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Arguments and fallacies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arguments_and_fallacies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Form,_content,_and_context" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Form,_content,_and_context"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Form, content, and context </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Form,_content,_and_context-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_language_and_contrast_to_formal_fallacies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_language_and_contrast_to_formal_fallacies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Natural language and contrast to formal fallacies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_language_and_contrast_to_formal_fallacies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Types </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Types subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fallacies_of_ambiguity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fallacies_of_ambiguity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Fallacies of ambiguity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fallacies_of_ambiguity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fallacies_of_presumption" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fallacies_of_presumption"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Fallacies of presumption </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fallacies_of_presumption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fallacies_of_relevance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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data-title="Informeller Fehlschluss" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falacia_informal" title="Falacia informal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Falacia informal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%87_%D8%BA%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="مغالطه غیرصوری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مغالطه غیرصوری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B7" title="अनाकारिक तर्कदोष – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अनाकारिक तर्कदोष" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%AA%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86%DB%90" title="غیر رسمي تېروتنې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="غیر رسمي تېروتنې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fal%C3%A1cia_informal" title="Falácia informal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Falácia informal" data-language-autonym="Português" 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Rhetoric" title="Category:Rhetoric">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/150px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/225px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/300px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="962" data-file-height="600" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#History_and_development" title="Rhetoric">History</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Ancient_Greece" title="Rhetoric">Ancient Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic_style" title="Asiatic style">Asianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atticism" title="Atticism">Atticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_orators" title="Attic orators">Attic orators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calliope" title="Calliope">Calliope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Indian_rhetoric" title="Ancient Indian rhetoric">Ancient India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Rome" title="Rhetoric">Ancient Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature#The_age_of_Cicero" title="Latin literature">The age of Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Medieval_to_Enlightenment" title="Rhetoric">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_rhetoric" title="Byzantine rhetoric">Byzantine rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">Trivium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Sixteenth_century" title="Rhetoric">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Studia_humanitatis" class="mw-redirect" title="Studia humanitatis">Studia humanitatis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_rhetoric" title="Modern rhetoric">Modern period</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captatio_benevolentiae" title="Captatio benevolentiae">Captatio benevolentiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chironomia" title="Chironomia">Chironomia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decorum" title="Decorum">Decorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delectare" class="mw-redirect" title="Delectare">Delectare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docere" class="mw-redirect" title="Docere">Docere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_device" title="Rhetorical device">Device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eloquence" title="Eloquence">Eloquence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eloquentia_perfecta" title="Eloquentia perfecta">Eloquentia perfecta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eunoia" title="Eunoia">Eunoia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthymeme" title="Enthymeme">Enthymeme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facilitas" title="Facilitas">Facilitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">Fallacy</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Informal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figure_of_speech" title="Figure of speech">Figure of speech</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scheme_(rhetoric)" title="Scheme (rhetoric)">Scheme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trope_(literature)" title="Trope (literature)">Trope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Canons_of_Rhetoric" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Canons of Rhetoric">Five canons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inventio" title="Inventio">Inventio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispositio" title="Dispositio">Dispositio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elocutio" title="Elocutio">Elocutio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memoria" title="Memoria">Memoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronuntiatio" title="Pronuntiatio">Pronuntiatio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypsos" title="Hypsos">Hypsos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysian_imitatio" title="Dionysian imitatio">Imitatio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kairos" title="Kairos">Kairos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Method_of_loci" title="Method of loci">Method of loci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_modes" title="Rhetorical modes">Modes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_operations" title="Rhetorical operations">Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modes_of_persuasion" title="Modes of persuasion">Persuasion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">Ethos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathos" title="Pathos">Pathos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_situation" title="Rhetorical situation">Situation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(sociolinguistics)" title="Style (sociolinguistics)">Style</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_style_(rhetoric)" title="Grand style (rhetoric)">Grand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sotto_voce" title="Sotto voce">Sotto voce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_topos" title="Literary topos">Topos</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Genres</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apologetics" title="Apologetics">Apologetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debate" title="Debate">Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declamation" title="Declamation">Declamation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Controversia" title="Controversia">Controversia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_rhetoric" title="Deliberative rhetoric">Deliberative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demagogue" title="Demagogue">Demagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">Dialectic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissoi_logoi" title="Dissoi logoi">Dissoi logoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elocution" title="Elocution">Elocution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epideictic" title="Epideictic">Epideictic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Encomium" title="Encomium">Encomium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panegyric" title="Panegyric">Panegyric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eulogy" title="Eulogy">Eulogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farewell_speech" title="Farewell speech">Farewell speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_rhetoric" title="Forensic rhetoric">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_oration_(ancient_Greece)" title="Funeral oration (ancient Greece)">Funeral oration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homiletics" title="Homiletics">Homiletics‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sermon" title="Sermon">Sermon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invitational_rhetoric" title="Invitational rhetoric">Invitational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lecture" title="Lecture">Lecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_lecture" title="Public lecture">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightning_talk" title="Lightning talk">Lightning talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maiden_speech" title="Maiden speech">Maiden speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">Oratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polemic" title="Polemic">Polemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diatribe" title="Diatribe">Diatribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eristic" title="Eristic">Eristic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippic" title="Philippic">Philippic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progymnasmata" title="Progymnasmata">Progymnasmata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suasoria" title="Suasoria">Suasoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resignation_speech" title="Resignation speech">Resignation speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stump_speech" title="Stump speech">Stump speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-war_rhetoric" title="Pro-war rhetoric">War-mongering</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_criticism" title="Rhetorical criticism">Criticism</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_criticism" title="Cluster criticism">Cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dramatistic_pentad" title="Dramatistic pentad">Pentadic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frame_analysis" title="Frame analysis">Frame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genre_criticism" title="Genre criticism">Genre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_criticism" title="Ideological criticism">Ideological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphoric_criticism" title="Metaphoric criticism">Metaphoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimesis_criticism" title="Mimesis criticism">Mimesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_criticism" title="Narrative criticism">Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aristotelianism_(literature)" title="Neo-Aristotelianism (literature)">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Rhetoricians</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspasia" title="Aspasia">Aspasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakhtin" title="Mikhail Bakhtin">Bakhtin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayne_C._Booth" title="Wayne C. Booth">Booth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Brueggemann" title="Walter Brueggemann">Brueggemann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isocrates" title="Isocrates">Isocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysias" title="Lysias">Lysias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Ong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Perelman" title="Chaïm Perelman">Perelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_de_Pizan" title="Christine de Pizan">Pizan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Ramus" title="Petrus Ramus">Ramus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Toulmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Weaver" title="Richard M. Weaver">Weaver</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Works</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)" title="Gorgias (dialogue)">Gorgias</a> (380 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)#Discussion_of_rhetoric_and_writing_(257c–279c)" title="Phaedrus (dialogue)">Phaedrus</a> (c. 370 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_to_Alexander" title="Rhetoric to Alexander">Rhetoric to Alexander</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">De Sophisticis Elenchis</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topics_(Aristotle)" title="Topics (Aristotle)">Topics</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Inventione" title="De Inventione">De Inventione</a> (84 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium" title="Rhetorica ad Herennium">Rhetorica ad Herennium</a> (80 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Oratore" title="De Oratore">De Oratore</a> (55 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Dialogue_Concerning_Oratorical_Partitions" title="A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions">A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions</a> (c. 50 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Optimo_Genere_Oratorum" title="De Optimo Genere Oratorum">De Optimo Genere Oratorum</a> (46 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orator_(Cicero)" title="Orator (Cicero)">Orator</a> (46 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sublime" title="On the Sublime">On the Sublime</a> (c. 50)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutio_Oratoria" title="Institutio Oratoria">Institutio Oratoria</a> (95)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panegyrici_Latini" title="Panegyrici Latini">Panegyrici Latini</a> (100–400)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialogus_de_oratoribus" title="Dialogus de oratoribus">Dialogus de oratoribus</a> (102)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_doctrina_Christiana" title="De doctrina Christiana">De doctrina Christiana</a> (426)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_vulgari_eloquentia" title="De vulgari eloquentia">De vulgari eloquentia</a> (1305)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copia:_Foundations_of_the_Abundant_Style" title="Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style">Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style</a> (1521)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_as_Symbolic_Action" title="Language as Symbolic Action">Language as Symbolic Action</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_General_Rhetoric" title="A General Rhetoric">A General Rhetoric</a> (1970)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Subfields</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">Argumentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_rhetoric" title="Cognitive rhetoric">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastive_rhetoric" title="Contrastive rhetoric">Contrastive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutive_rhetoric" title="Constitutive rhetoric">Constitutive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rhetoric" title="Digital rhetoric">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_rhetoric" title="Feminist rhetoric">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_rhetoric" title="Native American rhetoric">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_rhetorics" class="mw-redirect" title="New rhetorics">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_health_and_medicine" title="Rhetoric of health and medicine">Health and medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_rhetoric_and_composition_pedagogy" title="Theories of rhetoric and composition pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_rhetoric" title="Procedural rhetoric">Procedural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_technology" title="Rhetoric of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_therapy" title="Rhetoric of therapy">Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_rhetoric" title="Visual rhetoric">Visual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_rhetoric_and_composition" title="Visual rhetoric and composition">Composition</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ars_dictaminis" title="Ars dictaminis">Ars dictaminis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_studies" title="Composition studies">Composition studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxa" title="Doxa">Doxa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_rhetorical_terms" title="Glossary of rhetorical terms">Glossary of rhetorical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossophobia" title="Glossophobia">Glossophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_rhetoricians" title="List of feminist rhetoricians">List of feminist rhetoricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_speeches" title="List of speeches">List of speeches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_skills" title="Oral skills">Oral skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orator" title="Orator">Orator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pistis" title="Pistis">Pistis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_rhetoric" title="Public rhetoric">Public rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_social_intervention_model" title="Rhetoric of social intervention model">Rhetoric of social intervention model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetrickery" title="Rhetrickery">Rhetrickery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogerian_argument" title="Rogerian argument">Rogerian argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seduction" title="Seduction">Seduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speechwriter" title="Speechwriter">Speechwriting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talking_point" title="Talking point">Talking point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TED_(conference)" title="TED (conference)">TED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terministic_screen" title="Terministic screen">Terministic screen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toulmin_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Toulmin model">Toulmin model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wooden_iron" title="Wooden iron">Wooden iron</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhetoric" title="Template:Rhetoric"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rhetoric" title="Template talk:Rhetoric"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rhetoric" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rhetoric"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Informal fallacies are a type of incorrect <a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">argument</a> in <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural language</a>. The source of the error is not just due to the form of the argument, as is the case for <a href="/wiki/Formal_fallacies" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal fallacies">formal fallacies</a>, but can also be due to their content and context. Fallacies, despite being incorrect, usually appear to be correct and thereby can seduce people into accepting and using them. These misleading appearances are often connected to various aspects of natural language, such as ambiguous or vague expressions, or the assumption of implicit premises instead of making them explicit. Traditionally, a great number of informal fallacies have been identified, including the <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_equivocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacy of equivocation">fallacy of equivocation</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_amphiboly" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacy of amphiboly">fallacy of amphiboly</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_composition" title="Fallacy of composition">fallacies of composition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_division" title="Fallacy of division">division</a>, the <a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">false dilemma</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_begging_the_question" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacy of begging the question">fallacy of begging the question</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ad_hominem_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ad hominem fallacy">ad hominem fallacy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_ignorance" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal to ignorance">appeal to ignorance</a>. There is no general agreement as to how the various fallacies are to be grouped into categories. One approach sometimes found in the literature is to distinguish between <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacies_of_ambiguity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fallacies of ambiguity (page does not exist)">fallacies of ambiguity</a>, which have their root in ambiguous or vague language, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacies_of_presumption&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fallacies of presumption (page does not exist)">fallacies of presumption</a>, which involve false or unjustified premises, and <a href="/wiki/Fallacies_of_relevance" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacies of relevance">fallacies of relevance</a>, in which the premises are not relevant to the conclusion despite appearances otherwise. Some approaches in <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">contemporary philosophy</a> consider additional factors besides content and context. As a result, some arguments traditionally viewed as informal fallacies are not considered fallacious from their perspective, or at least not in all cases. One such framework proposed is the dialogical approach, which conceives arguments as moves in a dialogue-game aimed at rationally persuading the other person. This game is governed by various rules. Fallacies are defined as violations of the dialogue rules impeding the progress of the dialogue. The epistemic approach constitutes another framework. Its core idea is that arguments play an epistemic role: they aim to expand our knowledge by providing a bridge from already justified beliefs to not yet justified beliefs. Fallacies are arguments that fall short of this goal by breaking a rule of <a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">epistemic justification</a>. A particular form of the epistemic framework is the <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_epistemology" title="Bayesian epistemology">Bayesian</a> approach, where the epistemic norms are given by the laws of probability, which our degrees of belief should track. The study of fallacies aims at providing an account for evaluating and criticizing arguments. This involves both a descriptive account of what constitutes an argument and a normative account of which arguments are good or bad.<a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Siegel-2">[2]</a> In philosophy, fallacies are usually seen as a form of bad argument and are discussed as such in this article. Another conception, more common in non-scholarly discourse, sees fallacies not as arguments but rather as false yet popular beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Traditional_account">Traditional account</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Informal_fallacy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Traditional account">edit</a>]</div> Informal fallacies are a form of incorrect <a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">argument</a> in <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dowden-4">[4]</a> An argument is a series of propositions, called the premises, together with one more proposition, called the conclusion.<a href="#cite_note-Engel1-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> The premises in correct arguments offer either deductive or defeasible support for the conclusion. The source of the error in incorrect arguments can be in the argument's form, content or context. If the error is only due to the form, it is considered a formal fallacy. Informal fallacies may also include formal errors but they primarily involve errors on the level of content and context.<a href="#cite_note-VleetIntro-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-fallacyfiles-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dowden-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stump-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Korb-9">[9]</a> Informal fallacies are expressed in natural language. This brings with it various difficulties not faced when studying formal fallacies, like ambiguous terms, vague expressions or the premises being assumed implicitly rather than stated explicitly. Traditionally, a great number of informal fallacies have been listed, including the <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_equivocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacy of equivocation">fallacy of equivocation</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_amphiboly" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacy of amphiboly">fallacy of amphiboly</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_composition" title="Fallacy of composition">fallacies of composition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_division" title="Fallacy of division">division</a>, the <a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">false dilemma</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_begging_the_question" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacy of begging the question">fallacy of begging the question</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ad_hominem_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ad hominem fallacy">ad hominem fallacy</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_ignorance" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal to ignorance">appeal to ignorance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Vleet-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Engel-11">[11]</a> The traditional approach tries to account for these fallacies using the concepts and theses discussed in this section. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arguments_and_fallacies">Arguments and fallacies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Informal_fallacy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Arguments and fallacies">edit</a>]</div> Only arguments can constitute a fallacy. Various erroneous expressions do not count as fallacies because no argument is made, e.g. because no reasons are cited or no assertion is made.<a href="#cite_note-Engel1-5">[5]</a> The core idea of arguments is that the premises support the conclusion or that the conclusion follows from the premises.<a href="#cite_note-Engel1-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> Deductively valid arguments offer the strongest form of support: for them, it is impossible for the conclusion to be false if all the premises are true. The premises in non-deductive arguments offer a certain degree of support for their conclusion but they are defeasible:<a href="#cite_note-Engel1-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12">[12]</a> it is possible for all the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false. Defeasible arguments may still be rationally compelling despite being fallible, so they do not automatically constitute fallacies.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> The premises of an argument may be seen as the foundation on which the conclusion is built. According to this analogy, two things can go wrong and turn an argument into a fallacy. It could be that the foundation is shaky. But even a solid foundation is not helpful if it does not provide support for the conclusion in question.<a href="#cite_note-Engel1-5">[5]</a> Traditionally, fallacies have been defined by three necessary conditions: "a fallacy (i) is an argument, (ii) that is invalid, and (iii) appears to be valid."<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> This definition covers only formal fallacy since it has deductive invalidity as a necessary condition. But it can easily be modified to include informal fallacy by replacing this condition with a more general term, like logical weakness or incorrect reasoning.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> The last clause includes a psychological element in referring to how the argument appears to the arguer. This clause is used to distinguish genuine fallacies from mere mistakes in reasoning, for example, due to carelessness.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> The idea is that fallacies have an alluring element that goes beyond mere carelessness by seducing us into committing the mistake, thereby explaining why they are committed in the first place. Some philosophers reject this appeal to appearances because the reference to psychology would complicate the investigation in various ways.<a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> One issue is that appearances are different for different people. This problem also involves social sciences in order to determine which reference group of people to consult for defining fallacies.<a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> It has been suggested that, at its core, the study of fallacies is about normative aspects of arguments and not about their persuasive force, which is studied by empirical psychology instead.<a href="#cite_note-Walton3-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Form,_content,_and_context">Form, content, and context</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Informal_fallacy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Form, content, and context">edit</a>]</div> The source of the error in incorrect arguments can lie in the argument's form, content, or context.<a href="#cite_note-fallacyfiles-7">[7]</a> The form or structure of an argument is also called "<a href="/wiki/Rule_of_inference" title="Rule of inference">rule of inference</a>". The most well-known rule of inference is <a href="/wiki/Modus_ponens" title="Modus ponens">modus ponens</a>, which states that given a premise of the form "If p then q" and another in the form "p", then the conclusion is "q". Rules of inferences are formal because it depends only on the structure or the syntax of the premises and not on their content. So an argument based on modus ponens is valid no matter what propositional contents are used for "p" and "q".<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The content of an argument is found on the level of its propositions: it is what is expressed in them. The source of many informal fallacies is found in a false premise. For example, a <a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">false dilemma</a> is a fallacy based on a false disjunctive claim that oversimplifies reality by excluding viable alternatives.<a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dowden-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Engel4-16">[16]</a> The context of an argument refers to the situation in which it is used.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> Based on its context it may be intended to play different roles. One way for an argument to be fallacious is if it fails to perform the role it was supposed to play. The <a href="/wiki/Strawman_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Strawman fallacy">strawman fallacy</a>, for example, involves inaccurately attributing a weak position to one's opponent and then refuting this position.<a href="#cite_note-Dowden-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> The argument itself may be valid in that the refutation of the opposed position really is successful. The error is found on the level of the context since the opponent does not hold this position. This dependence on a context means that the same argument may be successful in another context: against an opponent who actually holds the strawman position.<a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_language_and_contrast_to_formal_fallacies">Natural language and contrast to formal fallacies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Informal_fallacy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Natural language and contrast to formal fallacies">edit</a>]</div> Formal fallacies are <a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">deductively invalid</a> arguments.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-VleetIntro-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-fallacyfiles-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stump-8">[8]</a> They are of special interest to the field of <a href="/wiki/Formal_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal logic">formal logic</a> but they can only account for a small number of the known fallacies, for example, for <a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">affirming the consequent</a> or <a href="/wiki/Denying_the_antecedent" title="Denying the antecedent">denying the antecedent</a>. Many other fallacies used in natural language, e.g. in advertising or in politics, involve informal fallacies.<a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Korb-9">[9]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">false dilemmas</a> or <a href="/wiki/Begging_the_question" title="Begging the question">begging the question</a> are fallacies despite being deductively valid. They are studied by <a href="/wiki/Informal_logic" title="Informal logic">informal logic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12">[12]</a> Part of the difficulty in analyzing informal fallacies is due to the fact that their structure is not always clearly expressed in natural language.<a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> Sometimes certain keywords like "because", "therefore", "since" or "consequently" indicate which parts of the expression constitute the premises and which part the conclusion. But other times this distinction remains implicit and it is not always obvious which parts should be identified as the premises and the conclusions.<a href="#cite_note-Engel1-5">[5]</a> Many informal arguments include enthymematic premises: premises that are not explicitly stated but tacitly presumed.<a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> In some domestic quarrels and political debates, it is not clear from the outset what the two parties are arguing about and which theses they intend to defend. Sometimes the function of the debate is more to clarify these preliminary points than to advance actual arguments.<a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> The distinction between formal and informal fallacies is opposed by deductivists, who hold that deductive invalidity is the reason for all fallacies.<a href="#cite_note-Jacquette-18">[18]</a> One way to explain that some fallacies do not seem to be deductively invalid is to hold that they contain various hidden assumptions, as is common for natural language arguments. The idea is that apparent informal fallacies can be turned into formal fallacies by making all these assumptions explicit and thereby revealing the deductive invalidity. The claim that this is possible for all fallacies is not generally accepted.<a href="#cite_note-Jacquette-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> One requirement for a formal treatment is translating the arguments in question into the language of formal logic, a process known as "formalization".<a href="#cite_note-Woods-19">[19]</a> Often many of the subtleties of natural language have to be ignored in this process. Some bodies of knowledge can be formalized without much residue but others resist formalization. This is also true for many informal fallacies.<a href="#cite_note-Woods-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_approaches">Contemporary approaches</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Informal_fallacy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Contemporary approaches">edit</a>]</div> The traditional approach to fallacies has received a lot of criticism in contemporary philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Korb-9">[9]</a> This criticism is often based on the argument that some of the alleged fallacies are not fallacious at all, or at least not in all cases.<a href="#cite_note-Groarke-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> It is argued that the traditional approach does not fully consider the aim of an argument in a particular context, and a framework is required in order to show that, given their perspective, it is possible to evaluate if an alleged fallacy is actually fallacious in a given case.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> It has been suggested that there may not be one single framework for evaluating all fallacies but only a manifold of ideals according to which a given argument may be good or bad.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> Two prominent frameworks which have been proposed are the dialogical and epistemic approaches. The dialogical approach uses a game-theoretic framework to define arguments and sees fallacies as violations of the rules of the game. According to the epistemic approach, it is the goal of arguments to expand our knowledge by providing a bridge from already justified beliefs to not yet justified beliefs. Fallacies are arguments that fall short of this goal by breaking a rule of epistemic justification. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dialogical">Dialogical</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Informal_fallacy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dialogical">edit</a>]</div> The dialogical approach sees arguments not simply as a series of premises together with a conclusion but as a speech act within a dialogue that aims to rationally persuade the other person of one's own position.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Korb-9">[9]</a> A prominent version of this approach is defended by <a href="/wiki/Douglas_N._Walton" title="Douglas N. Walton">Douglas N. Walton</a>. On his <a href="/wiki/Game-theoretic" class="mw-redirect" title="Game-theoretic">game-theoretic</a> conception, a dialogue is a game between two players.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> At the outset, each player is committed to a set of propositions and has a conclusion they intend to prove. A player has won if they are able to persuade the opponent of their own conclusion. In this sense, dialogues can be characterized as "games of persuasion".<a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> The players can perform various moves that affect what they are committed to. In this framework, arguments are moves that take the opponent's commitments as premises and lead to the conclusion one is trying to prove.<a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> Since this is often not possible directly, various intermediary steps are taken, in which each argument takes a few steps towards one's intended conclusion by proposing an intermediary conclusion for the opponent to accept. This game is governed by various rules determining, among other things, which moves are allowed and when.<a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Walton3-14">[14]</a> The dialogical approach makes it possible to distinguish between positive arguments, which support one's own conclusion, and negative arguments, which deny the opponent's conclusion.<a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> From this perspective, fallacies are defined as violations of the dialogue rules.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Walton3-14">[14]</a> They are "deceptively bad argument[s] that impede the progress of the dialogue".<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Strawman_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Strawman fallacy">strawman fallacy</a>, for example, involves inaccurately attributing a weak position to one's opponent<a href="#cite_note-Dowden-4">[4]</a> and then proving this position to lead to one's own conclusion. This mistake is not logical in the strict sense but dialogical: the conclusion may as well follow from these premises but the opponent does not hold these commitments.<a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> In some cases, it varies from game to game whether a certain move counts as a fallacy or not. For example, there are cases where the <a href="/wiki/Tu_quoque" title="Tu quoque">tu quoque</a> "fallacy" is no fallacy at all.<a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> This argument, also known as appeal to hypocrisy, tries to discredit the opponent's argument by claiming that the opponent's behavior is inconsistent with the argument's conclusion.<a href="#cite_note-Dowden-4">[4]</a> This move does not necessarily break the rules of the dialogue.<a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> Instead, it can reveal a weakness in the opponent's position by reflecting their criticism back onto them. This move shifts the burden of proof back to the opponent, thereby strengthening one's own position. But it still constitutes a fallacy if it is only used to evade an argument.<a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epistemic">Epistemic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Informal_fallacy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Epistemic">edit</a>]</div> The core idea behind the epistemic approach is that arguments play an epistemic role: they aim to expand our knowledge by providing a bridge from already justified beliefs to not yet justified beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-Korb-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Siegel-2">[2]</a> Fallacies are arguments that fall short of this goal by breaking a rule of epistemic justification.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> This explains, for example, why arguments that are accidentally valid are still somehow flawed: because the arguer himself lacks a good reason to believe the conclusion.<a href="#cite_note-Korb-9">[9]</a> The fallacy of <a href="/wiki/Begging_the_question" title="Begging the question">begging the question</a>, on this perspective, is a fallacy because it fails to expand our knowledge by providing independent justification for its conclusion. Instead, the conclusion is already assumed in one of its premises.<a href="#cite_note-Siegel-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12">[12]</a> A purely logical approach, on the other hand, fails to explain the fallacious nature of begging the question since the argument is deductively valid.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Bayesian_epistemology" title="Bayesian epistemology">Bayesian approach</a> constitutes a special form of the epistemic approach.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> Bayesianism interprets degrees of belief as <a href="/wiki/Subjective_probabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjective probabilities">subjective probabilities</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Korb-9">[9]</a> i.e. as the degree of certainty of the believer that the believed proposition is true. On this view, reasoning based on an argument can be interpreted as a process of changing one's degrees of belief, usually in response to new incoming information.<a href="#cite_note-Corner-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> Fallacies are probabilistically weak arguments, i.e. they have a low probability on the Bayesian model.<a href="#cite_note-Corner-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> Whether an argument constitutes a fallacy or not depends on the credences of the person evaluating the argument. This means that what constitutes a fallacy for one arguer may be a sound argument for another.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Korb-9">[9]</a> This explains why, when trying to persuade someone, one should take the audience's beliefs into account.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> But it can also make sense of arguments independent of an audience, unlike the dialogical approach.<a href="#cite_note-Korb-9">[9]</a> This perspective is well suited for explaining why some <a href="/wiki/Slippery_slope" title="Slippery slope">slippery slope</a> arguments constitute fallacies but others not. Slippery slope arguments argue against a certain proposal based on the fact that this proposal would bring with it a causal chain of events eventually leading to a bad outcome.<a href="#cite_note-Dowden-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Korb-9">[9]</a> But even if every step in this chain is relatively probable, probabilistic calculus may still reveal that the likelihood of all steps occurring together is quite small.<a href="#cite_note-Hahn-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Korb-9">[9]</a> In this case, the argument would constitute a fallacy. But slippery slope arguments are rationally justified if the associated probabilities are sufficiently high.<a href="#cite_note-Hahn-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Informal_fallacy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Types">edit</a>]</div> A <a href="/wiki/List_of_informal_fallacies" class="mw-redirect" title="List of informal fallacies">great variety</a> of informal fallacies have been discussed in academic literature. There is controversy both concerning whether a given argument really constitutes a fallacy in all of its instances and concerning how the different fallacies should be grouped together into categories.<a href="#cite_note-Groarke-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> The categorization here follows proposals commonly found in the academic literature in these or similar terms.<a href="#cite_note-Engel-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stump-8">[8]</a> It distinguishes between <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacies_of_ambiguity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fallacies of ambiguity (page does not exist)">fallacies of ambiguity</a>, which have their root in ambiguous or vague language, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fallacies_of_presumption&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fallacies of presumption (page does not exist)">fallacies of presumption</a>, which involve false or unjustified premises, and <a href="/wiki/Fallacies_of_relevance" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacies of relevance">fallacies of relevance</a>, in which the premises are not relevant to the conclusion despite appearances otherwise. Other categorizations have been proposed and some fallacies within this categorization could also be grouped in another category.<a href="#cite_note-Vleet-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fallacies_of_ambiguity">Fallacies of ambiguity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Informal_fallacy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Fallacies of ambiguity">edit</a>]</div> The source of the error for fallacies of ambiguity lies in the usage of language. This is due to the fact that many terms in natural language have ambiguous or vague meanings.<a href="#cite_note-Engel2-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stump-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> Ambiguous terms have several meanings while vague terms have an unclear meaning. Fallacies of ambiguity often result in merely verbal disputes: the arguing parties have different topics in mind and thereby talk past each other without being aware of this.<a href="#cite_note-Engel2-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12">[12]</a> One way to avoid or solve these fallacies is to clarify language, e.g. by committing to definitions and by introducing new distinctions.<a href="#cite_note-Engel3-24">[24]</a> Such reformulations may include a condensation of the original argument in order to make it easier to spot the erroneous step.<a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12">[12]</a> Fallacies of ambiguity are perhaps best exemplified by the <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_equivocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacy of equivocation">fallacy of equivocation</a>, in which the same term appears with two different meanings in the premises,<a href="#cite_note-Engel3-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stump-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> for example: <dl><dd>Feathers are light. ("light" as "not heavy")</dd> <dd>What is light cannot be dark. ("light" as "pale in color")<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></dd> <dd>Therefore, feathers cannot be dark.</dd></dl> Equivocations are especially difficult to detect in cases where the two meanings are very closely related to each other.<a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12">[12]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_amphiboly" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacy of amphiboly">fallacy of amphiboly</a> also involves ambiguity in meaning, but this ambiguity arises not on the level of individual terms but on the level of the sentence as a whole due to syntactic ambiguity,<a href="#cite_note-Engel3-24">[24]</a> for example: <dl><dd>"The police were told to stop drinking on campus after midnight.</dd> <dd>So, now they are able to respond to emergencies much better than before"<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a></dd></dl> On one interpretation, the police are not allowed to drink alcohol. On another, it is now the job of the police to stop other people from drinking. The argument seems plausible on the former reading but fallacious on the latter reading.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_division" title="Fallacy of division">fallacies of division</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_composition" title="Fallacy of composition">composition</a> are due to ambiguity of the term "all" and similar expressions.<a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stump-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> This term has both a collective and a distributive meaning. For example, the sentence "all the citizens are strong enough to resist a tyrant" may mean either that all together are strong enough (collective) or that each one individually is strong enough (distributive).<a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12">[12]</a> The fallacy of division is committed if one infers from the sentence in the collective sense that one specific individual is strong enough.<a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Engel3-24">[24]</a> The fallacy of composition is committed if one infers from the fact that each member of a group has a property that the group as a whole has this property.<a href="#cite_note-Engel3-24">[24]</a> For example, "[e]very member of the investigative team was an excellent researcher", therefore "[i]t was an excellent investigative team".<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> Any form of fallaciously transferring a property from the whole to its parts or the other way round belongs to the category of fallacies of division and composition, even when linguistic ambiguity is not the cause. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fallacies_of_presumption">Fallacies of presumption</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Informal_fallacy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Fallacies of presumption">edit</a>]</div> Fallacies of presumption involve a false or unjustified premise but are often valid otherwise.<a href="#cite_note-Engel4-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stump-8">[8]</a> This problematic premise can take different forms and the belief in it can be caused in different ways, corresponding to the various sub-categories in this field. These fallacies include the <a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_fallacy" title="Naturalistic fallacy">naturalistic fallacy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Moralistic_fallacy" title="Moralistic fallacy">moralistic fallacy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Intentional_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Intentional fallacy">intentional fallacy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jacquette-18">[18]</a> A <a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">false dilemma</a> is a fallacy of presumption based on a false disjunctive claim that oversimplifies reality by excluding viable alternatives.<a href="#cite_note-Engel4-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12">[12]</a> For example, a false dilemma is committed when it is claimed that "Stacey spoke out against capitalism, therefore she must be a communist". One of the options excluded is that Stacey may be neither communist nor capitalist. Our liability to commit false dilemmas may be due to the tendency to simplify reality by ordering it through either-or-statements.<a href="#cite_note-Engel4-16">[16]</a> For fallacies of generalization, the false premise is due to an erroneous generalization. In the case of the fallacy of <a href="/wiki/Sweeping_generalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweeping generalization">sweeping generalization</a>, a general rule is applied incorrectly to an exceptional case. For example, "[e]veryone has a right to his or her property. Therefore, even though Jones had been declared insane, you had no right to take his weapon away."<a href="#cite_note-Engel4-16">[16]</a>: 147  The generalization, in this case, ignores that insanity is an exceptional case to which the general rights of property do not unrestrictedly apply. <a href="/wiki/Hasty_generalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasty generalization">Hasty generalization</a>, on the other hand, involves the converse mistake of drawing a universal conclusion based on a small number of instances.<a href="#cite_note-Engel4-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stump-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Groarke-20">[20]</a> For example, "I've met two people in Nicaragua so far, and they were both nice to me. So, all people I will meet in Nicaragua will be nice to me".<a href="#cite_note-Dowden-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Begging_the_question" title="Begging the question">Begging the question</a> is a form of <a href="/wiki/Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">circular reasoning</a> in which the conclusion is already assumed in the premises.<a href="#cite_note-Engel4-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stump-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> Because of this, the premises are unable to provide independent support for the conclusion. For example, the statement "Green is the best color because it is the greenest of all colors", offers no independent reason besides the initial assumption for its conclusion. Detecting this fallacy can be difficult when a complex argument with many sub-arguments is involved, resulting in a large circle.<a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fallacies_of_relevance">Fallacies of relevance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Informal_fallacy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Fallacies of relevance">edit</a>]</div> Fallacies of relevance involve premises that are not relevant to the conclusion despite appearances otherwise.<a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stump-8">[8]</a> They may succeed in persuading the audience nonetheless due to being emotionally loaded (for example: by playing on prejudice, pity or fear).<a href="#cite_note-Engel5-26">[26]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ad_hominem" title="Ad hominem">Ad hominem</a> arguments constitute an important class among the fallacies of relevance. In them, the arguer tries to attack a thesis by attacking the person pronouncing this thesis instead of attacking the thesis itself.<a href="#cite_note-Engel5-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stump-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Groarke-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Walton-1">[1]</a> Rejecting a theory in physics because its author is Jewish, which was common in the <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Physik" title="Deutsche Physik"> German physics community in the early 1930s</a>, is an example of the ad hominem fallacy. But not all ad hominem arguments constitute fallacies. It is a common and reasonable practice in court, for example, to defend oneself against an accusation by casting doubt on the reliability of the witnesses. The difference between fallacious and justified ad hominem arguments depends on the relevancy of the character of the attacked person to the thesis in question. The author's cultural heritage seems to have very little relevance in most cases for theories in physics, but the reliability of a witness in court is highly relevant for whether one is justified in believing their testimony. <a href="/wiki/Whataboutism" title="Whataboutism">Whataboutism</a> is a special form of the ad hominem fallacy that attempts to discredit an opponent's position by charging them with <a href="/wiki/Hypocrisy" title="Hypocrisy">hypocrisy</a> without directly refuting or disproving their argument.<a href="#cite_note-OLD-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-zimmer-def-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> It is particularly associated with contemporary <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_post-Soviet_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Propaganda in post-Soviet Russia">Russian propaganda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-npr-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-sakwa-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-maxim-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_ignorance" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal to ignorance">Appeal to ignorance</a> is another fallacy due to irrelevance.<a href="#cite_note-Engel5-26">[26]</a> It is based on the premise that there is no proof for a certain claim. From this premise, the conclusion is drawn that this claim must therefore be false. For example, "Nobody has ever proved to me there's a God, so I know there is no God".<a href="#cite_note-Dowden-4">[4]</a> Another version of the appeal to ignorance concludes from the absence of proof against a claim that this claim must be true. <a href="/wiki/Arguments_from_analogy" class="mw-redirect" title="Arguments from analogy">Arguments from analogy</a> are also susceptible to fallacies of relevance. An <a href="/wiki/Analogy" title="Analogy">analogy</a> is a comparison between two objects based on similarity.<a href="#cite_note-Bartha-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12">[12]</a> Arguments from analogy involve inferences from information about a known object (the source) to the features of an unknown object (the target) based on the similarity between the two objects.<a href="#cite_note-Bunnin-34">[34]</a> Arguments from analogy have the following form: a is similar to b and a has feature F, therefore b probably also has feature F.<a href="#cite_note-Bartha-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The soundness of such arguments depends on the relevance of this similarity to the inferred feature.<a href="#cite_note-Salmon-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mackie-12">[12]</a> Without this relevance, the argument constitutes a faulty or <a href="/wiki/False_analogy" class="mw-redirect" title="False analogy">false analogy</a>, for example: "If a child gets a new toy he or she will want to play with it; So, if a nation gets new weapons, it will want to use them".<a href="#cite_note-Hansen-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Etymological_fallacy" title="Etymological fallacy"> Etymological fallacies</a> may confuse older or "original" meanings of words with current semantic usage. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Informal_fallacy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">List of fallacies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">Fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_fallacy" title="Formal fallacy">Formal fallacy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Informal_fallacy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Walton-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-25">z</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-26">aa</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walton_1-27">ab</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWalton1987" class="citation book cs1">Walton, Douglas N. 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Also called whataboutery</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Living+Dictionaries&rft.atitle=whataboutism&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.oxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fwhataboutism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformal+fallacy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-zimmer-def-28"><a href="#cite_ref-zimmer-def_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmer2017" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ben_Zimmer" title="Ben Zimmer">Zimmer, Ben</a> (9 June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-roots-of-the-what-about-ploy-1497019827">"The Roots of the 'What About?' Ploy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a>. Retrieved 22 July 2017. <q>"Whataboutism" is another name for the logical fallacy of "tu quoque" (Latin for "you also"), in which an accusation is met with a counter-accusation, pivoting away from the original criticism. The strategy has been a hallmark of Soviet and post-Soviet propaganda, and some commentators have accused President Donald Trump of mimicking Mr. Putin's use of the technique.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Roots+of+the+%27What+About%3F%27+Ploy&rft.date=2017-06-09&rft.aulast=Zimmer&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fthe-roots-of-the-what-about-ploy-1497019827&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformal+fallacy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/whataboutism">"whataboutism"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Dictionary">Cambridge Dictionary</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Dictionary&rft.atitle=whataboutism&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.cambridge.org%2Fus%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fwhataboutism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformal+fallacy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-npr-30"><a href="#cite_ref-npr_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurtzleben2017" class="citation news cs1">Kurtzleben, Danielle (17 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2017/03/17/520435073/trump-embraces-one-of-russias-favorite-propaganda-tactics-whataboutism">"Trump Embraces One Of Russia's Favorite Propaganda Tactics — Whataboutism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a>. Retrieved 20 May 2017. <q>This particular brand of changing the subject is called 'whataboutism' – a simple rhetorical tactic heavily used by the Soviet Union and, later, Russia.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Trump+Embraces+One+Of+Russia%27s+Favorite+Propaganda+Tactics+%E2%80%94+Whataboutism&rft.date=2017-03-17&rft.aulast=Kurtzleben&rft.aufirst=Danielle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2017%2F03%2F17%2F520435073%2Ftrump-embraces-one-of-russias-favorite-propaganda-tactics-whataboutism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformal+fallacy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sakwa-31"><a href="#cite_ref-sakwa_31-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSakwa2015" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Sakwa" title="Richard Sakwa">Sakwa, Richard</a> (2015), Frontline Ukraine: Crisis in the Borderlands, I.B.Tauris, p. 216, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1784530648" title="Special:BookSources/978-1784530648"><bdi>978-1784530648</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Frontline+Ukraine%3A+Crisis+in+the+Borderlands&rft.pages=216&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1784530648&rft.aulast=Sakwa&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformal+fallacy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-maxim-32"><a href="#cite_ref-maxim_32-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrudolyubov2017" class="citation cs2">Trudolyubov, Maxim (15 January 2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newsweek.com/how-putin-succeeded-undermining-our-institutions-541846">"How Putin succeeded in undermining our institutions"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Newsweek" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a>, retrieved 3 July 2017, <q>The way the Kremlin has always reacted to reports about corruption or arbitrary police rule, or the state of Russia's penal institutions, is by generating similar reports about the West. Whatever the other party says the answer is always the same: 'Look who's talking.' This age-old technique, dubbed 'whataboutism', is in essence an appeal to hypocrisy; its only purpose is to discredit the opponent, not to refute the original argument.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=How+Putin+succeeded+in+undermining+our+institutions&rft.date=2017-01-15&rft.aulast=Trudolyubov&rft.aufirst=Maxim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsweek.com%2Fhow-putin-succeeded-undermining-our-institutions-541846&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformal+fallacy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bartha-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bartha_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartha_33-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartha2019" class="citation web cs1">Bartha, Paul (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reasoning-analogy/">"Analogy and Analogical Reasoning"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 21 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Analogy+and+Analogical+Reasoning&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Bartha&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Freasoning-analogy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformal+fallacy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bunnin-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Bunnin_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunninYu2009" class="citation book cs1">Bunnin, Nicholas; Yu, Jiyuan (2009). "analogy". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OskKWI1YA7AC">The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy</a>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-99721-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-99721-5"><bdi>978-0-470-99721-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=analogy&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Dictionary+of+Western+Philosophy&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-470-99721-5&rft.aulast=Bunnin&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft.au=Yu%2C+Jiyuan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOskKWI1YA7AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformal+fallacy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandkühler2010" class="citation book cs1">Sandkühler, Hans Jörg (2010). "Analogie". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210311040207/https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie.html">Enzyklopädie Philosophie</a>. Meiner. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie.html">the original</a> on 2021-03-11. Retrieved 2021-03-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Analogie&rft.btitle=Enzyklop%C3%A4die+Philosophie&rft.pub=Meiner&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Sandk%C3%BChler&rft.aufirst=Hans+J%C3%B6rg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmeiner.de%2Fenzyklopadie-philosophie.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformal+fallacy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Salmon-36"><a href="#cite_ref-Salmon_36-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalmon2012" class="citation book cs1">Salmon, Merrilee (2012). "Arguments from analogy". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vd8JAAAAQBAJ">Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking</a>. Cengage Learning. pp. 132–142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-133-71164-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-133-71164-3"><bdi>978-1-133-71164-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arguments+from+analogy&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Logic+and+Critical+Thinking&rft.pages=132-142&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-133-71164-3&rft.aulast=Salmon&rft.aufirst=Merrilee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dvd8JAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformal+fallacy" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Common_fallacies_(list)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fallacies" title="Template:Fallacies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fallacies" title="Template talk:Fallacies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fallacies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fallacies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Common_fallacies_(list)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Common <a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">fallacies</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">list</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Formal_fallacy" title="Formal fallacy">Formal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Propositional_calculus" title="Propositional calculus">propositional logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_a_disjunct" title="Affirming a disjunct">Affirming a disjunct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">Affirming the consequent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denying_the_antecedent" title="Denying the antecedent">Denying the antecedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_fallacy" title="Argument from fallacy">Argument from fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masked-man_fallacy" title="Masked-man fallacy">Masked man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_fallacy" title="Mathematical fallacy">Mathematical fallacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">quantificational logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Existential_fallacy" title="Existential fallacy">Existential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">Illicit conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_by_example" title="Proof by example">Proof by example</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantifier_shift" title="Quantifier shift">Quantifier shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Syllogistic_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllogistic fallacy">Syllogistic fallacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_conclusion_from_a_negative_premise" title="Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise">Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_conclusion_from_affirmative_premises" title="Negative conclusion from affirmative premises">Negative conclusion from affirmative premises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_exclusive_premises" title="Fallacy of exclusive premises">Exclusive premises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_fallacy" title="Existential fallacy">Existential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_scope_fallacy" title="Modal scope fallacy">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_four_terms" title="Fallacy of four terms">Four terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_major" title="Illicit major">Illicit major</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_minor" title="Illicit minor">Illicit minor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_the_undistributed_middle" title="Fallacy of the undistributed middle">Undistributed middle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Informal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equivocation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equivocation" title="Equivocation">Equivocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_equivalence" title="False equivalence">False equivalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_attribution" title="False attribution">False attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quoting out of context</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loki%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Loki's Wager">Loki's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_true_Scotsman" title="No true Scotsman">No true Scotsman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(fallacy)" title="Reification (fallacy)">Reification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Question-begging</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">Circular reasoning</a> / <a href="/wiki/Begging_the_question" title="Begging the question">Begging the question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loaded_language" title="Loaded language">Loaded language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leading_question" title="Leading question">Leading question</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-barreled_question" title="Double-barreled question">Compound question</a> / <a href="/wiki/Loaded_question" title="Loaded question">Loaded question</a> / <a href="/wiki/Complex_question" title="Complex question">Complex question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_true_Scotsman" title="No true Scotsman">No true Scotsman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Correlative-based_fallacies" title="Correlative-based fallacies">Correlative-based</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">False dilemma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_fallacy" title="Nirvana fallacy">Perfect solution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denying_the_correlative" title="Denying the correlative">Denying the correlative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_correlative" title="Suppressed correlative">Suppressed correlative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fallacies_of_illicit_transference" title="Fallacies of illicit transference">Illicit transference</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_composition" title="Fallacy of composition">Composition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_division" title="Fallacy of division">Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_fallacy" title="Ecological fallacy">Ecological</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Secundum_quid" title="Secundum quid">Secundum quid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accident_(fallacy)" title="Accident (fallacy)">Accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Converse_accident" title="Converse accident">Converse accident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Faulty_generalization" title="Faulty generalization">Faulty generalization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">Anecdotal evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_bias" title="Sampling bias">Sampling bias</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_picking" title="Cherry picking">Cherry picking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McNamara_fallacy" title="McNamara fallacy">McNamara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Base_rate_fallacy" title="Base rate fallacy">Base rate</a> / <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_fallacy" title="Conjunction fallacy">Conjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_counting_(fallacy)" title="Double counting (fallacy)">Double counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_analogy" title="Argument from analogy">False analogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slothful_induction" title="Slothful induction">Slothful induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overwhelming_exception" title="Overwhelming exception">Overwhelming exception</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_accent" title="Fallacy of accent">Accent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_precision" title="False precision">False precision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moving_the_goalposts" title="Moving the goalposts">Moving the goalposts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quoting out of context</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slippery_slope" title="Slippery slope">Slippery slope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorites_paradox" title="Sorites paradox">Sorites paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntactic_ambiguity" title="Syntactic ambiguity">Syntactic ambiguity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animistic_fallacy" title="Animistic fallacy">Animistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Furtive_fallacy" title="Furtive fallacy">Furtive</a></li></ul></li> <li>Correlation implies causation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">Cum hoc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post_hoc_ergo_propter_hoc" title="Post hoc ergo propter hoc">Post hoc</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambler%27s_fallacy" title="Gambler's fallacy">Gambler's</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inverse_gambler%27s_fallacy" title="Inverse gambler's fallacy">Inverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_fallacy" title="Regression fallacy">Regression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_the_single_cause" title="Fallacy of the single cause">Single cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slippery_slope" title="Slippery slope">Slippery slope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_sharpshooter_fallacy" title="Texas sharpshooter fallacy">Texas sharpshooter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Appeals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_the_law" title="Appeal to the law">Law/Legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_the_stone" title="Appeal to the stone">Stone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Proof_by_assertion" title="Proof by assertion">Proof by assertion</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_consequences" title="Appeal to consequences">Consequences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_baculum" title="Argumentum ad baculum">Argumentum ad baculum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wishful_thinking" title="Wishful thinking">Wishful thinking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_emotion" title="Appeal to emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Think_of_the_children" title="Think of the children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_fear" title="Appeal to fear">Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_flattery" title="Appeal to flattery">Flattery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">Novelty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_pity" title="Appeal to pity">Pity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_ridicule" title="Appeal to ridicule">Ridicule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group favoritism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invented_here" title="Invented here">Invented here</a> / <a href="/wiki/Not_invented_here" title="Not invented here">Not invented here</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_mentality" title="Island mentality">Island mentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_loyalty" title="Appeal to loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parade_of_horribles" title="Parade of horribles">Parade of horribles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_spite" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal to spite">Spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag-waving" title="Flag-waving">Stirring symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom_of_repugnance" title="Wisdom of repugnance">Wisdom of repugnance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetic_fallacy" title="Genetic fallacy">Genetic fallacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Ad_hominem" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ad_hominem" title="Ad hominem">Ad hominem</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_motive" title="Appeal to motive">Appeal to motive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_fallacy" title="Association fallacy">Association</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_Hitlerum" title="Reductio ad Hitlerum">Reductio ad Hitlerum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Godwin%27s_law" title="Godwin's law">Godwin's law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red-baiting" title="Red-baiting">Reductio ad Stalinum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulverism" title="Bulverism">Bulverism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poisoning_the_well" title="Poisoning the well">Poisoning the well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_policing" title="Tone policing">Tone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu_quoque" title="Tu quoque">Tu quoque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whataboutism" title="Whataboutism">Whataboutism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_authority" title="Argument from authority">Authority</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_accomplishment" title="Appeal to accomplishment">Accomplishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ipse_dixit" title="Ipse dixit">Ipse dixit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_lazarum" title="Argumentum ad lazarum">Poverty</a> / <a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_crumenam" title="Argumentum ad crumenam">Wealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymological_fallacy" title="Etymological fallacy">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_nature" title="Appeal to nature">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_tradition" title="Appeal to tradition">Tradition</a> / <a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">Novelty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronological_snobbery" title="Chronological snobbery">Chronological snobbery</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_relevance" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacy of relevance">fallacies of relevance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Arguments" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">Arguments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ad_nauseam" title="Ad nauseam">Ad nauseam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sealioning" title="Sealioning">Sealioning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_anecdote" title="Argument from anecdote">Argument from anecdote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_silence" title="Argument from silence">Argument from silence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_to_moderation" title="Argument to moderation">Argument to moderation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_populum" title="Argumentum ad populum">Argumentum ad populum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clich%C3%A9" title="Cliché">Cliché</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Four_Great_Errors" title="The Four Great Errors">The Four Great Errors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I%27m_entitled_to_my_opinion" title="I'm entitled to my opinion">I'm entitled to my opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrelevant_conclusion" title="Irrelevant conclusion">Ignoratio elenchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invincible_ignorance_fallacy" title="Invincible ignorance fallacy">Invincible ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moralistic_fallacy" title="Moralistic fallacy">Moralistic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_fallacy" title="Naturalistic fallacy">Naturalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_fallacy" title="Motte-and-bailey fallacy">Motte-and-bailey fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychologist%27s_fallacy" title="Psychologist's fallacy">Psychologist's fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(psychology)" title="Rationalization (psychology)">Rationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_herring" title="Red herring">Red herring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Two_wrongs_make_a_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Two wrongs make a right">Two wrongs make a right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_pleading" title="Special pleading">Special pleading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straw_man" title="Straw man">Straw man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" 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