure and that may be due to the high protein and high fixed oil content of the mark of natural bio-sorbent [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Fereja WM, Tagesse W, Benti G (2020) Treatment of coffee processing wastewater using Moringa stenopetala seed powder: removal of turbidity and chemical oxygen demand. Cogent Food Agric 6. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2020.1816420
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2668">6</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Kristianto H, Angelina Kurniawan M, M Soetedjo JN (2018) Utilization of papaya seeds as natural coagulant for synthetic textile coloring agent wastewater treatment. International Journal on Advanced Science Engineering Information Technology 8:2088–5334. 
 https://doi.org/10.18517/ijaseit.8.5.3804
 
 " href="#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2671">69</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Tan SS (2019) Papaya (Carica papaya L.) Seed oil. In: Fruit oils: chemistry and functionality. Springer International Publishing, pp 615–626. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12473-1_31
 
 " href="#ref-CR70" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2671_1">70</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 71" title="Alhanif M, Kumoro AC, Wardhani DH (2023) Prediction of the thermophysical properties of papaya seed oil influencing solvent selection based on the new group contribution model. Sains Malays 52:107–127. 
 https://doi.org/10.17576/jsm-2023-5201-09
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR71" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2675">71</a>].</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-5" data-title="Fig. 5"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig5" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 5</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/figures/5" rel="nofollow"><picture><img aria-describedby="Fig5" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13399-024-06300-y/MediaObjects/13399_2024_6300_Fig5_HTML.png" alt="figure 5" loading="lazy" width="685" height="395"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-5-desc"><p>X-ray diffraction pattern of the mark of <i>Carica papaya</i> seed powder</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/figures/5" data-track-dest="link:Figure5 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 5" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>The BET analysis is considered one of the key factors that control adsorption efficiency. Based on the IUPAC classification, it could be categorized as an IV isotherm with an H3-type hysteresis loop [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Subbaiah Munagapati V, Wen HY, Gollakota ARK et al (2022) Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles loaded papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed powder as an effective and recyclable adsorbent material for the separation of anionic azo dye (Congo Red) from liquid phase: evaluation of adsorption properties. J Mol Liq 345. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118255
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2702">52</a>]. The textural parameters of the mark as bio-adsorbent are measured, which show the surface area (24.27 m<sup>2</sup>\g), pore volume (0.024 cc\g), and pore diameter (2.26 nm), where the greater surface in the BET analysis refers to more empty sites available on the adsorbent surface that led to an increase in the adsorption efficiency [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Fereja WM, Tagesse W, Benti G (2020) Treatment of coffee processing wastewater using Moringa stenopetala seed powder: removal of turbidity and chemical oxygen demand. Cogent Food Agric 6. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2020.1816420
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2707">6</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Subbaiah Munagapati V, Wen HY, Gollakota ARK et al (2022) Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles loaded papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed powder as an effective and recyclable adsorbent material for the separation of anionic azo dye (Congo Red) from liquid phase: evaluation of adsorption properties. J Mol Liq 345. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118255
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2710">52</a>]. Furthermore, the pore size distribution of the bio-adsorbent was determined using the BJH method. According to the IUPAC, the pore sizes can be categorized depending on the pore diameter (<i>D</i>), where the bio-adsorbent surface is categorized as macroporous if <i>D</i> > 50.0 nm, microporous if <i>D</i> < 2.0 nm, and mesoporous if 2.0 < <i>D</i> < 50.0 nm [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Subbaiah Munagapati V, Wen HY, Gollakota ARK et al (2022) Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles loaded papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed powder as an effective and recyclable adsorbent material for the separation of anionic azo dye (Congo Red) from liquid phase: evaluation of adsorption properties. J Mol Liq 345. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118255
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2726">52</a>]. In the present study, the peak of pore size distribution was found to be at 2.26 nm. This result indicated that the surface of the mark of natural bio-sorbent had a mesopore structure, which led to an increase in the availability of the mark as a natural adsorbent for removing contaminants from sewage wastewater.</p><p>To describe the stability of the prepared natural adsorbent, the zeta potential was measured. The mark of natural bio-sorbent had a negative zeta potential value in the range of − 22 mV, which is considered incipient stability for the colloidal particles in the treated wastewater [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 72" title="Mohammad I (2019) Gold nanoparticle: an efficient carrier for MCP I of Carica papaya seeds extract as an innovative male contraceptive in albino rats. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 52:942–956. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jddst.2019.06.010
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR72" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2733">72</a>].</p><p>The dynamic light scattering (DLS) technique is used to determine the hydrodynamic size distribution of the synthesized natural adsorbents suspended in the liquid [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 73" title="Vundela SR, Kalagatur NK, Nagaraj A et al (2022) Multi-biofunctional properties of phytofabricated selenium nanoparticles from Carica papaya fruit extract: antioxidant, antimicrobial, antimycotoxin, anticancer, and biocompatibility. Front Microbiol 12. 
 https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.769891
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR73" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2739">73</a>]. The DLS result of our study revealed that the synthesized bio-adsorbents were nanosized with polydispersity index, where the DLS curve showed two peaks, the first peak found at 10 nm and the second one at 25 nm.</p><p>The element constituents and the oxides of the synthesized bio-adsorbent were detected by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 58" title="Safwat SM, Medhat M, Abdel-Halim H (2019) Adsorption of phenol onto aluminium oxide and zinc oxide: a comparative study with titanium dioxide. Sep Sci Technol (Philadelphia) 54:2840–2852. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/01496395.2018.1549572
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2745">58</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 74" title="Mustapha S, Ndamitso MM, Abdulkareem AS et al (2019) Potential of using kaolin as a natural adsorbent for the removal of pollutants from tannery wastewater. Heliyon 5. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02923
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR74" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e2748">74</a>]. Calcium (Ca), based on the result, was the principal constituent at 28.00%, followed by potassium (K) (27.41%), chloride (CL) (10.32%), sulfur (7.51%), phosphorus (P) (3.22%), iron (Fe) (0.66%), and strontium (Sr) (0.08%). Also, calcium oxide (CaO), based on the result, is the principal metal oxide at 39.18%, followed by potassium oxide (K<sub>2</sub>O) (33.02%), sulfur oxide (SO<sub>3</sub>) (18.75%), phosphorus pentoxide (P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>) (7.38%), iron (III) oxide (Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) (0.95%), iron (II) oxide (FeO) (0.85%), zinc oxide (ZnO) (0.32%), niobium pentoxide (Nb<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>) (0.11%), and strontium oxide (SrO) (0.09%). By calculating LIO “loss of ignition,” we found that the prepared bio-adsorbent had a huge amount of organic compound represented by 22.46%.</p><p>The elemental composition of the bio-adsorbent before and after the wastewater treatment was analyzed by EDX analysis as displayed in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Fig6">6</a>. The elemental composition obtained from EDX analysis showed that the general elements found in the bio-adsorbent include carbon (76.96%), oxygen (11.99%), nitrogen (3.60%), calcium (2.15%), potassium (2.32%), phosphorous, sulfur, chloride, and magnesium, which are frequently found in the plant cells. The results of EDX analysis (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Tab1">1</a>) show an increase in the percentage of nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, and calcium on the bio-adsorbent after adsorption treatment, which confirms our work by the high adsorption ability of the mark of papaya seeds as bio-adsorbent.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-6" data-title="Fig. 6"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig6" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 6</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/figures/6" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13399-024-06300-y/MediaObjects/13399_2024_6300_Fig6_HTML.png?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig6" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13399-024-06300-y/MediaObjects/13399_2024_6300_Fig6_HTML.png" alt="figure 6" loading="lazy" width="685" height="210"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-6-desc"><p>EDX analysis of the mark of <i>Carica papaya</i> seed powder: <b>a</b> before the adsorption process and <b>b</b> after sewage wastewater adsorption treatment using 0.5 g/500 mL for 3 h, at 150 rpm and 23 ± 2 °C</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/figures/6" data-track-dest="link:Figure6 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 6" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-1"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab1" data-test="table-caption">Table 1 EDX analysis of the mark of <i>Carica papaya</i> seed powder before the adsorption process and after sewage wastewater adsorption treatment using 0.5 g/500 mL for 3 h, at 150 rpm and 23 ± 2 °C</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/tables/1" aria-label="Full size table 1"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec15"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">3.3 </span>Preliminary screening of physicochemical parameters in raw wastewater</h3><p>The physicochemical properties of the raw sewage wastewater used in this study such as COD, BOD, TSS, TDS, TN, TP, and pH are illustrated in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Tab2">2</a>. From this table, it is clear that the chemical oxygen demand, biological oxygen demand, total suspended solids, total dissolved solids, total nitrogen, and total phosphorous value of raw wastewater were much higher as compared to water quality standards for drainage water before mixed with fresh water [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 75" title="Gabr ME (2018) Wastewater reuse standards for agriculture irrigation in Egypt. In: 21st International Water Technology Conference 28–30. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02923
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR75" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e3035">75</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 76" title="Negm AM (2019) Unconventional water resources and agriculture in Egypt Part 3- Constructed wetlands: the green technology for municipal wastewater treatment and reuse in agriculture. Springer Cham 189–239. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95071-6
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e3038">76</a>]. Fresh water is used in agricultural irrigation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 76" title="Negm AM (2019) Unconventional water resources and agriculture in Egypt Part 3- Constructed wetlands: the green technology for municipal wastewater treatment and reuse in agriculture. Springer Cham 189–239. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95071-6
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e3041">76</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 77" title="Elbana TA, Bakr N, Elbana M (2019) Reuse of treated wastewater in Egypt: challenges and opportunities. In: Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. Springer Verlag, pp 429–453. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/698_2017_46
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR77" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e3044">77</a>] and unfresh water [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 70" title="Tan SS (2019) Papaya (Carica papaya L.) Seed oil. In: Fruit oils: chemistry and functionality. Springer International Publishing, pp 615–626. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12473-1_31
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR70" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e3048">70</a>] as given by Egyptian laws NO 49/2013, NO 51/2023, and NO 52/2013, respectively. Previous pollutant concentrations showed that sewage wastewater was high-strength polluted wastewater, that was filled with high concentrations of suspended solids, nutrients, and organic matter mainly obtained from kitchens, rain, toilets, and showers [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 78" title="Konbr U, Bayoumi W, Ali MN, Shiba ASE (2022) Sustainability of Egyptian cities through utilizing sewage and sludge in softscaping and biogas production. Sustainability (Switzerland) 14. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/su14116675
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR78" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e3051">78</a>]. </p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-2"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab2" data-test="table-caption">Table 2 Characteristics of sewage wastewater before treatment and after shaking at 150 rpm for 3 h at 23 ± 2 °C along with Egyptian law for water quality standards</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/tables/2" aria-label="Full size table 2"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec16"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">3.4 </span>Effect of operating parameters on the physicochemical properties of raw wastewater</h3><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec17"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">3.4.1 </span>Effect of adsorbent dosage</h4><p>The dosage of bio-adsorbent is one of the most critical parameters in designing an efficient adsorption system. It mainly helps in detecting the optimum condition to reach the equilibrium relationship between the adsorbent and adsorbate. Sometimes, increasing the adsorbent dose beyond the optimized dose results in the desorption process, and also if the use of an insufficient dose results in poor performance. So, using an optimum adsorbent dose is essential for removing the contaminants effectively [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 79" title="Adaobi Igwegbe C, Dominic Onukwuli O (2019) Removal of total dissolved solids (TDS) from aquaculture wastewater by coagulation-flocculation process using Sesamum indicum extract: effect of operating parameters and coagulation-flocculation kinetics. Pharm Chem J 6(4):32–45" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR79" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e3439">79</a>]. In this study, the adsorption process was performed at room temperature (23 ± 2 °C), for 180 min with a stirring rate of 150 rpm using different adsorbent dosages of the mark of <i>Carica papaya</i> seeds ranging from 0.25 to 1.5 g\500 mL.</p><p>Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Tab3">3</a> demonstrates that the pH of the treated water was nearly the same as that of the raw water, where the pH of treated water with different dosages of the mark of <i>Carica papaya</i> seeds ranged between 6.8 and 7.4, which deals with the Egyptian law standard; this is considered one of the reasons for the increase in the removal efficiency of the mark of papaya seeds, as the highly alkaline solution with an excess of hydroxyl ions (OH<sup>−</sup>) affects the adsorption process throughout the steric of negative ions [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="Mahmoud AS, Farag RS, Elshfai MM (2020) Reduction of organic matter from municipal wastewater at low cost using green synthesis nano iron extracted from black tea: artificial intelligence with regression analysis. Egypt J Pet 29:9–20. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2019.09.001
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e3456">4</a>]. The effect of different adsorbent masses of the mark of <i>Carica papaya</i> seeds ranging from 0.25 to 1.5 g was examined. For the adsorbent mass of 0.5 g, the physicochemical parameters COD, BOD, TSS, TDS, and TP concentration decrease while the TN concentration increases. According to Egyptian law No. 52\2013 and the result of the present treatment, the treated water can be mixed with unfresh water [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 69" title="Kristianto H, Angelina Kurniawan M, M Soetedjo JN (2018) Utilization of papaya seeds as natural coagulant for synthetic textile coloring agent wastewater treatment. International Journal on Advanced Science Engineering Information Technology 8:2088–5334. 
 https://doi.org/10.18517/ijaseit.8.5.3804
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e3463">69</a>]. By studying the physicochemical parameters of the mark of <i>Carica papaya</i> seeds, we found that the mark itself had a high COD (80), BOD (25), TSS (54), TDS (190), TP (34), and TN (8.5), as shown in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Tab4">4</a>; this mainly affected the percentage of removal efficiency of the physicochemical parameters. </p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-3"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab3" data-test="table-caption">Table 3 Effect of the mark of <i>Carica papaya</i> seed powder adsorbent dosage on the adsorption process at 150 rpm at 23 ± 2 °C for 3 h</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/tables/3" aria-label="Full size table 3"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-4"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab4" data-test="table-caption">Table 4 Standardization of adsorption process by using different adsorbent doses shaken with 500 mL distilled water at 150 rpm, for 3 h, at 25 °C (Blank)</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/tables/4" aria-label="Full size table 4"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>By raising the mass of the mark from 0.25 to 0.5 g\500 mL, the removal efficiency of physicochemical parameters COD, BOD, TSS, TDS, TN, and TP rose from 75.8, 77.7, 93.7, 93, 14.5, 42.9, and 28.6% to 79.2, 80.4, 97.7, 49.3, 54.8, and 46.9%, respectively. While by increasing the mass of the mark more than 0.5 g\500 mL, the removal efficiency tends to decrease to reach 63.5, 67.5, 80.3, and 45.1% for COD, BOD, TSS, and TDS, respectively, for the adsorbent dose of 1.5 g\mL, and the removal efficiency of TN and TP increases by increasing the adsorbent mass. The highest COD, BOD, TSS, and TDS removal efficiency was achieved with 0.5 g\500 mL of <i>Carica papaya</i> seeds. However, the highest TP and TN removal efficiency was achieved with 1.5 g\500 mL and 1.0 g\500 mL, respectively. This improved removal efficiency was attributed to the combined effects of the increased number of active sites available for adsorption and the increase in surface area [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Subbaiah Munagapati V, Wen HY, Gollakota ARK et al (2022) Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles loaded papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed powder as an effective and recyclable adsorbent material for the separation of anionic azo dye (Congo Red) from liquid phase: evaluation of adsorption properties. J Mol Liq 345. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118255
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4305">52</a>]. Both were ascertained by the results of the SEM and BET analyses of the mark. However, no significant improvement in the removal efficiency of physicochemical parameters COD, BOD, TSS, and TDS was found when the mass of the mark was increased above 0.5 g because, at the too-high mass of the adsorbent, the particles of adsorbent cluster together to form clusters that were led to blocking certain adsorption sites [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Safwat SM, Mohamed NY, Meshref MNA, Elawwad A (2022) Adsorption of phenol onto aluminum oxide nanoparticles: performance evaluation, mechanism exploration, and principal component analysis (PCA) of thermodynamics. Adsorpt Sci Technol 2022. 
 https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/1924117
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4308">11</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Subbaiah Munagapati V, Wen HY, Gollakota ARK et al (2022) Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles loaded papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed powder as an effective and recyclable adsorbent material for the separation of anionic azo dye (Congo Red) from liquid phase: evaluation of adsorption properties. J Mol Liq 345. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118255
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4311">52</a>]. Also, the surface did not increase dramatically further [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Fereja WM, Tagesse W, Benti G (2020) Treatment of coffee processing wastewater using Moringa stenopetala seed powder: removal of turbidity and chemical oxygen demand. Cogent Food Agric 6. 
 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2020.1816420
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4314">6</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Subbaiah Munagapati V, Wen HY, Gollakota ARK et al (2022) Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles loaded papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed powder as an effective and recyclable adsorbent material for the separation of anionic azo dye (Congo Red) from liquid phase: evaluation of adsorption properties. J Mol Liq 345. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118255
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4318">52</a>].</p><h4 class="c-article__sub-heading c-article__sub-heading--small" id="Sec18"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">3.4.2 </span>Effect of contact time</h4><p>Contact time studies are critical in determining equilibrium time and describing the adsorption rate for the removal of physicochemical parameters from wastewater utilizing natural adsorbents [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Subbaiah Munagapati V, Wen HY, Gollakota ARK et al (2022) Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles loaded papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed powder as an effective and recyclable adsorbent material for the separation of anionic azo dye (Congo Red) from liquid phase: evaluation of adsorption properties. J Mol Liq 345. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118255
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4329">52</a>]. The impact of contact duration on the adsorption of physicochemical parameters (pH, COD, BOD, TSS, TDS, TN, and TP) by the mark of <i>Carica papaya</i> seed powder was investigated in the range of 30–180 min at 23 ± 2 °C and constant adsorbent dose 0.5 g\mL, as shown in Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Tab5">5</a>. </p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-5"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab5" data-test="table-caption">Table 5 Effect of stirring time on the adsorption process at adsorbent dosage of the mark of <i>Carica papaya</i> seed powder with dosage 0.5 g at 150 rpm and 23 ± 2 °C</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/tables/5" aria-label="Full size table 5"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>The evaluation of the adsorbed amount of the physicochemical parameters with the contact time reflects that, for the physicochemical parameters (COD, BOD, TSS, TDS, TN, and TP), initially the rate of the adsorption was faster than started to slow down with time to reach equilibrium in about 180 min, after which there was no significant change. At equilibrium, the number of physicochemical parameters in treated water was 100 mgO<sub>2</sub>\mL (for COD), 48 mgO<sub>2</sub>\mL (for BOD), 7 mg/L (for TSS), 380 mg/L (for TDS), 33 mg/L (for TN), and 7.8 mg/L (for TP) with removal efficiency 79.2, 80.4, 97.7, 49.3, 54.8, and 46.9%, respectively. During the initial stage of rapid adsorption, the physicochemical parameters easily occupy the empty adsorptive sites presented on the top surface of the bio-adsorbent, while with the progress of time, the number of free sites is decreased and the capacity of the adsorption process is limited [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Mittal J, Ahmad R, Mariyam A et al (2021) Expeditious and enhanced sequestration of heavy metal ions from aqueous environment by papaya peel carbon: a green and low-cost adsorbent. Desalination Water Treat 210:365–376. 
 https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2021.26562
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4754">7</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Subbaiah Munagapati V, Wen HY, Gollakota ARK et al (2022) Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles loaded papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed powder as an effective and recyclable adsorbent material for the separation of anionic azo dye (Congo Red) from liquid phase: evaluation of adsorption properties. J Mol Liq 345. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118255
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4757">52</a>].</p><p>The most conventional method of water treatment is aluminum sulfate (alum). However, it is considered a causative agent in neurological diseases, and the ingestion of aluminum ions (AL<sup>−3</sup>) may cause Alzheimer’s disease. Also, the sludge produced after treatment is massive and non-biodegradable, which leads to an increase in the cost of treatment [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="Sukmana H, Bellahsen N, Pantoja F, Hodur C (2021) Adsorption and coagulation in wastewater treatment - review. Prog Agric Eng Sci 17:49–68. 
 https://doi.org/10.1556/446.2021.00029
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4765">2</a>]. However, the usage of <i>Carica papaya</i> waste products or any bio-adsorbents or bio-coagulant has no such problems and can be effectively used for wastewater treatment without any side effects [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="Sukmana H, Bellahsen N, Pantoja F, Hodur C (2021) Adsorption and coagulation in wastewater treatment - review. Prog Agric Eng Sci 17:49–68. 
 https://doi.org/10.1556/446.2021.00029
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4771">2</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 80" title="George D, Chandrn A (2018) Coagulation performance evaluation of papaya seed for purification of river water. Int J Latest Technol Eng Manag Appl Sci 7:2278–2540. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100198
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4774">80</a>]. In order to achieve a sustainable treatment method, the adsorbent needs to be regenerated and recyclable after the adsorption treatment process, and the <i>Carica papaya</i> seeds have high stability and regenerative potential over several cycles of treatment [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 81" title="Bayode AA, Anthony ET, Ore OT et al (2023) A review on the versatility of Carica papaya seed: an agrogenic waste for the removal of organic, inorganic and microbial contaminants in water. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 98:2095–2109" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR81" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4781">81</a>]. These characteristic potentials were approved by several studies, one of them using 100 mg/L of conge red dye treated with o.o5-treated papaya seed powder as a bio-sorbent. After completing the adsorption process, batch desorption and regeneration tests were performed using different 0.1 M of diluents. The result showed that the desorption efficiency of NaCl, NaOH, CH<sub>3</sub>COOH, HCL, and H<sub>2</sub>O is 96.3%, 72.6%, 54.2% 38.2%, and 24.8%, respectively [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Subbaiah Munagapati V, Wen HY, Gollakota ARK et al (2022) Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles loaded papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed powder as an effective and recyclable adsorbent material for the separation of anionic azo dye (Congo Red) from liquid phase: evaluation of adsorption properties. J Mol Liq 345. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118255
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4788">52</a>].</p><p>Different studies showed the effect of different bio-sorbents using various types of wastewater and treatment processes. Hosseini (2023) studied the effect of papaya seed powder (200 mg/L) on wastewater from an industrial park using a coagulation-flocculation treatment process. The <i>Carica papaya</i> seeds showed a high turbidity removal efficiency of 89% and increased to 95% by mixing alum of <i>Carica papaya</i> seed powder [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 82" title="Hosseini M (2023) Utilization of Carica papaya seeds as natural coagulants for turbidity removal from wastewater. 
 https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3176214/v1
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4800">82</a>]. Another study used the UASB reactor followed by aeration treatment for treated sewage wastewater from Abu Rawash, Egypt. This process decreased pH from 7.4 to 6.9, COD from 431 to 108 mgO<sub>2</sub>\L, and TSS from 2229 to 59 mg/L, with a removal efficiency of 75 and 80% for COD and TSS, respectively [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 83" title="Gadow SI, El-Shawadfy MA, Abd El-Zaher FH (2024) A combined bio-system to improve effluent water quality from sewage wastewater plants for agricultural reuse. Biomass Convers Biorefin 14. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-023-03816-7
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4805">83</a>]. Nweke et al. (2022) reported the effect of de-oiled papaya seed on the abattoir wastewater treated using a coagulation-flocculation process. The result indicated that 3 g\L of de-oiled papaya seed could effectively reduce turbidity from 882 to 76 NTU, COD from 347 to 143 mgO<sub>2</sub>\L, BOD from 226 to 95 mgO<sub>2</sub>\L, TSS from 2073 to 209 mg/L, and TDS from 261 to 227 mg/L with removal efficiency 91, 59, 58, 90, and 13%, respectively [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 84" title="Nweke MM, Chukwuma FO, Evbuomwan BO, Oji A (2022) Turbidity reduction of abattoir wastewater by the coagulation-flocculation process using papaya seed extract. Int J Appl Sci Eng 19. 
 https://doi.org/10.6703/IJASE.202209_19(3).005
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4813">84</a>]. Igwegbe et al. (2022) prepared a natural bio-coagulant using <i>Picralima nitida</i> seed extract to treat a local aquaculture facility. The bio-coagulant can decrease the COD, BOD, and TSS concentration in wastewater [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 85" title="Igwegbe CA, Ovuoraye PE, Białowiec A et al (2022) Purification of aquaculture effluent using Picralima nitida seeds. Sci Rep 12. 
 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-26044-x
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR85" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4819">85</a>]. Irshad et al. (2022) reported the effect of <i>Azadirachta indica</i> leaf extract and indica leaf extract mixed with AgNO<sub>3</sub> nanoparticle solution as bio-adsorbents to treat textile industrial wastewater. The result illustrated that <i>Azadirachta indica</i> leaf extract had high efficiency in decreasing COD, TDS, TSS, and BOD concentration in wastewater, but its removal efficiency increased by adding AgNO<sub>3</sub> nanoparticles [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 86" title="Irshad MA, Humayoun MA, Al-Hussain SA et al (2023) Green and eco-friendly treatment of textile wastewater by using Azadirachta indica leaf extract combined with a silver nitrate solution. Sustainability (Switzerland) 15. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010081
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR86" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4833">86</a>].</p><p>Thesni et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 87" title="Thesni S, Soundhirarajan K, Scholar P, Professor A (2021) Treatment of municipal waste water using naturally available coagulant. Middle East J Appl Sci Technol 4:29–39. 
 https://doi.org/10.46431/mejast.2021.4304
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR87" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4840">87</a>] reported the effect of <i>Carica papaya</i> seed powder as a bio-coagulant on municipal wastewater treatment, where the papaya seed was able to remove the TDS, TSS, COD, and TS with removal efficiency 81, 91, 60, and 87%, respectively, and this led to neutralizing the charge of treated water without the effect of pH. P. and N. (2021) reported the effect of different natural adsorbents used for dairy industry wastewater with pH (6.85), TDS (691 mg/L), turbidity (280 NTU), COD (3230 mgO<sub>2</sub>\L), and BOD (1770 mgO<sub>2</sub>\L). Papaya seed was able to decrease the TDS to 613 mg/L, turbidity to 105 mg/L, COD to 1387 mgO<sub>2</sub>\L, and BOD to 353 mgO2\L [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 13" title="Am P, Sk N (2021) Treatment of dairy wastewater by using banana stems, papaya seeds and jack fruit seeds. Int Res J Eng Technol 8:4072–4077" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4853">13</a>]. Mittal et al. (2021) reported the removal of Pb, Ni, and Cu from synthetic wastewater using an adsorption process for treatment using 0.2 g of <i>Carica papaya</i> peel carbon at an adsorption equilibrium time of 180 min. The prepared bio-adsorbent was found to have a high removal efficiency for Ni, Pb, and Cu [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Mittal J, Ahmad R, Mariyam A et al (2021) Expeditious and enhanced sequestration of heavy metal ions from aqueous environment by papaya peel carbon: a green and low-cost adsorbent. Desalination Water Treat 210:365–376. 
 https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2021.26562
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4859">7</a>]. Another study treated municipal wastewater using an adsorption process and green synthesized nano-iron extract from black tea. The result illustrated that this bio-adsorbent has high efficiency in the reduction of turbidity from 17.92 to 4.26 NTU, TDS from 3100 to 3105 mg/L, COD from 600 to 76 mgO<sub>2</sub>\L BOD from 365 to 31 mgO<sub>2</sub>\L, TSS from 696 to 40 mg/L, TN from 36.84 to 26.36 mg/L, and TP from 5.16 to 3.16 mg/L [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="Mahmoud AS, Farag RS, Elshfai MM (2020) Reduction of organic matter from municipal wastewater at low cost using green synthesis nano iron extracted from black tea: artificial intelligence with regression analysis. Egypt J Pet 29:9–20. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2019.09.001
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4866">4</a>]. Igwegbe and Onukwuli (2019) reported the usage of <i>Sesamum indicum</i> seed extract as a natural adsorbent to treat aquaculture wastewater with an adsorbent dosage of 0.4 g\L. The result showed that the <i>Sesamum indicum</i> seed had a high removal efficiency of BOD, COD, turbidity, TDS, nitrogen, and TP with the ability to change the color from a yellowish-green solution to a clear solution [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 79" title="Adaobi Igwegbe C, Dominic Onukwuli O (2019) Removal of total dissolved solids (TDS) from aquaculture wastewater by coagulation-flocculation process using Sesamum indicum extract: effect of operating parameters and coagulation-flocculation kinetics. Pharm Chem J 6(4):32–45" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR79" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4876">79</a>].</p><p>Another study reported by Maurya and Daverey (2018) treated municipal wastewater without the adjustment of pH of wastewater using papaya seed powder with a coagulant dosage of 1.6 g\L. The COD, TSS, and turbidity were reduced by 66.7, 66.6, and 66%, respectively [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 88" title="Maurya S, Daverey A (2018) Evaluation of plant-based natural coagulants for municipal wastewater treatment. 3 Biotech 8. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-018-1103-8
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR88" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4882">88</a>]. Also, by using different wastewater and different dosages of papaya seed powder, the COD, BOD, turbidity, TSS, and TDS decreased by 72, 70, 73, 69, and 75%, respectively [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 89" title="Khadga Yadav R, Kumar HD (2018) Treatment of municipal landfill leachate mixed with reverse osmosis reject water using papaya seeds as a coagulant. Int Res J Eng Technol" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR89" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4885">89</a>]. Finally, George and Chandin J. (2018) treated raw water from the river in India with 35 NTU. The wastewater was treated with 0.6 g\L from papaya seed powder using a coagulation-flocculation process. The result indicated that papaya seed powder affected wastewater treatment without affecting the pH of wastewater by the reduction of TSS, TDS, BOD, and turbidity of wastewater [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 80" title="George D, Chandrn A (2018) Coagulation performance evaluation of papaya seed for purification of river water. Int J Latest Technol Eng Manag Appl Sci 7:2278–2540. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100198
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4888">80</a>].</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec19"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">3.5 </span>Adsorption equilibrium studies</h3><p>Four different models of adsorption isotherms were studied to find the most appropriate model for the design of the process of adsorption treatment. Each isotherm model has a certain assumption. In the Langmuir isotherm model; all sites on the adsorbent surface have the same amount of energy. In Freundlich isotherm; the adsorption process occurs on a heterogeneous surface. In Temkin isotherm, the heat of the adsorption process decreases linearly along with the coverage of the surface of the adsorbent [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Safwat SM, Mohamed NY, Meshref MNA, Elawwad A (2022) Adsorption of phenol onto aluminum oxide nanoparticles: performance evaluation, mechanism exploration, and principal component analysis (PCA) of thermodynamics. Adsorpt Sci Technol 2022. 
 https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/1924117
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4901">11</a>].</p><p>According to Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Tab6">6</a>, the Langmuir adsorption models for COD, BOD, TS, TN, and TP had an <i>R</i><sub>L</sub> value between 0 and 1, demonstrating that the adsorption of COD, BOD, TSS, TN, and TP onto the surface of the mark was a favorable adsorption process. While TDS had an <i>R</i><sub>L</sub> value equal to 1.14, which was greater than 1, the results showed that the adsorption of TDS onto the mark was found to be an unfavorable process. The Freundlich isotherm model for COD, BOD, TDS, TN, and TP had an <i>n</i> value that was less than 1, and the derived results indicated that adsorption of COD, BOD, TDS, TN, and TP onto the mark surface was found to be a chemisorption process. But TSS had an <i>n</i> equal to 1.46, which was in the range between 1 and 10, and thus, results indicated that the adsorption of TSS onto the mark surface was found to be a very favorable, physisorption process, implying a multilayer phenomenon. Subsequently, the Dubinin-Radushkevich model for COD, TSS, TDS, and TP had <i>E</i> values equal to 11.81, 0.19, 2.8, and 0.36 kJ\mol, respectively, which indicates that the adsorption process was controlled by the ion exchange mechanism. On the other hand, the Dubinin-Radushkevich isotherm model for BOD and TN had <i>E</i> values equal to 24.71 and 25.48 kJ\mol, respectively, which means that the adsorption process was controlled by physical bonds like van der Waals force and hydrogen bonding. The higher values of <i>R</i><sup>2</sup> achieved for the studied adsorption isotherm models illustrated that the adsorption process of COD, BOD, TSS, TN, and TP from treated sewage wastewater by preparing the mark of <i>Carica papaya</i> seed powder in this work can be well explained by the Langmuir model. So, the surface of the mark of papaya seeds for adsorption of a monolayer of COD, BOD, TSS, TN, and TP was made up of a homogeneous adsorption process. That was also referred to the energy of adsorption being the same at any point on the adsorbent surface, and no adsorbate transmigration may occur on the surface [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Khee YL, Kiew PL, Chung YT (2023) Valorizing papaya seed waste for wastewater treatment: a review. Int J Environ Sci Technol 20:2327–2346. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-022-04178-9
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4939">10</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 59" title="Garba ZN, Magami SM, Ibrahim BM (2019) Equilibrium adsorption of malachite green dye onto defatted papaya seed. FUDMA J Sci 3:67–76" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4942">59</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 63" title="Rathi BS, Kumar PS (2021) Application of adsorption process for effective removal of emerging contaminants from water and wastewater. Environ Pollut 280. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116995
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4945">63</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 64" title="Nandiyanto AB, Fiandini M, Ragadhita R, Maulani H, Nurbaiti, M, Al-Obaidi, AS, Yunas J, Bilad MR (2023) Sustainable biochar carbon biosorbent based on tamarind (Tamarindusindica L) Seed: Literature review, preparation, and adsorption isotherm. J Adv Res Appl Sci Eng Technol 2023:395–410. 
 https://doi.org/10.48317/IMIST
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR64" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4948">64</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 90" title="Xia J, Gao Y, Yu G (2021) Tetracycline removal from aqueous solution using zirconium-based metal-organic frameworks (Zr-MOFs) with different pore size and topology: adsorption isotherm, kinetic and mechanism studies. J Colloid Interface Sci 590:495–505. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2021.01.046
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR90" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e4951">90</a>]. </p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-6"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab6" data-test="table-caption">Table 6 The Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, and Dubinin-Radushkevich adsorption isotherm model constants</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/tables/6" aria-label="Full size table 6"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec20"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">3.6 </span>Adsorption kinetic studies</h3><p>The nature of the adsorption process depends mainly on the physical or chemical properties of the system and the respective conditions [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Mittal J, Ahmad R, Mariyam A et al (2021) Expeditious and enhanced sequestration of heavy metal ions from aqueous environment by papaya peel carbon: a green and low-cost adsorbent. Desalination Water Treat 210:365–376. 
 https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2021.26562
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e5681">7</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Subbaiah Munagapati V, Wen HY, Gollakota ARK et al (2022) Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles loaded papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed powder as an effective and recyclable adsorbent material for the separation of anionic azo dye (Congo Red) from liquid phase: evaluation of adsorption properties. J Mol Liq 345. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2021.118255
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e5684">52</a>]. The rate and mechanism of the adsorption when the pollutant (adsorbate) molecule is transmitted from a liquid phase (wastewater) to the solid phase (mark) were investigated by using five distinct kinetic models, such as pseudo-first order (PFO), pseudo-second order (PSO), liquid film diffusion, intraparticle diffusion, and Elovich kinetic model. Generally, according to Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#Tab7">7</a>, a good fit of the experimental data to the different studied models was observed. The results showed that the correlation coefficient (<i>R</i><sup>2</sup>) of the PSO had the highest values at 0.998, 0.995, 0.990, 0.793, 0.998, and 0.929 for the adsorption of COD, BOD, TSS, TDS, TN, and TP, respectively, onto the mark surface. </p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-7"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab7" data-test="table-caption">Table 7 Pseudo-first order (PFO), pseudo-second order (PSO), intraparticle diffusion, liquid film diffusion, and Elovich adsorption kinetics constant</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y/tables/7" aria-label="Full size table 7"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>The results illustrated that the adsorption kinetic model fitted well with the pseudo-second-rate equation, which referred to the overall adsorption process controlled by the chemisorption process, which was considered a rate-limiting step because the process of adsorption involved valence forces through exchanging or sharing electrons between the adsorbate and adsorbent surface [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Idohou EA, Fatombi JK, Osseni SA et al (2020) Preparation of activated carbon/chitosan/Carica papaya seeds composite for efficient adsorption of cationic dye from aqueous solution. Surf Interfaces 21. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2020.100741
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e6413">62</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 63" title="Rathi BS, Kumar PS (2021) Application of adsorption process for effective removal of emerging contaminants from water and wastewater. Environ Pollut 280. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116995
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e6416">63</a>]. For the intraparticle diffusion model, the zero value for <i>C</i> indicated that the intraparticle diffusion model was not only the rate-limiting step in the physicochemical parameters adsorption on the mark surface and that other kinetic models may control the adsorption rate at the same time [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Solangi NH, Kumar J, Mazari SA et al (2021) Development of fruit waste derived bio-adsorbents for wastewater treatment: a review. J Hazard Mater 416. 
 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125848
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e6422">3</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 65" title="Yousef R, Qiblawey H, El-Naas MH (2020) Adsorption as a process for produced water treatment: a review. Processes 8:1–22. 
 https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8121657
 
 " href="/article/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d353567759e6425">65</a>].</p><p>The using of <i>Carica papaya</i> seeds as a bio-adsorbent demonstrated a promising result in the adsorption process, by reducing most of the pollutants present in wastewater, but most of the reported work is based on the using of the papaya seeds as a bio-adsorbent on the laboratory scale, where the feasibility of transforming this naturally adsorbent into a valuable adsorbent for scaling up for large-scale wastewater treatment application remains unknown.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Conclusion and future perspective"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec21-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec21"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">4 </span>Conclusion and future perspective</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec21-content"><p>The present study can be considered a new approach in the field of wastewater treatment in that it provides a bio-adsorbent that is more effective and biodegradable compared to chemical and synthetic adsorbents. The result revealed that the mark of <i>Carica papaya</i> seed powder reduced COD, BOD, TSS, TDS, TN, and TP in sewage wastewater with high removal efficiency. The mark of papaya seeds was comprehensively characterized by using different methods. All results of FTIR, SEM, XRD, BET, DLS, XRF, and zeta potential confirmed the effectiveness of using the mark as a bio-adsorbent in sewage wastewater treatment. The equilibrium data for COD, BOD, TSS, TN, and TP fit well with the Langmuir isotherm model, indicating a monolayer coverage of the physicochemical parameters during the homogenous adsorption process. The kinetic studies exhibited that the experimental data fit well with the pseudo-second order (PSO) model. By using a three-stage multi-liner plot to evaluate the diffusion process, we found that the intraparticle diffusion model was not only the rate-limiting step. The main adsorption mechanism was the chemisorption process, which led to irreversible attraction between adsorbent and adsorbate due to the formation of strong chemical bonds between them. We should encourage the usage of <i>Carica papaya</i> seeds as a bio-adsorbent in wastewater treatment, as they are easily available, reducing the high cost of the current wastewater treatment method, being eco-friendly, and being highly efficient in removing the physicochemical impurities from wastewater. Therefore, further research on adsorbent surface modification is required to enhance the stability and removal efficiency of all physicochemical parameters from different wastewater sources.</p></div></div></section> </div> <section data-title="Data availability"><div class="c-article-section" id="data-availability-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="data-availability">Data availability</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="data-availability-content"> <p>All data analyzed or generated during this work are included in this published work.</p> </div></div></section><div id="MagazineFulltextArticleBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Bib1">References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1-content"><div data-container-section="references"><ol class="c-article-references" data-track-component="outbound reference" data-track-context="references section"><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="1."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR1">Bhuyan A, Ahmaruzzaman M (2023) Recent advances in new generation nanocomposite materials for adsorption of pharmaceuticals from aqueous environment. 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El-Desouky & Demiana H. Hanna</p></li><li id="Aff2"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Chemistry of Medicinal Plants Department, Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Institute, National Research Centre, 33 El Bohouth St., Dokki, 12622, Giza, Egypt</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Sally Abdel-Halim & Mohamed-Elamir F. Hegazy</p></li></ol><div class="u-js-hide u-hide-print" data-test="author-info"><span class="c-article__sub-heading">Authors</span><ol class="c-article-authors-search u-list-reset"><li id="auth-Doaa_Sayed-Nady-Aff1"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Doaa Sayed Nady</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?dc.creator=Doaa%20Sayed%20Nady" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Doaa%20Sayed%20Nady" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Doaa%20Sayed%20Nady%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li><li id="auth-Sally-Abdel_Halim-Aff2"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Sally Abdel-Halim</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?dc.creator=Sally%20Abdel-Halim" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Sally%20Abdel-Halim" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Sally%20Abdel-Halim%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li><li id="auth-Mohamed_Elamir_F_-Hegazy-Aff2"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Mohamed-Elamir F. Hegazy</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?dc.creator=Mohamed-Elamir%20F.%20Hegazy" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Mohamed-Elamir%20F.%20Hegazy" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Mohamed-Elamir%20F.%20Hegazy%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li><li id="auth-Mohamed_A_-El_Desouky-Aff1"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Mohamed A. El-Desouky</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?dc.creator=Mohamed%20A.%20El-Desouky" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Mohamed%20A.%20El-Desouky" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Mohamed%20A.%20El-Desouky%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li><li id="auth-Demiana_H_-Hanna-Aff1"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Demiana H. Hanna</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?dc.creator=Demiana%20H.%20Hanna" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Demiana%20H.%20Hanna" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Demiana%20H.%20Hanna%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li></ol></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="contributions">Contributions</h3><p>All authors contributed to the study’s conception and design. The samples were collected, prepared, and analyzed by Doaa Sayed Nady. The manuscript was written by Doaa Sayed Nady with contributions from all the other authors. Mohamed Ali EL-Desouky, Demiana Helmy Hanna, Sally Abdel-Halim, and Mohamed-Elamir F. Hegazy revised the manuscript. All authors discussed the results, commented on the article, and read and approved the final manuscript.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="corresponding-author">Corresponding author</h3><p id="corresponding-author-list">Correspondence to <a id="corresp-c1" href="mailto:dhelmy@sci.cu.edu.eg">Demiana H. 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id="citeas">Cite this article</h3><p class="c-bibliographic-information__citation">Nady, D.S., Abdel-Halim, S., Hegazy, ME.F. <i>et al.</i> Use of <i>Carica papaya</i> waste as bio-adsorbent for sewage wastewater treatment. <i>Biomass Conv. Bioref.</i> (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y</p><p class="c-bibliographic-information__download-citation u-hide-print"><a data-test="citation-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="download article citation" data-track-label="link" data-track-external="" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y?format=refman&flavour=citation">Download citation<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p><ul class="c-bibliographic-information__list" data-test="publication-history"><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Received<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2024-08-06">06 August 2024</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Revised<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2024-10-09">09 October 2024</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Accepted<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2024-10-26">26 October 2024</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Published<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2024-11-22">22 November 2024</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item c-bibliographic-information__list-item--full-width"><p><abbr title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</abbr><span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value">https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-024-06300-y</span></p></li></ul><div data-component="share-box"><div class="c-article-share-box u-display-none" hidden=""><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Share this article</h3><p 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