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(PDF) Paradise or Empire? On a Paradox of Umayyad Art
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On a Paradox of Umayyad Art" /> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Power, Patronage and Memory in Early Islam: Perspectives on Umayyad Elites" /> <meta name="citation_author" content="Alain Fouad George" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:url" content="https://www.academia.edu/36921620/Paradise_or_Empire_On_a_Paradox_of_Umayyad_Art" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Paradise or Empire? On a Paradox of Umayyad Art" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Islamic art on a grand scale, and it has continued to exert its fascination upon generation after generation of visitors ever since. To the modern student, it is also a field riddled with elusive meanings and apparent paradoxes. For decades," /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://0.academia-photos.com/1106704/841214/1045208/s200_alain.george.jpg" /> <meta property="fb:app_id" content="2369844204" /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.academia.edu/36921620/Paradise_or_Empire_On_a_Paradox_of_Umayyad_Art" /> <meta property="og:title" content="Paradise or Empire? On a Paradox of Umayyad Art" /> <meta property="og:image" content="http://a.academia-assets.com/images/open-graph-icons/fb-paper.gif" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Islamic art on a grand scale, and it has continued to exert its fascination upon generation after generation of visitors ever since. To the modern student, it is also a field riddled with elusive meanings and apparent paradoxes. For decades," /> <meta property="article:author" content="https://qma.academia.edu/AlainFouadGeorge" /> <meta name="description" content="Islamic art on a grand scale, and it has continued to exert its fascination upon generation after generation of visitors ever since. To the modern student, it is also a field riddled with elusive meanings and apparent paradoxes. For decades," /> <title>(PDF) Paradise or Empire? On a Paradox of Umayyad Art</title> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.academia.edu/36921620/Paradise_or_Empire_On_a_Paradox_of_Umayyad_Art" /> <script async src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-5VKX33P2DS"></script> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} gtag('js', new Date()); gtag('config', 'G-5VKX33P2DS', { cookie_domain: 'academia.edu', send_page_view: false, }); gtag('event', 'page_view', { 'controller': "single_work", 'action': "show", 'controller_action': 'single_work#show', 'logged_in': 'false', 'edge': 'unknown', // Send nil if there is no A/B test bucket, in case some records get logged // with missing data - that way we can distinguish between the two cases. // ab_test_bucket should be of the form <ab_test_name>:<bucket> 'ab_test_bucket': null, }) </script> <script> var $controller_name = 'single_work'; var $action_name = "show"; var $rails_env = 'production'; var $app_rev = '107520bac59918e2ceae62eaadd15bff3d1e7904'; var $domain = 'academia.edu'; var $app_host = "academia.edu"; var $asset_host = "academia-assets.com"; var $start_time = new Date().getTime(); var $recaptcha_key = "6LdxlRMTAAAAADnu_zyLhLg0YF9uACwz78shpjJB"; var $recaptcha_invisible_key = "6Lf3KHUUAAAAACggoMpmGJdQDtiyrjVlvGJ6BbAj"; var $disableClientRecordHit = false; </script> <script> window.require = { config: function() { return function() {} } } </script> <script> window.Aedu = window.Aedu || {}; window.Aedu.hit_data = null; window.Aedu.serverRenderTime = new Date(1740865965000); window.Aedu.timeDifference = new Date().getTime() - 1740865965000; </script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"ScholarlyArticle","abstract":"Islamic art on a grand scale, and it has continued to exert its fascination upon generation after generation of visitors ever since. To the modern student, it is also a field riddled with elusive meanings and apparent paradoxes. For decades, divergent interpretations have been put forward about its two most emblematic monuments: the Dome of the Rock, in Jerusalem, and the Great Mosque of Damascus. Indeed, the more one reflects about them, the more the same conclusions seem to repeat themselves , with a single referent— the representation of a plant, a precious stone, a building— seemingly evoking both paradise and empire. This puzzling situation is, of course, partly due to the lack of human figures and identifying captions in their iconography, leaving the viewer to construe , after a gap of over a millennium, what may have been obvious to original audiences. What is more, any imperially sponsored sacral building or object is inherently bound to be a manifestation of both spirituality and power. Yet the reality observed in practice goes beyond the level of truisms, reaching a degree of articulation that suggests the possibility of a deliberate choice, a conscious tendency to elude one-dimensional readings and to conflate the spiritual and earthly planes. This possibility and its cultural context form the subject of the present chapter, with a focus * The research for this chapter was undertaken with the support of the Leverhulme Trust, which is gratefully acknowledged.","author":[{"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"Person","name":"Alain Fouad George","url":"https://qma.academia.edu/AlainFouadGeorge","image":"https://0.academia-photos.com/1106704/841214/1045208/s200_alain.george.jpg","sameAs":["http://www.ed.ac.uk/schools-departments/edinburgh-college-art/history-art/staff/academic-staff?person_id=114\u0026cw_xml=profile.php"]}],"contributor":[],"dateCreated":"2018-06-26","headline":"Paradise or Empire? 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{"work":{"id":36921620,"created_at":"2018-06-26T06:38:04.083-07:00","from_world_paper_id":null,"updated_at":"2021-01-14T11:35:12.424-08:00","_data":{"abstract":"Islamic art on a grand scale, and it has continued to exert its fascination upon generation after generation of visitors ever since. To the modern student, it is also a field riddled with elusive meanings and apparent paradoxes. For decades, divergent interpretations have been put forward about its two most emblematic monuments: the Dome of the Rock, in Jerusalem, and the Great Mosque of Damascus. Indeed, the more one reflects about them, the more the same conclusions seem to repeat themselves , with a single referent— the representation of a plant, a precious stone, a building— seemingly evoking both paradise and empire. This puzzling situation is, of course, partly due to the lack of human figures and identifying captions in their iconography, leaving the viewer to construe , after a gap of over a millennium, what may have been obvious to original audiences. What is more, any imperially sponsored sacral building or object is inherently bound to be a manifestation of both spirituality and power. Yet the reality observed in practice goes beyond the level of truisms, reaching a degree of articulation that suggests the possibility of a deliberate choice, a conscious tendency to elude one-dimensional readings and to conflate the spiritual and earthly planes. This possibility and its cultural context form the subject of the present chapter, with a focus * The research for this chapter was undertaken with the support of the Leverhulme Trust, which is gratefully acknowledged.","publication_name":"Power, Patronage and Memory in Early Islam: Perspectives on Umayyad Elites"},"document_type":"paper","pre_hit_view_count_baseline":null,"quality":"high","language":"en","title":"Paradise or Empire? On a Paradox of Umayyad Art","broadcastable":true,"draft":false,"has_indexable_attachment":true,"indexable":true,"seo_quality":null}}["work"]; window.loswp.workCoauthors = [1106704]; window.loswp.locale = "en"; window.loswp.countryCode = "SG"; window.loswp.cwvAbTestBucket = ""; window.loswp.designVariant = "ds_vanilla"; window.loswp.fullPageMobileSutdModalVariant = "control"; window.loswp.useOptimizedScribd4genScript = false; window.loginModal = {}; window.loginModal.appleClientId = 'edu.academia.applesignon'; window.userInChina = "false";</script><script defer="" src="https://accounts.google.com/gsi/client"></script><div class="ds-loswp-container"><div class="ds-work-card--grid-container"><div class="ds-work-card--container js-loswp-work-card with-figures-carousel"><div class="ds-work-card--cover"><div class="ds-work-cover--wrapper"><div class="ds-work-cover--container"><button class="ds-work-cover--clickable js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"swp-splash-paper-cover","attachmentId":56871722,"attachmentType":"pdf"}"><img alt="First page of “Paradise or Empire? On a Paradox of Umayyad Art”" class="ds-work-cover--cover-thumbnail" src="https://0.academia-photos.com/attachment_thumbnails/56871722/mini_magick20180817-26433-17u3rb7.png?1534536964" /><img alt="PDF Icon" class="ds-work-cover--file-icon" src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/single_work_splash/adobe_icon.svg" /><div class="ds-work-cover--hover-container"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span><p>Download Free PDF</p></div><div class="ds-work-cover--ribbon-container">Download Free PDF</div><div class="ds-work-cover--ribbon-triangle"></div></button></div></div></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-information"><h1 class="ds-work-card--work-title">Paradise or Empire? On a Paradox of Umayyad Art</h1><div class="ds-work-card--work-authors ds-work-card--detail"><a class="ds-work-card--author js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="1106704" href="https://qma.academia.edu/AlainFouadGeorge"><img alt="Profile image of Alain Fouad George" class="ds-work-card--author-avatar" src="https://0.academia-photos.com/1106704/841214/1045208/s65_alain.george.jpg" />Alain Fouad George</a></div><div class="ds-work-card--detail"><p class="ds-work-card--detail ds2-5-body-sm">Power, Patronage and Memory in Early Islam: Perspectives on Umayyad Elites</p><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata"><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata__stat"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">visibility</span><p class="ds2-5-body-sm" id="work-metadata-view-count">…</p></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata__stat"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">description</span><p class="ds2-5-body-sm">29 pages</p></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata__stat"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">link</span><p class="ds2-5-body-sm">1 file</p></div></div><script>(async () => { const workId = 36921620; const worksViewsPath = "/v0/works/views?subdomain_param=api&work_ids%5B%5D=36921620"; const getWorkViews = async (workId) => { const response = await fetch(worksViewsPath); if (!response.ok) { throw new Error('Failed to load work views'); } const data = await response.json(); return data.views[workId]; }; // Get the view count for the work - we send this immediately rather than waiting for // the DOM to load, so it can be available as soon as possible (but without holding up // the backend or other resource requests, because it's a bit expensive and not critical). const viewCount = await getWorkViews(workId); const updateViewCount = (viewCount) => { try { const viewCountNumber = parseInt(viewCount, 10); if (viewCountNumber === 0) { // Remove the whole views element if there are zero views. document.getElementById('work-metadata-view-count')?.parentNode?.remove(); return; } const commaizedViewCount = viewCountNumber.toLocaleString(); const viewCountBody = document.getElementById('work-metadata-view-count'); if (!viewCountBody) { throw new Error('Failed to find work views element'); } viewCountBody.textContent = `${commaizedViewCount} views`; } catch (error) { // Remove the whole views element if there was some issue parsing. document.getElementById('work-metadata-view-count')?.parentNode?.remove(); throw new Error(`Failed to parse view count: ${viewCount}`, error); } }; // If the DOM is still loading, wait for it to be ready before updating the view count. if (document.readyState === "loading") { document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', () => { updateViewCount(viewCount); }); // Otherwise, just update it immediately. } else { updateViewCount(viewCount); } })();</script></div><p class="ds-work-card--work-abstract ds-work-card--detail ds2-5-body-md">Islamic art on a grand scale, and it has continued to exert its fascination upon generation after generation of visitors ever since. To the modern student, it is also a field riddled with elusive meanings and apparent paradoxes. For decades, divergent interpretations have been put forward about its two most emblematic monuments: the Dome of the Rock, in Jerusalem, and the Great Mosque of Damascus. Indeed, the more one reflects about them, the more the same conclusions seem to repeat themselves , with a single referent— the representation of a plant, a precious stone, a building— seemingly evoking both paradise and empire. This puzzling situation is, of course, partly due to the lack of human figures and identifying captions in their iconography, leaving the viewer to construe , after a gap of over a millennium, what may have been obvious to original audiences. What is more, any imperially sponsored sacral building or object is inherently bound to be a manifestation of both spirituality and power. Yet the reality observed in practice goes beyond the level of truisms, reaching a degree of articulation that suggests the possibility of a deliberate choice, a conscious tendency to elude one-dimensional readings and to conflate the spiritual and earthly planes. This possibility and its cultural context form the subject of the present chapter, with a focus * The research for this chapter was undertaken with the support of the Leverhulme Trust, which is gratefully acknowledged.</p><div class="ds-work-card--button-container"><div class="primary-buttons "><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--work-card","attachmentId":56871722,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/36921620/Paradise_or_Empire_On_a_Paradox_of_Umayyad_Art"}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">description</span>See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--work-card","attachmentId":56871722,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/36921620/Paradise_or_Empire_On_a_Paradox_of_Umayyad_Art"}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download PDF</button></div></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-trigger-container"><div class="ds-signup-banner-trigger ds-signup-banner-trigger-control"></div></div><div class="ds-signup-banner ds-signup-banner-control"><div id="ds-signup-banner-close-button"><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary ds2-5-button--inverse"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">close</span></button></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-ctas" data-impression-entity-id="36921620" data-impression-entity-type="2" data-impression-source="signup-banner"><img src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/academia-logo-capital-white.svg" /><h4 class="ds2-5-heading-serif-sm">Sign up for access to the world's latest research</h4><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--inverse ds2-5-button--full-width js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"signup-banner"}">Sign up for free<span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">arrow_forward</span></button></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-divider"></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons"><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Get notified about relevant papers</span></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Save papers to use in your research</span></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Join the discussion with peers</span></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Track your impact</span></div></div></div><script>(() => { // Set up signup banner show/hide behavior: // 1. 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Jerusalem, Dome of the Rock, 72 AH/602 AD. " class="figure-slide-image" src="https://figures.academia-assets.com/56871722/figure_001.jpg" /></a><figcaption class="figure-slide-caption ds2-5-body-xs">FIGURE 2.1 Mosaic decoration of the drum. Jerusalem, Dome of the Rock, 72 AH/602 AD. </figcaption></figure><figure class="figure-slide-container"><a href="https://www.academia.edu/figures/7063333/figure-2-mosaic-decoration-western-arcade-of-inner-octagon"><img alt="FIGURE 2.2 Mosaic decoration, western arcade of inner octagon. Jerusalem, Dome of the Rock, 72 AH/G692 AD. " class="figure-slide-image" src="https://figures.academia-assets.com/56871722/figure_002.jpg" /></a><figcaption class="figure-slide-caption ds2-5-body-xs">FIGURE 2.2 Mosaic decoration, western arcade of inner octagon. Jerusalem, Dome of the Rock, 72 AH/G692 AD. </figcaption></figure><figure class="figure-slide-container"><a href="https://www.academia.edu/figures/7063338/figure-2-stucco-plaque-from-the-area-of-ctesiphon-iraq-sixth"><img alt="FIGURE 2.3 Stucco plaque from the area of Ctesiphon, Iraq, sixth or seventh cen- tury. Height 39.5 cm. Berlin, Museum fiir Islamische Kunst, KtO 1084. " class="figure-slide-image" src="https://figures.academia-assets.com/56871722/figure_003.jpg" /></a><figcaption class="figure-slide-caption ds2-5-body-xs">FIGURE 2.3 Stucco plaque from the area of Ctesiphon, Iraq, sixth or seventh cen- tury. Height 39.5 cm. Berlin, Museum fiir Islamische Kunst, KtO 1084. </figcaption></figure><figure class="figure-slide-container"><a href="https://www.academia.edu/figures/7063347/figure-2-mosaic-panel-showing-empress-theodora-with"><img alt="FIGURE 2.4 Mosaic panel showing Empress Theodora with attendants. Ravenna Church of San Vitale, ca. 527-546 ap. " class="figure-slide-image" src="https://figures.academia-assets.com/56871722/figure_004.jpg" /></a><figcaption class="figure-slide-caption ds2-5-body-xs">FIGURE 2.4 Mosaic panel showing Empress Theodora with attendants. Ravenna Church of San Vitale, ca. 527-546 ap. </figcaption></figure><figure class="figure-slide-container"><a href="https://www.academia.edu/figures/7063355/figure-2-relief-sculpture-taq-bustan-iran-fifth-to-seventh"><img alt="FIGURE 2.5 Relief sculpture, Taq-i Bustan, Iran, fifth to seventh century. " class="figure-slide-image" src="https://figures.academia-assets.com/56871722/figure_005.jpg" /></a><figcaption class="figure-slide-caption ds2-5-body-xs">FIGURE 2.5 Relief sculpture, Taq-i Bustan, Iran, fifth to seventh century. </figcaption></figure><figure class="figure-slide-container"><a href="https://www.academia.edu/figures/7063362/figure-2-illumination-band-marking-the-beginning-of-sura"><img alt="FIGURE 2.6 Illumination band marking the beginning of sura 38. Total page dimensions 37x31 cm. Saint Petersburg, National Library of Russia, Marcel 13, f. 331. boundless spiritual horizon. The lamp in the illumination, likewise, could " class="figure-slide-image" src="https://figures.academia-assets.com/56871722/figure_006.jpg" /></a><figcaption class="figure-slide-caption ds2-5-body-xs">FIGURE 2.6 Illumination band marking the beginning of sura 38. Total page dimensions 37x31 cm. Saint Petersburg, National Library of Russia, Marcel 13, f. 331. boundless spiritual horizon. The lamp in the illumination, likewise, could </figcaption></figure><figure class="figure-slide-container"><a href="https://www.academia.edu/figures/7063372/figure-2-detail-of-the-western-arcade-seen-from-the"><img alt="FIGURE 2.7 Detail of the western arcade seen from the courtyard. Great Mosque of Damascus, 706-715 AD. ‘Abd al-Malik’s son and successor, al-Walid (r. 705-715), was the foremost patron of religious architecture in the Umayyad era, being responsible for he building, rebuilding, or redecoration of the mosques of Damascus, Medina Mecca, Fustat, Sanaa, and the Aqsa. The Great Mosque of Damascus initially had its whole courtyard and prayer hall covered with mosaic decoration above the level of its marble dadoes and columns. The argest extant sections lie on the western arcade and on the inner and outer facades of the axial nave. They show landscapes with tall trees adjoined by buildings of different shapes and sizes, set against skies of gold with water running in the foreground. The buildings are adorned with jewels, partic- ularly pearls that hang from gates (fig. 2.7). " class="figure-slide-image" src="https://figures.academia-assets.com/56871722/figure_007.jpg" /></a><figcaption class="figure-slide-caption ds2-5-body-xs">FIGURE 2.7 Detail of the western arcade seen from the courtyard. Great Mosque of Damascus, 706-715 AD. ‘Abd al-Malik’s son and successor, al-Walid (r. 705-715), was the foremost patron of religious architecture in the Umayyad era, being responsible for he building, rebuilding, or redecoration of the mosques of Damascus, Medina Mecca, Fustat, Sanaa, and the Aqsa. The Great Mosque of Damascus initially had its whole courtyard and prayer hall covered with mosaic decoration above the level of its marble dadoes and columns. The argest extant sections lie on the western arcade and on the inner and outer facades of the axial nave. They show landscapes with tall trees adjoined by buildings of different shapes and sizes, set against skies of gold with water running in the foreground. The buildings are adorned with jewels, partic- ularly pearls that hang from gates (fig. 2.7). </figcaption></figure><figure class="figure-slide-container"><a href="https://www.academia.edu/figures/7063380/figure-2-courtyard-of-the-great-mosque-of-damascus-looking"><img alt="FIGURE 2.8 Courtyard of the Great Mosque of Damascus, looking toward the west. Great Mosque of Damascus, 706-715 AD. Wdy tO GO sO WILE Ue PiCtOlidi LOOIs dt WICIL UlspOsadl. But once again, this may not be the whole story, for the mosaics at Damascus show an array of different buildings in a way that does also convey a real landscape, from luxurious palaces and pavilions to smaller dwellings reminiscent of country houses.** This possibility comes to life as one steps back to view the whole panel on the western arcade, and back again to imagine the entire courtyard adorned with similar decora- tion (fig. 2.8). A vision of earthly dominion would have been an almost instinctive response to this vast scenery, especia ly since floor maps show- ing cities and their buildings were to be seen in church mosaics of the period.» This is the impression conveyed by vir who wrote about the mosque, starting with the al-Muqaddasi (tenth century) that “there is hard which has not been depicted on these walls.”°° I ually all medieval visitors well-known testimony by y a tree or a notable town bn Shakir al-Kutubi (four- teenth century) even cited an account according to which there was a rep- resentation of the Ka‘ba above a mihrab of this mosque.” " class="figure-slide-image" src="https://figures.academia-assets.com/56871722/figure_008.jpg" /></a><figcaption class="figure-slide-caption ds2-5-body-xs">FIGURE 2.8 Courtyard of the Great Mosque of Damascus, looking toward the west. Great Mosque of Damascus, 706-715 AD. Wdy tO GO sO WILE Ue PiCtOlidi LOOIs dt WICIL UlspOsadl. But once again, this may not be the whole story, for the mosaics at Damascus show an array of different buildings in a way that does also convey a real landscape, from luxurious palaces and pavilions to smaller dwellings reminiscent of country houses.** This possibility comes to life as one steps back to view the whole panel on the western arcade, and back again to imagine the entire courtyard adorned with similar decora- tion (fig. 2.8). A vision of earthly dominion would have been an almost instinctive response to this vast scenery, especia ly since floor maps show- ing cities and their buildings were to be seen in church mosaics of the period.» This is the impression conveyed by vir who wrote about the mosque, starting with the al-Muqaddasi (tenth century) that “there is hard which has not been depicted on these walls.”°° I ually all medieval visitors well-known testimony by y a tree or a notable town bn Shakir al-Kutubi (four- teenth century) even cited an account according to which there was a rep- resentation of the Ka‘ba above a mihrab of this mosque.” </figcaption></figure><figure class="figure-slide-container"><a href="https://www.academia.edu/figures/7063391/figure-2-first-illumination-of-the-umayyad-codex-of-sanaa"><img alt="FIGURE 2.9 First illumination of the Umayyad Codex of Sanaa. Page height ca. 41cm, page width ca. 37.1 cm. Sanaa, Dar al- Makhtttat al-Yamaniyya, IN 20-33.1. " class="figure-slide-image" src="https://figures.academia-assets.com/56871722/figure_009.jpg" /></a><figcaption class="figure-slide-caption ds2-5-body-xs">FIGURE 2.9 First illumination of the Umayyad Codex of Sanaa. Page height ca. 41cm, page width ca. 37.1 cm. Sanaa, Dar al- Makhtttat al-Yamaniyya, IN 20-33.1. </figcaption></figure><figure class="figure-slide-container"><a href="https://www.academia.edu/figures/7063397/figure-2-second-illumination-of-the-umayyad-codex-of-sanaa"><img alt="FIGURE 2.10 Second illumination of the Umayyad Codex of Sanaa. Page height ca. Alcm, page width ca. 37.1 cm. Sanaa, Dar al- Makhtitat al-Yamaniyya, IN 20-33.1. would have resonated with the inscriptions in gold against a dark green or blue ground, like the illumination echoed the mosaics, with their build- ings and plants, as well as the actual lamps, columns, and objects. The trees and lush plants, both in manuscript and mosaic form, may well have represented, at one and the same time, paradisiacal evergreens and lands blooming through the intercession of the caliph. The caliph, through the attributes of his office, represented the connecting point between these two realms, as a celestial pole and a gateway to salvation. " class="figure-slide-image" src="https://figures.academia-assets.com/56871722/figure_010.jpg" /></a><figcaption class="figure-slide-caption ds2-5-body-xs">FIGURE 2.10 Second illumination of the Umayyad Codex of Sanaa. Page height ca. Alcm, page width ca. 37.1 cm. Sanaa, Dar al- Makhtitat al-Yamaniyya, IN 20-33.1. would have resonated with the inscriptions in gold against a dark green or blue ground, like the illumination echoed the mosaics, with their build- ings and plants, as well as the actual lamps, columns, and objects. The trees and lush plants, both in manuscript and mosaic form, may well have represented, at one and the same time, paradisiacal evergreens and lands blooming through the intercession of the caliph. The caliph, through the attributes of his office, represented the connecting point between these two realms, as a celestial pole and a gateway to salvation. </figcaption></figure></div><div class="next-slide-container js-next-button-container"><button aria-label="Next" class="carousel-navigation-button js-loswp-figures-next"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">arrow_forward_ios</span></button></div></div></div></div><div class="ds-top-related-works--grid-container"><div class="ds-related-content--container ds-top-related-works--container"><h2 class="ds-related-content--heading">Related papers</h2><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="0" data-entity-id="38022939" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/38022939/R_Hillenbrand_Islamic_Art_at_the_Crossroads_East_Versus_West_at_Mshatta_in_Essays_in_Honor_of_Katherine_Dorn_ed_A_Daneshvari_Malibu_1981_63_86">R. Hillenbrand, 'Islamic Art at the Crossroads: East Versus West at Mshatta', in Essays in Honor of Katherine Dorn, ed. A. Daneshvari (Malibu, 1981), 63-86</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="1286823" href="https://st-andrews.academia.edu/RobertHillenbrand">Robert Hillenbrand</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">In Umayyad art the conflict between east and west, between the millennial traditions of the ancient Orient and those of Mediterranean classicism, was slow to announce itself. The earliest surviving Umayyad buildings of high quality are the products of a culture which was apparently still not fully certain of its visual symbols and therefore inclined to copy what was nearest at hand. Umayyad power was based on Syria, and that country was most richly endowed with Roman, early . Christian and Byzantine monuments. It is therefore scarcely surprising that the Dome of the Rock should be in some ways an almost slavish copy of Christian architecture. The Damascus mosque, with its mosaics, its three aisles and its sanctuary fa~ade, continues this dependence.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"R. Hillenbrand, 'Islamic Art at the Crossroads: East Versus West at Mshatta', in Essays in Honor of Katherine Dorn, ed. A. Daneshvari (Malibu, 1981), 63-86","attachmentId":58044428,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/38022939/R_Hillenbrand_Islamic_Art_at_the_Crossroads_East_Versus_West_at_Mshatta_in_Essays_in_Honor_of_Katherine_Dorn_ed_A_Daneshvari_Malibu_1981_63_86","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/38022939/R_Hillenbrand_Islamic_Art_at_the_Crossroads_East_Versus_West_at_Mshatta_in_Essays_in_Honor_of_Katherine_Dorn_ed_A_Daneshvari_Malibu_1981_63_86"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="1" data-entity-id="22872410" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/22872410/Politicizing_the_Religious_Or_How_the_Umayyads_Co_opted_Classical_Iconography">Politicizing the Religious: Or How the Umayyads Co-opted Classical Iconography</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="44023778" href="https://mit.academia.edu/NasserRabbat">Nasser Rabbat</a></div><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Politicizing the Religious: Or How the Umayyads Co-opted Classical Iconography","attachmentId":43414543,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/22872410/Politicizing_the_Religious_Or_How_the_Umayyads_Co_opted_Classical_Iconography","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/22872410/Politicizing_the_Religious_Or_How_the_Umayyads_Co_opted_Classical_Iconography"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="2" data-entity-id="105216103" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/105216103/The_Umayyad_Mosque_of_Damascus_Art_Faith_and_Empire_in_Early_Islam_Front_matter_and_introduction_">The Umayyad Mosque of Damascus: Art, Faith and Empire in Early Islam (Front matter and introduction)</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="1106704" href="https://qma.academia.edu/AlainFouadGeorge">Alain Fouad George</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">2021</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Three Umayyad panegyrics are among the core documents studied in this book. Long after producing my English translations of these texts, I asked Nadia Jamil whether she would consider letting me feature hers instead, as they were sure to be more elegant and accurate than my own. She responded with characteristic generosity and enthusiasm: the result can be seen in Appendix 1. Sourcing rare documents and images proved to be another major undertaking, just as one would expect. When it came to scans from libraries, I was fortunate to be helped by a succession of competent and friendly students at Edinburgh, then Oxford: in chronological order, Francesco Stermotich-Cappellari,</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"The Umayyad Mosque of Damascus: Art, Faith and Empire in Early Islam (Front matter and introduction)","attachmentId":104731037,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/105216103/The_Umayyad_Mosque_of_Damascus_Art_Faith_and_Empire_in_Early_Islam_Front_matter_and_introduction_","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/105216103/The_Umayyad_Mosque_of_Damascus_Art_Faith_and_Empire_in_Early_Islam_Front_matter_and_introduction_"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="3" data-entity-id="47512964" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/47512964/The_Dialogic_Dimension_of_Umayyad_Art">The Dialogic Dimension of Umayyad Art</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="44023778" href="https://mit.academia.edu/NasserRabbat">Nasser Rabbat</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Res: Anthropology and aesthetics, 2003</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"The Dialogic Dimension of Umayyad Art","attachmentId":67373730,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/47512964/The_Dialogic_Dimension_of_Umayyad_Art","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/47512964/The_Dialogic_Dimension_of_Umayyad_Art"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="4" data-entity-id="47512949" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/47512949/Umayyad_Architecture_A_Spectacular_Intra_Cultural_Synthesis_in_Bilad_al_Sham">Umayyad Architecture: A Spectacular Intra-Cultural Synthesis in Bilad al-Sham</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="44023778" href="https://mit.academia.edu/NasserRabbat">Nasser Rabbat</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">… processes from late antiquity to early Islam …, 2008</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Umayyad Architecture: A Spectacular Intra-Cultural Synthesis in Bilad al-Sham","attachmentId":67577005,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/47512949/Umayyad_Architecture_A_Spectacular_Intra_Cultural_Synthesis_in_Bilad_al_Sham","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/47512949/Umayyad_Architecture_A_Spectacular_Intra_Cultural_Synthesis_in_Bilad_al_Sham"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="5" data-entity-id="42016687" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/42016687/The_Concept_of_Islamic_Art_Inherited_Discourses_and_New_Approaches">The Concept of Islamic Art: Inherited Discourses and New Approaches</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="26401152" href="https://harvard.academia.edu/G%C3%BClruNecipo%C4%9Flu">Gülru Necipoğlu</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">The Journal of Art Historiography June 1, 2012, vol. 6 (Special Issue on the Historiography of Islamic Art and Architecture, guest-edited by Moya Carey and Margaret S. Graves), 2012</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">The article examines the shift in the field, since the 1970s, from a predominant focus on the early period of Islamic art and architecture in the 'central zone' of the Fertile Crescent to a broader chronological and geographical scope. This shift has contributed, among other things, to a change of emphasis from artistic unity to variety, accompanied by an increasing diversification of concepts and approaches including dynastic, regional, media-based, textual, theoretical, critical, and historiographical inquiries. The article seeks to address the unresolved methodological tensions arising from the expanded scope of the field, along with concomitant anxieties over the fragmentation of its traditional 'universalism'. It begins by outlining the premises of still prevalent approaches inherited from the construction of the field during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, a field rooted in the entangled legacies of Orientalism, nationalism, and dilletantism. The article then reviews recent statements on the state and future of the field before turning to personal reflections on challenges posed by its expanding horizons and its relationship to the Museum. “The Concept of Islamic Art: Inherited Discourses and New Approaches,” in Islamic Art and the Museum: Approaches to Art and Archaeology of the Muslim World in the Twenty-First Century, ed. Benoît Junod, Georges Khalil, Stefan Weber, Gerhard Wolf (London: Saqi Books, 2012), 57-75. (Electronically reproduced in The Journal of Art Historiography, June 1, 2012, vol. 6; Special Issue on the Historiography of Islamic Art and Architecture, guest-edited by Moya Carey and Margaret S. Graves, 1-26).</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"The Concept of Islamic Art: Inherited Discourses and New Approaches","attachmentId":62141266,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/42016687/The_Concept_of_Islamic_Art_Inherited_Discourses_and_New_Approaches","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/42016687/The_Concept_of_Islamic_Art_Inherited_Discourses_and_New_Approaches"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="6" data-entity-id="78653731" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/78653731/To_Not_Know_God_Geometrical_Abstraction_and_Visual_Theology_in_Islamic_Art">To Not Know God. Geometrical Abstraction and Visual Theology in Islamic Art</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="16583832" href="https://aub-lb.academia.edu/RICOFranses">RICO Franses</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">E. Baboula and L. Jessop (eds), Art and Material Culture in the Byzantine and Islamic Worlds. Essays in Honour of Erica Cruikshank Dodd. Leiden: Brill, 2021</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Even though I have only met Erica Cruikshank Dodd once, I consider her as a mentor who earlier walked the same path that I later followed. Both of us trained in Byzantine art history, and we have both spent a long time teaching at the American University of Beirut. In Beirut, we also both turned our attention to Islamic art. Most important for me, however, is her approach to that subject, perfectly captured in the title of her book, The Image of the Word. In that work, she examined the carved inscriptions appearing on many Islamic buildings from a unique perspective. Whereas most other scholars studied the content and meaning of those inscriptions, Erica performed an art historical analysis on them, inquiring what their visual form might signify as well. In this chapter, I follow Erica closely in this regard, believing, too, that a close, visual reading of Islamic art is essential in order to do justice to its many subtle complexities. I dedicate the following essay to her in admiration not only of that approach, but of all her work carried out in the Levant, now more important than ever, since so much of what she examined has subsequently suffered such degradation. The subject of this article is the geometrical interlace pattern, also known as girih, that occurs in many different settings within the Islamic world.1 It features prominently in architectural settings in mosques and frequently appears on minbars and in mihrabs. Two examples that will be used in this paper are the minbar of the mosque in the funerary complex of Sultan Faraj ibn Barquq (r. 1399-1412) in Cairo, built in the early fifteenth century, and a nearby dome from the funerary complex of Sultan Al-Ashraf Barsbay (r. 1422-38), from the early 1430s (Figs.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"To Not Know God. Geometrical Abstraction and Visual Theology in Islamic Art","attachmentId":85626684,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/78653731/To_Not_Know_God_Geometrical_Abstraction_and_Visual_Theology_in_Islamic_Art","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/78653731/To_Not_Know_God_Geometrical_Abstraction_and_Visual_Theology_in_Islamic_Art"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="7" data-entity-id="126301172" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/126301172/The_Great_Mosque_of_Damascus_Studies_on_the_Makings_of_an_Umayyad_Visual_Culture">The Great Mosque of Damascus: Studies on the Makings of an Umayyad Visual Culture</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="45739596" href="https://nyu.academia.edu/FinbarrBarryFlood">Finbarr Barry Flood</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">2001</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"The Great Mosque of Damascus: Studies on the Makings of an Umayyad Visual Culture","attachmentId":120199461,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/126301172/The_Great_Mosque_of_Damascus_Studies_on_the_Makings_of_an_Umayyad_Visual_Culture","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/126301172/The_Great_Mosque_of_Damascus_Studies_on_the_Makings_of_an_Umayyad_Visual_Culture"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="8" data-entity-id="44723589" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/44723589/Christian_Art_and_Visual_Culture_in_Umayyad_Bilad_al_Sham_in_A_Marsham_ed_The_Umayyad_World_London_and_New_York_2020_pp_464_485">Christian Art and Visual Culture in Umayyad Bilad al-Sham, in A. Marsham (ed), The Umayyad World, London and New York 2020, pp. 464-485</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="935125" href="https://univie.academia.edu/BasemaHAMARNEH">Basema HAMARNEH</a></div><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Christian Art and Visual Culture in Umayyad Bilad al-Sham, in A. Marsham (ed), The Umayyad World, London and New York 2020, pp. 464-485","attachmentId":97375065,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/44723589/Christian_Art_and_Visual_Culture_in_Umayyad_Bilad_al_Sham_in_A_Marsham_ed_The_Umayyad_World_London_and_New_York_2020_pp_464_485","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/44723589/Christian_Art_and_Visual_Culture_in_Umayyad_Bilad_al_Sham_in_A_Marsham_ed_The_Umayyad_World_London_and_New_York_2020_pp_464_485"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="9" data-entity-id="37555452" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/37555452/The_Role_and_Meaning_of_Religious_Architecture_in_the_Umayyad_State_Secondary_Mosques">The Role and Meaning of Religious Architecture in the Umayyad State: Secondary Mosques</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="1872969" href="https://uco-es.academia.edu/CarmenGonz%C3%A1lezGuti%C3%A9rrez">Carmen González Gutiérrez</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Arts Journal (Special Issue: Andalusi Architecture: Shapes, Meaning and Influences), 2018</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Historiography and archaeological research have traditionally defined mosques mainly as religious spaces or places to pray, without further specifications. This simplification has usually dominated the analyses of mosques, while other uses or functional aspects of these buildings were put aside. The scarcity of material information available for years to approach these buildings, together with the dominance of the more monumental examples—such as the great mosque of Córdoba—provoked that analyses about other more modest mosques were scarce or almost inexistent. However, in recent decades, the proliferation of real estate building activities has led to the recovery of many new and fresh archaeological data related to other mosques different from the Friday ones. Specifically, in Córdoba, the volume of information recovered has been enormous, and concerns not only mosques as isolated buildings, but also their urban environments, construction processes, and evolution along the centuries. Therefore, in this paper, we offer a summarized overview of the state of the arts about research on mosques in al-Andalus, presenting the main problems and limitations of the topic until now, and also the case of Córdoba and the main results achieved there as a reference for further actions to be undertaken in the rest of the territory.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"The Role and Meaning of Religious Architecture in the Umayyad State: Secondary Mosques","attachmentId":57531623,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/37555452/The_Role_and_Meaning_of_Religious_Architecture_in_the_Umayyad_State_Secondary_Mosques","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/37555452/The_Role_and_Meaning_of_Religious_Architecture_in_the_Umayyad_State_Secondary_Mosques"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div></div></div><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--wrapper js-loswp-sticky-ctas hidden"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--grid-container"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":56871722,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":56871722,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download PDF</button></div></div></div><div class="ds-below-fold--grid-container"><div class="ds-work--container js-loswp-embedded-document"><div class="attachment_preview" data-attachment="Attachment_56871722" style="display: none"><div class="js-scribd-document-container"><div class="scribd--document-loading js-scribd-document-loader" style="display: block;"><img alt="Loading..." src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/loaders/paper-load.gif" /><p>Loading Preview</p></div></div><div style="text-align: center;"><div class="scribd--no-preview-alert js-preview-unavailable"><p>Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. 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data-collection-position="14" data-entity-id="99823912" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/99823912/A_Companion_to_Islamic_art_and_Architecture_2">A Companion to Islamic art and Architecture 2</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="45739596" href="https://nyu.academia.edu/FinbarrBarryFlood">Finbarr Barry Flood</a><span>, </span><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="26401152" href="https://harvard.academia.edu/G%C3%BClruNecipo%C4%9Flu">Gülru Necipoğlu</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">A Companion to Islamic art and Architecture 2, 2017</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" 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(ISSN 2076-0752)., 2018</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"The Visual Construction of the Umayyad Caliphate in Al-Andalus through the Great Mosque of Cordoba","attachmentId":57387394,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/37218975/The_Visual_Construction_of_the_Umayyad_Caliphate_in_Al_Andalus_through_the_Great_Mosque_of_Cordoba","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-related-work-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/37218975/The_Visual_Construction_of_the_Umayyad_Caliphate_in_Al_Andalus_through_the_Great_Mosque_of_Cordoba"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="18" data-entity-id="111604081" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/111604081/Islamic_Art_and_Architecture_A_Reflection_of_the_Culture_and_Tradition_of_Islam">Islamic Art and Architecture: A Reflection of the Culture and Tradition of Islam</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="226936598" href="https://independent.academia.edu/StellaEOsim">Stella E Osim</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">2021</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Islamic Art and Architecture: A Reflection of the Culture and Tradition of Islam","attachmentId":109094992,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/111604081/Islamic_Art_and_Architecture_A_Reflection_of_the_Culture_and_Tradition_of_Islam","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-related-work-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/111604081/Islamic_Art_and_Architecture_A_Reflection_of_the_Culture_and_Tradition_of_Islam"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="19" data-entity-id="2059387" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/2059387/Review_of_McMillan_M_E_The_Meaning_of_Mecca_The_Politics_of_Pilgrimage_in_Early_Islam_London_Saqi_Books_2011_">Review of McMillan, M.E. The Meaning of Mecca: The Politics of Pilgrimage in Early Islam (London: Saqi Books, 2011).</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="531542" href="https://umd.academia.edu/AntoineBorrut">Antoine Borrut</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 75/3 (2012): 570-72.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Review of McMillan, M.E. 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