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class="author vcard"><a class="url fn n" href="https://pm.hypotheses.org/author/renault">renault</a></span></span></div><h1 class="entry-title">Histoire de l’écriture. De l’idéogramme au multimédia — Anne-Marie Christin</h1> </header> <div class="entry-content"> <p><strong><a href="http://pm.hypotheses.org/files/2015/05/Christin_Hisoire-Ecriture.jpg"><img decoding="async" class="alignleft size-full wp-image-396" src="http://pm.hypotheses.org/files/2015/05/Christin_Hisoire-Ecriture.jpg" alt="Christin_Hisoire Ecriture" width="110" height="126" srcset="https://pm.hypotheses.org/files/2015/05/Christin_Hisoire-Ecriture.jpg 110w, https://pm.hypotheses.org/files/2015/05/Christin_Hisoire-Ecriture-44x50.jpg 44w, https://pm.hypotheses.org/files/2015/05/Christin_Hisoire-Ecriture-70x80.jpg 70w, https://pm.hypotheses.org/files/2015/05/Christin_Hisoire-Ecriture-87x100.jpg 87w" sizes="(max-width: 110px) 100vw, 110px" /></a></strong>Paris, Flammarion, coll. Histoire de l’art, 2012, 413 pages, 35€ — 978-2-0812379-8-8</p> <p>Cette nouvelle édition de l’<em>Histoire de l’écriture</em>, nous offre une version remaniée et largement enrichie d’une somme, désormais classique, publiée voilà une dizaine d’années. Près de 61 spécialistes y contribuent à retracer l’aventure de l’écriture dans toute son épaisseur chronologique, depuis les premiers scribes mésopotamiens et égyptiens, jusqu’aux supports numérisés. Alphabétiques, consonantiques ou idéographiques, peu d’écritures ont été écartées de cet ouvrage (mis à part peut-être l’hébreu ou les écritures très récentes des Indiens d’Amérique du Nord). Un tel foisonnement se devait d’être organisé. On y retrouve, en filigrane, le thème cher à la directrice scientifique du volume, Anne-Marie Christin, d’une autonomie originelle de l’écriture face à la langue ou à son usage utilitaire. Pour elle, l’écriture ne trouve son origine ni dans la seule volonté de transcrire la parole, ni dans les exigences comptables de la cité naissante. Indissociable de l’image, elle est un objet pictural à part entière, qui ne peut s’appréhender qu’à travers sa valeur iconique dans ses dimensions esthétique, religieuse et politique. C’est ce cadre théorique qui sert de charpente à tout le recueil. Toutefois, il est surprenant que jamais le terme lui-même d’« écriture » ne soit défini, quand on sait combien la notion se prête à des divergences d’interprétation d’un spécialiste à l’autre, d’un champ disciplinaire à l’autre.</p> <p>L’ouvrage est organisé selon trois sections consacrées successivement aux premiers systèmes d’écriture « Origines et réinventions », aux alphabets et à leur diffusion « Alphabets et écritures dérivées » et, enfin, à l’écriture de textes manuscrits et imprimés « L’image dans l’écriture en Occident ».</p> <p>La première partie est avant tout historique et descriptive, mettant en avant les formes matérielles de l’écrit, la distinction entre scribes et lettrés ainsi que les modes de diffusion et de conservation de l’écrit. On pourra également noter que cette partie concerne quelques expériences antérieures à l’écriture à l’époque préhistorique, et les quatre grands foyers primaires d’invention de l’écriture (Mésopotamie, Égypte, Chine et Méso-Amérique) ainsi que quelques-unes de leurs formes dérivées sans oublier les signes avant-coureurs de l’écriture dans la vallée du Danube, ainsi que les rongo-rongo de l’île de Pâques.</p> <p>La deuxième partie resserre la problématique sur la présence de l’image dans l’écriture occidentale, moderne et contemporaine. Deux axes s’y dessinent, celui du manuscrit et celui de l’imprimé, et les considérations générales sont illustrées par des commentaires d’images majeures.</p> <p>Les différentes contributions des spécialistes sollicités (sur lesquelles nous reviendront <em>infra</em>) donnent à voir, au travers de la variabilité des cas particuliers, les mécanismes de mise en place de l’écriture dans les sociétés au sein desquelles elle apparaît et, surtout, insistent sur le fait que l’écriture est la résultante de configurations socio-économiques singulières. Ceci est particulièrement prégnant pour les quatre civilisations qui ont été des foyers d’invention complète de l’écriture, sans modèle, dérivation ou adaptation. Si l’on suit les différents points de vue proposés ici, dans des configurations données, certaines sociétés inventent l’écriture dont elles ont besoin.</p> <p>Pour Jean-Marie Durand, on ne peut continuer à supposer que l’écriture fît son apparition en Mésopotamie, pour les besoins de la tenue des comptes. Pour lui, l’écrit ne visait pas à ses débuts à reproduire la parole mais plutôt à la rendre visible. Le phonétique y était secondaire et la notation globalisante. Bien plus qu’à des pictogrammes c’est à des textogrammes que l’on a affaire.</p> <p>Toutefois, l’assertion, par P. Vernus, que l’écriture en Égypte serait liée aux origines à la volonté d’écrire le nom du roi ne correspond plus aux résultats des dernières recherches dans ce domaine.</p> <p>En retour, l’usage et la pratique de l’écriture, en particulier alphabétique, auraient sur le long terme modelé les sociétés qui l’utilisaient. Ce qui correspondrait particulièrement aux sociétés occidentales depuis l’époque carolingienne. On peut y voir une illustration dans l’article « L’écriture au Moyen Âge » par Michel Parisse qui met l’accent sur le rôle de l’écriture au XIII<sup>e</sup> siècle dans le développement rapide de l’usage des langues vernaculaires. Le problème de l’expansion, à la même époque, des écoles et des universités, repose sur la diffusion des écrits qui sont alors recopiés dans des ateliers laïques. En attendant l’imprimerie.</p> <p>Cette interrelation entre écriture et société est évidemment accélérée depuis une ou deux décennies environ par l’entrée dans l’ère numérique et ses répercussions sur l’usage de l’écriture.</p> <p>Un autre couple dont les relations constituent une thématique majeure de l’ouvrage est celui formé par l’image et l’écriture. La frontière entre les deux n’existait pas pour les scribes de l’Égypte ancienne. Les deux étaient alors consubstantielles. La création d’alphabets qui se détachent peu à peu de leurs origines iconiques crée une fracture, inexistante auparavant. Le lien continue toutefois de perdurer dans l’univers sémitique entre le référent des signes alphabétiques et leur nom alors que la rupture devient totale avec la récupération du système par les Grecs qui ne peuvent plus s’appuyer sur la signification des noms de ces lettres pour identifier leurs référents. Une relation hiérarchique s’établit dans laquelle l’image est assujettie à l’écriture. Si, en grec, le verbe γράφειν signifie à la fois écrire et dessiner, comme le rappelle François Lissargue, et que la lettre grecque peut être considérée comme objet pictural, qu’elle fasse ou non sens, l’usage de l’écriture, dans son aspect de code connu d’une petite élite, parce que totalement contre-intuitif et dégagé de son iconicité, est étroitement lié au prestige social dans l’Italie étrusque. Dominique Briquel insiste sur l’accaparement de l’écriture par les instances du pouvoir des sociétés italiques pour magnifier leurs représentants et affirmer leur pouvoir. La connaissance et la manipulation de ce code restent très restreintes jusqu’à l’époque moderne. Béatrice Fraenkel nous rappelle que le taux d’alphabétisation du Haut Empire Romain est évalué à 30 % de la population masculine adulte.</p> <p>C’est par l’art, lorsque l’image et l’écriture sont mises sur le même plan, comme dans le splendide livre de Kells, daté du IX<sup>e</sup> siècle et présenté par Jennifer O’Reilly que l’écriture et l’image se rejoignent. On a alors un retour partiel à un état antérieur à celui créé par l’alphabet. L’image est maintenant envisagée comme un support indépendant ou antérieur à l’écriture, comme ce fut le cas dans l’art préhistorique. L’article de Denis Vialou, « L’inscrit avant l’Écrit », insiste sur l’importance, au Paléolithique Supérieur, du support et sur l’inféodation de l’image aux contraintes de son support, inféodation dont s’est en partie dégagée l’écriture. Il faut noter cependant que lorsque l’auteur affirme que les blocs rocheux gravés ne sont jamais figuratifs, il semble oublier les gravures rupestres de Qurta et du Wadi Abu Subeira (au nord-est d’Assouan en Égypte). Cet ensemble, le plus ancien non seulement d’Égypte mais de tout l’est de l’Afrique, daté de – 20 000 ans, présente des animaux sauvages (aurochs, hippopotames, tortues… mais aussi poissons) saisis en plein mouvement, stylisés exactement comme les représentations franco-cantabriques, au point que la zone ait été baptisée « Lascaux on the Nile » ! Et cette comparaison aurait pu sembler plus judicieuse, pour chercher un parallèle aux représentations magdaléniennes, que celles qui sont proposées, trop éloignées dans le temps et dans l’espace, comme par le type de sociétés productrices, pour être encore pertinentes.</p> <p>Cette inversion de la tendance initiée par la création des alphabets, la « ré-iconisation » de l’écriture est-ce sur quoi l’ouvrage cherche à mettre l’accent, en particulier tout au long de la deuxième partie. La revalorisation de l’image apparaîtra au Moyen Âge, période de faible alphabétisation, lorsque l’image des cathédrales en particulier sert à l’instruction biblique et à la mémorisation des principaux cycles de l’Ancien et du Nouveau Testament. La simplification des graphies et de l’orthographe qu’on suit au travers des articles de Michel Parisse, d’Armando Petrucci, de Nina Catach et de Béatrice Fraenkel, permettront une alphabétisation croissante de la société occidentale entre le Moyen Âge et le XIX<sup>e</sup> siècle. Le recours à l’image pour remplir les fonctions mnémoniques de l’écriture s’avère de moins en moins nécessaire lorsque progresse l’alphabétisation. On entre alors dans une troisième phase de cette relation qui est celle de l’iconisation de l’écriture elle-même. Elle peut être ludique, comme le montre la contribution « Des images en écriture » de Marianne Simon-Oikawa, mais elle est le plus souvent savante et très intellectuelle. C’est le cas de l’usage que font de la graphie les peintres et les poètes de la fin du XIX<sup>e</sup> siècle et de la première moitié du XX<sup>e</sup>, comme l’explore A.-M. Christin.</p> <p>Cette recherche visant à donner une dimension iconique à l’écriture alphabétique ne peut qu’être partielle et, par essence, artificielle. C’est l’une des esthétiques de l’écriture, la calligraphie en étant une autre.</p> <p>L’inscription de l’écriture dans les supports multimédias semble l’avoir aspirée dans une nouvelle spirale, entraînant des mutations rapides. Mais avons-nous déjà le recul nécessaire pour l’apprécier ? Sous une forme ou une autre, on n’aurait jamais autant écrit que ces dernières années dans l’histoire de l’humanité, ni été aussi nombreux à maîtriser une écriture. C’est sur ces nouveaux horizons que se conclut « l’Histoire de l’Écriture », par un texte déjà ancien puisqu’âgé de dix ans, période durant laquelle les pratiques multimédias ont beaucoup évolué. Et cela contribuera à l’impression générale que l’on retire de cet ouvrage, qui reste une somme et un classique sur le sujet, mais les auteurs n’ayant pas remis à jour leurs contributions depuis la première parution, certaines découvertes récentes, qui ont remis en cause des conceptions que l’on pouvait avoir du sujet, n’ont pas été prises en compte. La relation entre image et écriture elle-même, telle qu’elle est exposée en filigrane dans cet ouvrage, a été depuis mise à mal sans qu’il n’en paraisse rien ici. Il faut par conséquent considérer ce livre non pas comme un état des lieux faisant le point sur l’actualité d’une recherche, mais comme un fil d’Ariane qui conduit, au travers les cinq continents, et surtout l’Europe occidentale, à rechercher la déconstruction de la suprématie de l’écriture au détriment de l’image, de Blaise Cendrars à la grotte Chauvet, et à rendre à l’image un statut de parèdre face à l’écriture alphabétique.</p> <p><strong>Ont participé à cet ouvrage</strong> <em>: Michel Amandry, Jacques André, Pierre-Marc De Biasi, Catherine Becchetti-Bizot, François Bizot, Daniel Bouchez, Jean Boulègue, Dominique Briquel, Claire Bustarret, Nina Catach, Dominique Charpin, Roger Chartier, Anne-Marie Christin, Cécile Dauphin, Michel Davoust, François Déroche, François-Xavier Dillman, Catherine Dobias-Lalou, Jean-Pierre Drège, Jean-Marie Durand, Beatrice Fraenkel, Pascal Griolet, Michël Guichard, Bertrand Hirsch, Yves Jeanneret, Pierre-Yves Lambert, Danièle Lavallée, André Lemaire, Ségolène Le Men, François Lissarrague, Jean-Pierre Mahé, Henri-Jean Martin, Charles Mopsik, Nguyen Phu Phong, Jean-Pierre Olivier, Jennifer O’Reilly, Michel Parisse, Armando Petrucci, Jacqueline, Pigeot, Georges-Jean Pinault, René Ponot, Annie Renonciat, Daniel Roche, Cécile Sakai, Marianne Simon-Oikawa, Martine Simonin, Darwin Smith, Emmanuel Souchier, Jacqueline, Sublet, Marc Thouvenot, Léon Vandermeersch, Pascal Vernus, Denis Vialou, Vladimir Vodoff.</em></p> <p> </p> <p><em>Gwenola Graff – IRD – UMR 208 PALOC</em> — <a href="mailto:guillaume.robin@netcourrier.com">gwenola.graff@ird.fr</a><br /> <em>Remo Mugniaioni – AMU – UMR 7310, IREMAM </em>—</p> <div class="wp-about-author-containter-top" style="background-color:#FFEAA8;"><div class="wp-about-author-pic"><img alt='' src='https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/4d8f237084a4adf043d1ef9cc547eabe?s=100&d=mm&r=g' srcset='https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/4d8f237084a4adf043d1ef9cc547eabe?s=200&d=mm&r=g 2x' class='avatar avatar-100 photo' height='100' width='100' /></div><div class="wp-about-author-text" style="margin-left:140px"><h3><a href='https://pm.hypotheses.org/author/renault' title='renault'>renault</a></h3><p></p><p><a href='https://pm.hypotheses.org/author/renault' title='More posts by renault'>More Posts</a> </p></div></div><hr/><div class="citation"><p><span class="citation-title">OpenEdition vous propose de citer ce billet de la manière suivante :</span><br/>renault (29 mai 2015). Histoire de l’écriture. De l’idéogramme au multimédia — Anne-Marie Christin. <em>Les Chroniques de Préhméd</em>. 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