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class=ubermenu-search><form role=search class=ubermenu-searchform action=https://www.nuclear-power.com/><label for=ubermenu-search-field><span class=ubermenu-sr-only>Search</span></label> <input placeholder=Search... name=s class="ubermenu-search-input ubermenu-search-input-autofocus" id=ubermenu-search-field autocomplete=on> <button class=ubermenu-search-submit> <i class="fas fa-search" title=Search aria-hidden=true></i><span class=ubermenu-sr-only>Search</span></button></form></div></div></ul></ul></nav><div id=page class="site grid-container container hfeed grid-parent"><div id=content class=site-content><div id=primary class="content-area grid-parent mobile-grid-100 push-30 grid-70 tablet-push-30 tablet-grid-70"><main id=main class=site-main><article id=post-11315 class="post-11315 page type-page status-publish" itemtype=https://schema.org/CreativeWork itemscope><div class=inside-article><header class=entry-header><h1 class=entry-title itemprop=headline>Atomic and Nuclear Structure</h1></header><div class=entry-content itemprop=text><p><strong>The atom</strong> consists of a small but massive <strong>nucleus</strong> surrounded by a cloud of rapidly moving <strong>electrons</strong>. The nucleus is composed of <strong>protons and <a title=Neutron href=http://nuclear-power.com/nuclear-power/reactor-physics/atomic-nuclear-physics/fundamental-particles/neutron/ target=_blank rel=noopener>neutrons</a></strong>. The total number of protons in the nucleus is called the <b>atom’s atomic number</b>. It is given the <strong>symbol Z</strong>. Therefore, the total electrical charge of the nucleus is +Ze, where e (elementary charge) equals <strong>1,602 x 10<sup>-19</sup> coulombs</strong>. In a neutral atom, there are as many electrons as protons moving about the nucleus. It is the electrons responsible for the chemical behavior of atoms and which identify the various chemical elements.<figure id=attachment_120 aria-describedby=caption-attachment-120 style=width:217px class="wp-caption alignright"><a href=http://nuclear-power.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/nuclei_notation.jpg><img loading=lazy class="ezlazyload wp-image-120 size-medium" src="data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns=%22http://www.w3.org/2000/svg%22%20width=%22227%22%20height=%22300%22%3E%3C/svg%3E" alt="Notation of nuclei" width=227 height=300 data-ezsrcset="https://www.nuclear-power.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/nuclei_notation-227x300.jpg 227w,https://www.nuclear-power.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/nuclei_notation-775x1024.jpg 775w,https://www.nuclear-power.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/nuclei_notation.jpg 880w" sizes="(max-width: 227px) 100vw, 227px" ezimgfmt="rs rscb53 src ng ngcb52 srcset" data-ezsrc=https://www.nuclear-power.com/ezoimgfmt/nuclear-power.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/nuclei_notation-227x300.jpg></a><figcaption id=caption-attachment-120 class=wp-caption-text>Notation of nuclei<br>Source: chemwiki.ucdavis.edu</figcaption></figure><p>Hydrogen (H), for example, consists of one electron and one proton. The number of <strong><a title=Neutron href=http://nuclear-power.com/nuclear-power/reactor-physics/atomic-nuclear-physics/fundamental-particles/neutron/>neutrons </a></strong>in a nucleus is known as the <strong>neutron number</strong> and is given the <strong>symbol N</strong>. The total number of nucleons, protons, and neutrons in a nucleus are equal to <strong>Z + N = A</strong>, where A is called the <strong>atomic mass number</strong>. The various species of atoms whose nuclei contain particular numbers of protons and neutrons are called <strong>nuclides</strong>. Each nuclide is denoted by the element’s chemical symbol (this specifies Z) with the atomic mass number as superscript.<p>Thus the symbol <sup>1</sup>H refers to the nuclide of hydrogen with a single proton as a nucleus. <sup>2</sup>H is the hydrogen nuclide with a neutron and a proton in the nucleus (2H is also called deuterium or heavy hydrogen). Atoms such as <sup>1</sup>H, <sup>2</sup>H whose nuclei contain the same number of protons but the different number of neutrons (different A), are known as<strong> isotopes</strong>. Uranium, for instance, has three isotopes occurring in nature – <strong><a title="Uranium 238" href=http://nuclear-power.com/nuclear-power-plant/nuclear-fuel/uranium/uranium-238/><sup>238</sup>U</a>, <a title="Uranium 235" href=http://nuclear-power.com/nuclear-power-plant/nuclear-fuel/uranium/uranium-235/><sup>235</sup>U</a></strong>, and<strong><a title="Uranium 234" href=http://nuclear-power.com/nuclear-power-plant/nuclear-fuel/uranium/uranium-234/><sup>234</sup>U</a></strong>. The stable isotopes (plus a few of the unstable isotopes) are the atoms found in the naturally occurring elements in nature. However, they are not found in equal amounts. Some isotopes of a given element are more abundant than others. For example, 99,27% of naturally occurring uranium atoms are the isotope <sup>238</sup>U, 0,72% are the isotope <sup>235</sup>U, and 0,0055% are the isotope <sup>234</sup>U. The exact structure of atoms is described by <strong>Atomic Theory</strong> and<strong> the Theory of Nuclear Structure</strong>.<div class="su-accordion su-u-trim"><div class="su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed" data-scroll-offset=0><div class=su-spoiler-title tabindex=0 role=button><span class=su-spoiler-icon></span>Volume of an Atom and Nucleus</div><div class="su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim"><figure id=attachment_11250 aria-describedby=caption-attachment-11250 style=width:290px class="wp-caption alignright"><a href=http://nuclear-power.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Structure-of-Matter.jpg><img loading=lazy class="ezlazyload size-medium wp-image-11250" src="data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns=%22http://www.w3.org/2000/svg%22%20width=%22300%22%20height=%22132%22%3E%3C/svg%3E" alt="Structure of Matter." width=300 height=132 data-ezsrcset="https://www.nuclear-power.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Structure-of-Matter-300x132.jpg 300w,https://www.nuclear-power.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Structure-of-Matter.jpg 1006w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" ezimgfmt="rs rscb53 src ng ngcb52 srcset" data-ezsrc=https://www.nuclear-power.com/ezoimgfmt/nuclear-power.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Structure-of-Matter-300x132.jpg></a><figcaption id=caption-attachment-11250 class=wp-caption-text>Structure of Matter.</figcaption></figure><p><strong>The atom</strong> consists of a small but massive <strong>nucleus</strong> surrounded by a cloud of rapidly moving <strong>electrons</strong>. The nucleus is composed of <strong>protons and </strong><a href=http://nuclear-power.com/nuclear-power/reactor-physics/atomic-nuclear-physics/fundamental-particles/neutron/><strong>neutrons</strong></a>. Typical nuclear radii are of the order 10<sup>−14</sup> m. Assuming spherical shape, nuclear radii can be calculated according to the following formula:<p>r = r<sub>0</sub> . A<sup>1/3</sup><p>where r<sub>0</sub> = 1.2 x 10<sup>-15 </sup>m = 1.2 fm<p>If we use this approximation, we, therefore, expect the volume of the nucleus to be of the order of 4/3πr<sup>3</sup> or 7,23 ×10<sup>−45 </sup>m<sup>3</sup> for hydrogen nuclei or 1721×10<sup>−45</sup> m<sup>3</sup> for <a href=http://nuclear-power.com/nuclear-power-plant/nuclear-fuel/uranium/uranium-238/><sup>238</sup>U</a> nuclei. These are volumes of nuclei, and atomic nuclei (protons and neutrons) contain about <strong>99.95%</strong> of the atom’s mass.</div></div><div class="su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed" data-scroll-offset=0><div class=su-spoiler-title tabindex=0 role=button><span class=su-spoiler-icon></span>Is an atom an empty space?</div><div class="su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim"><figure id=attachment_16479 aria-describedby=caption-attachment-16479 style=width:290px class="wp-caption alignright"><a href=http://nuclear-power.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/atomic-nucleus-volume-min.png><img loading=lazy class="ezlazyload wp-image-16479 size-medium" src="data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns=%22http://www.w3.org/2000/svg%22%20width=%22300%22%20height=%22300%22%3E%3C/svg%3E" alt=atomic-nucleus-volume-min width=300 height=300 data-ezsrcset="https://www.nuclear-power.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/atomic-nucleus-volume-min-300x300.png 300w,https://www.nuclear-power.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/atomic-nucleus-volume-min-150x150.png 150w,https://www.nuclear-power.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/atomic-nucleus-volume-min-66x66.png 66w,https://www.nuclear-power.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/atomic-nucleus-volume-min.png 591w" sizes="(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px" ezimgfmt="rs rscb53 src ng ngcb52 srcset" data-ezsrc=https://www.nuclear-power.com/ezoimgfmt/nuclear-power.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/atomic-nucleus-volume-min-300x300.png></a><figcaption id=caption-attachment-16479 class=wp-caption-text>A figurative depiction of the helium-4 atom with the electron cloud in shades of gray. Protons and neutrons are most likely found in exactly the same space, at the central point. Source wikipedia.org License CC BY-SA 3.0</figcaption></figure><p><strong>The volume of an atom</strong> is about <strong>15 orders of magnitude</strong> <strong>larger</strong> than the volume of a nucleus. For <strong>uranium atom</strong>, the <strong>Van der Waals radius</strong> is about <strong>186 pm = 1.86 ×10<sup>−10</sup> m</strong>. The Van der Waals radius, r<sub>w</sub>, of an atom is the radius of an imaginary hard-sphere representing the distance of closest approach for another atom. Assuming spherical shape, the <a title=Uranium href=http://nuclear-power.com/nuclear-power-plant/nuclear-fuel/uranium/>uranium</a> atom has a volume of about <strong>26.9 ×10<sup>−30</sup> m<sup>3</sup></strong>. But this “huge” space is occupied primarily by electrons because the <strong>nucleus</strong> occupies only about <strong>1721×10<sup>−45</sup> m<sup>3</sup></strong> of space. These electrons together weigh only a fraction (let say 0.05%) of the entire atom.<p>It may seem that the space and, in fact, the matter is <strong>empty</strong>, <strong>but it is not</strong>. Due to the <strong>quantum nature of electrons</strong>, the electrons are not pointing to particles. They are smeared out over the whole atom. The classical description cannot be used to describe things on the atomic scale. On the atomic scale, physicists have found that quantum mechanics describes things very well on that scale. Particle locations in quantum mechanics are not at an exact position, and a probability density function describes them. Therefore the space in an atom (between electrons and an atomic nucleus) is not empty. Still, it is filled by a probability density function of electrons (usually known as “<strong>electron cloud</strong>“).</div></div></div><div class="su-divider su-divider-style-dotted" style="margin:15px 0;border-width:2px;border-color:#999"></div><ul><li><strong>Atomic Theory.</strong> Atomic theory is a scientific theory of the nature of matter, which states that matter is composed of discrete units called atoms. The word atom comes from the Ancient Greek adjective <em>atomos</em>, meaning “uncuttable”. Today it is known that also atoms are divisible. Atomic Theory consists of many models and discoveries, which gradually formed this theory.<li><strong>Theory of Nuclear Structure.</strong> Understanding the structure of the atomic nucleus is one of the central challenges in modern nuclear physics.</ul><figure id=attachment_11250 aria-describedby=caption-attachment-11250 style=width:996px class="wp-caption aligncenter"><a href=http://nuclear-power.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Structure-of-Matter.jpg><img loading=lazy class="ezlazyload size-full wp-image-11250" src="data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20xmlns=%22http://www.w3.org/2000/svg%22%20width=%221006%22%20height=%22443%22%3E%3C/svg%3E" alt="Structure of Matter." width=1006 height=443 data-ezsrcset="https://www.nuclear-power.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Structure-of-Matter.jpg 1006w,https://www.nuclear-power.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Structure-of-Matter-300x132.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 1006px) 100vw, 1006px" ezimgfmt="rs rscb53 src ng ngcb52 srcset" data-ezsrc=https://www.nuclear-power.com/ezoimgfmt/nuclear-power.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Structure-of-Matter.jpg></a><figcaption id=caption-attachment-11250 class=wp-caption-text>Structure of Matter.</figcaption></figure><div class="lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-33 lgc-tablet-grid-33 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights"><div class=inside-grid-column><h2>See previous:</h2><p>Fundamental Particles<a href=http://nuclear-power.com/nuclear-power/reactor-physics/atomic-nuclear-physics/fundamental-particles/ class="su-button su-button-style-flat" style=color:#606060;background-color:#fff;border-color:#ccc;border-radius:10px;-moz-border-radius:10px;-webkit-border-radius:10px target=_self><span style="color:#606060;padding:7px 20px;font-size:16px;line-height:24px;border-color:#fff;border-radius:10px;-moz-border-radius:10px;-webkit-border-radius:10px;text-shadow:0 0 0 #000;-moz-text-shadow:0 0 0 #000000;-webkit-text-shadow:0 0 0 #000000"><i class="sui sui-link" style=font-size:16px;color:#5d5d5d></i></span></a></div></div><div class="lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-33 lgc-tablet-grid-33 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights"><div class=inside-grid-column><h2>See above:</h2><p>Atomic and Nuclear Physics<a href=http://nuclear-power.com/nuclear-power/reactor-physics/atomic-nuclear-physics/ class="su-button su-button-style-flat" style=color:#606060;background-color:#fff;border-color:#ccc;border-radius:10px;-moz-border-radius:10px;-webkit-border-radius:10px target=_self><span style="color:#606060;padding:7px 20px;font-size:16px;line-height:24px;border-color:#fff;border-radius:10px;-moz-border-radius:10px;-webkit-border-radius:10px;text-shadow:0 0 0 #000;-moz-text-shadow:0 0 0 #000000;-webkit-text-shadow:0 0 0 #000000"><i class="sui sui-link" style=font-size:16px;color:#5d5d5d></i></span></a></div></div><div class="lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-33 lgc-tablet-grid-33 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights"><div 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