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id="toc-The_fall_of_the_western_Roman_empire_and_barbarian_invasions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_fall_of_the_western_Roman_empire_and_barbarian_invasions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>The fall of the western Roman empire and barbarian invasions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_fall_of_the_western_Roman_empire_and_barbarian_invasions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_conquest_and_Reconquista" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_conquest_and_Reconquista"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Islamic conquest and Reconquista</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_conquest_and_Reconquista-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unification_of_Spain_and_beginning_of_the_Spanish_golden_age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unification_of_Spain_and_beginning_of_the_Spanish_golden_age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Unification of Spain and beginning of the Spanish golden age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unification_of_Spain_and_beginning_of_the_Spanish_golden_age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_conquest_of_the_Americas_and_the_beginnings_of_empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_conquest_of_the_Americas_and_the_beginnings_of_empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>The conquest of the Americas and the beginnings of empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_conquest_of_the_Americas_and_the_beginnings_of_empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Habsburg_Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habsburg_Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Habsburg Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habsburg_Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_rivalry_in_the_18th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_rivalry_in_the_18th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>European rivalry in the 18th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_rivalry_in_the_18th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Napoleonic_Wars_and_the_loss_of_the_Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Napoleonic_Wars_and_the_loss_of_the_Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>The Napoleonic Wars and the loss of the Americas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Napoleonic_Wars_and_the_loss_of_the_Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century_Carlist_Wars_and_the_final_days_of_empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century_Carlist_Wars_and_the_final_days_of_empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>19th century Carlist Wars and the final days of empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century_Carlist_Wars_and_the_final_days_of_empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_20th_century_and_the_Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_20th_century_and_the_Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Early 20th century and the Civil War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_20th_century_and_the_Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_post-war_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_post-war_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>The post-war period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_post-war_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spanish_military_cultural_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spanish_military_cultural_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Spanish military cultural legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spanish_military_cultural_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/La_expugnaci%C3%B3n_de_Rheinfelden_por_Vicente_Carducho.jpg/250px-La_expugnaci%C3%B3n_de_Rheinfelden_por_Vicente_Carducho.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/La_expugnaci%C3%B3n_de_Rheinfelden_por_Vicente_Carducho.jpg/375px-La_expugnaci%C3%B3n_de_Rheinfelden_por_Vicente_Carducho.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/La_expugnaci%C3%B3n_de_Rheinfelden_por_Vicente_Carducho.jpg/500px-La_expugnaci%C3%B3n_de_Rheinfelden_por_Vicente_Carducho.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rheinfelden_(1633)" title="Siege of Rheinfelden (1633)">The capture of Rheinfelden</a></i> (1633). The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish empire">Spanish empire</a> was one of the most powerful in the world and one of largest in history.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military history</a> of <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a></b>, from the period of the <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthaginian</a> conquests over the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenicians">Phoenicians</a> to the former <a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–present)">Afghan War</a> spans a period of more than 2200 years, and includes the history of battles fought in the territory of <a href="/wiki/Modern_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Spain">modern Spain</a>, as well as her former and current <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">overseas possessions and territories</a>, and the military history of the people of Spain, regardless of geography. </p><p>Spain's <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">early</a> military history emerged from her location on the western fringes of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a>, a base for attacks between <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>. With the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, Spain was devastated by successive barbarian invasions, with stability only gradually appearing with the later years of the <a href="/wiki/Visigothic" class="mw-redirect" title="Visigothic">Visigothic</a> kingdom. The early <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> for Spain saw the country forming the front line in a battle between Christian and Islamic forces in the Mediterranean; the <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Conquista</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> took centuries to reach a military resolution. The period from 1492, when the Reconquista was completed and the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization of the Americas</a> began, to the late 17th century is known as the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Spanish Golden Age</a>. Spain acquired a vast <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">empire</a> by defeating the centralised states of the Americas, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(1521%E2%80%931898)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Philippines (1521–1898)">colonising the Philippines</a>. Her <a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">tercio</a> units, backed by imperial gold and silver, were involved in most the major wars of the period. It was not until the years after the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> that Spanish military power began to fade; even then, supported by a reinvigorated <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Navy" title="Spanish Navy">navy</a>, Spain remained a major military power throughout the 18th century, in competition with Britain and France on the global stage. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> changed Spanish military history dramatically; the <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Peninsular War</a> saw the development of <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla warfare</a> against the occupying French forces. The collapse of central Spanish authority resulted in successful <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">wars of independence</a> amongst Spain's American colonies, drastically reducing the size of her empire, and in turn led to a sequence of <a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil wars</a> in Spain itself, many fought by frustrated veterans of the French and colonial campaigns. Attempts to reassert imperial power during the mid-19th century, enabled by the development of the <a href="/wiki/Steam_frigate" title="Steam frigate">steam frigate</a> ultimately failed, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">collapse</a> of the remnants of Spain's empire in the Americas and Asia in 1898 at the hands of a rising power, the United States of America. The political tensions that had driven the <a href="/wiki/Carlist_Wars" title="Carlist Wars">Carlist Wars</a> remained unchecked, spilling over once again in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> of 1936–39. Bringing a foretaste of the tactics of the Second World War, several nations used the conflict as a testing ground for new <a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">aerial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armoured_warfare" title="Armoured warfare">armoured warfare</a> tactics. In the post-war period, Spain has increasingly turned away from the last remaining colonial conflicts in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, and played a growing modern military role within the context of the <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> alliance. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_Spain_from_Carthaginian_influence_to_Roman_rule">Ancient Spain from Carthaginian influence to Roman rule</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Spain&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Ancient Spain from Carthaginian influence to Roman rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical</a> period, Spain was a mix of <a href="/wiki/Celt" class="mw-redirect" title="Celt">Celtic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iberians" title="Iberians">Iberian</a> tribal states, and <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> trading ports, with the largest state being the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Tartessus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tartessus">Tartessus</a>. With the eruption of war between <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> colony in <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a>, the Carthaginians begin extending their influence in Iberia, creating the city of New Carthage (<a href="/wiki/Cartagena,_Spain" title="Cartagena, Spain">Cartagena</a>), in hopes of creating a trading empire. Following the <a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First Punic War</a> with <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a>, in 237 BC, <a href="/wiki/Hamilcar_Barca" title="Hamilcar Barca">Hamilcar Barca</a>, the famous Carthaginian general, then began the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Turdetania" class="mw-redirect" title="Turdetania">Turdetania</a> (the successor state of <a href="/wiki/Tartessos" title="Tartessos">Tartessus</a>) and <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Gades</a> to provide a springboard for further attacks on Rome. Hamilcar entrusted the conquest and military governance of the region to his son <a href="/wiki/Hasdrubal_the_Fair" title="Hasdrubal the Fair">Hasdrubal the Fair</a> – his other son, <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a>, would march his troops across Hispania with elephants to lead them on Rome in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a>. During that war, Rome declared <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a> to be a Roman <i><a href="/wiki/Provincia" class="mw-redirect" title="Provincia">provincia</a></i> in 218 BC, beginning a century-long campaign to subdue the people of Iberia to Roman. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:05_colonna_traiana_da_sud_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/05_colonna_traiana_da_sud_01.jpg/240px-05_colonna_traiana_da_sud_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/05_colonna_traiana_da_sud_01.jpg/360px-05_colonna_traiana_da_sud_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/05_colonna_traiana_da_sud_01.jpg/480px-05_colonna_traiana_da_sud_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1488" data-file-height="1061" /></a><figcaption>Relief from <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a>, depicting the <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Hispanic-born Emperor</a>'s military successes.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the expulsion of the Carthaginians from Hispania in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second</a> and <a href="/wiki/Third_Punic_War" title="Third Punic War">Third Punic Wars</a>, Rome attempted to subdue the native tribes. In the northeasterly province of <a href="/wiki/Hispania_Citerior" title="Hispania Citerior">Hispania Citerior</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_Wars" title="Celtiberian Wars">Celtiberian Wars</a> occupied Roman forces for the better part of the 2nd century. In <a href="/wiki/Hispania_Ulterior" title="Hispania Ulterior">Hispania Ulterior</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lusitanian_War" title="Lusitanian War">Lusitanian War</a> did the same. The resistance of the <a href="/wiki/Lusitani" class="mw-redirect" title="Lusitani">Lusitani</a> under <a href="/wiki/Viriathus" title="Viriathus">Viriathus</a> became legendary across the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a>. In the troubled final years of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Sertorius" title="Quintus Sertorius">Quintus Sertorius</a> held most of Iberia as a <i><a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a></i> independent sovereign against the partisans of <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Sulla</a>. His attitude towards the natives and his military reforms – he was a <a href="/wiki/Partisan_(military)" title="Partisan (military)">partisan</a> of <a href="/wiki/Caius_Marius" class="mw-redirect" title="Caius Marius">Marius</a> – secured him the loyalty of the <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">populace</a> and the army and his general success until his <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">assassination</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_era" title="Spanish era">Spanish era</a>, a dating system predominant in Iberia until the close of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, began in 38 BC. The last region of Hispania to be subjected was the northwest, finally being conquered in the <a href="/wiki/Cantabrian_Wars" title="Cantabrian Wars">Cantabrian Wars</a>, which ended in 19 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under Roman rule, Hispania contributed, like the rest of empire, to the Roman military, providing <a href="/wiki/Auxiliaries_(Roman_military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Auxiliaries (Roman military)">auxiliary forces</a>, in particular <a href="/wiki/Ala_(Roman_military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ala (Roman military)"><i>alae</i></a> <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a>, and later <a href="/wiki/Legionary" title="Legionary">legionaries</a>, . Hispania also shaped Roman military affairs more subtely. The original Roman <a href="/wiki/Gladius" title="Gladius">Gladius</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gladius#Types" title="Gladius"><i>Gladius Hispaniensis</i></a>, stemmed directly from the <a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberian</a> infantry sword used in Carthaginian Spain; this would form the basis of the Roman weapon for several centuries. Some of Rome's most famous military Emperors, including <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theodosius" title="Theodosius">Theodosius</a>, were born in Hispania. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_fall_of_the_western_Roman_empire_and_barbarian_invasions">The fall of the western Roman empire and barbarian invasions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Spain&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The fall of the western Roman empire and barbarian invasions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the 3rd through 6th centuries, the Roman Empire was beset by numerous barbarian invaders, mostly <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic</a>, who <a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">migrated</a> through its borders and began warring and settling in its territories. While the <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a> were fighting each other for supremacy in southern <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, the confederation of the <a href="/wiki/Suevi" class="mw-redirect" title="Suevi">Suevi</a> crossed the <a href="/wiki/Pyrenees" title="Pyrenees">Pyrenees</a> and passing through <a href="/wiki/Vasconia" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasconia">Vasconia</a>, entered <a href="/wiki/Gallaecia" title="Gallaecia">Gallaecia</a> in 409. The Vandals soon followed the Suevi example, with the Alans close behind. The Alans settled in <a href="/wiki/Lusitania" title="Lusitania">Lusitania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carthaginiensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginiensis">Carthaginiensis</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Silingi" title="Silingi">Siling Vandals</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baetica" class="mw-redirect" title="Baetica">Baetica</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Hasdingi" title="Hasdingi">Asding Vandals</a> vied with the Suevi for Gallaecia. The <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> crossed the Pyrenees to expand their kingdom in 416. They pushed the Vandals and Alans south, defeating and killing the Alan king <a href="/wiki/Attaces" title="Attaces">Attaces</a> in 426 and forcing the two tribes to amalgamate and retreat across the <a href="/wiki/Straits_of_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect" title="Straits of Gibraltar">Straits of Gibraltar</a> into Africa. For almost thirty years, Spain was the location for vicious tribal conflicts. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reino_de_los_visigodos-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Reino_de_los_visigodos-en.svg/220px-Reino_de_los_visigodos-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Reino_de_los_visigodos-en.svg/330px-Reino_de_los_visigodos-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Reino_de_los_visigodos-en.svg/440px-Reino_de_los_visigodos-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="653" data-file-height="670" /></a><figcaption>The Visigothic kingdom at its height.</figcaption></figure> <p>The first barbarians to settle were the <a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suevi</a>, whose king <a href="/wiki/Hermeric" title="Hermeric">Hermeric</a>, a former <i><a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">foederatus</a></i> of Rome, ratified a peace with the local Hispano-Roman population in 438. Weary of fighting, Hermeric <a href="/wiki/Abdication" title="Abdication">abdicated</a> in favour of his son <a href="/wiki/Rechila" title="Rechila">Rechila</a>. As the <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic kingdom</a> expanded into Iberia, expelling the Vandals and Alans, the Suevi expanded their own realm as far south as <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9rida,_Spain" title="Mérida, Spain">Mérida</a>. In 456, the new Catholic king, <a href="/wiki/Rechiar" title="Rechiar">Rechiar</a>, died in battle with the Visigoth king <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_II" title="Theodoric II">Theodoric II</a> and the Suevi kingdom began to retreat under Gothic pressure. Beset by internal political conflict, the Suevi capitulated to the Visigoths in 585. Some resistance was maintained for a few years, but soon the last of Suevi resistance was erased. </p><p>The Visigoths consolidated a kingdom spanning most of Iberia and Gaul. For the next two centuries, they warred not only amongst themselves in a sequence of succession crises – which followed the election of a new king after every royal death,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but also against the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, which was trying to regain lost territory in the south, the <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arian</a> Suevi trying to preserve their hold on Gallaecia, and the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> pushing south against them from Gaul. The Visigoth military structure was highly decentralised – the great territorial <a href="/wiki/Magnate" title="Magnate">magnates</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">duces</a></i> (dukes), maintained their own armies, as in all the great Germanic kingdoms of Europe at the time. These armies rarely cooperated in campaigns.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vouill%C3%A9" title="Battle of Vouillé">Battle of Vouillé</a> in 507, the Franks under <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a> wrested control of <a href="/wiki/Aquitaine" title="Aquitaine">Aquitaine</a> from the Visigoths. The Visigoths lost all of their territory north of the <a href="/wiki/Pyrenees" title="Pyrenees">Pyrenees</a> except the province of <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Narbonensis" title="Gallia Narbonensis">Gallia Narbonensis</a>. The first half of the 6th century was largely a failure for the Visigoths. They failed to hold onto their Gallic possessions, they failed to oust the Suevi, and they failed to repulse the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> when it first endeavoured to reassert control over its Iberian provinces, taking advantage of a local rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 554, Granada and southernmost <a href="/wiki/Hispania_Baetica" title="Hispania Baetica">Hispania Baetica</a> were taken from the Byzantines; under the last Arian king, <a href="/wiki/Leovigild" class="mw-redirect" title="Leovigild">Leovigild</a>, the Suevi kingdom was <a href="/wiki/Annexation" title="Annexation">annexed</a> in 585 and the war of reconquest against the remainder of the Byzantine territories was begun, finally being completed under King <a href="/wiki/Suintila" title="Suintila">Suintila</a> in 624. The Visigoths faced no serious external threat from then on until the sudden <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula">Moorish invasion</a> of 711. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Islamic_conquest_and_Reconquista">Islamic conquest and Reconquista</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Spain&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Islamic conquest and Reconquista"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For almost seven hundred years, Spain was the battleground for the opposing forces of the Islamic <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> and Western Christian forces. Both Muslims and Christian were motivated by religious conviction, which inspired the warfare. The initial <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Islamic invasion of Iberia</a> was sudden and unexpected. The varied <a href="/wiki/Moorish" class="mw-redirect" title="Moorish">Moorish</a> tribes of <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> united under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> generals sent by the reigning <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad</a> <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">caliph</a> and crossed the <a href="/wiki/Straits_of_Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect" title="Straits of Gibraltar">Straits of Gibraltar</a> in 711 under the leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Berber_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber people">Berber</a> <a href="/wiki/Tariq_ibn_Ziyad" title="Tariq ibn Ziyad">Tariq ibn Ziyad</a>. Tariq won a swift <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guadalete" title="Battle of Guadalete">victory at the Guadalete</a> and defeated and killed the reigning Gothic king, <a href="/wiki/Roderic" title="Roderic">Roderic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a campaign lasting eight years, the whole of Iberia was subjected to Umayyad authority, except for the <a href="/wiki/Asturias" title="Asturias">Asturias</a> mountain range in the far northwest and the pockets of resistance in <a href="/wiki/Navarre" title="Navarre">Navarre</a>. The Islamic offensive ultimately paused after the losses it suffered in <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankland</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Asturias" title="Asturias">Asturias</a>, where battles such as those at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tours" title="Battle of Tours">Tours</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Covadonga" title="Battle of Covadonga">Covadonga</a> showed some of the potential weaknesses of the Arab methods of warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MoorandChristianBattle.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/MoorandChristianBattle.png/250px-MoorandChristianBattle.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/MoorandChristianBattle.png/375px-MoorandChristianBattle.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/MoorandChristianBattle.png/500px-MoorandChristianBattle.png 2x" data-file-width="773" data-file-height="563" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moorish</a> and Christian <i>Reconquista</i> battle, taken from the <i><a href="/wiki/Cantigas_de_Santa_Maria" title="Cantigas de Santa Maria">Cantigas de Santa María</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>The Islamic conquest was only very slowly undone, over the course of seven centuries in what the Christians of Spain called the <i><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></i>. Three main forces were involved in this process, the Visigothic holdouts in the Asturias, the holdouts in Navarre and the Pyrenees, and the Franks of Aquitaine. The Reconquista, as a concerted effort to remove the Muslims from the territories they held, commenced in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_I_of_Asturias" title="Alfonso I of Asturias">Alfonso I</a> (739–757). Alfonso led an offensive into the valley of the <a href="/wiki/Duero" class="mw-redirect" title="Duero">Duero</a> and left the region depopulated, the so-called "Desert of the Duero". For the next century, this prevented any serious Islamic incursions into the Christian territories of the north. During the late 8th and early 9th centuries, the Franks under their <a href="/wiki/Carolingian" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingian">Carolingian</a> rulers took up the cause of reconquest along the Mediterranean littoral. By 797, <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>'s son, <a href="/wiki/Louis_the_Pious" title="Louis the Pious">Louis the Pious</a>, captured <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>, establishing a clear bulwark against future invasions. The Basques extended their kingdom as far as <a href="/wiki/N%C3%A1jera" title="Nájera">Nájera</a>, and a widespread <i><a href="/wiki/Repoblaci%C3%B3n" title="Repoblación">repoblación</a></i> of the depopulated areas began, extending Christian borders southwards.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite a resurgence during the 10th century, the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a>'s attempts to reverse the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> failed, and by the 11th century, Christian Iberia was united under <a href="/wiki/Sancho_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Sancho the Great">Sancho the Great</a>, the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Navarre" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Navarre">King of Navarre</a>, whilst the caliphate was divided and engulfed by civil war, the period of the <i><a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">taifas</a></i>. The 11th century saw the development of a concept of Christian holy war, to be waged against Islam with the purpose of the Christians recapturing long lost territories – the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusade</a>. Crusading, under other names, also took place in Spain; Franks and <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a> and even <a href="/wiki/Papal" class="mw-redirect" title="Papal">Papal</a> troops took to Spain in increasing numbers to join the locals in their fight against "the Moor." The last threat of the 11th century came in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Almoravids" class="mw-redirect" title="Almoravids">Almoravids</a>, who with their well disciplined forces first established a hegemony over <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> and then extended it over al-Andalus. While the <i>Reconquista</i> paused in the west, to the east <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_the_Battler" title="Alfonso the Battler">Alfonso the Battler</a>, the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Aragon" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Aragon">King of Aragon</a>, redoubled efforts to retake the valley of the <a href="/wiki/Ebro" title="Ebro">Ebro</a>. In 1212, the <i>Reconquistadores</i> gained a decisive victory over the <a href="/wiki/Almohads" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohads">Almohads</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Las_Navas_de_Tolosa" title="Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa">Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa</a>. Shortly after the battle, the Castilians took <a href="/wiki/Baeza,_Spain" title="Baeza, Spain">Baeza</a> and, then, <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Abeda" title="Úbeda">Úbeda</a>, major fortified cities near the battlefield, and gateways to invade Andalucia. Thereafter, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_III_of_Castile" title="Ferdinand III of Castile">Ferdinand III of Castile</a> retook <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Andalusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Córdoba, Andalusia">Córdoba</a> in 1236, <a href="/wiki/Ja%C3%A9n,_Spain" title="Jaén, Spain">Jaén</a> <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ja%C3%A9n_(1245%E2%80%9346)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Jaén (1245–46)">in 1246</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a> in 1248; then he took <a href="/wiki/Arcos_de_la_Frontera" title="Arcos de la Frontera">Arcos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medina-Sidonia" title="Medina-Sidonia">Medina-Sidonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jerez" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerez">Jerez</a> and Cádiz, effectively bringing the bulk of the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">reconquista</a> to a conclusion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unification_of_Spain_and_beginning_of_the_Spanish_golden_age">Unification of Spain and beginning of the Spanish golden age</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Spain&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Unification of Spain and beginning of the Spanish golden age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Rendici%C3%B3n_de_Granada_-_Pradilla.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/La_Rendici%C3%B3n_de_Granada_-_Pradilla.jpg/300px-La_Rendici%C3%B3n_de_Granada_-_Pradilla.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/La_Rendici%C3%B3n_de_Granada_-_Pradilla.jpg/450px-La_Rendici%C3%B3n_de_Granada_-_Pradilla.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/La_Rendici%C3%B3n_de_Granada_-_Pradilla.jpg/600px-La_Rendici%C3%B3n_de_Granada_-_Pradilla.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8133" data-file-height="5210" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/The_Surrender_of_Granada" title="The Surrender of Granada">La rendición de Granada</a></i> (1882) by <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pradilla_Ortiz" title="Francisco Pradilla Ortiz">Francisco Pradilla Ortiz</a>, showing a romanticised version of the final act of the Spanish <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> under a unified <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aragon" title="Aragon">Aragon</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Late medieval Spain was divided into the three Christian kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Navarre" title="Navarre">Navarre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aragon" title="Aragon">Aragon</a>, alongside the small, last remaining Islamic state of <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a>. The civil wars and conflicts of the late 14th and early 15th century would result in the unification of the Christian kingdoms; combined with advances in naval technology, this would pave the way for the rise of Spain as a dominant European power. </p><p>Castile, a medium-sized kingdom with a strong maritime tradition, was plunged into civil war following the death of <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_XI" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfonso XI">Alfonso XI</a> in 1349; the conflict between <a href="/wiki/Pedro_of_Castile" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedro of Castile">Pedro of Castile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_Castile" title="Henry II of Castile">Henry II of Castile</a> became bound up with the wider politics of the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>. With France supporting Henry and his descendants, England exploited opportunities to destabilise the regime. Attempts by <a href="/wiki/John_I_of_Castile" title="John I of Castile">John I</a>, Henry's son, to unify Castile and Portugal, resulted in a Portuguese uprising and the intervention of the English <a href="/wiki/John_of_Gaunt" title="John of Gaunt">John of Gaunt</a>, claiming the Castilian throne by right of marriage. Not until 1387 was the civil war finally concluded, with John of Gaunt accepting a cash settlement.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aragon, a smaller kingdom but with widespread claims to lands across the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a>, also saw internal clashes over dynastic inheritance; <a href="/wiki/Peter_IV_of_Aragon" title="Peter IV of Aragon">Peter IV</a> fought a harsh campaign against his nobles from 1346 to 1349 over his daughter's right to inherit the throne. </p><p>The threat of internal stability remained until the marriage of <a href="/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castile" title="Isabella I of Castile">Queen Isabella I</a> of <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">King Ferdinand II</a> of <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragon</a> in 1469. The two monarchs were promptly challenged by <a href="/wiki/Joanna_la_Beltraneja" title="Joanna la Beltraneja">Joan of Castile</a> but were swiftly successful. Isabella would go on to establish the <i><a href="/wiki/Hermandad" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermandad">Hermandad</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">militia</a> system, which would provide her with a royal counterbalance to any future challenge from the nobility.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two monarchs proceeded to <a href="/wiki/Granada_War" title="Granada War">conquer</a> the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Granada" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Granada">Kingdom of Granada</a>, the last Islamic state in the Iberian peninsula, which was completed by 1492. In that same year, the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">Alhambra Decree</a> was issued, expelling all Jews from both Castile and Aragon. Now unified, Spain now enjoyed relative internal stability; rights and lands across the Mediterranean; and a strong tradition of seafaring in both the Atlantic and Mediterranean, which it would maximise in the coming decades. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_conquest_of_the_Americas_and_the_beginnings_of_empire">The conquest of the Americas and the beginnings of empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Spain&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The conquest of the Americas and the beginnings of empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inca-Spanish_confrontation.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Inca-Spanish_confrontation.JPG/250px-Inca-Spanish_confrontation.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Inca-Spanish_confrontation.JPG/375px-Inca-Spanish_confrontation.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Inca-Spanish_confrontation.JPG/500px-Inca-Spanish_confrontation.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>The defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Incas</a> by Spanish forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cajamarca" title="Battle of Cajamarca">battle of Cajamarca</a>, 16 November 1532.</figcaption></figure> <p>After <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>'s successful navigation to the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> under Spanish patronage, Spanish forces rapidly began to occupy much of the new territories, rapidly taking the <a href="/wiki/Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a> and effectively destroying the local <a href="/wiki/Arawak_language" title="Arawak language">Arawak</a> speaking indigenous groups. The efforts of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a>, reaching the island of Limasawa in 1521,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> led to the subsequent establishment of the colony of the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> under <a href="/wiki/Miguel_L%C3%B3pez_de_Legazpi" title="Miguel López de Legazpi">Miguel López de Legazpi</a> which was to become an essential Spanish military base in the Pacific. The challenge of the <a href="/wiki/Barbary_Pirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary Pirates">Barbary Pirates</a> encouraged defensive and punitive expeditions across the Mediterranean, resulting in the conquest of various outposts in North Africa, including <a href="/wiki/Melilla" title="Melilla">Melilla</a> in 1497, <a href="/wiki/Mers_El_K%C3%A9bir" title="Mers El Kébir">Mazalquivir</a> in 1505, <a href="/wiki/Oran" title="Oran">Oran</a> in 1509, <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> in 1510, <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a> in 1511 and the smaller <a href="/wiki/Plazas_de_Soberania" class="mw-redirect" title="Plazas de Soberania">Plazas de Soberania</a>. </p><p>The most dramatic impact of Spanish military power, however, lay in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">defeat of the American empires</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Aztec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec">Aztecs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Incas" class="mw-redirect" title="Incas">Incas</a>. From 1519 to 1521, a coalition army of Spanish soldiers and <a href="/wiki/Tlaxcala_(Nahua_state)" title="Tlaxcala (Nahua state)">Tlaxcalan</a> warriors led by <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xicotencatl_the_Younger" class="mw-redirect" title="Xicotencatl the Younger">Xicotencatl the Younger</a> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">defeated</a> the <a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec Empire</a>; in 1532, <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</a> and his brothers <a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Pizarro" title="Gonzalo Pizarro">Gonzalo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hernando_Pizarro" title="Hernando Pizarro">Hernando</a> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">invaded and occupied</a> the <a href="/wiki/Inca" class="mw-redirect" title="Inca">Inca</a> Empire from their base in <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a>. Both wars in which very small numbers of Spanish soldiers – the <a href="/wiki/Conquistadors" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquistadors">conquistadors</a> – who were mostly veterans of Spain's European or North African campaigns, were backed by local allies and defeated well established empires, shared many similarities. The highly proficient conquistadors benefited from their access to <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> <a href="/wiki/Sword" title="Sword">swords</a>, axes, spears, pikes, halberds, bows, crossbows, <a href="/wiki/Combat_helmet" title="Combat helmet">helmets</a> and armour, not to mention small <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">cannon</a>, none of which were familiar to local forces. The Spanish also benefited from their immunity to many common European diseases which were to decimate their local enemies.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spain had one of its worst military defeats in the War by Fire and blood (also known as the <a href="/wiki/Chichimeca_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Chichimeca war">Chichimeca war</a>). They were defeated by the native allies of the Great Chichimeca north of the Aztec empire. This war was very distinct considering the natives created arrows that were very effective at penetrating armor. They had to pay the natives for peace. </p><p>The Spanish were to fare less well against the less centralised societies of southern Chile, however, particularly once local forces began to adapt to, or actually adopt similar military technologies. Although <a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Valdivia" title="Pedro de Valdivia">Pedro de Valdivia</a> was able to successfully <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Chile" title="Conquest of Chile">invade Chile</a> in 1540, the first great rebellion of the <a href="/wiki/Arauco_War" title="Arauco War">Arauco wars</a> was to begin only 1553 later, marking the beginning of a conflict that would last until the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spanish forces, operating at huge distances from their European or even Caribbean centres of power, were frequently available in small numbers; Valdivia had great difficulty in recruiting even the 150 Spanish soldiers he used to invade Chile, and the frequent reversals during the Arauco wars led to losses that often took several years to replace. As time progressed, the advantages of the Spanish began to increasingly centre on their access to early modern firearms, especially the <a href="/wiki/Musket" title="Musket">musket</a>, rather than the technologies that had won them their early successes.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Habsburg_Spain">Habsburg Spain</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Spain&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Habsburg Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Pavia_1525.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Battle_of_Pavia_1525.PNG/300px-Battle_of_Pavia_1525.PNG" decoding="async" width="300" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Battle_of_Pavia_1525.PNG/450px-Battle_of_Pavia_1525.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Battle_of_Pavia_1525.PNG 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="502" /></a><figcaption> The Battle of Pavia, 1525. Habsburg forces capture the French king, Francois I</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 16th and 17th centuries, <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Habsburg Spain</a> (1516-1700) saw a steady growth in its military power. The <a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a> (1494–1559) resulted in an ultimate Spanish victory and hegemony in southern Italy and in the Duchy of Milan by expelling the French. During the war, the Spanish army transformed its organization and tactics, evolving from a primarily pike and halberd wielding force into some of the first <a href="/wiki/Pike_and_shot" title="Pike and shot">pike and shot</a> formation of <a href="/wiki/Arquebus" title="Arquebus">arquebusiers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pikemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Pikemen">pikemen</a>, known as the colunella. During the 16th century this formation evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">tercio</a> infantry formation. The new formation and battle tactics were developed because of Spain's inability to field sufficient cavalry forces to face the heavy French cavalry.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Habsburg Spain came to enjoy an axis of allied and neutral territories from <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a> through <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a> and northwards to the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, a route for reinforcements that came to be called the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Backed by the financial resources drawn from the Americas,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spain could afford to mount lengthy campaigns against her enemies, such as the long running <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Revolt">Dutch revolt</a> (1568–1609), defending Christian Europe from Ottoman raids and invasions, supporting the Catholic cause in the <a href="/wiki/French_wars_of_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="French wars of religion">French civil wars</a> and fighting, England during the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)">Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)</a>. </p><p>By one modern estimate, the Spanish army in 1625 was 230,000 regulars (80,000 in field armies, 150,000 in garrisons), exclusive of naval personnel and militia.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By another the Spanish army grew in size from around 20,000 in the 1470s, to around 300,000 by the 1630s during the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> that tore Europe apart, requiring the recruitment of soldiers from across Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> King <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Spain" title="Philip IV of Spain">Philip IV</a> himself stated in 1626: "Last year, 1625, we had nearly 300,000 infantry and cavalry in our pay, and over 500,000 men of the militia under arms, whilst the fortresses of Spain are being put into a thorough state of defence. The fleet rose at one time in 1625 to 108 ships of war at sea, without counting the vessels at Flanders, and the crews are the most skillfull mariners this realm ever possessed. This very year of 1626 we have had two royal armies in Flanders and one in the Palatinate, and yet all the power of France, England, Sweden, Venice, Savoy, Denmark, Holland, Brandenburg, Saxony, and Weimar could not save them from our victorious arms."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With such numbers involved, Spain had trouble funding the war efforts on so many fronts. The non-payment of troops led to many <a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">mutinies</a> and events such as the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Antwerp" title="Sack of Antwerp">Sack of Antwerp</a> (1576), when unpaid <a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">tercio</a> units looted the Dutch city. Spain's holdings in Italy and the Low Countries contributed large amounts of men and treasure to the empire's army: each province was allotted a number of troops it had to pay for (including the ethnic Spanish garrisons) and recruits it had to provide. Troops were generally sent outside of the areas they were recruited in.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1635 to 1659, the Duchy of Milan provided 100,000 soldiers to the Spanish army, while the Kingdom of Naples provided 53,500 (plus a naval expedition) from 1631 to 1636 alone.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the east, Habsburg Spain fought alongside other Christian allies against the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, taking part in numerous actions and campaigns in and around the Mediterranean over the period. The naval competition culminated in victory for the Christian alliance at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto_(1571)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Lepanto (1571)">battle of Lepanto</a> in 1571, the last naval battle in the Mediterranean to see the large scale use of <a href="/wiki/Galleys" class="mw-redirect" title="Galleys">galleys</a> by both sides. In the middle of the century, Spain developed the <a href="/wiki/Galleon" title="Galleon">galleon</a> for naval warfare, using them in convoys to link her possessions in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, the Americas and Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Manila_galleons" class="mw-redirect" title="Manila galleons">Manila galleons</a> sailed once or twice per year across the Pacific Ocean, whilst the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet" title="Spanish treasure fleet">Spanish treasure fleets</a> linked Mexico back to Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg/300px-Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg/450px-Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg/600px-Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1341" /></a><figcaption> The Battle of Lepanto, 1571, ended in victory for the Spanish led Christian navy against the Ottoman navy</figcaption></figure> <p>Spain fought the <a href="/wiki/Castilian_War" title="Castilian War">Castilian War</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruneian Empire">Bruneian Empire</a>. Spanish forces attempted to conquer Cambodia in the <a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Spanish_War" title="Cambodian–Spanish War">Cambodian–Spanish War</a> but were defeated. The Moros fought against the Spanish invasion for centuries in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Moro_conflict" title="Spanish–Moro conflict">Spanish–Moro conflict</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Igorot_people" title="Igorot people">Igorot people</a> resisted and fought against the Spanish. </p><p>The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) drew in Spain alongside most other European states. Spain entered the conflict with a strong position, but the ongoing fighting gradually eroded her advantages; first Dutch, then Swedish innovations had made the <a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">tercio</a> more vulnerable, having less flexibility and <a href="/wiki/Firepower" title="Firepower">firepower</a> than its more modern equivalents.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, Spanish armies continued to win major battles and sieges throughout this period across large swathes of Europe. French entry into the war in 1635 put additional pressure on Spain, with the French victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Battle of Rocroi</a> in 1643 being a major boost for the French, though it proved far from decisive in the long-running <a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)</a>. By the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> in 1648, which brought an end to most of the fighting, Spain was clearly exhausted. Politics too had begun to count against Spain. While Spain was fighting France, Portugal – which had been under personal union with Spain for 60 years – acclaimed <a href="/wiki/John_IV_of_Portugal" title="John IV of Portugal">John IV of Braganza</a> as king in 1640. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Velazquez-The_Surrender_of_Breda.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Velazquez-The_Surrender_of_Breda.jpg/250px-Velazquez-The_Surrender_of_Breda.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Velazquez-The_Surrender_of_Breda.jpg/375px-Velazquez-The_Surrender_of_Breda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Velazquez-The_Surrender_of_Breda.jpg/500px-Velazquez-The_Surrender_of_Breda.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3051" data-file-height="2516" /></a><figcaption><i>The Surrender of Breda</i>, 1625. The Spanish receive the Dutch surrender after a long siege. A tercio unit's pikes can be seen on the right</figcaption></figure> <p>Spain was forced to accept the independence of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> in 1648, another sign of diminishing power. In the second half of the century, a much reduced and increasingly neglected Spanish army became infamous for being poorly equipped and rarely paid.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the remainder of the century, France continued to grow in relative power under <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a>. The Franco-Spanish War (1635–59) ended in defeat. However, despite some Spanish concessions (<a href="/wiki/Roussillon" title="Roussillon">Roussillon</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Flanders" title="French Flanders">French Flanders</a>); the Spanish maintained their main territorial holdings in the Low Countries and Italy . The <a href="/wiki/War_of_Devolution" title="War of Devolution">War of Devolution</a> (1667–68) proved a one sided affair, as French forces overcame badly neglected Spanish forces and fortifications, marking the military ascendancy of France. The outcome of the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Reunions" title="War of the Reunions">War of the Reunions</a> (1683–1683) had a similar outcome. During the <a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War" title="Nine Years' War">Nine Years' War</a>, Spain also lost Catalonia to France but it was restored to the kingdom in 1697 with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Ryswick" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Ryswick">treaty of Ryswick</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="European_rivalry_in_the_18th_century">European rivalry in the 18th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Spain&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: European rivalry in the 18th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bakhuizen,_Battle_of_Vigo_Bay.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bakhuizen%2C_Battle_of_Vigo_Bay.jpg/320px-Bakhuizen%2C_Battle_of_Vigo_Bay.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bakhuizen%2C_Battle_of_Vigo_Bay.jpg/480px-Bakhuizen%2C_Battle_of_Vigo_Bay.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bakhuizen%2C_Battle_of_Vigo_Bay.jpg/640px-Bakhuizen%2C_Battle_of_Vigo_Bay.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="938" /></a><figcaption> The Anglo-Dutch <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vigo_Bay" title="Battle of Vigo Bay">victory in Vigo Bay</a> over a Franco-Spanish convoy in 1702 had unexpected financial consequences</figcaption></figure> <p>The centre of Spanish military power shifted dramatically in the early 18th century. The <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> (1701–1714) was both a civil and international war in which the French backed the Bourbon contender for the Spanish throne and an alliance led by Austria, the Netherlands and Britain backed the Habsburg contender while a divided Spain fought on both sides. The war secured the Spanish throne for the Bourbon <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Spain" title="Philip V of Spain">Philip</a> as Philip V of Spain at the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Utrecht" title="Peace of Utrecht">Peace of Utrecht</a> but in the war's settlement, Spain had to give up the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Menorca" title="Menorca">Menorca</a> to the Habsburg allies. Spain's defeat by the combined alliance of France, Britain, the Netherlands and Austria in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Quadruple_Alliance" title="War of the Quadruple Alliance">War of the Quadruple Alliance</a> (1718–1720) confirmed the decline from her former dominance, whilst the successful deployment of the Britain's <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> into the Mediterranean, by exploiting the fortress of <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a>, gained in 1704 by an Anglo-Dutch force during the war of succession, would create considerable difficulties in the following years.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Globally, Spain remained an important naval and military power, depending on critical <a href="/wiki/Sea_lane" title="Sea lane">sea lanes</a> stretching from Spain through the Caribbean and South America, and westwards towards Manila and the Far East. The 18th century saw an ongoing struggle between the growing naval power of the rising imperial power Great Britain and Spain that worked to maintain it transoceanic links with its overseas empire, still by far the largest of the time. The number of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet" title="Spanish treasure fleet">Spanish galleons</a> deploying across the Atlantic sea routes increased significantly in the first half of the century, undoing the decline of the latter 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Britain engaged in numerous attempts to disrupt Spain's control over the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Main" title="Spanish Main">Spanish Main</a> during the early 18th century, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cartagena_de_Indias" title="Battle of Cartagena de Indias">disastrous attempt to capture the port of Cartegena</a> in 1741.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> (1756–1763), Britain attempted to leverage its existing island bases along the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Main" title="Spanish Main">Spanish Main</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish West Indies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Havana" title="Siege of Havana">capturing Havana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1762)" title="Battle of Manila (1762)">Manila</a>, but in each case practical and strategic considerations led to their return in exchange for Florida. During the American War of Independence, Spanish forces reconquered Florida and assisted the American rebels with arms and soldiers and by attacks on British trade and supplies. Both Spain and Britain made extensive use of privateers throughout the war, the Spanish fully exploiting the British aversion to using the <a href="/wiki/Convoy" title="Convoy">convoy</a> system to protect its expensive merchant assets in times of war. The earlier <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Polish_Succession" title="War of the Polish Succession">War of the Polish Succession</a> was still seen as positive for Spain, as the kingdom did recover the territories lost after the war of Spanish succession, in Italy. However, during the Seven Years' War, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_invasion_of_Portugal_(1762)" title="Spanish invasion of Portugal (1762)">three Spanish attempts to conquer Portugal</a> ended in crushing disasters. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Defensa_de_Cartagena_de_Indias_por_la_escuadra_de_D._Blas_de_Lezo,_a%C3%B1o_1741.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Defensa_de_Cartagena_de_Indias_por_la_escuadra_de_D._Blas_de_Lezo%2C_a%C3%B1o_1741.jpg/320px-Defensa_de_Cartagena_de_Indias_por_la_escuadra_de_D._Blas_de_Lezo%2C_a%C3%B1o_1741.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Defensa_de_Cartagena_de_Indias_por_la_escuadra_de_D._Blas_de_Lezo%2C_a%C3%B1o_1741.jpg/480px-Defensa_de_Cartagena_de_Indias_por_la_escuadra_de_D._Blas_de_Lezo%2C_a%C3%B1o_1741.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Defensa_de_Cartagena_de_Indias_por_la_escuadra_de_D._Blas_de_Lezo%2C_a%C3%B1o_1741.jpg/640px-Defensa_de_Cartagena_de_Indias_por_la_escuadra_de_D._Blas_de_Lezo%2C_a%C3%B1o_1741.jpg 2x" data-file-width="795" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Battle of Cartagena de Indias, 1741. Spanish forces repulse a British amphibious expedition in the Battle of Cartagena de Indias.</figcaption></figure> <p>The huge distances involved in warfare between European powers in the Americas usually counted in favour of the defenders. Attacks on Spanish possessions, such as the amphibious assaults launched during the War of Jenkins' Ear usually ended in failure as their overstretched forces failed to overcome well led defensive actions. Spain's <a href="/wiki/Spain_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Spain in the American Revolutionary War">involvement</a> in the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> (1779–83) was largely a success, underlining the resources that Spain still had at its disposal. Spain entered the war after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Saratoga" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Saratoga">Battle of Saratoga</a>, with the aim, as in the Seven Years' War, of recovering <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Menorca" title="Menorca">Menorca</a> and removing the British presence near New Spain. Their successful <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Menorca,_1781" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Menorca, 1781">invasion of Menorca in 1781</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the capture of <a href="/wiki/West_Florida" title="West Florida">West Florida</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Florida" title="East Florida">East Florida</a> from the British, showed a renewed strength in the New World, although the British <a href="/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Gibraltar" title="Great Siege of Gibraltar">defence of Gibraltar</a> prevented the Spanish achieving all their war goals.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Napoleonic_Wars_and_the_loss_of_the_Americas">The Napoleonic Wars and the loss of the Americas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Spain&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The Napoleonic Wars and the loss of the Americas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Army_(Peninsular_War)" title="Spanish Army (Peninsular War)">Spanish Army (Peninsular War)</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:6-de-junio-1808.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/6-de-junio-1808.jpg/300px-6-de-junio-1808.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/6-de-junio-1808.jpg/450px-6-de-junio-1808.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/6-de-junio-1808.jpg/600px-6-de-junio-1808.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="472" /></a><figcaption>Spanish <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla">guerrilla</a> resistance to the Napoleonic French invasion of Spain at the Battle of Valdepeñas.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> were to have a tremendous impact on Spanish military history, both within Spain itself and across her American colonies. The armies of the <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a> deposed <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">Ferdinand VII of Spain</a>, and <a href="/wiki/War_of_Spanish_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="War of Spanish Independence">Spain's subsequent liberation struggle</a> marked one of the first <a href="/wiki/Total_war" title="Total war">national wars</a> and the emergence of large-scale <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrillas</a>, from which the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English language</a> borrowed the word.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French occupation destroyed the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Spain" title="Government of Spain">Spanish administration</a>, which fragmented into quarrelling <a href="/wiki/Junta_(Peninsular_War)" title="Junta (Peninsular War)">provincial juntas</a>. In 1810, the factions coalesced in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Cortes_of_C%C3%A1diz" title="Cortes of Cádiz">Cortes of Cádiz</a>, which served as a democratic Regency based in their last major foothold. During <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleon</a>'s two year long <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_C%C3%A1diz" title="Siege of Cádiz">Siege of Cádiz</a>, it was difficult for the Cortes of Cádiz to recruit, train, or equip effective armies. However, Napoleon's failure to pacify the people of Spain allowed Spanish, British and Portuguese forces to secure Portugal and engage French forces on the frontiers, while Spanish <i><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla">guerrilleros</a></i> wore down the occupiers.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As to the role played by the Spanish armies, David Gates notes, "Furthermore, irrespective of the quality of their men, the Spanish armies constituted a threat that the French quite simply could not ignore. Any sizeable concentration of enemy soldiers had to be engaged, or at least contained, by a sufficiently strong force of Imperial troops; otherwise they were free to go on the rampage with impunity. Consequently, a colossal percentage of the French army was rendered unavailable for operations against Wellington because innumerable Spanish contingents kept materialising all over the country."<sup id="cite_ref-auto_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Acting in concert, regular and <a href="/wiki/Irregular_warfare" title="Irregular warfare">irregular</a> allied forces prevented Napoleon's <a href="/wiki/Marshal_of_France#French_Empire" title="Marshal of France">marshals</a> from subduing the rebellious Spanish provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spanish navy, put to sea in support of France during the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Third_Coalition" title="War of the Third Coalition">War of the Third Coalition</a> in 1805, suffered terrible losses at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar" title="Battle of Trafalgar">Battle of Trafalgar</a>, having been weakened by <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a> in the preceding years; in many ways this marked the nadir of Spanish naval history. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Batalla_de_Ayacucho_by_Mart%C3%ADn_Tovar_y_Tovar_(1827_-_1902).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Batalla_de_Ayacucho_by_Mart%C3%ADn_Tovar_y_Tovar_%281827_-_1902%29.jpg/300px-Batalla_de_Ayacucho_by_Mart%C3%ADn_Tovar_y_Tovar_%281827_-_1902%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Batalla_de_Ayacucho_by_Mart%C3%ADn_Tovar_y_Tovar_%281827_-_1902%29.jpg/450px-Batalla_de_Ayacucho_by_Mart%C3%ADn_Tovar_y_Tovar_%281827_-_1902%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Batalla_de_Ayacucho_by_Mart%C3%ADn_Tovar_y_Tovar_%281827_-_1902%29.jpg/600px-Batalla_de_Ayacucho_by_Mart%C3%ADn_Tovar_y_Tovar_%281827_-_1902%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1444" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ayacucho" title="Battle of Ayacucho">Battle of Ayacucho</a> (1824) ensured the ultimate independence of South America</figcaption></figure> <p>The events in mainland Spain had extensive consequences for her empire. Spain's colonies in the Americas had shown an increasing independence in the years running up to the <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Peninsular War</a>; <a href="/wiki/British_invasions_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" class="mw-redirect" title="British invasions of the Río de la Plata">British attempts to invade the Río de la Plata</a> in 1806–07, for example, had been rebuffed by well organised local militia.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The occupation of the Spanish homeland, however, resulted in first a sequence of uprisings in support of the imprisoned king, and then a <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">struggle for independence</a> that increasingly formed a series of civil wars across the Spanish dominions in the America. The conflict started in 1808, with <a href="/wiki/Junta_(Peninsular_War)" title="Junta (Peninsular War)">juntas</a> established in <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montevideo" title="Montevideo">Montevideo</a> in reaction to the events of the Peninsular War. The conflict, lasting twenty years, was far from one sided. Patriot forces were often underequipped, largely peasant militia armies commanded by amateur officers; Royalist forces, partially supported from Spain over huge sea distances, were frequently able to gain the upper hand.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spanish navy was easily able to dominate the local, coastal navies of her colonies. Campaigning across the huge distances of South America, frequently in winter conditions with minimal supplies, resulted in terrible privation. Ultimately, Royalist exhaustion and growing political maturity amongst the new states resulted in the creation of a chain of newly independent countries stretching from <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> in the south to Mexico in the north. Only <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> remained under <a href="/wiki/Spain_under_the_Restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="Spain under the Restoration">Spanish rule</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="19th_century_Carlist_Wars_and_the_final_days_of_empire">19th century Carlist Wars and the final days of empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Spain&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 19th century Carlist Wars and the final days of empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marinos_hispanos_ocupan_las_islas_chinchas_en_1864.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Marinos_hispanos_ocupan_las_islas_chinchas_en_1864.jpg/300px-Marinos_hispanos_ocupan_las_islas_chinchas_en_1864.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Marinos_hispanos_ocupan_las_islas_chinchas_en_1864.jpg/450px-Marinos_hispanos_ocupan_las_islas_chinchas_en_1864.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Marinos_hispanos_ocupan_las_islas_chinchas_en_1864.jpg/600px-Marinos_hispanos_ocupan_las_islas_chinchas_en_1864.jpg 2x" data-file-width="856" data-file-height="651" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Chincha_Islands" title="Chincha Islands">Chincha Islands</a> of <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>, being occupied by Spanish sailors on April 14, 1864</figcaption></figure> <p>In the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, Spain's military found itself involved in an increasing number of internal conflicts, distracting military attention from other priorities, and continuing to undermine the Spanish economy.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first of these, the <a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a> (1820–23) involved a revolt by soldiers against King <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">Ferdinand VII</a> while they were being embarked for a campaign in America.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Thousand_Sons_of_Saint_Louis" title="Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis">France intervened</a> militarily to support the monarchy, restoring order, but this was short-lived. In 1830 the Spanish Army had a size of 250,000 active soldiers, and 50,000 reserves, but it was still a divided nation with internal conflicts. When Ferdinand died in 1833, his fourth wife Maria Cristina became Queen regent on behalf of their infant daughter <a href="/wiki/Isabella_II" title="Isabella II">Isabella II</a>. This splintered the country into two factions known as the Cristinos – the supporters of the Queen regent – and the <a href="/wiki/Carlism" title="Carlism">Carlists</a>, the supporters of <a href="/wiki/Infante_Carlos,_Count_of_Molina" class="mw-redirect" title="Infante Carlos, Count of Molina">Carlos V</a>, who had rejected the <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_Sanction_of_1830" title="Pragmatic Sanction of 1830">Pragmatic Sanction of 1830</a> that abolished the <a href="/wiki/Salic_law" title="Salic law">Salic law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Holt_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holt-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/First_Carlist_War" title="First Carlist War">First Carlist War</a> lasted over seven years and the fighting spanned most of the country at one time or another, although the main conflict centered on the Carlist homelands of the <a href="/wiki/Basque_Country_(historical_territory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Basque Country (historical territory)">Basque Country</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aragon" title="Aragon">Aragon</a>. Many of the military officers involved had served in the <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Peninsular War</a> a few years before. The <a href="/wiki/Second_Carlist_War" title="Second Carlist War">Second Carlist War</a> was a minor <a href="/wiki/Catalonia" title="Catalonia">Catalan</a> uprising in support of <a href="/wiki/Infante_Carlos,_Count_of_Montemolin" class="mw-redirect" title="Infante Carlos, Count of Montemolin">Carlos VI</a>, lasting from 1846 to 1849. The <a href="/wiki/Third_Carlist_War" title="Third Carlist War">Third Carlist War</a> began after Queen Isabella II was overthrown by a conspiracy of liberal generals in 1868, and left Spain in some disgrace; four years later, the latest Carlist pretender, <a href="/wiki/Carlos,_Duke_of_Madrid" class="mw-redirect" title="Carlos, Duke of Madrid">Carlos VII</a>, decided that only force of arms could win him the throne. This Third Carlist War lasted until 1876.<sup id="cite_ref-Holt_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holt-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USS_Olympia_art_NH_91881-KN_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/USS_Olympia_art_NH_91881-KN_cropped.jpg/300px-USS_Olympia_art_NH_91881-KN_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/USS_Olympia_art_NH_91881-KN_cropped.jpg/450px-USS_Olympia_art_NH_91881-KN_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/USS_Olympia_art_NH_91881-KN_cropped.jpg/600px-USS_Olympia_art_NH_91881-KN_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="570" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_Bay" title="Battle of Manila Bay">Battle of Manila Bay</a>, 1898. Old Spanish warships were put back into service and were comprehensively beaten.</figcaption></figure> <p>Under <a href="/wiki/Isabella_II_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Isabella II of Spain">Isabella II of Spain</a>, there were several, ultimately unsuccessful, attempts to reassert Spanish military influence around the world, often in partnership with <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">France</a>. In 1848 Spain intervened to support <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX" title="Pope Pius IX">Pope Pius IX</a> against local republican opposition. In February 1849, five warships, including the <a href="/wiki/Steam_frigate" title="Steam frigate">frigates</a> steamed to Gaeta from <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>, three more from <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Cádiz</a> following in May.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In total, 4,000 Spanish soldiers were deployed in Gaeta and placed at the Pope's disposition. This marked the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Army" title="Spanish Army">Spanish Army</a>'s first expeditionary venture into Italy since the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a> a hundred years prior. In partnership with the French, Spanish columns secured the region. In 1858 Spain joined with France to intervene in <a href="/wiki/Cochin_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochin China">Cochin China</a>, donating 300 Filipino troops to the invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spain joined an allied expedition in support of the <a href="/wiki/Second_French_intervention_in_Mexico" title="Second French intervention in Mexico">Second French intervention in Mexico</a>. In 1859, Spain <a href="/wiki/Hispano%E2%80%93Moroccan_War_(1859%E2%80%931860)" title="Hispano–Moroccan War (1859–1860)">fought a short war</a> with Morocco, resulting in a stronger Spanish position in North Africa. By the 1860s, Spain had built up a very large navy again, and in 1864 Spain intervened along the South American cost, seizing the <a href="/wiki/Guano" title="Guano">guano</a>-rich <a href="/wiki/Chincha_Islands" title="Chincha Islands">Chincha Islands</a> from its former colony of <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>. Although the new Spanish <a href="/wiki/Steam_frigate" title="Steam frigate">steam frigates</a> were superior to local vessels, the huge distances and lack of land support ultimately concluded with Spain handing back the islands at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Chincha_Islands_War" title="Chincha Islands War">Chincha Islands War</a>. An attempt to <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Restoration_War" title="Dominican Restoration War">recolonise Santo Domingo</a> similarly failed by 1865 in the face of fierce guerrilla resistance. </p><p>Spain faced a sequence of challenges across her colonies in the second half of the century that would result in a total defeat of empire at the hands of the growing power of the United States. Spain's colony of <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> rebelled in 1868, leading to a sequence of brutal guerrilla insurgencies and retaliations,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> through the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Years%27_War" title="Ten Years' War">Ten Years' War</a> (1868–1878), the <a href="/wiki/Little_War_(Cuba)" title="Little War (Cuba)">Little War</a> (1879–1880) and finally the <a href="/wiki/Cuban_War_of_Independence" title="Cuban War of Independence">Cuban War of Independence</a> (1895–1898). Spain, although militarily occupied with the Carlist troubles at home, put increasing resources into the conflict, slowly taking the upper hand,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and assisted by American sales of modern weaponry.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1898, however, increasing U.S. political interests in Cuba were encouraging a more interventionist policy. The <a href="/wiki/USS_Maine_(ACR-1)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS Maine (ACR-1)">sinking of the USS <i>Maine</i></a> in <a href="/wiki/Havana" title="Havana">Havana</a> harbour provided the trigger for the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a>, in which Spain's aging navy fared disastrously. <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> gained its independence and Spain lost its remaining New World colony, <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, which together with <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> it ceded to the United States for 20 million dollars. In 1899, Spain sold its remaining Pacific islands – the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands" title="Caroline Islands">Caroline Islands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a> – to Germany, reducing Spain's colonial possessions to <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Morocco">Spanish Morocco</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Sahara" title="Spanish Sahara">Spanish Sahara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Spanish Guinea</a>, all in Africa. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_20th_century_and_the_Civil_War">Early 20th century and the Civil War</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Spain&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Early 20th century and the Civil War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although Spain <a href="/wiki/Spain_in_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Spain in World War I">remained neutral</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, despite suffering considerable economic losses to German <a href="/wiki/Submarines" class="mw-redirect" title="Submarines">submarines</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> she was militarily active elsewhere during the early part of the 20th century, attempting to strengthen her position in North Africa. Despite successes in the late 19th century, the <a href="/wiki/First_Melillan_campaign" title="First Melillan campaign">first Rif War</a> (1893–94) around <a href="/wiki/Melilla" title="Melilla">Melilla</a> had also shown the potential weakness of the Spanish position along the coast. The <a href="/wiki/Second_Melillan_campaign" title="Second Melillan campaign">second Rif War</a> (1909–10) was initially a fiasco for the under-equipped and undertrained Spanish, until heavy <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a> was brought in; in the aftermath of the war, Spain began to raise units of local <a href="/wiki/Regulares" title="Regulares">Regulares</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Rif_War_(1920)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rif War (1920)">third Rif War</a> (1920–1926) also began badly for the Spanish, especially after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Annual" title="Battle of Annual">disaster of Annual (1921)</a>, resulting in various changes to the Spanish approach. Working in alliance with French forces in the region, Spain created the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Legion" title="Spanish Legion">Spanish Legion</a> along similar lines to the <a href="/wiki/French_Foreign_Legion" title="French Foreign Legion">French Foreign Legion</a> to provide additional experienced forces. Spain also became the first country to deploy <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapons_in_the_Rif_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical weapons in the Rif War">chemical weapons by air</a>, dropping <a href="/wiki/Mustard_gas" title="Mustard gas">mustard gas</a> from aircraft.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Savoia-Marchetti_SM.81.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Savoia-Marchetti_SM.81.jpg/300px-Savoia-Marchetti_SM.81.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Savoia-Marchetti_SM.81.jpg/450px-Savoia-Marchetti_SM.81.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Savoia-Marchetti_SM.81.jpg/600px-Savoia-Marchetti_SM.81.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="524" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Nationalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Nationalists">Nationalist</a> aircraft bomb <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a> in 1936; the conflict saw the first modern <a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">aerial warfare</a> against urban areas.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1931, following the proclamation of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic" title="Second Spanish Republic">Second Spanish Republic</a>, the armed forces of the Spanish Kingdom became the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Republican_Armed_Forces" title="Spanish Republican Armed Forces">Spanish Republican Armed Forces</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> (1936–39) began right after the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_coup_of_July_1936" title="Spanish coup of July 1936">Spanish coup of July 1936</a>, a partially successful <i><a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a></i> by a section of the Spanish Army against the government of the Spanish Republic. The ensuing Civil War devastated Spain, ending with the victory of the rebels and the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish State">Spanish State</a>, led by <i><a href="/wiki/Caudillo" title="Caudillo">caudillo</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a>, the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_faction_(Spanish_Civil_War)" title="Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)">Nationalist</a> army. </p><p>The civil war was marked by the <a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Spanish_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign involvement in the Spanish Civil War">extensive involvement of international units</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many joined the Republican side under the banner of the <a href="/wiki/International_Brigades" title="International Brigades">International Brigades</a>. The Nationalists enjoyed support from <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Fascism">Fascist Italy</a>, with several new technologies being trialled as a result.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nationalist side conducted <a href="/wiki/Aerial_bombing_of_cities" title="Aerial bombing of cities">aerial bombing of cities</a> in Republican territory, carried out mainly by the <a href="/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a> volunteers of the <a href="/wiki/Condor_Legion" title="Condor Legion">Condor Legion</a><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Regia_Aeronautica" title="Regia Aeronautica">Italian air force</a> volunteers of the <i><a href="/wiki/Corpo_Truppe_Volontarie" title="Corpo Truppe Volontarie">Corpo Truppe Volontarie</a></i> – the most notorious example of this tactic of terror bombings was the <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Guernica" title="Bombing of Guernica">bombing of Guernica</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first combat use of the <i><a href="/wiki/Junkers_Ju_87" title="Junkers Ju 87">Stuka</a></i> occurred during the conflict. The civil war influenced European military thinking on the alleged supremacy of the <a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">bomber</a>. <a href="/wiki/Armoured_warfare" title="Armoured warfare">Armoured warfare</a> was also trialled by Nationalist supporters; German volunteers first used armor in live field conditions in the form of the Panzer Battalion 88, a force built around three companies of <a href="/wiki/Panzer_I" title="Panzer I">PzKpfw I tanks</a> that functioned as a training cadre for Nationalists. </p><p>Weakened and politically still fragile, Spain <a href="/wiki/Spain_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Spain in World War II">remained officially neutral</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. However, to repay Hitler for his assistance in the Civil War, Franco raised a volunteer corps, the <a href="/wiki/Blue_Division" title="Blue Division">Blue Division</a> (with an aerial counterpart, the <a href="/wiki/Blue_Squadron" title="Blue Squadron">Blue Squadron</a>), to fight on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a>. In that way, by only fighting the Soviet Union, Franco could repay Hitler while staying at peace with the Western Allies. Nearly fifty thousand Spanish personnel served from June 1941 til October 1943, seeing fierce action in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Siege of Leningrad</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Krasny_Bor" title="Battle of Krasny Bor">Battle of Krasny Bor</a>. After Franco was pressured by Allied leaders to withdraw the Division, a token force of volunteers remained as the <a href="/wiki/Blue_Legion" title="Blue Legion">Blue Legion</a>. Fighting for the Allies, many exiled Spanish Republicans, called <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Maquis" title="Spanish Maquis">Spanish Maquis</a>, joined the <a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a>. Thousands also served in the <a href="/wiki/Free_French_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French Forces">Free French Forces</a>; particularly of note is the <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9giment_de_marche_du_Tchad" title="Régiment de marche du Tchad">Ninth Armoured Company</a> under <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Leclerc_de_Hauteclocque" title="Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque">General Leclerc</a>'s <a href="/wiki/2nd_Armored_Division_(France)" title="2nd Armored Division (France)">Second Division</a>. The first Allied unit to <a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">enter Paris</a> in 1944, it was almost entirely made up of Spanish exiles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_post-war_period">The post-war period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Spain&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The post-war period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armed_Forces_during_the_period_of_Francoism" title="Spanish Armed Forces during the period of Francoism">Spanish Armed Forces during the period of Francoism</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BRIPAC_in_Afghanistan_121569.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/BRIPAC_in_Afghanistan_121569.jpg/300px-BRIPAC_in_Afghanistan_121569.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/BRIPAC_in_Afghanistan_121569.jpg/450px-BRIPAC_in_Afghanistan_121569.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/BRIPAC_in_Afghanistan_121569.jpg/600px-BRIPAC_in_Afghanistan_121569.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2784" data-file-height="1848" /></a><figcaption>Spanish <a href="/wiki/Light_Infantry" class="mw-redirect" title="Light Infantry">Light Infantry</a> in <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, operating as part of Spain's military commitment to the <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> alliance.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the post-war period, Spain was initially still heavily influenced by events in North Africa, particularly surrounding its colony of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Sahara" title="Spanish Sahara">Western Sahara</a> The first of these conflicts, the <a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Ifni War</a> (1956–1958) saw Spanish forces, including Spain's first <a href="/wiki/Paratroop" class="mw-redirect" title="Paratroop">paratroop</a> unit, clash with the <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Army_of_Liberation" title="Moroccan Army of Liberation">Moroccan Liberation Army</a>, a Moroccan state backed insurgency movement. In 1958, a joint French-Spanish offensive, using massively superior European air power, crushed the revolt.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1970s, the rise of another insurgency movement, <a href="/wiki/Polisario" class="mw-redirect" title="Polisario">Polisario</a>, resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_War" title="Western Sahara War">Western Sahara War</a> (1973–1991), with Spain withdrawing from its colony in 1975 and transferring its support in the continuing conflict to Morocco. </p><p>From the 1950s onwards, however, Spain began to build increasingly close links with the U.S. armed forces. The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Air Force">Spanish Air Force</a> received its first American jets, such as the <a href="/wiki/F-86_Sabre" class="mw-redirect" title="F-86 Sabre">F-86 Sabre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_T-33" title="Lockheed T-33">Lockheed T-33</a>, from America, whilst the equipment of the Spanish military was again modernised in the 1970s to prepare for Spain's membership of <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> in 1982. Spain sent a small medical unit to the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, and a team of engineers to the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> with Spain lending airpower to the NATO efforts during the <a href="/wiki/Bosnian_War" title="Bosnian War">Bosnian War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kosovo_War" title="Kosovo War">Kosovo War</a> and <a href="/wiki/2011_Libyan_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="2011 Libyan Civil War">Libyan Civil War</a>. Most recently, Spain has participated in both the conflicts in <a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–present)">Afghanistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spanish_military_cultural_legacy">Spanish military cultural legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Spain&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Spanish military cultural legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historically, in addition to Latin military terms that came down from Roman times into modern Spanish through the language, the Spanish adopted a number of Arabic military terms from their Muslim rivals. Subsequently, a number of Spanish military terms have been adopted into French, English and other languages. </p> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Spanish term </th> <th>Original language </th> <th>Original meaning </th> <th>Modern English term </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>alcaide</i> </td> <td>Arabic <i><a href="/wiki/Kaid" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaid">kaid</a></i> </td> <td>master, leader </td> <td> </td> <td>Medieval Spanish military commander or <a href="/wiki/Castellan" title="Castellan">castellan</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Alcazaba" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcazaba">alcazaba</a></i> </td> <td>Arabic <i>al-casbah</i> </td> <td>walled <a href="/wiki/Citadel" title="Citadel">citadel</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Alc%C3%A1zar" title="Alcázar">alcázar</a></i> </td> <td>Arabic <i>al-qasr</i> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">castle</a> or palace </td> <td> </td> <td>Could refer to a residence, citadel, or hilltop fortress. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Alf%C3%A9rez" title="Alférez">alférez</a></i> </td> <td>Arabic </td> <td>horseman </td> <td> </td> <td>Used in medieval Castile-León and Navarre to denote the standard-bearer and commander of the royal military household. In modern usage in Spain and Equatorial Guinea, a <a href="/wiki/Second_lieutenant" title="Second lieutenant">second lieutenant</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>almirante</i> </td> <td>Arabic <i><a href="/wiki/Emir" title="Emir">amir</a>-al-bahr</i> </td> <td>commander of the seas </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Admiral" title="Admiral">admiral</a> </td> <td>Adopted in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latinisation</a> (<i>ammiratus</i>) by the <a href="/wiki/Siculo-Norman" class="mw-redirect" title="Siculo-Norman">Siculo-Normans</a> and later brought to Spain by the Catalans after Sicily became part of the Aragonese Crown. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Naval_fleet" title="Naval fleet">armada</a></i> </td> <td>Spanish </td> <td>armed (fem.), later navy, fleet </td> <td>armada </td> <td>Came into English usage after the defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Armada" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Armada">Great Armada</a> in 1588. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>caballero villano</i> </td> <td>Spanish </td> <td>"commoner knight" </td> <td> </td> <td>A <a href="/wiki/Villein" title="Villein">villein</a> who owned a horse and armour and owed cavalry service. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Coronel_(rank)" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronel (rank)">coronel</a></i> </td> <td>Spanish or Italian (<i>colonnello</i>), ultimately Latin (<i>columnella</i>) </td> <td>diminutive of <i>colonna</i>/<i>columna</i> (column) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Colonel" title="Colonel">colonel</a> </td> <td>Rank popularised by the <i>tercios</i>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Spanish_warship_Destructor" title="Spanish warship Destructor">destructor</a></i> </td> <td>Spanish </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Destroyer" title="Destroyer">destroyer</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>A large torpedo gunboat, built in Britain for the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Navy" title="Spanish Navy">Spanish Navy</a> to protect the fleet against torpedo boats, a precursor of the modern destroyer type of ship. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Flotilla" title="Flotilla">flotilla</a></i> </td> <td>Diminutive of Spanish <i>flota</i>, from French <i>flotte</i> </td> <td>(little) fleet </td> <td>flotilla </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>granada</i> </td> <td>Spanish </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pomegranate" title="Pomegranate">pomegranate</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Grenade" title="Grenade">grenade</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla">guerrilla</a></i> </td> <td>Spanish </td> <td>diminutive of <i>guerra</i> (war) </td> <td>guerrilla </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Quinta Columna</i> </td> <td>Spanish </td> <td>fifth column </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Column" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Column">Fifth Column</a> </td> <td>First used during the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> by <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Mola" title="Emilio Mola">Emilio Mola</a> at the siege of Madrid in reference to his supporters within the city. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">tercio</a></i> </td> <td>Spanish </td> <td>third part </td> <td> </td> <td>Infantry unit developed by <a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba">Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a>. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Spain&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Spain_(Peninsular_War)" class="mw-redirect" title="Army of Spain (Peninsular War)">Army of Spain (Peninsular War)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Spain" title="List of wars involving Spain">List of wars involving Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armed_Forces" title="Spanish Armed Forces">Spanish Armed Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Army" title="Spanish Army">Spanish Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Navy" title="Spanish Navy">Spanish Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Air Force">Spanish Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history_of_Spain" title="Contemporary history of Spain">Contemporary history of Spain</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Spain&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Syme, 1970.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Montgomery, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Montgomery, p.11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bury, pp. 286–288.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Montgomery, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davis, p. 105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Callaghan, 2002.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holmes, pp. 62–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holmes, p. 258.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zaide and Zaide, 2004.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diamond, pp. 358–359.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Villalobos, p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diamond, 1997.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davies, 1961</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wedgewood, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elton, p. 181.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gregory Hanlon. "The Twilight Of A Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats And European Conflicts, 1560–1800." Routledge: 1997. Page 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin Hume. <i>The Court of Philip IV: Spain in Decadence." London 1907, p. 157. Quoting Philip IV's address to the Council of Castile in 1626.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hanlon 1997, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gregory Hanlon. "The Hero of Italy: Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma, his Soldiers, and his Subjects in the Thirty Years' War." Routledge: May 2014. Page 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The galleon evolved in response to Spain's need for an ocean-crossing cargo ship that could beat off corsairs. Pedro de Menéndez, along with Álvaro de Bazán (hero of Lepanto), is credited with developing the prototypes which had the long hull – and sometimes the oars – of a galley married to the poop and prow of a <a href="/wiki/Carrack" title="Carrack"><i>nao</i></a> or merchantman. Galeones were classed as 1-, 2- or 3-deckers, and stepped two or more masts rigged with square sails and topsails (except for a lateen sail on the mizzenmast). Capacity ranged up to 900 tons or more. Menéndez' <i>San Pelayo</i> of 1565 was a 900 ton galleon which was also called a <i>nao</i> and <i>galeaza</i>. She carried 77 crewmen, 18 gunners, transported 317 soldiers and 26 families, as well as provisions and cargo. Her armament was iron." p. 100 <i>Menéndez: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Captain General of the Ocean Sea</i> Albert C. Manucy, published 1992 by Pineapple Press, Inc</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holmes, p. 235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Glyn, p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Meade, p. 180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson, pp. 109–110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simms, p. 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walton, p. 177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refHDBE">Olson</a>, pp. 1121–1122</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chartrand, pp. 54–56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chartrand, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laqueur, p. 350.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gates, pp. 33–34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chandler, p. 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fletcher, 1991.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chasteen, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Palmer, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fehrenbach, 1970.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holt-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Holt_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holt_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Holt, 1967.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fernandez, D. Fernando Sánchez <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091026213723/http://es.geocities.com/inmemoriales/camp.htm"><i>Principales Campañas</i></a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chapuis, p. 195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070809035620/http://www.bohemia.cubaweb.cu/maximogomez/batallas-combates.html">"Máximo Gómez Báez :: Guerra de los diez años (1868–1878)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bohemia.cubaweb.cu/maximogomez/batallas-combates.html">the original</a> on 2007-08-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2005-12-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=M%C3%A1ximo+G%C3%B3mez+B%C3%A1ez+%3A%3A+Guerra+de+los+diez+a%C3%B1os+%281868%E2%80%931878%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bohemia.cubaweb.cu%2Fmaximogomez%2Fbatallas-combates.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+Spain" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Navarro, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Navarro, 1998.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcEvoy2003" class="citation web cs1">McEvoy, William P. (May 10, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.firstworldwar.com/features/spain.htm">"Spain During the First World War"</a>. FirstWorldWar.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-07-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Spain+During+the+First+World+War&rft.pub=FirstWorldWar.com&rft.date=2003-05-10&rft.aulast=McEvoy&rft.aufirst=William+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.firstworldwar.com%2Ffeatures%2Fspain.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitary+history+of+Spain" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Balfour, p. 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baxell, 2004.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tierney, pp. 68–69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edwards, p. 145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Corum 2007, p. 200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Casas de la Vega, 1985.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Spain&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Anderson, M. S. <i>War and Society in Europe of the Old Regime, 1618–1789.</i> London: Fontana Press. (1988)</li> <li>Balfour, Sebastian. <i>Deadly Embrace: Morocco and the road to the Spanish Civil War.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press. (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Baxell" title="Richard Baxell">Baxell, Richard</a>. <i>British Volunteers in the Spanish Civil War.</i> London: Routledge. (2004)</li> <li>Bowen, Wayne H. and Alvarez José E. (eds. and contributors). <i>A Military History of Modern Spain: From the Napoleonic Era to the International War on Terror</i>. Westport, CN: Praeger Security International. (2007) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-99357-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-99357-3">978-0-275-99357-3</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/154678203">154678203</a>.</li> <li>Bury, J. B. <i>History of the Later Roman Empire.</i> Macmillan & Co., Ltd.: London (1923)</li> <li>Casas de la Vega, Rafael. <i>La última guerra de Africa.</i> Madrid: Servicio de Publicaciones del Estado Mayor del Ejército. (1985) (Spanish)</li> <li>Carcedo, Diego <i>Sáenz de Santa María. El general que cambió de bando.</i> Temas de Hoy: Madrid. (2004) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-8460-309-1" title="Special:BookSources/84-8460-309-1">84-8460-309-1</a>. (Spanish)</li> <li>Chandler, David G. <i>The Art of Warfare on Land</i> Penguin Books: London (2000)</li> <li>Chapuis, Oscar <i>A History of Vietnam: From Hong Bang to Tu Duc.</i> Greenwood Publishing Group. (1995) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-29622-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-29622-7">0-313-29622-7</a>.</li> <li>Chartrand, Rene. <i>Gibraltar 1779–83: The Great Siege.</i> Osprey Campaign. (2006)</li> <li>Chasteen, John Charles. <i>Americanos: Latin America's Struggle for Independence.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press. (2008) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517881-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517881-4">978-0-19-517881-4</a>.</li> <li>Corum, James S. <i>The Roots of Blitzkrieg: Hans von Seeckt and German Military Reform, Modern War Studies.</i> Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. (1992) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7006-0541-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7006-0541-X">0-7006-0541-X</a>.</li> <li>Davies, T. R. <i>The Golden Century of Spain 1501–1621.</i> London: Macmillan & Co. (1961)</li> <li>Davis, Paul K. <i>100 Decisive Battles From Ancient Times to the Present.</i> (1999) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-514366-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-514366-3">0-19-514366-3</a>.</li> <li>Diamond, Jared. <i>Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies.</i> W.W. Norton & Company. (1997) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-03891-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-03891-2">0-393-03891-2</a>.</li> <li>Edwards, Roger. <i>Panzer, a Revolution in Warfare: 1939–1945.</i> London/New York: Arms and Armour. (1989) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85368-932-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-85368-932-6">0-85368-932-6</a>.</li> <li>Elton, Geoffrey Rudolph. <i>Reformation Europe, 1517–1559.</i> Oxford: Blackwells. (1999)</li> <li>Fehrenbach, Charles W. 'Moderados and Exaltados: the liberal opposition to Ferdinand VII, 1814–1823', <i>Hispanic American Historical Review</i> 50 (1970), 52–69.</li> <li>Fernandez, Coronel D. Fernando Sánchez <i>Principales Campañas Recopilación de apuntes sobre la tradición y modernidad del Regimiento de Infantería Inmemorial del Rey</i> nº 1 (Spanish)</li> <li>Fletcher, Ian. <i>Waters of oblivion: the British invasion of the Rio de la Plata, 1806–07.</i> Indiana: Indiana University Press. (1991)</li> <li>Gates, David. <i>The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War.</i> London: Pimlico. (2002) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7126-9730-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7126-9730-6">0-7126-9730-6</a>.</li> <li>Glyn, Williams. <i>The Prize of All the Oceans</i>. New York: Viking. (1991) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-89197-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-89197-5">0-670-89197-5</a>.</li> <li>Harvey, Robert. <i>A Few Bloody Noses: The American Revolutionary War.</i> Robinson (2004)</li> <li>Homes, George. <i>Europe: Hierarchy and Revolt, 1320–1450.</i> Edinburgh: Fontana Pres. (1984)</li> <li>Holt, Edgar. <i>The Carlist Wars in Spain.</i> Dufour Editions: Chester Springs, Pennsylvania. (1967)</li> <li>Montgomery, Watt, W. <i>A History of Islamic Spain.</i> Edinburgh: University Press of Edinburgh. (1992)</li> <li>Meade, J.E. <i>Principles of Political Economy.</i> SUNY. (1976) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87395-205-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-87395-205-7">0-87395-205-7</a>.</li> <li>Navarro, José Cantón <i>History of Cuba. The Challenge of the Yoke and the Star.</i> Editorial SI-MAR S. A., Havana, Cuba. (1998) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/959-7054-19-1" title="Special:BookSources/959-7054-19-1">959-7054-19-1</a>.</li> <li>O'Callaghan, Joseph F. <i>Reconquest and crusade in Medieval Spain.</i> Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. (2002), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8122-3696-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8122-3696-3">0-8122-3696-3</a>.</li> <li>Olson, James. <i>Historical Dictionary of the British Empire.</i> Greenwood Publishing Group. (1996) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-29366-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-29366-X">0-313-29366-X</a>.</li> <li>Palmer, A. W. <i>A Dictionary of Modern History 1789–1945.</i> Penguin Reference Books: London. (1962)</li> <li>Simms, Brendan. Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire. Penguin Books (2008).</li> <li>Syme, Ronald <i>The Conquest of North-West Spain. Legio VII Gemina</i> 1970</li> <li>Tierney, Dominic. <i>FDR and the Spanish Civil War: Neutrality and Commitment in the Struggle That Divided America.</i> Duke University Press. (2007)</li> <li>Villalobos, Sergio. <i>A Short History of Chile.</i> Santiago: Editorial Universitaria. (1996)</li> <li>Walton, Timothy R. <i>The Spanish Treasure Fleets.</i> Pineapple Press. (2002). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56164-261-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-56164-261-4">1-56164-261-4</a>.</li> <li>Wedgewood, C. V. <i>The Thirty Years War.</i> London: Methuen. (1981)</li> <li>Zaide, Gregorio F. and Sonia M. Zaide <i>Philippine History and Government.</i> Sixth Edition, All-Nations Publishing Company. (2004)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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Franco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Transition to democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history_of_Spain" title="Contemporary history of Spain">Contemporary Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1975%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Spain (1975–present)">1975–present</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Spain" title="Outline of Spain">General overview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_Pre-Roman_peoples_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="List of the Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula">Pre-Roman Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Spain" title="Economic history of Spain">Economic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_miracle" title="Spanish miracle">Spanish miracle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Spain" title="Geography of Spain">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_communities_of_Spain#Autonomous_cities" title="Autonomous communities of Spain">Autonomous cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_communities_of_Spain" title="Autonomous communities of Spain">Autonomous communities</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ranked_lists_of_Spanish_autonomous_communities" title="Ranked lists of Spanish autonomous communities">ranked lists</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Network_of_Biosphere_Reserves_in_Europe_and_North_America" title="World Network of Biosphere Reserves in Europe and North America">Biosphere Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Spain" title="Template:Borders of Spain">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Spain" title="Climate of Spain">Climate</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Comarcas_of_Spain" title="Comarcas of Spain">Comarcas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Spain" title="List of earthquakes in Spain">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_Spain" title="List of extreme points of Spain">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forests_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Forests of the Iberian Peninsula">Forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Spain" title="Peninsular Spain">Peninsular Spain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Spain" title="List of islands of Spain">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_municipalities_of_Spain" title="List of municipalities of Spain">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Spain" title="List of national parks of Spain">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sites_of_Community_Importance_in_Spain" title="List of Sites of Community Importance in Spain">Natural Sites of Community Importance</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plazas_de_soberan%C3%ADa" title="Plazas de soberanía">Plazas de soberanía</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Spain" title="Provinces of Spain">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Spain" title="Wildlife of Spain">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Spain" title="Politics of Spain">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_communities_of_Spain" title="Autonomous communities of Spain">Autonomous communities of Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Spain" title="Constitution of Spain">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Spain" title="Corruption in Spain">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felipe_VI" title="Felipe VI">Head of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_Spain" title="Constitutional Court of Spain">Constitutional Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cortes_Generales" title="Cortes Generales">Cortes Generales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Spain" title="Judiciary of Spain">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Spain" title="Government of Spain">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Spain" title="Prime Minister of Spain">Prime Minister</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Spain" title="Elections in Spain">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Spain" title="Foreign relations of Spain">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Spain" title="Human rights in Spain">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Spain">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_Spain" title="Intersex rights in Spain">Intersex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armed_Forces" title="Spanish Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Spain" title="Monarchy of Spain">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Spain" title="List of political parties in Spain">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Spain" title="List of wars involving Spain">Wars and armed conflicts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Spain" title="Economy of Spain">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Spain" title="Agriculture in Spain">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Spain" title="List of banks in Spain">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Spain" title="Automotive industry in Spain">Car industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_communities_of_Spain" title="Autonomous communities of Spain">Communities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_autonomous_communities_by_gross_domestic_product" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Spanish autonomous communities by gross domestic product">GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_autonomous_communities_by_unemployment_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Spanish autonomous communities by unemployment rate">unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_autonomous_communities_by_median_income" title="List of Spanish autonomous communities by median income">median income</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Spain" title="Economic history of Spain">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Spain" title="Energy in Spain">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932014_Spanish_financial_crisis" title="2008–2014 Spanish financial crisis">Financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Spain" title="Forestry in Spain">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_Spanish_companies" title="List of largest Spanish companies">Largest companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Spain" title="Taxation in Spain">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_property_bubble" title="Spanish property bubble">Property bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Spain" title="Science and technology in Spain">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Spain" title="Telecommunications in Spain">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Spain" title="Tourism in Spain">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_Spain" title="List of trade unions in Spain">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Spain" title="Transport in Spain">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_wine" title="Spanish wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Spain" title="Category:Society of Spain">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Spain" title="Abortion in Spain">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Spain" title="Crime in Spain">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Spain" title="Demographics of Spain">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_Spain" title="Disability in Spain">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Spain" title="Education in Spain">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia_in_Spain" title="Euthanasia in Spain">Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_in_Spain" title="Health care in Spain">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Spain" title="Homelessness in Spain">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Spain" title="Immigration to Spain">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Spain" title="Irreligion in Spain">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Spain" title="Languages of Spain">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_provinces_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Spanish provinces by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturism_in_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturism in Spain">Naturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pensions_in_Spain" title="Pensions in Spain">Pensions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaniards" title="Spaniards">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Spain" title="Prostitution in Spain">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Spain" title="Religion in Spain">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_Spain" title="Time in Spain">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Spain" title="Women in Spain">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Spain" title="Culture of Spain">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_architecture" title="Spanish architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_art" title="Spanish art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullfighting" title="Bullfighting">Bullfighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Spain" title="Cinema of Spain">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_cuisine" title="Spanish cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li>Fiestas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fiestas_of_National_Tourist_Interest_of_Spain" title="Fiestas of National Tourist Interest of Spain">National Interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiestas_of_International_Tourist_Interest_of_Spain" title="Fiestas of International Tourist Interest of Spain">International Interest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Spain" title="Languages of Spain">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_literature" title="Spanish literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Spain" title="Mass media in Spain">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Spain" title="Music of Spain">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_mythology" title="Spanish mythology">Myths and legends</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_and_regional_identity_in_Spain" title="National and regional identity in Spain">National and regional identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Day_of_Spain" title="National Day of Spain">National Day of Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Spain" title="Public holidays in Spain">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Spain" title="Sport in Spain">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Spain" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Spain">UNESCO World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNESCO_Intangible_Cultural_Heritage_Lists" title="UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists">UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Spain" title="National symbols of Spain">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marcha_Real" title="Marcha Real">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Spain" title="Coat of arms of Spain">Coat of arms</a></li> <li>Cultural icons</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Spain" title="Flag of Spain">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osborne_bull" title="Osborne bull"><i>Toro de Osborne</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Spain" title="Outline of Spain">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Spain" title="Outline of Spain">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Spain" title="Category:Spain">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Spain" title="Portal:Spain">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Military_history_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Military_history_of_Europe" title="Template:Military history of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Military_history_of_Europe" title="Template talk:Military history of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Military_history_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Military history of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Military_history_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_Armed_Forces#History" title="Albanian Armed Forces">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Armenia" title="Military history of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Austria" title="Military history of Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Azerbaijan" title="Military history of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Belarus#History" title="Armed Forces of Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Armed_Forces#Historyt" title="Belgian Armed Forces">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina#Historya" title="Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Armed_Forces#History_of_the_Bulgarian_Army" title="Bulgarian Armed Forces">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Croatia" title="Military history of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_National_Guard#History" title="Cypriot National Guard">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Czech_Republic#History" title="Army of the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Denmark" title="Military history of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Estonia" title="Military history of Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Finland" title="Military history of Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_France" title="Military history of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Georgia" title="Military history of Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Germany" title="Military history of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Greece" title="Military history of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Hungary" title="Military history of Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Iceland" title="Military history of Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Ireland" title="Military history of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy" title="Military history of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Republic_of_Kazakhstan#History" title="Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_National_Armed_Forces#History" title="Latvian National Armed Forces">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Liechtenstein" title="Military history of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Armed_Forces#History" title="Lithuanian Armed Forces">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Luxembourg" title="Military history of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Malta#History" title="Armed Forces of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Republic_of_Moldova#History" title="Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Montenegro#History" title="Armed Forces of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Netherlands" title="Military history of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_North_Macedonia" title="Military history of North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Norway" title="Military history of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Polish_Army" title="History of the Polish Army">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Portugal" title="Military history of Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Romania" title="Military history of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Russia" title="Military history of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Serbia" title="Military history of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Armed_Forces" title="Slovak Armed Forces">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovenian_Armed_Forces#History" title="Slovenian Armed Forces">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Sweden" title="Military history of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Switzerland" title="Military history of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Turkey" title="Military history of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Ukraine#History" title="Armed Forces of Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Military history of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited<br />recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhazian_Armed_Forces#History" title="Abkhazian Armed Forces">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Republic_of_Artsakh" title="Military history of the Republic of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosovo_Security_Force#History" title="Kosovo Security Force">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_South_Ossetia#History" title="Armed Forces of South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Spain&oldid=1255335241">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_history_of_Spain&oldid=1255335241</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_history_of_Spain" title="Category:Military history of Spain">Military history of Spain</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 4 November 2024, at 11:41<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a 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