CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="eu" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Molekula - Wikipedia, entziklopedia askea.</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )euwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":[",\t.",".\t,"],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""], "wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","urtarrila","otsaila","martxoa","apirila","maiatza","ekaina","uztaila","abuztua","iraila","urria","azaroa","abendua"],"wgRequestId":"44564326-1cac-4abb-91b2-2bdec915b9f9","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Molekula","wgTitle":"Molekula","wgCurRevisionId":9535058,"wgRevisionId":9535058,"wgArticleId":60525,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["ISBN lotura magikoak dituzten orrialdeak","Wikipedia guztiek izan beharreko artikuluak","Hezkuntza Programako artikuluak","Hezkuntza Programa/Fisika eta Kimika","Wikipedia:BNE identifikatzailea duten artikuluak","Wikipedia:BNF identifikatzailea duten artikuluak","Wikipedia:GND identifikatzailea duten artikuluak","Wikipedia:LCCN identifikatzailea duten artikuluak","Wikipedia:AAT identifikatzailea duten artikuluak","Molekulak","Kimika","Materia"],"wgPageViewLanguage": "eu","wgPageContentLanguage":"eu","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Molekula","wgRelevantArticleId":60525,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"eu","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"eu"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":true,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":40000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q11369","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness", "fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","mediawiki.page.gallery.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.gallery","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ErrefAurrebista", "ext.gadget.UkensKonkurranse","ext.gadget.TxikipediaTab","ext.gadget.ArtikuluenKalitatea","ext.gadget.refToolbar","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=eu&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cmediawiki.page.gallery.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=eu&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=eu&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/PTCDA_AFM.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1196"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/PTCDA_AFM.jpg/800px-PTCDA_AFM.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="797"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/PTCDA_AFM.jpg/640px-PTCDA_AFM.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="638"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Molekula - Wikipedia, entziklopedia askea."> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//eu.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Aldatu" href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (eu)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//eu.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.eu"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom Jarioa" href="/w/index.php?title=Berezi:AzkenAldaketak&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Molekula rootpage-Molekula skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Edukira joan</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Gunea"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Menu nagusia" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Menu nagusia</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Menu nagusia</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">mugitu alboko barrara</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">ezkutatu</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Nabigazioa </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Azala" title="Azala bisitatu [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Azala</span></a></li><li id="n-Txikipedia" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Txikipedia:Azala"><span>Txikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-Ikusgela" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Atari:Hezkuntza/Ikusgela"><span>Ikusgela</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Txokoa" title="Proiektuaren inguruan, zer egin dezakezu, non aurkitu nahi duzuna"><span>Txokoa</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Berezi:AzkenAldaketak" title="Wikiko azken aldaketen zerrenda. [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Aldaketa berriak</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Berezi:Ausazkoa" title="Ausazko orrialde bat kargatu [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Ausazko orria</span></a></li><li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Laguntza:Sarrera" title="Aurkitzeko lekua."><span>Laguntza</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Azala" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="Entziklopedia askea" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-eu.svg" width="120" height="13" style="width: 7.5em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:Bilatu" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Wikipedia(e)n bilatu [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Bilatu</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Wikipedia wikian bilatu" aria-label="Wikipedia wikian bilatu" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Wikipedia(e)n bilatu [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Berezi:Bilatu"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Bilatu</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Tresna pertsonalak"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Itxura"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Itxura" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Itxura</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="//donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_eu.wikipedia.org&uselang=eu" class=""><span>Dohaintza egin</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Berezi:KontuaSortu&returnto=Molekula" title="Kontu bat sortu eta horrekin saioa hastea eskatu nahi genizuke; ez da ezinbestekoa, ordea." class=""><span>Sortu kontua</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Berezi:SaioaHasi&returnto=Molekula" title="Izen ematera gonbidatzen zaitugu. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Hasi saioa</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Aukera gehiago" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tresna pertsonalak" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tresna pertsonalak</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="//donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_eu.wikipedia.org&uselang=eu"><span>Dohaintza egin</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Berezi:KontuaSortu&returnto=Molekula" title="Kontu bat sortu eta horrekin saioa hastea eskatu nahi genizuke; ez da ezinbestekoa, ordea."><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Sortu kontua</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Berezi:SaioaHasi&returnto=Molekula" title="Izen ematera gonbidatzen zaitugu. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Hasi saioa</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Izena eman gabeko erabiltzaileentzako orrialdeak <a href="/wiki/Laguntza:Sarrera" aria-label="Artikuluak aldatzeari buruz gehiago ikasi"><span>gehiago ikasi</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Berezi:NireEkarpenak" title="IP helbide honetatik egindako aldaketen zerrenda [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Ekarpenak</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Berezi:NireEztabaida" title="Zure IParen eztabaida [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Eztabaida</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Gunea"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Edukiak" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Edukiak</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">mugitu alboko barrara</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">ezkutatu</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">⇑ Gora</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Etimologia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etimologia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Etimologia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etimologia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Historia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zientzia_molekularra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zientzia_molekularra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Zientzia molekularra</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zientzia_molekularra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prebalentzia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prebalentzia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Prebalentzia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prebalentzia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lotura_kimikoak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lotura_kimikoak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Lotura kimikoak</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Lotura_kimikoak-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Erakutsi/ezkutatu Lotura kimikoak azpiatal</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Lotura_kimikoak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lotura_kobalentea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lotura_kobalentea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Lotura kobalentea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lotura_kobalentea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lotura_ionikoa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lotura_ionikoa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Lotura ionikoa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lotura_ionikoa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Molekulen_tamaina" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molekulen_tamaina"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Molekulen tamaina</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molekulen_tamaina-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Definizioa_eta_mugak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definizioa_eta_mugak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Definizioa eta mugak</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definizioa_eta_mugak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Molekula_motak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molekula_motak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Molekula motak</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molekula_motak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deskribapena" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deskribapena"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Deskribapena</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deskribapena-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formula_molekularrak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formula_molekularrak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Formula molekularrak</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formula_molekularrak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formula_estrukturala" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formula_estrukturala"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Formula estrukturala</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formula_estrukturala-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geometria_molekularra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geometria_molekularra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Geometria molekularra</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geometria_molekularra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Espektroskopio_molekularra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Espektroskopio_molekularra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Espektroskopio molekularra</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Espektroskopio_molekularra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alderdi_teorikoak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alderdi_teorikoak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Alderdi teorikoak</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alderdi_teorikoak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Erreferentziak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Erreferentziak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Erreferentziak</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Erreferentziak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ikus,_gainera" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ikus,_gainera"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Ikus, gainera</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ikus,_gainera-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kanpo_estekak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kanpo_estekak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Kanpo estekak</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kanpo_estekak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Edukiak" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Eduki taularen ikusgarritasuna aldatu" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Eduki taularen ikusgarritasuna aldatu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Molekula</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Joan beste hizkuntza batean idatzitako artikulu batera. 165 hizkuntzatan eskuragarri." > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-165" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">165 hizkuntza</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekuul" title="Molekuul – afrikaansa" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Molekuul" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="afrikaansa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molek%C3%BCl" title="Molekül – Suitzako alemana" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Molekül" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Suitzako alemana" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%9E%E1%88%88%E1%8A%AA%E1%8B%8D%E1%88%8D" title="ሞለኪውል – amharera" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሞለኪውል" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="amharera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecula" title="Molecula – aragoiera" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Molecula" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="aragoiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemot" title="Gemot – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Gemot" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="अणु – angikera" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="अणु" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="angikera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A1" title="جزيء – arabiera" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جزيء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="arabiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81" title="অণু – assamera" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="অণু" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="assamera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol%C3%A9cula" title="Molécula – asturiera" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Molécula" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="asturiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul" title="Molekul – azerbaijanera" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Molekul" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="azerbaijanera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D9%84%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84" title="مولکول – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="مولکول" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Молекула – baxkirera" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Молекула" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="baxkirera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekui" title="Molekui – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Molekui" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muolekol%C4%97" title="Muolekolė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Muolekolė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula" title="Molekula – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Molekula" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Малекула – bielorrusiera" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Малекула" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="bielorrusiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Малекула – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Малекула" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Молекула – bulgariera" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Молекула" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="bulgariera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81" title="অণু – bengalera" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অণু" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="bengalera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekulenn" title="Molekulenn – bretoiera" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Molekulenn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="bretoiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula" title="Molekula – bosniera" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Molekula" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="bosniera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol%C3%A8cula" title="Molècula – katalana" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Molècula" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="katalana" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C5%ADng-c%E1%B9%B3%CC%84" title="Hŭng-cṳ̄ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Hŭng-cṳ̄" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula" title="Molekula – cebuanoera" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Molekula" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="cebuanoera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%A7%E1%8F%93%E1%8E%B4%E1%8F%85%E1%8F%93_%E1%8F%A7%E1%8F%99%E1%8F%A2%E1%8F%85" title="ᏧᏓᎴᏅᏓ ᏧᏙᏢᏅ – txerokiera" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏧᏓᎴᏅᏓ ᏧᏙᏢᏅ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="txerokiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="گەرد – erdialdeko kurduera" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گەرد" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="erdialdeko kurduera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula" title="Molekula – txekiera" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Molekula" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="txekiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Молекула – txuvaxera" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Молекула" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="txuvaxera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moleciwl" title="Moleciwl – galesa" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Moleciwl" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="galesa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekyle" title="Molekyle – daniera" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Molekyle" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="daniera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molek%C3%BCl" title="Molekül – alemana" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Molekül" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="alemana" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul" title="Molekul – behe-sorabiera" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Molekul" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="behe-sorabiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dolnoserbski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Μόριο – greziera" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μόριο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="greziera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol%C3%A8cula" title="Molècula – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Molècula" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule – ingelesa" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Molecule" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="ingelesa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekulo" title="Molekulo – esperantoa" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Molekulo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="esperantoa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol%C3%A9cula" title="Molécula – gaztelania" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Molécula" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="gaztelania" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul" title="Molekul – estoniera" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Molekul" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="estoniera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol%C3%A9cula" title="Molécula – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Molécula" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D9%84%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84" title="مولکول – persiera" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مولکول" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="persiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekyyli" title="Molekyyli – finlandiera" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Molekyyli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="finlandiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol%C3%B5kul" title="Molõkul – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Molõkul" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BDl" title="Mýl – faroera" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Mýl" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="faroera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol%C3%A9cule" title="Molécule – frantsesa" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Molécule" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="frantsesa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molek%C3%BC%C3%BCl" title="Moleküül – iparraldeko frisiera" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Moleküül" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="iparraldeko frisiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekule" title="Molekule – mendebaldeko frisiera" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Molekule" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="mendebaldeko frisiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B3il%C3%ADn" title="Móilín – irlandera" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Móilín" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="irlandera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol%C3%A9kil" title="Molékil – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Molékil" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moileciuil" title="Moileciuil – Eskoziako gaelikoa" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Moileciuil" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Eskoziako gaelikoa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol%C3%A9cula" title="Molécula – galiziera" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Molécula" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="galiziera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol%C3%A9kula" title="Molékula – guaraniera" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Molékula" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="guaraniera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul" title="Molekul – gorontaloera" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Molekul" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="gorontaloera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Hulontalo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-vreneen" title="Co-vreneen – manxera" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Co-vreneen" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="manxera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%94" title="מולקולה – hebreera" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מולקולה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="hebreera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="अणु – hindia" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अणु" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="hindia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Molecule" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula" title="Molekula – kroaziera" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Molekula" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="kroaziera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul" title="Molekul – goi-sorabiera" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Molekul" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="goi-sorabiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekil" title="Molekil – Haitiko kreolera" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Molekil" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitiko kreolera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula" title="Molekula – hungariera" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Molekula" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="hungariera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AC" title="Մոլեկուլ – armeniera" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մոլեկուլ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="armeniera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecula" title="Molecula – interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Molecula" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul" title="Molekul – indonesiera" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Molekul" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indonesiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecul" title="Molecul – interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Molecul" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula" title="Molekula – ilocanoera" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Molekula" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="ilocanoera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekulo" title="Molekulo – idoa" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Molekulo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="idoa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sameind" title="Sameind – islandiera" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sameind" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="islandiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecola" title="Molecola – italiera" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Molecola" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="italiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90" title="分子 – japoniera" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="分子" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="japoniera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malikyuul" title="Malikyuul – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Malikyuul" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/xumsle" title="xumsle – lojbana" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="xumsle" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="lojbana" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul" title="Molekul – javera" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Molekul" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="javera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90" title="მოლეკულა – georgiera" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მოლეკულა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="georgiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula" title="Molekula – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Molekula" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxeclawt" title="Taxeclawt – kabiliera" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Taxeclawt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="kabiliera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul" title="Molekul – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Molekul" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kumoring</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Молекула – kazakhera" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Молекула" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="kazakhera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%9B%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%9B" title="ម៉ូលេគុល – khemerera" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ម៉ូលេគុល" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="khemerera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%A3%E0%B3%81" title="ಅಣು – kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅಣು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%84%EC%9E%90" title="분자 – koreera" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="분자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="koreera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%86%D9%95%D9%88%D9%8E%D9%B9" title="کنٕوَٹ – kaxmirera" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="کنٕوَٹ" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="kaxmirera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul" title="Molekul – kurduera" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Molekul" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="kurduera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Молекула – kirgizera" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Молекула" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="kirgizera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecula" title="Molecula – latina" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Molecula" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="latina" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molek%C3%BCll" title="Moleküll – luxenburgera" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Moleküll" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="luxenburgera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekyo" title="Molekyo – luganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Molekyo" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="luganda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Luganda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecuul" title="Molecuul – limburgera" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Molecuul" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="limburgera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulecula" title="Mulecula – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Mulecula" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul%C4%97" title="Molekulė – lituaniera" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Molekulė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="lituaniera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula" title="Molekula – letoniera" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Molekula" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="letoniera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Молекулась – mokxera" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Молекулась" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="mokxera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B4lekiola" title="Môlekiola – malgaxea" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Môlekiola" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="malgaxea" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Молекула – mazedoniera" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Молекула" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="mazedoniera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0" title="തന്മാത്ര – malabarera" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="തന്മാത്ര" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="malabarera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB" title="Молекул – mongoliera" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Молекул" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="mongoliera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%82" title="रेणू – marathera" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="रेणू" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="marathera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul" title="Molekul – malaysiera" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Molekul" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="malaysiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AE%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%B8" title="မော်လီကျူး – birmaniera" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မော်လီကျူး" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="birmaniera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molek%C3%BCl" title="Molekül – behe-alemana" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Molekül" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="behe-alemana" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="अणु – nepalera" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अणु" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="nepalera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecuul" title="Molecuul – nederlandera" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Molecuul" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="nederlandera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekyl" title="Molekyl – nynorsk (norvegiera)" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Molekyl" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="nynorsk (norvegiera)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekyl" title="Molekyl – bokmål (norvegiera)" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Molekyl" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="bokmål (norvegiera)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekule" title="Molekule – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Molekule" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol%C3%A9tchule" title="Molétchule – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Molétchule" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecula" title="Molecula – okzitaniera" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Molecula" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="okzitaniera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maddarroo(molakiyulii)" title="Maddarroo(molakiyulii) – oromoera" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Maddarroo(molakiyulii)" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="oromoera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%C3%A6" title="Молекулæ – osetiera" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Молекулæ" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="osetiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%A3%E0%A9%82" title="ਅਣੂ – punjabera" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਣੂ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="punjabera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula" title="Molekula – pampangera" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Molekula" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="pampangera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cz%C4%85steczka" title="Cząsteczka – poloniera" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Cząsteczka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="poloniera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol%C3%A9cola" title="Molécola – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Molécola" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84" title="مالیکیول – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مالیکیول" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84" title="مالیکول – paxtunera" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="مالیکول" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="paxtunera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol%C3%A9cula" title="Molécula – portugesa" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Molécula" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="portugesa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B1uwa" title="Iñuwa – kitxua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Iñuwa" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="kitxua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecul%C4%83" title="Moleculă – errumaniera" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Moleculă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="errumaniera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Молекула – errusiera" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Молекула" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="errusiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Молекула – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Молекула" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81_:" title="रेणु : – sanskritoa" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="रेणु :" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="sanskritoa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D3%A9%D0%BB%D2%AF%D3%A9%D0%BA%D2%AF%D0%BB%D1%8D" title="Мөлүөкүлэ – sakhera" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Мөлүөкүлэ" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="sakhera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule – eskoziera" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Molecule" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="eskoziera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%DA%AA%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84" title="ماليڪيول – sindhia" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ماليڪيول" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="sindhia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekyla" title="Molekyla – iparraldeko samiera" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Molekyla" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="iparraldeko samiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul" title="Molekul – serbokroaziera" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Molekul" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="serbokroaziera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%94%E0%B7%80" title="අණුව – sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අණුව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Molecule" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula" title="Molekula – eslovakiera" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Molekula" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="eslovakiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84" title="مالیکیول – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="مالیکیول" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula" title="Molekula – esloveniera" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Molekula" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="esloveniera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule – samoera" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Molecule" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="samoera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gagana Samoa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula" title="Molekula – albaniera" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Molekula" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="albaniera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB" title="Молекул – serbiera" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Молекул" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="serbiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul" title="Molekul – sundanera" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Molekul" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="sundanera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekyl" title="Molekyl – suediera" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Molekyl" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="suediera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekuli" title="Molekuli – swahilia" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Molekuli" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="swahilia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajleczka" title="Tajleczka – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Tajleczka" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="மூலக்கூறு – tamilera" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மூலக்கூறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="tamilera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%A3%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%81" title="అణువు – telugua" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అణువు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="telugua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Молекула – tajikera" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Молекула" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="tajikera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A5" title="โมเลกุล – thailandiera" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โมเลกุล" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="thailandiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula" title="Molekula – turkmenera" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Molekula" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="turkmenera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula" title="Molekula – tagaloa" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Molekula" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="tagaloa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekel" title="Molekel – tok pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Molekel" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="tok pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tok Pisin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molek%C3%BCl" title="Molekül – turkiera" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Molekül" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="turkiera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Молекула – tatarera" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Молекула" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="tatarera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D9%84%DB%90%D9%83%DB%87%D9%84%D8%A7" title="مولېكۇلا – uigurrera" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="مولېكۇلا" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="uigurrera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Молекула – ukrainera" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Молекула" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ukrainera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%DB%81" title="سالمہ – urdua" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سالمہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="urdua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula" title="Molekula – uzbekera" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Molekula" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="uzbekera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekul" title="Molekul – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Molekul" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%A2n_t%E1%BB%AD" title="Phân tử – vietnamera" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phân tử" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="vietnamera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Molecule" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule – valoniera" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Molecule" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="valoniera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekula" title="Molekula – warayera" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Molekula" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="warayera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90" title="分子 – wu txinera" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="分子" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="wu txinera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB" title="Молекул – kalmykera" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Молекул" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="kalmykera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Хальмг</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-Molecule" title="I-Molecule – xhosera" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="I-Molecule" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="xhosera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90" title="მოლეკულა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მოლეკულა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9C" title="מאלעקול – yiddisha" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="מאלעקול" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="yiddisha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90" title="分子 – txinera" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="分子" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="txinera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90" title="分子 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="分子" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hun-ch%C3%BA" title="Hun-chú – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hun-chú" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90" title="分子 – kantonera" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="分子" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="kantonera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imizwayi" title="Imizwayi – zuluera" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Imizwayi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="zuluera" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11369#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Aldatu hizkuntzen arteko loturak" class="wbc-editpage">Aldatu loturak</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Izen-tarteak"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Molekula" title="Eduki orrialdea ikusi [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Artikulua</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Eztabaida:Molekula" rel="discussion" title="Artikuluari buruzko eztabaida [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Eztabaida</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Aldatu hizkuntza aldaera" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">euskara</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Ikusketak"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Molekula"><span>Irakurri</span></a></li><li id="ca-ve-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit" title="Orri hau aldatu [v]" accesskey="v"><span>Aldatu</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="collapsible vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit" title="Idatzi orri honen iturburu kodea [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=history" title="Artikulu honen aurreko bertsioak. [h]" accesskey="h"><span>Ikusi historia</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tresnak" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tresnak</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tresnak</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">mugitu alboko barrara</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">ezkutatu</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Ekintzak </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Molekula"><span>Irakurri</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-ve-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit" title="Orri hau aldatu [v]" accesskey="v"><span>Aldatu</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="collapsible vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit" title="Idatzi orri honen iturburu kodea [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=history"><span>Ikusi historia</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Orokorra </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Berezi:ZerkLotzenDuHona/Molekula" title="Orri honetaranzko esteka duten wiki orri guztien zerrenda [j]" accesskey="j"><span>Honanzko esteka duten orriak</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Berezi:RecentChangesLinked/Molekula" rel="nofollow" title="Orri honetatik esteka duten orrietako azken aldaketak [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Lotutako orrietako aldaketak</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:UploadWizard?uselang=eu" title="Irudiak edo media fitxategiak igo [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Fitxategia igo</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Berezi:OrrialdeBereziak" title="Orri berezi guztien zerrenda [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Orri bereziak</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&oldid=9535058" title="Orriaren bertsio honetaranzko esteka iraunkorra"><span>Lotura iraunkorra</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=info" title="Orrialde honi buruzko informazio gehiago"><span>Orri honen datuak</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Berezi:CiteThisPage&page=Molekula&id=9535058&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Orri honen aipua egiteko moduari buruzko informazioa"><span>Artikulu hau aipatu</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Berezi:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Feu.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMolekula"><span>URL laburra lortu</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Berezi:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Feu.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMolekula"><span>QR kodea jaitsi</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Inprimatu/esportatu </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-create_a_book" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Berezi:Book&bookcmd=book_creator&referer=Molekula"><span>Liburu bat sortu</span></a></li><li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Berezi:DownloadAsPdf&page=Molekula&action=show-download-screen"><span>Deskargatu PDF formatuan</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&printable=yes" title="Orrialde honen bertsio inprimagarria [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Inprimatzeko bertsioa</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Beste proiektuetan </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Molecules" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11369" title="Datuen biltegi elementu batera lotuta [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata itema</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Itxura"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Itxura</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">mugitu alboko barrara</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">ezkutatu</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-1-Wikipedia10000" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_guztiek_izan_beharreko_artikuluen_zerrenda/3._maila" title="Artikulu hau Wikipedia guztiek izan beharreko artikuluen zerrendaren parte da"><img alt="Artikulu hau Wikipedia guztiek izan beharreko artikuluen zerrendaren parte da" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Wikipedia-1000.png/20px-Wikipedia-1000.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Wikipedia-1000.png/30px-Wikipedia-1000.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Wikipedia-1000.png/40px-Wikipedia-1000.png 2x" data-file-width="1122" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-2-HezkuntzaPrograma" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Atari:Hezkuntza" title="Artikulu hau "Kalitatezko 2.000 artikulu 12-16 urteko ikasleentzat" proiektuaren parte da"><img alt="Artikulu hau "Kalitatezko 2.000 artikulu 12-16 urteko ikasleentzat" proiektuaren parte da" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Hezkuntza_Programa_12-16_ikonoa.png/19px-Hezkuntza_Programa_12-16_ikonoa.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Hezkuntza_Programa_12-16_ikonoa.png/28px-Hezkuntza_Programa_12-16_ikonoa.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Hezkuntza_Programa_12-16_ikonoa.png/38px-Hezkuntza_Programa_12-16_ikonoa.png 2x" data-file-width="747" data-file-height="794" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">Wikipedia, Entziklopedia askea</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="eu" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Atisane3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Atisane3.png/350px-Atisane3.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Atisane3.png/525px-Atisane3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Atisane3.png 2x" data-file-width="687" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>Atisano molekula terpenoidearen irudikapenak: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hiru_dimentsioko_espazio&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hiru dimentsioko espazio (sortu gabe)">3D</a> (ezkerrean eta erdian) eta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bi_dimentsioko_eredu_geometriko&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bi dimentsioko eredu geometriko (sortu gabe)">2D</a> (eskuinean).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:PTCDA_AFM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/PTCDA_AFM.jpg/220px-PTCDA_AFM.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/PTCDA_AFM.jpg/330px-PTCDA_AFM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/PTCDA_AFM.jpg/440px-PTCDA_AFM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="957" data-file-height="954" /></a><figcaption>Indar atomikoaren mikroskopioan (AFM) PTCDA molekula baten irudia, non karbono 6ko bost eraztunak ikusten diren<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Pentacene_on_Ni(111)_STM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Pentacene_on_Ni%28111%29_STM.jpg/220px-Pentacene_on_Ni%28111%29_STM.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Pentacene_on_Ni%28111%29_STM.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="285" data-file-height="286" /></a><figcaption>Pentazeno molekulen irudi mikroskopiko eskaneatu bat, karbonozko bost eraztuneko kate linealez osatua<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:TOAT_AFM.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/TOAT_AFM.png/220px-TOAT_AFM.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/TOAT_AFM.png/330px-TOAT_AFM.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/TOAT_AFM.png/440px-TOAT_AFM.png 2x" data-file-width="729" data-file-height="349" /></a><figcaption>1,5,9-trioxo-13-azatriangulenoaren eta bere egitura kimikoaren AFM irudia<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Kimika" title="Kimika">Kimikan</a>, <b>molekula</b> deitzen zaio bi <a href="/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo">atomo</a> edo gehiagoz osatuta dagoen egiturari. Atomo horiek <a href="/wiki/Lotura_kimiko" title="Lotura kimiko">lotura kimiko</a> sendoen bidezko antolamendu definitua dute, <a href="/wiki/Argindar" class="mw-redirect" title="Argindar">elektrikoki</a> neutroa eta aski <a href="/w/index.php?title=Egonkor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Egonkor (sortu gabe)">egonkorra</a> dena.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kimika_organiko" title="Kimika organiko">Kimika organikoan</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Biokimika" title="Biokimika">biokimikan</a>, <i>molekula</i> terminoak ez dauka esanahi hain hertsia, eta, askotan, <a href="/wiki/Konposatu_organiko" title="Konposatu organiko">molekula organiko</a> kargatuei eta <a href="/wiki/Biomolekula" title="Biomolekula">biomolekulei</a> ere aplikatzen zaie. Zentzu hertsian, molekulak eta <a href="/wiki/Ioi" title="Ioi">ioi</a> poliatomikoak bereiztu egiten dira. </p><p>Molekularen egitura hobeto ezagutu ahala, definizio hau aldatzen joan da. Aurreko definizioak zehazgabeagoak ziren: <a href="/wiki/Gai_kimiko" title="Gai kimiko">substantzia kimikoen</a> konposizio eta propietate kimikoak atxikitzen zituen <a href="/wiki/Partikula_(argipena)" class="mw-disambig" title="Partikula (argipena)">partikularik</a> txikienatzat hartzen zen molekula.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Definizio hau sarritan ez zen betetzen, eguneroko substantzia asko (esaterako, hainbat <a href="/wiki/Arroka" title="Arroka">arroka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gatz" class="mw-disambig" title="Gatz">gatz</a> edo <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a>), ez baitaude molekulaz eginak. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">Gasen</a> <a href="/wiki/Teoria_zinetiko" title="Teoria zinetiko">teoria zinetikoan</a>, <i>molekula</i> terminoa edozein gas-partikuletarako erabiltzen da, bere osaera kontuan hartu gabe.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Definizio honek badauka desabantaila bat: <a href="/wiki/Gas_noble" title="Gas noble">gas nobleak</a> ere molekulak izango lirateke, loturarik gabeko atomo bakunez osatuta baitaude. </p><p>Molekulen antzeko kontzeptuak antzinatik eztabaidatzen dira, baina molekulen izaerari eta haien loturei buruzko ikerketa modernoa <a href="/wiki/XVII._mendea" title="XVII. mendea">XVII. mendean</a> hasi zen. Denborarekin, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amedeo_Avogadro" title="Amedeo Avogadro">Amedeo Avogadro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Perrin" title="Jean Perrin">Jean Perrin</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> moduko zientzialariek finduta, molekulen ikerketa, gaur egun, fisika molekularra edo kimika molekularra izenez ezagutzen da. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etimologia">Etimologia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Etimologia»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>aldatu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Etimologia"><span>aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Merriam-Webster eta <i>Online Etimologia Hiztegiaren</i> arabera <i>molekula</i> hitza latinezko <i>moles</i> edo masa unitate txikitik dator. Hitza <i>molécule</i> frantses hitzetik dator (1678), <i>molecula</i> neo-latinotik, latinezko <i>molet</i>en txikitzailea, <i>masa</i>, <i>hesia</i>. Hitza, <a href="/wiki/XVIII._mendea" title="XVIII. mendea">XVIII. mendearen</a> amaiera arte latinez bakarrik erabiltzen zena, ezaguna egin zen <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartesen</a> filosofia lanetan erabili ondoren<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historia">Historia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Historia»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>aldatu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Historia"><span>aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Molekularen definizioak eboluzionatu egin du molekulen egituraren ezagutza handitu ahala. Lehengo definizioak ez ziren hain zehatzak, eta molekulak oraindik konposizioa eta propietate kimikoak mantentzen dituzten <a href="/wiki/Gai_kimiko" title="Gai kimiko">substantzia kimiko</a> puruen partikula txikien gisa definitzen zituzten<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Definizio hori askotan hautsi egiten da esperientzia arruntean substantzia asko (<a href="/wiki/Arroka" title="Arroka">arrokak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gatz_(kimika)" title="Gatz (kimika)">gatzak</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metalak</a>...) <a href="/wiki/Lotura_kimiko" title="Lotura kimiko">kimikoki loturiko</a> atomo edo <a href="/wiki/Ioi" title="Ioi">ioien</a> sare kristalino handiz osatuta daudelako, baina ez daude molekula diskretuez osatuta. </p><p>Molekulen kontzeptu modernoa <a href="/wiki/Leuzipo" title="Leuzipo">Leuzipo</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Demokrito" title="Demokrito">Demokrito</a> gisako filosofo aurrezientifiko greziarrengandik atzera egiten du, zeinek unibertso guztia atomoz eta hutsunez osatuta dagoela argudiatu baitzuten. K.a. 450 inguruan, <a href="/wiki/Enpedokles" title="Enpedokles">Enpedoklesek</a> oinarrizko elementuak irudikatu zituen (<a href="/wiki/Su" title="Su">sua</a> (<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Alchemical_fire_symbol_(fixed_width).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Alchemical_fire_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg/20px-Alchemical_fire_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Alchemical_fire_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg/30px-Alchemical_fire_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Alchemical_fire_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg/40px-Alchemical_fire_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a></span>), <a href="/wiki/Lurra" title="Lurra">Lurra</a> (<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Alchemical_earth_symbol_(fixed_width).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Alchemical_earth_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg/20px-Alchemical_earth_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Alchemical_earth_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg/30px-Alchemical_earth_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Alchemical_earth_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg/40px-Alchemical_earth_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a></span>), <a href="/wiki/Lurraren_atmosfera" title="Lurraren atmosfera">airea</a> (<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Alchemical_air_symbol_(fixed_width).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Alchemical_air_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg/20px-Alchemical_air_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Alchemical_air_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg/30px-Alchemical_air_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Alchemical_air_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg/40px-Alchemical_air_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a></span>), eta <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">ura</a> (<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Alchemical_water_symbol_(fixed_width).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Alchemical_water_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg/20px-Alchemical_water_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Alchemical_water_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg/30px-Alchemical_water_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Alchemical_water_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg/40px-Alchemical_water_symbol_%28fixed_width%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a></span>), eta erakarpen- eta aldaratze <i>indarrak</i> elementuek elkarrekintzan jarduteko aukera ematen dute. </p><p>Bosgarren elementu bat, <a href="/wiki/Eter_(fisika)" title="Eter (fisika)">eterraren</a> kintesentzia ustelgaitza, zeru-gorputzen funtsezko eraikigarritzat hartzen zen. <a href="/wiki/Leuzipo" title="Leuzipo">Leuzipo</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Enpedokles" title="Enpedokles">Enpedoklesen</a> begiratokia, eterrarekin batera, <a href="/wiki/Aristoteles" title="Aristoteles">Aristotelesek</a> onartu zuen, eta Erdi Aroko eta Berpizkundeko Europara igaro zen. </p><p>Baina modu zehatzagoan, atomo agregatuen edo unitateen kontzeptuak (hau da, <i>molekulak</i>) jatorria <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyleren</a> <a href="/wiki/1661" title="1661">1661eko</a> hipotesian du, <i>The Sceptical Chymist</i> izeneko bere tratatu ospetsuan: materia partikula-multzoz osatua dagoela eta aldaketa kimikoa kumuluen berrantolaketaren ondorio dela. Boylek materiaren oinarrizko elementuak hainbat partikula mota eta tamainatan zeudela argudiatu zuen, <i>korpuskuluak</i> deiturikoak, eta horiek taldetan antolatzeko gai zirela. <a href="/wiki/1789" title="1789">1789an</a>, William Higginsek <i>azken</i> partikulen konbinazioei buruzko iritziak argitaratu zituen, balentzia loturen teoria aurreikusten zutenak. Higginsen arabera, oxigenoaren azken partikularen eta nitrogenoaren azken partikularen arteko indarra 6 balitz, orduan, indarraren indarra horren arabera zatituko litzateke, eta berdin azken partikulen gainerako konbinazioentzat. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Amedeo_Avogadro" title="Amedeo Avogadro">Amedeo Avogadrok</a> sortu zuen <i>molekula</i> hitza<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. <a href="/wiki/1811" title="1811">1811ko</a> bere <i>Essay on Determining the Relative Masses of the Elementary Molecules of Bodies</i> artikuluan, funtsean, hau dio Partingtonen <i>A Short History of Chemistry</i> liburuaren arabera<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>: </p> <table cellpadding="10" align="center" style="border-collapse:collapse; color: inherit; background-color:transparent; border-style:none; width:;"> <tbody><tr> <td width="20" valign="top" style="color:silver;font-size:20px;font-family:'Times New Roman',serif;font-weight:bold;text-align:left;padding:2 2px;">« </td> <td>Gasen partikula txikienak ez dira zertan atomo soilak izan, erakarpen bidez elkartuta molekula bakar bat eratzeko atomo horietako kopuru jakin batez osatuta baizik. </td> <td width="20" valign="bottom" style="color:silver;font-size:20px;font-family:'Times New Roman',serif;font-weight:bold;text-align:right;padding:2 2px;">» </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>Kontzeptu horiekin koordinatuta, <a href="/wiki/1833" title="1833">1833an</a>, Marc Antoine Auguste Gaudin kimikari frantziarrak Avogadroren hipotesiaren azalpen argia aurkeztu zuen<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> pisu atomikoei buruz <i>bolumen diagramak</i> erabiliz, zeinak argi erakusten dituzten bi geometria molekular erdi-zuzenak, hala nola ur molekula lineal gisa zein formula molekular zuzenak, hala nola H<sub>2</sub>O: </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Gaudins-volume-diagrams.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Gaudins-volume-diagrams.jpg/350px-Gaudins-volume-diagrams.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Gaudins-volume-diagrams.jpg/525px-Gaudins-volume-diagrams.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Gaudins-volume-diagrams.jpg/700px-Gaudins-volume-diagrams.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1268" data-file-height="339" /></a><figcaption>Marc Antoine Auguste Gaudin-en gas faseko molekulen bolumen diagramak (1833)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/1917" title="1917">1917an</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> izeneko gradu-ingeniari kimiko estatubatuar ezezagun bat <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">Dalton-en</a> kako eta begi-lotura metodoa ikasten ari zen, garai hartan atomoen arteko loturen deskribapen nagusia zena. Pauling, ordea, ez zegoen metodo horrekin konforme, eta sortu berria zen fisika kuantikoaren eremura begiratu zuen metodo berri baten bila. <a href="/wiki/1926" title="1926">1926an</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Perrin" title="Jean Perrin">Jean Perrin</a> fisikari frantziarrak <a href="/wiki/Zerrenda:Fisikako_Nobel_Saria" title="Zerrenda:Fisikako Nobel Saria">Fisikako Nobel Saria</a> jaso zuen molekulen existentzia modu erabakigarrian frogatzeagatik. Avogadroren konstantea kalkulatuz egin zuen hiru metodo ezberdin erabiliz, guztiak fase likidoko sistemak inplikatuz. Lehenik eta behin, ganbogeko xaboi-itxurako emultsioa erabili zuen; bigarrena, <a href="/wiki/Browndar_higidura" title="Browndar higidura">Brownar higidurari</a> buruzko lan esperimentala eginez, eta, hirugarrena, Einsteinen partikulen errotazioaren teoria fase likidoan baieztatuz<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/1927" title="1927">1927an</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fritz_London&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fritz London (sortu gabe)">Fritz London</a> eta <a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_Heitler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walter Heitler (sortu gabe)">Walter Heitler</a> fisikariek mekanika kuantiko berria aplikatu zuten hidrogeno molekularen erakarpen eta aldaratze indar saturagarri eta ez dinamikoei aurre egiteko. Arazo horren balentzia-loturaren tratamendua, beren artikulu bateratuan, mugarria izan zen<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, kimika kuantikoaren menpe ekarri baitzuen. Haien lanak eragina izan zuen Paulingengan, doktoretza egin berria baitzuen eta Heitler eta London bisitatu zituen <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" title="Zürich">Zurichen</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Simon_Guggenheim_Memorial_Foundation_beka" title="John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation beka">Guggenheim beka</a> batekin. </p><p>Geroago, <a href="/wiki/1931" title="1931">1931n</a>, Heitler eta Londonen lanetan eta Lewisen artikulu ospetsuan aurkitutako teorietan oinarrituta, Paulingek bere artikulu aitzindaria argitaratu zuen <i>The Nature of the Chemical Bond</i><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, non <a href="/wiki/Mekanika_kuantiko" title="Mekanika kuantiko">mekanika kuantikoa</a> erabili zuen propietateak eta molekulen egiturak kalkulatzeko, hala nola loturen arteko angeluak eta loturen inguruko biraketa. Kontzeptu horiei buruz, Paulingek <a href="/wiki/Hibridazio_(kimika)" title="Hibridazio (kimika)">hibridazio-teoria</a> garatu zuen CH<sub>4</sub> bezalako molekulen loturak kontuan hartzeko, zeinetan hibridatutako lau sp³ <a href="/wiki/Hidrogeno" title="Hidrogeno">hidrogenoaren</a> <i>1s</i> orbitalarekin gainjartzen diren lau sigma (σ) lotura emanez. Lau loturak luzera eta indar berekoak dira, eta horrek behean erakusten den egitura molekularra ematen du: </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Ch4_hybridization.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Ch4_hybridization.svg/200px-Ch4_hybridization.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Ch4_hybridization.svg/300px-Ch4_hybridization.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Ch4_hybridization.svg/400px-Ch4_hybridization.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="756" data-file-height="707" /></a><figcaption>Hidrogenoen orbitalak gainjartzen dituzten orbital hibridoen aurkezpen eskematiko bat</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Zientzia_molekularra">Zientzia molekularra</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Zientzia molekularra»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>aldatu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Zientzia molekularra"><span>aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Molekulen zientziari kimika molekularra edo fisika molekularra deitzen zaio, fokua kimika edo fisika denaren arabera. Kimika molekularrak lotura kimikoen eraketa eta haustura eragiten duten molekulen arteko elkarrekintza arautzen duten legeez dihardu; fisika molekularra, berriz, haien egitura eta propietateak arautzen dituzten legeez. Praktikan, ordea, bereizketa hori lausoa da. Zientzia molekularretan, molekula bat bi atomoz edo gehiagoz osatutako sistema egonkor batek (egoera lotua) osatzen du. Batzuetan, ioi poliatomikoak elektrikoki kargatutako molekulatzat har daitezke. Molekula ezegonkor terminoa espezie oso <a href="/wiki/Erreaktibotasun" title="Erreaktibotasun">erreaktiboetarako</a> erabiltzen da, hau da, elektroien eta nukleoen iraupen laburreko multzoetarako (<a href="/wiki/Erresonantzia" title="Erresonantzia">erresonantziak</a>), hala nola <a href="/wiki/Erradikal_aske" title="Erradikal aske">erradikalak</a>, ioi molekularrak, Rydberg molekulak, trantsizio-egoerak, <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waalsen_indar" title="Van der Waalsen indar">van der Waals konplexuak</a> edo talka egiten duten atomoen sistemak <a href="/wiki/Bose-Einstein_kondentsatu" title="Bose-Einstein kondentsatu">Bose-Einstein kondentsatuan</a> moduan. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prebalentzia">Prebalentzia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Prebalentzia»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>aldatu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: Prebalentzia"><span>aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Molekulak ohikoak dira materiaren osagai gisa. Ozeano eta atmosfera gehienak ere osatzen dituzte. Substantzia organiko gehienak molekulak dira. Bizitzaren substantziak molekulak dira, adibidez, proteinak, horiek osatzen dituzten aminoazidoak, azido nukleikoak (DNA eta RNA), azukreak, karbohidratoak, gantzak eta bitaminak. Mantenugai mineralak, orokorrean, konposatu ionikoak dira, beraz, ez dira molekulak, adibidez, burdin sulfatoa. </p><p>Hala ere, Lurreko substantzia solido ezagun gehienak kristalez edo konposatu ionikoz osatuta daude partzialki edo guztiz, eta horiek ez daude molekulez osatuta. Horien artean daude Lurraren substantzia osatzen duten mineral guztiak: <a href="/wiki/Harea" title="Harea">harea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buztin" title="Buztin">buztina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haitz" title="Haitz">haitzak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harri" title="Harri">harriak</a>, hondoa, urtutako barrualdea eta Lurraren muina. Horiek guztiek lotura kimiko asko dituzte, baina ez daude identifika daitezkeen molekulaz eginak. </p><p>Ezin da molekula tipikorik definitu gatzetarako, ez eta kristal kobalenteetarako ere, nahiz eta horiek <a href="/wiki/Bidimentsional" title="Bidimentsional">plano</a> batean hedatzen diren zelula unitate errepikakorrek osatuta egon ohi diren, adibidez, <a href="/wiki/Grafeno" title="Grafeno">grafenoa</a>; edo hiru dimentsioan, adibidez, <a href="/wiki/Diamante" title="Diamante">diamantea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kuartzo" title="Kuartzo">kuartzoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodio_kloruro" title="Sodio kloruro">sodio kloruroa</a>. Unitate-zelula egitura errepikatuaren gaia <a href="/wiki/Lotura_metaliko" title="Lotura metaliko">lotura metalikoko</a> fase kondentsatuak diren metal gehienentzat ere balio du. Beraz, metal solidoak ez dira molekulaz eginak. <a href="/wiki/Beira" title="Beira">Beiretan</a> (kristalezko egoera desordenatuan dauden solidoak), atomoak lotura kimikoen bidez mantentzen dira, definitu daitekeen molekularik gabe edo kristal kobalenteak eta metalak bereizten dituen egitura zelularra errepikatzen duen erregulartasunik gabe ere. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lotura_kimikoak">Lotura kimikoak</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Lotura kimikoak»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>aldatu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: Lotura kimikoak"><span>aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Molekulak osatzen dituzten <a href="/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo">atomoa</a>k elkarrekin mantentzen dira <a href="/wiki/Lotura_kobalente" title="Lotura kobalente">lotura kobalente</a>en edo <a href="/wiki/Lotura_ioniko" title="Lotura ioniko">lotura ioniko</a>en bidez. Zenbait elementu ez-metaliko molekula gisa bakarrik existitzen dira ingurunean. Adibidez, hidrogenoa hidrogeno-molekula gisa bakarrik existitzen da. Konposatu baten molekula bi elementuk edo gehiagok osatzen dute. Molekula homonuklear bat elementu bakarreko bi atomok edo gehiagok osatzen dute. </p><p>Pertsona batzuek diote metalezko kristal bat <a href="/wiki/Lotura_metaliko" title="Lotura metaliko">lotura metaliko</a>en bidez lotutako molekula erraldoi bakartzat har daitekeela, baina beste batzuek diote metalek molekulek ez bezala jokatzen dutela.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lotura_kobalentea">Lotura kobalentea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Lotura kobalentea»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>aldatu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: Lotura kobalentea"><span>aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div style="font-style: italic; padding-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.5em;">Sakontzeko, irakurri: «<a href="/wiki/Lotura_kobalente" title="Lotura kobalente">Lotura kobalente</a>»</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Covalent_bond_hydrogen.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Covalent_bond_hydrogen.svg/220px-Covalent_bond_hydrogen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Covalent_bond_hydrogen.svg/330px-Covalent_bond_hydrogen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Covalent_bond_hydrogen.svg/440px-Covalent_bond_hydrogen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>H<sub>2</sub> molekula sortzen duen lotura kobalentea, bi H atomoen artean bi elektroi elkarbanatzen dira.</figcaption></figure> <p>Lewis-en ereduaren arabera, <a href="/wiki/Lotura_kobalente" title="Lotura kobalente">lotura kobalentea</a> bi atomoen artean elektro-bikote bat edo gehiago konpartitzeagatik sortzen den elkarketa edo lotura da.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Elektroi" title="Elektroi">Elektroia</a>k batera konpartitzea honetan datza: atomo bakoitzak loturarako erabilitako elektroia edo elektroiak, beste atomoaren kanpo-geruzaren parte izatera ere pasatzen dira. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lotura_ionikoa">Lotura ionikoa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Lotura ionikoa»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>aldatu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Lotura ionikoa"><span>aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div style="font-style: italic; padding-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.5em;">Sakontzeko, irakurri: «<a href="/wiki/Lotura_ioniko" title="Lotura ioniko">Lotura ioniko</a>»</div> <p><a href="/wiki/Lotura_ioniko" title="Lotura ioniko">Lotura ionikoa</a> ioi positiboen eta negatiboen arteko indar elektrostatikoen presentziaren kausaz sare kristalino ionikoa eratuz sortzen den bildura edo elkarketa-modua da.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:NaF.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/NaF.gif/220px-NaF.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/NaF.gif/330px-NaF.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/NaF.gif/440px-NaF.gif 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="245" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sodio" title="Sodio">Sodioa</a>k eta <a href="/wiki/Fluor" title="Fluor">fluor</a>rak <a href="/wiki/Erredox_erreakzio" title="Erredox erreakzio">erredox erreakzio</a> baten bidez sortzen dute <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodio_fluoruroa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sodio fluoruroa (sortu gabe)">sodio fluoruroa</a>. Sodioak kanpo-elektroia galtzen du konfigurazio elektroniko egonkorra lortzeko eta elektroi hau fluor atomoan sartzen da exotermikoki.</figcaption></figure> <p>Ioiak elektroi bat edo gehiago galdu dituzten atomoak dira (<a href="/wiki/Katioi" title="Katioi">katioi</a> izenekoak) eta elektroi bat edo gehiago irabazi dituzten atomoak (<a href="/wiki/Anioi" title="Anioi">anioi</a> izenekoak) . Elektroien transferentzia horri elektrobalentzia esaten zaio kobalentziarekin kontrastean. Kasurik sinpleenean, katioia metalezko atomo bat da eta anioia atomo ez-metaliko bat, baina ioi hauek izaera konplexuagokoak izan daitezke, adibidez, NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup> edo SO<sub>4</sub> <sup>2-</sup> bezalako ioi molekularrak. </p><p>Tenperatura eta presio normaletan, lotura ionikoak batez ere solidoak (edo batzuetan likidoak) sortzen ditu molekula identifikagarri bereizirik gabe, baina material horien lurruntzeak/sublimazioak molekula bereizi txikiak sortzen ditu, non elektroiak oraindik kobalenteen ordez ioikotzat jotzeko adina transferitzen diren. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Molekulen_tamaina">Molekulen tamaina</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Molekulen tamaina»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>aldatu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Molekulen tamaina"><span>aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Molekula gehienak txikiegiak dira begi hutsez ikusteko, nahiz eta <a href="/wiki/Polimero" title="Polimero">polimero</a> askotako molekulak tamaina <a href="/wiki/Maila_makroskopiko" title="Maila makroskopiko">makroskopikoetara</a> iritsi daitezkeen, <a href="/wiki/Azido_desoxirribonukleiko" title="Azido desoxirribonukleiko">ADN</a> moduko biopolimeroak barne. Sintesi organikorako eraikuntza-bloke gisa erabili ohi diren molekulek <a href="/wiki/Angstrom" title="Angstrom">angstrom</a> (Å) gutxitik dozena Å bitarteko dimentsioa dute, edo metro baten bilioiren bat ingurukoa. Molekula bakarrak ezin dira normalean <a href="/wiki/Argi" title="Argi">argiaren</a> bidez behatu (goian adierazi moduan), baina molekula txikiak eta atomo indibidualen eskemak miatu daitezke, zenbait zirkunstantziatan, indar atomikoko mikroskopioa erabiliz. Molekula handienetako batzuk <a href="/wiki/Makromolekula" title="Makromolekula">makromolekulak</a> edo supermolekulak dira. </p><p>Molekula txikiena hidrogeno diatomikoa (H<sub>2</sub>) da, 0,74 Å-ko lotura-luzera duena<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>Erradio molekular eraginkorra molekula batek disoluzioan erakusten duen tamaina da<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Substantzia ezberdinen <a href="/w/index.php?title=Permselektibitatearen_taula&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Permselektibitatearen taula (sortu gabe)">permselektibitatearen taulak</a> adibideak ditu. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definizioa_eta_mugak">Definizioa eta mugak</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Definizioa eta mugak»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>aldatu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: Definizioa eta mugak"><span>aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Orokortasunez begiratuta, substantziaren <a href="/wiki/Gai_kimiko" title="Gai kimiko">ezaugarri kimikoak</a> mantentzen dituen substantziaren osagairik txikiena har daiteke molekula gisa, zeinaren bidez (eta <a href="/wiki/Erreakzio_kimiko" title="Erreakzio kimiko">erreakzio kimikorik</a> egin gabe) substantzia berreraiki daitekeen. Definizio horrekin bat etorriz, gas nobleen <i>molekula monoatomikoak</i> deskribatu daitezke oso erabilgarria den molekulez osatutako <a href="/wiki/Gas_noble" title="Gas noble">substantzia puruetan</a>, baina zailtasun nabarmenak erakusten ditu sare kristalinoak, <a href="/wiki/Gatz_arrunt" title="Gatz arrunt">gatzak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metalak</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Beira" title="Beira">beira</a> gehienak deskribatzerakoan. </p><p>Molekula labilek euren trinkotasuna azkar batean galdu dezakete, baina, euren batez besteko bizialdia bibrazio molekular batzuena bezainbestekoa bada, molekula gisa har ezin daitekeen <a href="/wiki/Erreakzio_bitarteko" title="Erreakzio bitarteko">trantsizio-egoera</a> baten aurrean egongo ginateke. <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">Laser</a> pultsatuei esker, gaur egun, sistema kimiko horien ikerketa egingarria da. </p><p>Molekulen definizioarekin bat datozen baina karga elektrikoa duten entitateei, ioi poliatomiko, ioi molekular edo ioi molekula deritze. Ioi poliatomikoz osatuta dauden gatzak, normalean, material molekular edo oinarri molekularra duten material gisa sailkatzen dira. </p><p>Molekulak partikulez osatuta daude. Molekula bat, arestian esan bezala, jatorrizko materialaren ezaugarriak mantentzen dituen materiaren osagairik txikiena da. Molekulak elkarren artean <a href="/wiki/Lotura_kimiko" title="Lotura kimiko">lotura kimikoak</a> eratu dituzten atomoz osatuta daude. </p><p>Molekula substantzia monoatomiko edo poliatomiko baten unitatea izan daiteke. Adibidez, substantzia gaseoso guztien unitatea molekula da<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Molekula_motak">Molekula motak</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Molekula motak»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>aldatu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: Molekula motak"><span>aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Molekulak honela sailka daitezke: </p> <ul><li>Molekula diskretuak: atomo kopuru zehatz batez osatuak, atomo horiek elementu berekoak izan (molekula homonuklearrak, dinitrogenoa edo fulerenoa kasu) edo elementu desberdinetakoak (molekula heteronuklearrak, ura adibidez).</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Makromolekula" title="Makromolekula">Makromolekulak</a> edo <a href="/w/index.php?title=Polimeroak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Polimeroak (sortu gabe)">polimeroak</a>: unitate sinple baten errepikapenaz osatuak — edo unitate horien multzo mugatu batez — eta pisu molekular erlatiboki altuak lortzen dituztenak.</li></ul> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 213.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 211.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Nitrogeno_-Molecular-.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dinitrogeno molekula. Airearen konponente garrantzitsuena den gasa."><img alt="Dinitrogeno molekula. Airearen konponente garrantzitsuena den gasa." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Nitrogeno_-Molecular-.jpg" decoding="async" width="212" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="186" data-file-height="176" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Dinitrogeno molekula. <a href="/wiki/Airea" class="mw-redirect" title="Airea">Airearen</a> konponente garrantzitsuena den <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gasa</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:C60-rods.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Fulereno molekula. Karbonoaren hirugarren forma egonkorrena, diamantea eta grafitoaren ondoren."><img alt="Fulereno molekula. Karbonoaren hirugarren forma egonkorrena, diamantea eta grafitoaren ondoren." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/C60-rods.png/300px-C60-rods.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/C60-rods.png/450px-C60-rods.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/C60-rods.png/600px-C60-rods.png 2x" data-file-width="792" data-file-height="792" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Fulereno" title="Fulereno">Fulereno</a> molekula. Karbonoaren hirugarren forma egonkorrena, <a href="/wiki/Diamante" title="Diamante">diamantea</a> eta <a href="/wiki/Grafito" title="Grafito">grafitoaren</a> ondoren.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 233.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Water_molecule_3D.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ur molekula, disolbatzaile unibertsala, hainbat prozesu biokimiko eta industrialetan ezinbestekoa."><img alt="Ur molekula, disolbatzaile unibertsala, hainbat prozesu biokimiko eta industrialetan ezinbestekoa." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Water_molecule_3D.svg/350px-Water_molecule_3D.svg.png" decoding="async" width="234" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Water_molecule_3D.svg/524px-Water_molecule_3D.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Water_molecule_3D.svg/699px-Water_molecule_3D.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="515" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a> molekula, <a href="/wiki/Disolbatzaile" title="Disolbatzaile">disolbatzaile</a> unibertsala, hainbat prozesu biokimiko eta industrialetan ezinbestekoa.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 198.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 196.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Phosphotungstate-3D-polyhedra.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Keggin anioiaren irudikapen poliedrikoa, polianioi molekularra."><img alt="Keggin anioiaren irudikapen poliedrikoa, polianioi molekularra." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Phosphotungstate-3D-polyhedra.png/295px-Phosphotungstate-3D-polyhedra.png" decoding="async" width="197" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Phosphotungstate-3D-polyhedra.png/443px-Phosphotungstate-3D-polyhedra.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Phosphotungstate-3D-polyhedra.png/591px-Phosphotungstate-3D-polyhedra.png 2x" data-file-width="1083" data-file-height="1100" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Keggin anioiaren irudikapen poliedrikoa, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Polianioi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Polianioi (sortu gabe)">polianioi</a> molekularra.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 74px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 72px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:DNA_Overview2.png" class="mw-file-description" title="DNAren irudikapena, genetikan funtsezkoa den polimeroa."><img alt="DNAren irudikapena, genetikan funtsezkoa den polimeroa." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/DNA_Overview2.png/108px-DNA_Overview2.png" decoding="async" width="72" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/DNA_Overview2.png/162px-DNA_Overview2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/DNA_Overview2.png/217px-DNA_Overview2.png 2x" data-file-width="526" data-file-height="1454" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Azido_desoxirribonukleiko" title="Azido desoxirribonukleiko">DNAren</a> irudikapena, <a href="/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika">genetikan</a> funtsezkoa den polimeroa.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 556.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 554.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Polyethylene-3D-vdW.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Polietilenoaren irudikapena, gehien erabiltzen den plastikoa."><img alt="Polietilenoaren irudikapena, gehien erabiltzen den plastikoa." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Polyethylene-3D-vdW.png/832px-Polyethylene-3D-vdW.png" decoding="async" width="555" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Polyethylene-3D-vdW.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="361" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Polietileno" title="Polietileno">Polietilenoaren</a> irudikapena, gehien erabiltzen den <a href="/wiki/Plastiko" title="Plastiko">plastikoa</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 296.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 294.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Peptide_bond.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Lotura peptidikoa, peptidoen elkarketa ahalbidetzen du proteinak sortzeko."><img alt="Lotura peptidikoa, peptidoen elkarketa ahalbidetzen du proteinak sortzeko." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Peptide_bond.png/442px-Peptide_bond.png" decoding="async" width="295" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Peptide_bond.png/662px-Peptide_bond.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Peptide_bond.png 2x" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="482" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Lotura_peptidiko" title="Lotura peptidiko">Lotura peptidikoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peptido" title="Peptido">peptidoen</a> elkarketa ahalbidetzen du <a href="/wiki/Proteina" title="Proteina">proteinak</a> sortzeko.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Deskribapena">Deskribapena</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Deskribapena»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>aldatu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section's source code: Deskribapena"><span>aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Egitura molekularra hainbat modutan deskriba daiteke. Molekularen formula kimikoa erabilgarria da molekula sinpleetarako, hala nola H<sub>2</sub>O urarentzat edo NH<sub>3</sub> amoniakoarentzat. Hauek molekulan dauden elementuen sinboloak dituzte, baita azpiindizeek adierazitako proportzioa ere. </p><p>Molekula konplexuagoetarako, adibidez kimika organikoan aurkitzen direnetarako, formula kimikoa ez da nahikoa, eta haratago joan beharra dago, formula estruktural bat erabiliz, talde funtzional desberdinen antolaketa espaziala grafikoki adierazteko. </p><p>Proteinak, DNA edo polimeroak bezalako sistema oso konplexuak direnean, irudikapen bereziak erabiltzen dira, hala nola hiru dimentsioko ereduak (fisikoak edo ordenagailuz irudikatuak). Proteinetan, adibidez, honako hauek bereiz daitezke: egitura primarioa (aminoazidoen ordena), sekundarioa (helizeetan, hostoetan, birak), tertziarioa (globuluak emateko helize/orri/biraketa motako egiturak tolestea) eta kuaternarioa (globulu desberdinen arteko espazio-antolamendua). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formula_molekularrak">Formula molekularrak</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit&section=12" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Formula molekularrak»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>aldatu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section's source code: Formula molekularrak"><span>aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div style="font-style: italic; padding-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.5em;">Sakontzeko, irakurri: «<a href="/wiki/Formula_kimiko" title="Formula kimiko">Formula kimiko</a>»</div> <p>Molekula baten formula kimikoak elementu kimikoen sinboloen lerro bat erabiltzen du, zenbakiak eta, batzuetan, beste sinbolo batzuk ere bai, hala nola parentesiak, marratxoak, parentesiak eta gehi (+) eta minus (-) zeinuak. Horiek sinbolo-lerro tipografiko batera mugatzen dira, azpiindizeak eta gainindizeak izan ditzaketenak. </p><p>Konposatu baten formula enpirikoa formula kimiko oso sinplea da<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Bera osatzen duten elementu kimikoen <a href="/wiki/Arrazoi_(matematika)" title="Arrazoi (matematika)">erlazio</a> <a href="/wiki/Zenbaki_oso" title="Zenbaki oso">zenbaki oso</a> sinpleena da<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Adibidez, ura beti dago hidrogeno eta oxigeno atomoen arteko 2:1 proportzioz osatuta, eta <a href="/wiki/Etanol" title="Etanol">etanola</a> (alkohol etilikoa) karbonoz, hidrogenoz eta oxigenoz osatuta dago beti 2:6:1 proportzioan. Hala ere, horrek ez du molekula mota zehatzik zehazten; dimetil eterrak etanolaren proportzio berak ditu, adibidez. Antolamendu desberdinetan, <a href="/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo">atomo</a> berdinak dituzten molekulei, <a href="/wiki/Isomero" title="Isomero">isomero</a> deitzen zaie. Karbohidratoek ere, adibidez, proportzio bera dute (karbonoa:hidrogenoa:oxigenoa= 1:2:1) (eta, beraz, formula enpiriko bera) baina, molekulako, atomo kopuru desberdinak. </p><p>Formula molekularrak molekula osatzen duten atomo kopuru zehatza islatzen du, eta, beraz, molekula desberdinak bereizten ditu. Hala ere, isomero ezberdinek konposizio atomiko bera izan dezakete molekula desberdinak izanik. </p><p>Formula enpirikoa formula molekularraren berdina izan ohi da, baina ez beti. Adibidez, <a href="/wiki/Azetileno" title="Azetileno">azetileno</a> molekulak C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>2</sub> formula molekularra du, baina elementuen arteko erlazio sinpleena CH da. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Masa_molekular" title="Masa molekular">Masa molekularra</a> formula kimikotik kalkula daiteke, eta karbono-12 (<sup>12</sup>C <a href="/wiki/Isotopo" title="Isotopo">isotopo</a>) atomo neutro baten masaren 1/12ko <a href="/wiki/Masa_atomikoaren_unitate" title="Masa atomikoaren unitate">masa atomiko konbentzionaletan</a> adierazten da. Sare-solidoetarako, formula-unitate terminoa erabiltzen da kalkulu <a href="/wiki/Estekiometria" title="Estekiometria">estekiometrikoetan</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formula_estrukturala">Formula estrukturala</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit&section=13" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Formula estrukturala»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>aldatu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section's source code: Formula estrukturala"><span>aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Atisane3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Atisane3.png/400px-Atisane3.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Atisane3.png/600px-Atisane3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Atisane3.png 2x" data-file-width="687" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hiru_dimentsioko" title="Hiru dimentsioko">3D espazioa</a> (ezkerrean eta erdian) eta 2D eredu geometrikoan (2D) (eskuinean) terpenoide molekula atisanoaren irudikapenak</figcaption></figure> <p>3 dimentsioko egitura konplikatua duten molekulen kasuan, batez ere lau ordezkatzaile ezberdinekin loturiko atomoak inplikatuta, baliteke formula molekular soil bat edo formula kimiko erdi-egiturala nahikoa ez izatea molekula guztiz zehazteko. Kasu horretan, formula estruktural izeneko formula grafiko bat behar izan daiteke. Egiturazko formulak dimentsio bakarreko izen kimiko batekin irudika daitezke, baina <a href="/wiki/Nomenklatura_kimiko" title="Nomenklatura kimiko">nomenklatura kimiko</a> horrek formula kimikoen parte ez diren hitz eta termino asko behar ditu. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geometria_molekularra">Geometria molekularra</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit&section=14" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Geometria molekularra»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>aldatu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section's source code: Geometria molekularra"><span>aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Cyanostar_STM.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Cyanostar_STM.png/170px-Cyanostar_STM.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Cyanostar_STM.png/255px-Cyanostar_STM.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Cyanostar_STM.png/340px-Cyanostar_STM.png 2x" data-file-width="1216" data-file-height="2376" /></a><figcaption><i>Zianoizar</i> <a href="/wiki/Dendrimero" title="Dendrimero">dendrimero</a> molekula baten egitura eta Scanning Tuning Microscopyren (STM) irudia<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Molekulek <a href="/wiki/Oreka_mekaniko" title="Oreka mekaniko">oreka-geometria</a> finkoak dituzte —lotura-luzerak eta angeluak—, eta, horien inguruan, etengabe oszilatzen dute bibrazio- eta errotazio-higiduraren bidez. Substantzia purua batez besteko egitura geometriko bera duten molekulek osatzen dute. Formula kimikoa eta molekula baten egitura dira bere propietateak zehazten dituzten bi faktore garrantzitsuak, bereziki bere <a href="/wiki/Erreaktibotasun" title="Erreaktibotasun">erreaktibitatea</a>. <a href="/wiki/Isomero" title="Isomero">Isomeroek</a> formula kimiko bat partekatzen dute, baina, normalean, oso propietate desberdinak dituzte egitura ezberdinengatik. <a href="/wiki/Estereoisomero" title="Estereoisomero">Estereoisomeroek</a>, isomero mota jakin batek, propietate fisiko-kimiko oso antzekoak izan ditzakete, eta, aldi berean, jarduera <a href="/wiki/Biokimika" title="Biokimika">biokimiko</a> desberdinak izan ditzakete. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Espektroskopio_molekularra">Espektroskopio molekularra</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit&section=15" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Espektroskopio molekularra»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>aldatu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section's source code: Espektroskopio molekularra"><span>aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div style="font-style: italic; padding-left: 2em; margin-bottom: 0.5em;">Sakontzeko, irakurri: «<a href="/wiki/Espektroskopia" title="Espektroskopia">Espektroskopia</a>»</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fitxategi:Dehydrogenation_of_H2TPP_by_STM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Dehydrogenation_of_H2TPP_by_STM.jpg/290px-Dehydrogenation_of_H2TPP_by_STM.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Dehydrogenation_of_H2TPP_by_STM.jpg/435px-Dehydrogenation_of_H2TPP_by_STM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Dehydrogenation_of_H2TPP_by_STM.jpg/580px-Dehydrogenation_of_H2TPP_by_STM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="926" data-file-height="672" /></a><figcaption>Hidrogenoa <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tetrafenilporfirina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tetrafenilporfirina (sortu gabe)">H<sub>2</sub>TPP</a> molekula indibidualetatik ken daiteke gehiegizko tentsioa aplikatuz eskaneatze-tunel-mikroskopio baten puntan (STM, a); kentze horrek TPP molekulen korronte-tentsioa (I-V) kurbak aldatzen ditu, STM punta bera erabiliz neurtuta, <a href="/wiki/Diodo" title="Diodo">diodo</a> modukoa (kurba gorria b-n) <a href="/wiki/Erresistentzia_(osagaia)" title="Erresistentzia (osagaia)">erresistentzia</a> gisakoa (kurba berdea). (c) irudiak TPP, H<sub>2</sub>TPP eta TPP molekulen ilara bat erakusten du. (d) irudia eskaneatzen ari zen bitartean, puntu beltzean H<sub>2</sub>TPP-ri gehiegizko tentsioa aplikatu zitzaion, eta horrek hidrogenoa berehala kendu zuen, (d) beheko zatian eta (e) berriro eskaneatu irudian erakusten den moduan. Horrelako manipulazioak molekula bakarreko elektronikan erabil daitezke<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Espektroskopia molekularra <a href="/wiki/Energia" title="Energia">energia</a> ezaguneko (edo <a href="/wiki/Maiztasun" title="Maiztasun">maiztasuneko</a>, Planck erlazioaren arabera) zundaketa-seinaleekin elkarreragiten duten molekulen erantzuna (<a href="/wiki/Igorpen-espektro" title="Igorpen-espektro">espektroa</a>) jorratzen du. Molekulek, absorbantzia edo igorpenaren bidez, molekulen energia-trukea detektatuz azter daitezkeen energia-maila kuantizatuak dituzte<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Espektroskopiak ez die, orokorrean, <a href="/wiki/Neutroi" title="Neutroi">neutroiak</a>, elektroiak edo energia handiko <a href="/wiki/X_izpi" title="X izpi">X izpiak</a> moduko partikulek molekulen antolaketa erregular batekin elkarreragiten duten <a href="/wiki/Difrakzio_(fisika)" title="Difrakzio (fisika)">difrakzio</a>-azterketei erreferentzia egiten (kristal batean moduan). </p><p>Mikrouhinen espektroskopia, normalean, molekulen errotazioaren aldaketak neurtzen ditu, eta kanpoko espazioko molekulak identifikatzeko erabil daiteke. <a href="/wiki/Infragorrien_espektroskopia" title="Infragorrien espektroskopia">Espektroskopia infragorriak</a> molekulen bibrazioa neurtzen du, luzatze, tolestura edo bihurridura mugimenduak barne. Molekulen lotura edo <a href="/wiki/Funtzio_talde" title="Funtzio talde">talde funtzionalak</a> identifikatzeko erabili ohi da. Elektroien antolamendu-aldaketek xurgapen- edo igorpen-lerroak ematen dituzte argi ultramorean, ikusgaian edo infragorri hurbilean, eta kolorea sortzen dute. Erresonantzia nuklearraren espektroskopia molekulako nukleo jakinen ingurunea neurtzen du, eta molekula bateko posizio ezberdinetan dauden atomo kopuruak ezaugarritzeko erabil daiteke. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alderdi_teorikoak">Alderdi teorikoak</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit&section=16" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Alderdi teorikoak»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>aldatu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section's source code: Alderdi teorikoak"><span>aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fisika molekularraren eta kimika teorikoaren bidez, molekulen azterketa <a href="/wiki/Mekanika_kuantiko" title="Mekanika kuantiko">mekanika kuantikoan</a> oinarritzen da neurri handi batean, eta ezinbestekoa da lotura kimikoa ulertzeko. Molekulen artean, sinpleena hidrogeno molekula-ioia da, H<sub>2</sub><sup>+</sup>, eta, lotura kimiko guztien artean, elektroi bateko lotura da sinpleena. H<sub>2</sub><sup>+</sup> positiboki kargatutako bi <a href="/wiki/Protoi" title="Protoi">protoiz</a> eta negatiboki kargatutako <a href="/wiki/Elektroi" title="Elektroi">elektroi</a> batez osatuta dago, eta horrek esan nahi du sistemarako <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dingerren_ekuazioa" title="Schrödingerren ekuazioa">Schrödinger-en ekuazioa</a> errazago ebatzi daitekeela elektroi-elektroiaren aldaratze faltagatik. Ordenagailu digital azkarren garapenarekin, molekula konplikatuagoetarako gutxi gorabeherako soluzioak posible egin ziren, eta <a href="/wiki/Kimika_konputazional" title="Kimika konputazional">kimika konputazionalaren</a> alderdi nagusietako bat dira. </p><p>Atomoen antolamendu bat molekulatzat hartzeko nahikoa egonkorra den ala ez zehazten saiatzen denean, IUPAC-ek iradokitzen du: «<a href="/wiki/Energia_potentzial_gainazala" title="Energia potentzial gainazala">energia potentzialaren gainazaleko</a> depresio bati dagokiona, gutxienez bibrazio-egoera bat mugatzeko nahikoa sakona den»<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Definizio hori ez dago atomoen arteko elkarrekintzaren izaeraren araberakoa, elkarrekintzaren indarraren araberakoa baizik. Izan ere, tradizionalki molekulatzat hartuko ez liratekeen espezie ahulak biltzen ditu, hala nola <a href="/wiki/Helio" title="Helio">helio</a>-<a href="/wiki/Dimero" title="Dimero">dimeroa</a>, He<sub>2</sub>, bibrazio-egoera bat duena<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> eta hain eskas lotzen dena, non litekeena da oso tenperatura baxuetan soilik behatzea. </p><p>Atomoen antolaketa molekulatzat hartzeko nahikoa egonkorra den ala ez definizio operatiboa da berez. Filosofikoki, beraz, molekula bat ez da oinarrizko entitate bat (esaterako, <a href="/wiki/Oinarrizko_partikula" title="Oinarrizko partikula">oinarrizko partikula</a> baten aldean); aitzitik, molekula kontzeptua kimikariak behatzen ditugun munduan eskala atomikoko elkarrekintzen indarguneei buruzko adierazpen baliagarri bat egiteko modua da. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Erreferentziak">Erreferentziak</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit&section=17" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Erreferentziak»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>aldatu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section's source code: Erreferentziak"><span>aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="reflist columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"> <span style="cursor: help; font-size: 90%; font-family: bold; color: gray" title="Ingelesez dago aipu honen iturburua"><b>(Ingelesez)</b></span></span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFIwataYamazakiMutomboHapala2015-07-16">Iwata, Kota; Yamazaki, Shiro; Mutombo, Pingo; Hapala, Prokop; Ondráček, Martin; Jelínek, Pavel; Sugimoto, Yoshiaki.  (2015-07-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms8766">«Chemical structure imaging of a single molecule by atomic force microscopy at room temperature»</a> <i>Nature Communications</i> 6 (1): 7766.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="neverexpand"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fncomms8766">10.1038/ncomms8766</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/2041-1723">2041-1723</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26178193">26178193</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC4518281">PMC4518281</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-06-13)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"> <span style="cursor: help; font-size: 90%; font-family: bold; color: gray" title="Ingelesez dago aipu honen iturburua"><b>(Ingelesez)</b></span></span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFDincaMarchiMacLeodLipton-Duffin2015-02-05">Dinca, L. E.; Marchi, F. De; MacLeod, J. M.; Lipton-Duffin, J.; Gatti, R.; Ma, D.; Perepichka, D. F.; Rosei, F..  (2015-02-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2015/nr/c4nr07057g">«Pentacene on Ni(111): room-temperature molecular packing and temperature-activated conversion to graphene»</a> <i>Nanoscale</i> 7 (7): 3263–3269.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="neverexpand"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1039%2FC4NR07057G">10.1039/C4NR07057G</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/2040-3372">2040-3372</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-06-13)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"> <span style="cursor: help; font-size: 90%; font-family: bold; color: gray" title="Ingelesez dago aipu honen iturburua"><b>(Ingelesez)</b></span></span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFHapalaŠvecStetsovychvan_der_Heijden2016-05-27">Hapala, Prokop; Švec, Martin; Stetsovych, Oleksandr; van der Heijden, Nadine J.; Ondráček, Martin; van der Lit, Joost; Mutombo, Pingo; Swart, Ingmar <i>et al</i>..  (2016-05-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms11560">«Mapping the electrostatic force field of single molecules from high-resolution scanning probe images»</a> <i>Nature Communications</i> 7 (1): 11560.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="neverexpand"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fncomms11560">10.1038/ncomms11560</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/2041-1723">2041-1723</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27230940">27230940</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC4894979">PMC4894979</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-06-13)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://goldbook.iupac.org/M04002.html">IUPAC</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"></span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFPauling,_Linus1970">Pauling, Linus.  (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/generalchemistry00paul_0"><i>General Chemistry. </i></a> New York: Dover Publications, Inc. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/0-486-65622-5" title="Berezi:BookSources/0-486-65622-5">0-486-65622-5</a>.</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"></span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFEbbin,_Darrell,_D.1990">Ebbin, Darrell, D..  (1990). <i>General Chemistry. </i> (3. argitaraldia) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/0-395-43302-9" title="Berezi:BookSources/0-395-43302-9">0-395-43302-9</a>.</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"></span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFBrown,_T.L.2003">Brown, T.L..  (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/studentlectureno00theo"><i>Chemistry – the Central Science. </i></a> (9. argitaraldia) New Jersey: Prentice Hall <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/0-13-066997-0" title="Berezi:BookSources/0-13-066997-0">0-13-066997-0</a>.</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"></span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFChang,_Raymond1998">Chang, Raymond.  (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chemistry0006chan"><i>Chemistry. </i></a> (6. argitaraldia) New York: McGraw Hill <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/0-07-115221-0" title="Berezi:BookSources/0-07-115221-0">0-07-115221-0</a>.</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"></span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFZumdahl,_Steven_S.1997">Zumdahl, Steven S..  (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chemistry0004zumd"><i>Chemistry. </i></a> (4. argitaraldia) Boston: Houghton Mifflin <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/0-669-41794-7" title="Berezi:BookSources/0-669-41794-7">0-669-41794-7</a>.</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/glossary/m.shtml#molecule">Molekularen definizioa</a> (Frostburg State University)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a> <span class="reference-text">Ikus <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020316083204/http://www.usd.edu/phys/courses/phys_111sf/ch_10/10_notes.htm">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">↑</a> <span class="reference-text">Harper, Douglas. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/?term=molecule">molecule</a>". <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" class="extiw" title="en:Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i>. Retrieved 22 February 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/molecule">molecule</a>". <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merriam-Webster" class="extiw" title="en:Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster</a></i>. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 22 February 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a> <span class="reference-text">«<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://global.britannica.com/science/molecule">Molecule</a>». <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. 2016-01-22. 2016-02-23an begiratua.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"></span> <span class="citation"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/Galaxy_v24n05_1966-06"><i>Galaxy v24n05 (1966 06). </i></a> <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-06-14)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"></span> <span class="citation"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/AVOGADRO.HTML">«Amedeo Avogadro»</a> <i>web.lemoyne.edu</i> <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-06-14)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"> <span style="cursor: help; font-size: 90%; font-family: bold; color: gray" title="Ingelesez dago aipu honen iturburua"><b>(Ingelesez)</b></span></span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFMauskopf1969-04">Mauskopf, Seymour H..  (1969-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/350449">«The Atomic Structural Theories of Ampère and Gaudin: Molecular Speculation and Avogadro's Hypothesis»</a> <i>Isis</i> 60 (1): 61–74.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="neverexpand"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F350449">10.1086/350449</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0021-1753">0021-1753</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-06-14)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"> <span style="cursor: help; font-size: 90%; font-family: bold; color: gray" title="Ingelesez dago aipu honen iturburua"><b>(Ingelesez)</b></span></span> <span class="citation"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1926/perrin/lecture/">«The Nobel Prize in Physics 1926»</a> <i>NobelPrize.org</i> <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-06-14)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"> <span style="cursor: help; font-size: 90%; font-family: bold; color: gray" title="Alemanez dago aipu honen iturburua"><b>(Alemanez)</b></span></span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFHeitlerLondon1927-06-01">Heitler, W.; London, F..  (1927-06-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01397394">«Wechselwirkung neutraler Atome und homöopolare Bindung nach der Quantenmechanik»</a> <i>Zeitschrift für Physik</i> 44 (6): 455–472.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="neverexpand"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01397394">10.1007/BF01397394</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0044-3328">0044-3328</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-06-14)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"> <span style="cursor: help; font-size: 90%; font-family: bold; color: gray" title="Ingelesez dago aipu honen iturburua"><b>(Ingelesez)</b></span></span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFPauling1931-04">Pauling, Linus..  (1931-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01355a027">«THE NATURE OF THE CHEMICAL BOND. APPLICATION OF RESULTS OBTAINED FROM THE QUANTUM MECHANICS AND FROM A THEORY OF PARAMAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY TO THE STRUCTURE OF MOLECULES»</a> <i>Journal of the American Chemical Society</i> 53 (4): 1367–1400.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="neverexpand"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01355a027">10.1021/ja01355a027</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0002-7863">0002-7863</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-06-14)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"> </span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFPortillo2021-10-12">Portillo, Germán.  (2021-10-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.renovablesverdes.com/eu/zer-dira-metalak/">«Zer dira metalak: ezaugarriak, sailkapena eta motak»</a> <i>Renovables Verdes</i> <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-03-05)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"></span> <span class="citation"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eu.eferrit.com/lewis-egitura-definizioa-eta-adibidea/">«Lewis Egitura Definizioa eta Adibidea»</a> <i>eu.eferrit.com</i> <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-03-05)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"> </span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFCosmos2020-07-16">Cosmos, Viaje al.  (2020-07-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.postposmo.com/eu/lotura-ionikoa/">«Esteka ionikoa: zer da?, Ezaugarriak, Adibideak eta gehiago ▷➡️ Postposmo»</a> <i>Postposmo</i> <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-03-05)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"> <span style="cursor: help; font-size: 90%; font-family: bold; color: gray" title="Ingelesez dago aipu honen iturburua"><b>(Ingelesez)</b></span></span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFDeKockGray1989">DeKock, Roger L.; Gray, Harry B..  (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q77rPHP5fWMC&pg=PA199"><i>Chemical Structure and Bonding. </i></a> University Science Books <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-935702-61-3" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-935702-61-3">978-0-935702-61-3</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-06-14)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"></span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFChangDeenRobertsonBrenner1975-10">Chang, Ramsay L.S.; Deen, William M.; Robertson, Channing R.; Brenner, Barry M..  (1975-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.1975.104">«Permselectivity of the glomerular capillary wall: III. Restricted transport of polyanions»</a> <i>Kidney International</i> 8 (4): 212–218.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="neverexpand"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fki.1975.104">10.1038/ki.1975.104</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0085-2538">0085-2538</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-06-14)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"></span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFChangUekiTroyDeen1975-09">Chang, R.L.; Ueki, I.F.; Troy, J.L.; Deen, W.M.; Robertson, C.R.; Brenner, B.M..  (1975-09). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3495(75)85863-2">«Permselectivity of the glomerular capillary wall to macromolecules. II. Experimental studies in rats using neutral dextran»</a> <i>Biophysical Journal</i> 15 (9): 887–906.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="neverexpand"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0006-3495%2875%2985863-2">10.1016/s0006-3495(75)85863-2</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0006-3495">0006-3495</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1182263">1182263</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC1334749">PMC1334749</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-06-14)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">↑</a> <span class="reference-text">Ocampo, Dapueto, Piovano (2009). «1». En Universidad Nacional del Litoral, ed. <i>Química General</i>. Santa Fé, Argentina: Ediciones UNL. p. 9. <small><a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/9789875089655" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-987-508-965-5</a></small></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"> <span style="cursor: help; font-size: 90%; font-family: bold; color: gray" title="Ingelesez dago aipu honen iturburua"><b>(Ingelesez)</b></span></span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFWinkFetzer-GislasonMcNicholas2003-03">Wink, Donald J.; Fetzer-Gislason, Sharon; McNicholas, Sheila.  (2003-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6wUmteTIc18C&q=empirical+formula&pg=PA288"><i>The Practice of Chemistry. </i></a> Macmillan <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Berezi:BookSources/978-0-7167-4871-7" title="Berezi:BookSources/978-0-7167-4871-7">978-0-7167-4871-7</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-06-14)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"></span> <span class="citation"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chemteam.info/Mole/EmpiricalFormula.html">«ChemTeam: Empirical Formula»</a> <i>www.chemteam.info</i> <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-06-14)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"> <span style="cursor: help; font-size: 90%; font-family: bold; color: gray" title="Ingelesez dago aipu honen iturburua"><b>(Ingelesez)</b></span></span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFHirschLeeQiaoChen2014-07-31">Hirsch, Brandon E.; Lee, Semin; Qiao, Bo; Chen, Chun-Hsing; McDonald, Kevin P.; Tait, Steven L.; Flood, Amar H..  (2014-07-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2014/cc/c4cc03725a">«Anion-induced dimerization of 5-fold symmetric cyanostars in 3D crystalline solids and 2D self-assembled crystals»</a> <i>Chemical Communications</i> 50 (69): 9827–9830.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="neverexpand"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1039%2FC4CC03725A">10.1039/C4CC03725A</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/1364-548X">1364-548X</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-06-14)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"> <span style="cursor: help; font-size: 90%; font-family: bold; color: gray" title="Ingelesez dago aipu honen iturburua"><b>(Ingelesez)</b></span></span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFZoldanFaccioPasa2015-02-10">Zoldan, Vinícius Claudio; Faccio, Ricardo; Pasa, André Avelino.  (2015-02-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep08350">«n and p type character of single molecule diodes»</a> <i>Scientific Reports</i> 5 (1): 8350.  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="neverexpand"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep08350">10.1038/srep08350</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/2045-2322">2045-2322</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25666850">25666850</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC4322354">PMC4322354</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-06-14)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"></span> <span class="citation" id="CITEREFChemistry_(IUPAC)">Chemistry (IUPAC), The International Union of Pure and Applied. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://goldbook.iupac.org/terms/view/S05848">«IUPAC - spectroscopy (S05848)»</a> <i>goldbook.iupac.org</i>  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="neverexpand"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1351%2Fgoldbook.s05848">10.1351/goldbook.s05848</a></span>. <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-06-14)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/IUPAC" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC">IUPAC</a>, <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAC_books#Gold_Book" class="extiw" title="en:IUPAC books">Compendium of Chemical Terminology</a></i>, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://goldbook.iupac.org/M04002.html">Molecule</a>". <a href="//doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.M04002" class="extiw" title="doi:10.1351/goldbook.M04002">doi:10.1351/goldbook.M04002</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">↑</a> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation"></span> <span class="citation"><i>pubs.aip.org</i>  <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="neverexpand"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1704638">10.1063/1.1704638</a></span>. <span class="reference-accessdate"><small>(Noiz kontsultatua: 2023-06-14)</small></span></span>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ikus,_gainera"><span id="Ikus.2C_gainera"></span>Ikus, gainera</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit&section=18" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Ikus, gainera»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>aldatu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section's source code: Ikus, gainera"><span>aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo">Atomoa</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kanpo_estekak">Kanpo estekak</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&veaction=edit&section=19" title="Aldatu atal hau: «Kanpo estekak»" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>aldatu</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molekula&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section's source code: Kanpo estekak"><span>aldatu iturburu kodea</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div style="clear:both;"></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r7786466">.mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control{margin-top:1.5em}.mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .navbox hr:last-child{display:none}.mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .navbox+.mw-mf-linked-projects{display:none}.mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control,.mw-parser-output .mw-mf-linked-projects{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;font-size:88%}.mw-parser-output .mw-authority-control .mw-mf-linked-projects ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="mw-authority-control"><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r9236167">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r9236165">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Autoritate_kontrola" style="width: inherit;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th id="Autoritate_kontrola" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width: 12%; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Laguntza:Autoritate_kontrola" title="Laguntza:Autoritate kontrola">Autoritate kontrola</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Wikimedia proiektuak</b></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata"><img alt="Wd" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></a></span> Datuak:</span> <span class="uid"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11369" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q11369">Q11369</a></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons" title="Commonscat"><img alt="Commonscat" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/15px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/23px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Multimedia:</span> <span class="uid"><span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Molecules">Molecules</a></span> / <span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MediaSearch?type=image&search=%22Q11369%22">Q11369</a></span></span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b>Identifikadoreak</b></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Biblioteca_Nacional_de_Espa%C3%B1a" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblioteca Nacional de España">BNE</a>:</span> <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX524812">XX524812</a></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">BNF</a>:</span> <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119469207">119469207</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119469207">(data)</a></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Authority_File" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated Authority File">GND</a>:</span> <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4039972-2">4039972-2</a></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a>:</span> <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85086597">sh85086597</a></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Diet_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="National Diet Library">NDL</a>:</span> <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00561032">00561032</a></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="National Library of the Czech Republic">NKC</a>:</span> <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph122950">ph122950</a></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Art_%26_Architecture_Thesaurus" title="Art & Architecture Thesaurus">AAT</a>:</span> <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/AATFullDisplay?find=&logic=AND&note=&subjectid=300264245">300264245</a></span></li> <li><b>Hiztegiak eta entziklopediak</b></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Britannica</a>:</span> <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/molecule">url</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="mw-mf-linked-projects hlist"> <ul><li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata"><img alt="Wd" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></a></span> Datuak:</span> <span class="uid"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11369" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q11369">Q11369</a></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons" title="Commonscat"><img alt="Commonscat" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/15px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/23px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Multimedia:</span> <span class="uid"><span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Molecules">Molecules</a></span> / <span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MediaSearch?type=image&search=%22Q11369%22">Q11369</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></div>    </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.log.warn("Gadget \"ErrefAurrebista\" was not loaded. Please migrate it to use ResourceLoader. See \u003Chttps://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berezi:Gadgetak\u003E.");});</script><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">"<a dir="ltr" href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Molekula&oldid=9535058">https://eu.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Molekula&oldid=9535058</a>"(e)tik eskuratuta</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Berezi:Kategoriak" title="Berezi:Kategoriak">Kategoriak</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kategoria:Molekulak" title="Kategoria:Molekulak">Molekulak</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kategoria:Kimika" title="Kategoria:Kimika">Kimika</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kategoria:Materia" title="Kategoria:Materia">Materia</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Ezkutuko kategoriak: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kategoria:ISBN_lotura_magikoak_dituzten_orrialdeak" title="Kategoria:ISBN lotura magikoak dituzten orrialdeak">ISBN lotura magikoak dituzten orrialdeak</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kategoria:Wikipedia_guztiek_izan_beharreko_artikuluak" title="Kategoria:Wikipedia guztiek izan beharreko artikuluak">Wikipedia guztiek izan beharreko artikuluak</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kategoria:Hezkuntza_Programako_artikuluak" title="Kategoria:Hezkuntza Programako artikuluak">Hezkuntza Programako artikuluak</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kategoria:Hezkuntza_Programa/Fisika_eta_Kimika" title="Kategoria:Hezkuntza Programa/Fisika eta Kimika">Hezkuntza Programa/Fisika eta Kimika</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kategoria:Wikipedia:BNE_identifikatzailea_duten_artikuluak" title="Kategoria:Wikipedia:BNE identifikatzailea duten artikuluak">Wikipedia:BNE identifikatzailea duten artikuluak</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kategoria:Wikipedia:BNF_identifikatzailea_duten_artikuluak" title="Kategoria:Wikipedia:BNF identifikatzailea duten artikuluak">Wikipedia:BNF identifikatzailea duten artikuluak</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kategoria:Wikipedia:GND_identifikatzailea_duten_artikuluak" title="Kategoria:Wikipedia:GND identifikatzailea duten artikuluak">Wikipedia:GND identifikatzailea duten artikuluak</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kategoria:Wikipedia:LCCN_identifikatzailea_duten_artikuluak" title="Kategoria:Wikipedia:LCCN identifikatzailea duten artikuluak">Wikipedia:LCCN identifikatzailea duten artikuluak</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kategoria:Wikipedia:AAT_identifikatzailea_duten_artikuluak" title="Kategoria:Wikipedia:AAT identifikatzailea duten artikuluak">Wikipedia:AAT identifikatzailea duten artikuluak</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> Orriaren azken aldaketa: 4 urtarrila 2024, 21:50.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Testua <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.eu">Creative Commons Aitortu-PartekatuBerdin 4.0 lizentziari</a> jarraituz erabil daiteke; baliteke beste klausularen batzuk ere aplikatu behar izatea. Xehetasunen berri izateko, ikus <a class="external text" href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use">erabilera-baldintzak</a>.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Pribazitate politika</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Laguntza:Wikipediari_buruz">Wikipediari buruz</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Erantzukizunen_mugaketa_orokorra">Lege oharra</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Garatzaileak</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/eu.wikipedia.org">Estatistikak</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie adierazpena</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//eu.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Molekula&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mugikorreko bista</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-57488d5c7d-rqj5j","wgBackendResponseTime":163,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.465","walltime":"0.593","ppvisitednodes":{"value":16903,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":100213,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":27368,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":24,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":9,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":0,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":42394,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":10,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 484.901 1 -total"," 47.34% 229.560 1 Txantiloi:Autoritate_kontrola"," 33.89% 164.330 1 Txantiloi:Erreferentzia_zerrenda"," 29.20% 141.604 26 Txantiloi:Erreferentzia"," 27.56% 133.637 52 Txantiloi:Erreferentzia/oinarria"," 10.38% 50.349 2 Txantiloi:Top_icon"," 9.72% 47.150 1 Txantiloi:Wikipedia1000"," 8.42% 40.822 2 Txantiloi:Category_handler"," 6.16% 29.882 2 Txantiloi:Category_handler/numbered"," 5.68% 27.531 2 Txantiloi:Namespace_detect"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.175","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":3622418,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-587f7d4878-mq2h6","timestamp":"20241120130512","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Molekula","url":"https:\/\/eu.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Molekula","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q11369","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q11369","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2007-12-21T12:44:29Z","dateModified":"2024-01-04T20:50:51Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/e9\/PTCDA_AFM.jpg"}</script> </body> </html>