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id="toc-Legend_and_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ethnonym_and_etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnonym_and_etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Ethnonym and etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnonym_and_etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Ancient sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archeological_evidence_and_modern_etruscology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archeological_evidence_and_modern_etruscology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Archeological evidence and modern etruscology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archeological_evidence_and_modern_etruscology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>Genetic research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Periodization_of_Etruscan_civilization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Periodization_of_Etruscan_civilization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Periodization of Etruscan civilization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Periodization_of_Etruscan_civilization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chronology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Chronology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chronology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expansion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expansion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Expansion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expansion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Etruscan_League" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etruscan_League"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Etruscan League</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etruscan_League-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possible_founding_of_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_founding_of_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Possible founding of Rome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_founding_of_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_families_of_Etruscan_origin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_families_of_Etruscan_origin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Roman families of Etruscan origin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_families_of_Etruscan_origin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Society</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Society subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Family" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Family</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Cities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Agriculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art_and_music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art_and_music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Art and music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art_and_music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cities_and_sites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cities_and_sites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Cities and sites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cities_and_sites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Etruscan civilization</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 91 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-91" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">91 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruskers" title="Etruskers – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Etruskers" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusker" title="Etrusker – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Etrusker" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الحضارة الإترورية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحضارة الإترورية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscos" title="Etruscos – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Etruscos" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusklar" title="Etrusklar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Etrusklar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="اتروسکلار – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اتروسکلار" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="এট্রুস্কান সভ্যতা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="এট্রুস্কান সভ্যতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Этрускі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Этрускі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Этрускі – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Этрускі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="इत्रिस्की सभ्यता – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="इत्रिस्की सभ्यता" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Етруски – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Етруски" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusked" title="Etrusked – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Etrusked" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscs" title="Etruscs – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Etruscs" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Этрусксем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Этрусксем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruskov%C3%A9" title="Etruskové – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Etruskové" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruschi" title="Etruschi – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Etruschi" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrwsciaid" title="Etrwsciaid – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Etrwsciaid" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruskere" title="Etruskere – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Etruskere" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86" title="إتروسكيين – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="إتروسكيين" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusker" title="Etrusker – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Etrusker" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruskid" title="Etruskid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Etruskid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%8D%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%B9" title="Ετρούσκοι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ετρούσκοι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrosch" title="Etrosch – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Etrosch" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscos" title="Etruscos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Etruscos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruskoj" title="Etruskoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Etruskoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscus" title="Etruscus – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Etruscus" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruriar" title="Etruriar – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Etruriar" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DA%A9" title="تمدن اتروسک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تمدن اتروسک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89trusques" title="Étrusques – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Étrusques" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusken" title="Etrusken – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Etrusken" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscos" title="Etruscos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Etruscos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%90%ED%8A%B8%EB%A3%A8%EB%A6%AC%EC%95%84%EC%9D%B8" title="에트루리아인 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="에트루리아인" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Էտրուսկներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էտրուսկներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="इत्रस्की सभ्यता – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इत्रस्की सभ्यता" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etru%C5%A1%C4%8Dani" title="Etruščani – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Etruščani" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruriani" title="Etruriani – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Etruriani" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peradaban_Etruria" title="Peradaban Etruria – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Peradaban Etruria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscos" title="Etruscos – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Etruscos" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruschi" title="Etruschi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Etruschi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%9D" title="אטרוסקים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אטרוסקים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ეტრუსკები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ეტრუსკები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waetruski" title="Waetruski – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Waetruski" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etr%C3%BBsk" title="Etrûsk – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Etrûsk" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusci" title="Etrusci – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Etrusci" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruski" title="Etruski – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Etruski" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusker" title="Etrusker – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Etrusker" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruskai" title="Etruskai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Etruskai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popolo_etrusco" title="Popolo etrusco – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Popolo etrusco" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusca_(sivilia)" title="Etrusca (sivilia) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Etrusca (sivilia)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusch" title="Etrusch – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Etrusch" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruszkok" title="Etruszkok – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Etruszkok" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%80%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Етрурци – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Етрурци" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etroska_(vahoaka)" title="Etroska (vahoaka) – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Etroska (vahoaka)" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="ეტრუსკეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ეტრუსკეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamadun_Etruria" title="Tamadun Etruria – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Tamadun Etruria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusken" title="Etrusken – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Etrusken" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A8%E3%83%88%E3%83%AB%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E4%BA%BA" title="エトルリア人 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="エトルリア人" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusche" title="Etrusche – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Etrusche" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruskere" title="Etruskere – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Etruskere" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruskarar" title="Etruskarar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Etruskarar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tr%C3%BBques" title="Étrûques – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Étrûques" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscs" title="Etruscs – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Etruscs" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusklar" title="Etrusklar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Etrusklar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86" title="ایتروسکان تمدن – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ایتروسکان تمدن" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruskowie" title="Etruskowie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Etruskowie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscos" title="Etruscos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Etruscos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civiliza%C8%9Bia_etrusc%C4%83" title="Civilizația etruscă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Civilizația etruscă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Этруски – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Этруски" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DA%A9_%D8%B3%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B4%D9%86" title="اتروسک سویلائزیشن – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="اتروسک سویلائزیشن" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscos" title="Etruscos – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Etruscos" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_ceevilisation" title="Etruscan ceevilisation – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Etruscan ceevilisation" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusk%C3%ABt" title="Etruskët – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Etruskët" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruschi" title="Etruschi – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Etruschi" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Etruscan civilization" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruskovia" title="Etruskovia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Etruskovia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etru%C5%A1%C4%8Dani" title="Etruščani – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Etruščani" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%80%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Етрурци – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Етрурци" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrurci" title="Etrurci – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Etrurci" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Pre-Roman civilization of ancient Italy</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output 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td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Etruscans</div><div class="ib-country-names"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="Etruscan-language text"><span lang="ett">𐌓𐌀𐌔𐌄𐌍𐌍𐌀</span></span></li><li><span title="Etruscan-language romanization"><i lang="ett-Latn">Rasenna</i></span></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">900 BC<sup id="cite_ref-Bartoloni2012h_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartoloni2012h-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>–27 BC<sup id="cite_ref-Bartoloni2012h_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartoloni2012h-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Etruscan_civilization_map.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Extent of Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities"><img alt="Extent of Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Etruscan_civilization_map.png/250px-Etruscan_civilization_map.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Etruscan_civilization_map.png/375px-Etruscan_civilization_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Etruscan_civilization_map.png/500px-Etruscan_civilization_map.png 2x" data-file-width="994" data-file-height="1208" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Extent of Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">City-states</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language">Etruscan</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data">Chiefdom</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data">Etruscan League</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient history</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Villanovan culture</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">900 BC<sup id="cite_ref-Bartoloni2012h_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartoloni2012h-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Last Etruscan cities formally absorbed by Rome </div></th><td class="infobox-data">27 BC<sup id="cite_ref-Bartoloni2012h_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartoloni2012h-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_coins" title="Etruscan coins">Etruscan coinage</a> (5th century BC onward)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Villanovan_culture" title="Proto-Villanovan culture">Proto-Villanovan culture</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Marino" title="San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Etruscan civilization</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ən/: 'on' in 'button'">ən</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling">ih-<span style="font-size:90%">TRUS</span>-kən</i></a>) was an ancient civilization created by the Etruscans, a people who inhabited <a href="/wiki/Etruria" title="Etruria">Etruria</a> in <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_peoples_of_Italy" title="List of ancient peoples of Italy">ancient Italy</a>, with a common language and culture who formed a federation of city-states.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After conquering adjacent lands, its territory covered, at its greatest extent, roughly what is now <a href="/wiki/Tuscany" title="Tuscany">Tuscany</a>, western <a href="/wiki/Umbria" title="Umbria">Umbria</a>, and northern <a href="/wiki/Lazio" title="Lazio">Lazio</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as what are now the <a href="/wiki/Po_Valley" title="Po Valley">Po Valley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emilia-Romagna" title="Emilia-Romagna">Emilia-Romagna</a>, south-eastern <a href="/wiki/Lombardy" title="Lombardy">Lombardy</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Veneto" title="Veneto">Veneto</a>, and western <a href="/wiki/Campania" title="Campania">Campania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Camporeale2004_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Camporeale2004-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dellafina2005_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dellafina2005-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A large body of literature has flourished on the origins of the Etruscans; however, the consensus among modern scholars is that the Etruscans were an indigenous population.<sup id="cite_ref-Barker_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barker-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DeGrummond2014_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeGrummond2014-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Turfa2017_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turfa2017-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shipley2017_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shipley2017-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Benelli2021_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benelli2021-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest evidence of a <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> that is identifiably Etruscan dates from about 900 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartoloni2012h_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartoloni2012h-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the period of the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> <a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Villanovan culture</a>, considered to be the earliest phase of Etruscan civilization,<sup id="cite_ref-Neri_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neri-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bartolonivillanoviana_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartolonivillanoviana-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Torellicolonna2000_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torellicolonna2000-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Torellibriquel2000_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torellibriquel2000-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Torellibartoloni2000_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torellibartoloni2000-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which itself developed from the previous late Bronze Age <a href="/wiki/Proto-Villanovan_culture" title="Proto-Villanovan culture">Proto-Villanovan culture</a> in the same region,<sup id="cite_ref-Moser1996_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moser1996-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> part of the central European <a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield culture</a> system. Etruscan civilization dominated Italy until it fell to the expanding <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a> beginning in the late 4th century BC as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Etruscan_Wars" title="Roman–Etruscan Wars">Roman–Etruscan Wars</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-Rix-2008_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rix-2008-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Etruscans were granted <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a> in 90 BC, and only in 27 BC the whole Etruscan territory was incorporated into the newly established <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartoloni2012h_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartoloni2012h-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The territorial extent of Etruscan civilization reached its maximum around 500 BC, shortly after the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a> became the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>. Its culture flourished in three confederacies of cities: that of <a href="/wiki/Etruria" title="Etruria">Etruria</a> (Tuscany, Latium and Umbria), that of the <a href="/wiki/Po_Valley" title="Po Valley">Po Valley</a> with the eastern <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a>, and that of <a href="/wiki/Campania" title="Campania">Campania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The league in northern Italy is mentioned in <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reduction in Etruscan territory was gradual, but after 500 BC, the political balance of power on the Italian peninsula shifted away from the Etruscans in favor of the rising <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cary_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cary-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest known examples of Etruscan writing are inscriptions found in southern <a href="/wiki/Etruria" title="Etruria">Etruria</a> that date to around 700 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Rix-2008_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rix-2008-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bonfante2000_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonfante2000-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Etruscans developed a system of writing derived from the <a href="/wiki/Euboean_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Euboean alphabet">Euboean alphabet</a>, which was used in the <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a> (coastal areas located in <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">Southern Italy</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language">Etruscan language</a> remains only partly understood, making modern understanding of their society and culture heavily dependent on much later and generally disapproving Roman and Greek sources. In the Etruscan political system, authority resided in its individual small cities, and probably in its prominent individual families. At the height of Etruscan power, elite Etruscan families grew very rich through trade with the <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> to the north and the Greeks to the south, and they filled their large family tombs with imported luxuries.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legend_and_history">Legend and history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Legend and history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_history" title="Etruscan history">Etruscan history</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnonym_and_etymology">Ethnonym and etymology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ethnonym and etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tular_Rasnal_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Tular_Rasnal_1.jpg/220px-Tular_Rasnal_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Tular_Rasnal_1.jpg/330px-Tular_Rasnal_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Tular_Rasnal_1.jpg/440px-Tular_Rasnal_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Boundary stone from Cortona <br />Etruscan: Tular Rasnal<br />English: Boundary of the People</figcaption></figure> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius</a> the Etruscans called themselves <b>Rasenna</b> (Greek Ῥασέννα), a stem from the Etruscan Rasna (𐌛𐌀𐌔𐌍𐌀), the people. Evidence of inscriptions as Tular Rasnal (𐌕𐌖𐌋𐌀𐌛 𐌛𐌀𐌔𐌍𐌀𐌋), "boundary of the people", or Mechlum Rasnal (𐌌𐌄𐌙𐌋 𐌛𐌀𐌔𐌍𐌀𐌋). "community of the people", attest to its autonym usage. The <a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian</a> etymology however remains unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek" title="Attic Greek">Attic Greek</a>, the Etruscans were known as <a href="/wiki/Tyrrhenians" title="Tyrrhenians">Tyrrhenians</a> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Τυρρηνοί</span></span>, <i>Tyrrhēnoi</i>, earlier <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Τυρσηνοί</span></span> <i>Tyrsēnoi</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from which the Romans derived the names <i>Tyrrhēnī</i>, <i>Tyrrhēnia</i> (Etruria),<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>Mare Tyrrhēnum</i> (<a href="/wiki/Tyrrhenian_Sea" title="Tyrrhenian Sea">Tyrrhenian Sea</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Grummond_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grummond-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ancient Romans referred to the Etruscans as the <i>Tuscī</i> or <i>Etruscī</i> (singular <i>Tuscus</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their Roman name is the origin of the terms "<a href="/wiki/Tuscany" title="Tuscany">Toscana</a>", which refers to their heartland, and "<a href="/wiki/Etruria" title="Etruria">Etruria</a>", which can refer to their wider region. The term <i>Tusci</i> is thought by linguists to have been the Umbrian word for "Etruscan", based on an inscription on an <a href="/wiki/Iguvine_Tables" class="mw-redirect" title="Iguvine Tables">ancient bronze tablet</a> from a nearby region.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inscription contains the phrase <i>turskum ... nomen</i>, literally "the Tuscan name". Based on a knowledge of Umbrian grammar, linguists can infer that the base form of the word turskum is *Tursci,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which would, through <a href="/wiki/Metathesis_(linguistics)" title="Metathesis (linguistics)">metathesis</a> and a word-initial <a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">epenthesis</a>, be likely to lead to the form, <i>E-trus-ci</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As for the original meaning of the root, *Turs-, a widely cited hypothesis is that it, like the word Latin <i>turris</i>, means "tower", and comes from the ancient Greek word for tower: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">τύρσις</span></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-B51_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-B51-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> likely a loan into Greek. On this hypothesis, the Tusci were called the "people who build towers"<sup id="cite_ref-B51_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-B51-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or "the tower builders".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This proposed etymology is made the more plausible because the Etruscans preferred to build their towns on high precipices reinforced by walls. Alternatively, <a href="/wiki/Giuliano_Bonfante" title="Giuliano Bonfante">Giuliano</a> and <a href="/wiki/Larissa_Bonfante" title="Larissa Bonfante">Larissa Bonfante</a> have speculated that Etruscan houses may have seemed like towers to the simple Latins.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The proposed etymology has a long history, <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a> having observed in the first century B. C., "[T]here is no reason that the Greeks should not have called [the Etruscans] by this name, both from their living in towers and from the name of one of their rulers."<sup id="cite_ref-DHI30_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DHI30-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his recent <i>Etymological Dictionary of Greek</i>, Robert Beekes claims the Greek word is a "loanword from a Mediterranean language", a hypothesis that goes back to an article by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kretschmer" title="Paul Kretschmer">Paul Kretschmer</a> in <i>Glotta</i> from 1934.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_origins" title="Etruscan origins">Etruscan origins</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ancient_sources">Ancient sources</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ancient sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Exekias_Dionysos_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_2044.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Exekias_Dionysos_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_2044.jpg/220px-Exekias_Dionysos_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_2044.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Exekias_Dionysos_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_2044.jpg/330px-Exekias_Dionysos_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_2044.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Exekias_Dionysos_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_2044.jpg/440px-Exekias_Dionysos_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_2044.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1542" data-file-height="1725" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Dionysus_Cup" title="Dionysus Cup">Dionysus Cup</a>, a <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc"><a href="/wiki/Kylix" title="Kylix">kylix</a></i></span> painted by the Athenian <a href="/wiki/Exekias" title="Exekias">Exekias</a> ca. 530 BCE, showing the narrative of Dionysus's capture by Tyrrhenian pirates and transfiguration of them into dolphins in the seventh <i>Homeric Hymn</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrauss_Clay201632–34_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrauss_Clay201632–34-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Urna_cineraria_biconica_con_coperchio_a_elmo_crestato,_da_pozzo_cinerario_a_monterozzi,_loc._forse_fontanaccia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Urna_cineraria_biconica_con_coperchio_a_elmo_crestato%2C_da_pozzo_cinerario_a_monterozzi%2C_loc._forse_fontanaccia.jpg/150px-Urna_cineraria_biconica_con_coperchio_a_elmo_crestato%2C_da_pozzo_cinerario_a_monterozzi%2C_loc._forse_fontanaccia.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Urna_cineraria_biconica_con_coperchio_a_elmo_crestato%2C_da_pozzo_cinerario_a_monterozzi%2C_loc._forse_fontanaccia.jpg/225px-Urna_cineraria_biconica_con_coperchio_a_elmo_crestato%2C_da_pozzo_cinerario_a_monterozzi%2C_loc._forse_fontanaccia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Urna_cineraria_biconica_con_coperchio_a_elmo_crestato%2C_da_pozzo_cinerario_a_monterozzi%2C_loc._forse_fontanaccia.jpg/300px-Urna_cineraria_biconica_con_coperchio_a_elmo_crestato%2C_da_pozzo_cinerario_a_monterozzi%2C_loc._forse_fontanaccia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1227" data-file-height="2243" /></a><figcaption>Biconical cinerary urn with crest-shaped helmet lid, 9th–8th century BC, from Monterozzi (Fontanaccia), <a href="/wiki/Tarquinia" title="Tarquinia">Tarquinia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tarquinia_National_Museum" title="Tarquinia National Museum">Museo archeologico nazionale</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Urne_cin%C3%A9raire_imitant_une_habitation_traditionnelle._Attribu%C3%A9e_%C3%A0_l%27atelier_de_Vulci_(Etrurie)._Impasto_et_plaque_de_bronze_d%C3%A9coup%C3%A9e._8e_si%C3%A8cle_av._J.-C..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Urne_cin%C3%A9raire_imitant_une_habitation_traditionnelle._Attribu%C3%A9e_%C3%A0_l%27atelier_de_Vulci_%28Etrurie%29._Impasto_et_plaque_de_bronze_d%C3%A9coup%C3%A9e._8e_si%C3%A8cle_av._J.-C..jpg/150px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Urne_cin%C3%A9raire_imitant_une_habitation_traditionnelle._Attribu%C3%A9e_%C3%A0_l%27atelier_de_Vulci_%28Etrurie%29._Impasto_et_plaque_de_bronze_d%C3%A9coup%C3%A9e._8e_si%C3%A8cle_av._J.-C..jpg/225px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Urne_cin%C3%A9raire_imitant_une_habitation_traditionnelle._Attribu%C3%A9e_%C3%A0_l%27atelier_de_Vulci_%28Etrurie%29._Impasto_et_plaque_de_bronze_d%C3%A9coup%C3%A9e._8e_si%C3%A8cle_av._J.-C..jpg/300px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption>Urn in the shape of a hut, which represents the typical Etruscan house of the Villanovan phase, 8th century BC, from <a href="/wiki/Vulci" title="Vulci">Vulci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Art_et_d%27Histoire_(Geneva)" title="Musée d'Art et d'Histoire (Geneva)">Musée d'art et d'histoire de Genève</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Etruscan_pendant_with_swastika_symbols_Bolsena_Italy_700_BCE_to_650_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Etruscan_pendant_with_swastika_symbols_Bolsena_Italy_700_BCE_to_650_BCE.jpg/220px-Etruscan_pendant_with_swastika_symbols_Bolsena_Italy_700_BCE_to_650_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Etruscan_pendant_with_swastika_symbols_Bolsena_Italy_700_BCE_to_650_BCE.jpg/330px-Etruscan_pendant_with_swastika_symbols_Bolsena_Italy_700_BCE_to_650_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Etruscan_pendant_with_swastika_symbols_Bolsena_Italy_700_BCE_to_650_BCE.jpg/440px-Etruscan_pendant_with_swastika_symbols_Bolsena_Italy_700_BCE_to_650_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2293" data-file-height="2087" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_art" title="Etruscan art">Etruscan</a> pendant with a large equilateral cross of concentric circles flanked by four small right-facing <a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">swastikas</a> among its symbols from <a href="/wiki/Bolsena" title="Bolsena">Bolsena</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, 700–650 BC. <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Literary and historical texts in the Etruscan language have not survived, and the language itself is only partially understood by modern scholars. This makes modern understanding of their society and culture heavily dependent on much later and generally disapproving Roman and Greek sources. These ancient writers differed in their theories about the origin of the Etruscan people. Some suggested they were <a href="/wiki/Pelasgians" title="Pelasgians">Pelasgians</a> who had migrated there from Greece. Others maintained that they were indigenous to central Italy and were not from Greece. </p><p>The first Greek author to mention the Etruscans, whom the Ancient Greeks called <a href="/wiki/Tyrrhenians" title="Tyrrhenians">Tyrrhenians</a>, was the 8th-century BC poet <a href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a>, in his work, the <a href="/wiki/Theogony" title="Theogony">Theogony</a>. He mentioned them as residing in central Italy alongside the Latins.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 7th-century BC <i>Homeric Hymn</i> to Dionysus<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> referred to them as pirates.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown545560_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown545560-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike later Greek authors, these authors did not suggest that Etruscans had migrated to Italy from the east, and did not associate them with the Pelasgians. </p><p>It was only in the 5th century BC, when the Etruscan civilization had been established for several centuries, that Greek writers started associating the name "Tyrrhenians" with the "Pelasgians", and even then, some did so in a way that suggests they were meant only as generic, descriptive labels for "non-Greek" and "indigenous ancestors of Greeks", respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 5th-century BC historians <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the 1st-century BC historian <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5.2,_citing_Anticlides_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5.2,_citing_Anticlides-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> did seem to suggest that the Tyrrhenians were originally Pelasgians who migrated to Italy from <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a> by way of the Greek island of <a href="/wiki/Lemnos" title="Lemnos">Lemnos</a>. They all described Lemnos as having been settled by Pelasgians, whom Thucydides identified as "belonging to the Tyrrhenians" (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">τὸ δὲ πλεῖστον Πελασγικόν, τῶν καὶ Λῆμνόν ποτε καὶ Ἀθήνας Τυρσηνῶν</span></span>). As Strabo and Herodotus told it,<sup id="cite_ref-1.94_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1.94-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the migration to Lemnos was led by <a href="/wiki/Tyrrhenus" title="Tyrrhenus">Tyrrhenus</a> / Tyrsenos, the son of <a href="/wiki/Atys_of_Lydia" title="Atys of Lydia">Atys</a> (who was king of Lydia). Strabo<sup id="cite_ref-5.2,_citing_Anticlides_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5.2,_citing_Anticlides-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> added that the Pelasgians of Lemnos and <a href="/wiki/Imbros" title="Imbros">Imbros</a> then followed Tyrrhenus to the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italian Peninsula</a>. According to the logographer <a href="/wiki/Hellanicus_of_Lesbos" title="Hellanicus of Lesbos">Hellanicus of Lesbos</a>, there was a Pelasgian migration from <a href="/wiki/Thessaly" title="Thessaly">Thessaly</a> in <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> to the Italian peninsula, as part of which the Pelasgians colonized the area he called Tyrrhenia, and they then came to be called Tyrrhenians.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is some evidence suggesting a link between the island of Lemnos and the Tyrrhenians. The <a href="/wiki/Lemnos_stele" class="mw-redirect" title="Lemnos stele">Lemnos Stele</a> bears inscriptions in a language with strong structural resemblances to the language of the Etruscans.<sup id="cite_ref-Morritt545560_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morritt545560-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The discovery of these inscriptions in modern times has led to the suggestion of a "<a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrrhenian language group</a>" comprising Etruscan, Lemnian, and the <a href="/wiki/Raetic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Raetic language">Raetic</a> spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a>. </p><p>However, the 1st-century BC historian <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a>, a Greek living in Rome, dismissed many of the ancient theories of other Greek historians and postulated that the Etruscans were indigenous people who had always lived in Etruria and were different from both the Pelasgians and the Lydians.<sup id="cite_ref-Dionysius_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dionysius-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dionysius noted that the 5th-century historian <a href="/wiki/Xanthus_of_Lydia" class="mw-redirect" title="Xanthus of Lydia">Xanthus of Lydia</a>, who was originally from <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a> and was regarded as an important source and authority for the history of Lydia, never suggested a Lydian origin of the Etruscans and never named Tyrrhenus as a ruler of the Lydians.<sup id="cite_ref-Dionysius_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dionysius-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>For this reason, therefore, I am persuaded that the Pelasgians are a different people from the Tyrrhenians. And I do not believe, either, that the Tyrrhenians were a colony of the Lydians; for they do not use the same language as the latter, nor can it be alleged that, though they no longer speak a similar tongue, they still retain some other indications of their mother country. For they neither worship the same gods as the Lydians nor make use of similar laws or institutions, but in these very respects they differ more from the Lydians than from the Pelasgians. Indeed, those probably come nearest to the truth who declare that the nation migrated from nowhere else, but was native to the country, since it is found to be a very ancient nation and to agree with no other either in its language or in its manner of living.</p></blockquote> <p>The credibility of Dionysius of Halicarnassus is arguably bolstered by the fact that he was the first ancient writer to report the <a href="/wiki/Endonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Endonym">endonym</a> of the Etruscans: Rasenna. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Romans, however, give them other names: from the country they once inhabited, named Etruria, they call them Etruscans, and from their knowledge of the ceremonies relating to divine worship, in which they excel others, they now call them, rather inaccurately, Tusci, but formerly, with the same accuracy as the Greeks, they called them Thyrscoï [an earlier form of Tusci]. Their own name for themselves, however, is the same as that of one of their leaders, Rasenna.</p></blockquote> <p>Similarly, the 1st-century BC historian <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, in his <i><a href="/wiki/Ab_Urbe_Condita_Libri" class="mw-redirect" title="Ab Urbe Condita Libri">Ab Urbe Condita Libri</a></i>, said that the Rhaetians were Etruscans who had been driven into the mountains by the invading Gauls; and he asserted that the inhabitants of Raetia were of Etruscan origin.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Alpine tribes have also, no doubt, the same origin (of the Etruscans), especially the Raetians; who have been rendered so savage by the very nature of the country as to retain nothing of their ancient character save the sound of their speech, and even that is corrupted.</p></blockquote> <p>The first-century historian <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> also put the Etruscans in the context of the <a href="/wiki/Rhaetian_people" title="Rhaetian people">Rhaetian people</a> to the north, and wrote in his <i><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History</a></i> (AD 79):<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Adjoining these the (Alpine) <a href="/wiki/Noricum" title="Noricum">Noricans</a> are the Raeti and <a href="/wiki/Vindelici" title="Vindelici">Vindelici</a>. All are divided into a number of states. The Raeti are believed to be people of Tuscan race driven out by the <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gauls</a>, their leader was named Raetus.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Archeological_evidence_and_modern_etruscology">Archeological evidence and modern etruscology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Archeological evidence and modern etruscology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Villanovan_culture" title="Proto-Villanovan culture">Proto-Villanovan culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Villanovan culture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bronze_chariot_inlaid_with_ivory_MET_DP137936.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Bronze_chariot_inlaid_with_ivory_MET_DP137936.jpg/220px-Bronze_chariot_inlaid_with_ivory_MET_DP137936.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Bronze_chariot_inlaid_with_ivory_MET_DP137936.jpg/330px-Bronze_chariot_inlaid_with_ivory_MET_DP137936.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Bronze_chariot_inlaid_with_ivory_MET_DP137936.jpg/440px-Bronze_chariot_inlaid_with_ivory_MET_DP137936.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3850" data-file-height="3030" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Monteleone_chariot" title="Monteleone chariot">Monteleone chariot</a>, one of the world's great archaeological finds, 2nd quarter of the 6th century BC</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Putto_graziani,_con_dedica_al_dio_tec_sans,_da_sanguineto_al_trasimeno,_200-150_ac_ca..JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Putto_graziani%2C_con_dedica_al_dio_tec_sans%2C_da_sanguineto_al_trasimeno%2C_200-150_ac_ca..JPG/150px-Putto_graziani%2C_con_dedica_al_dio_tec_sans%2C_da_sanguineto_al_trasimeno%2C_200-150_ac_ca..JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Putto_graziani%2C_con_dedica_al_dio_tec_sans%2C_da_sanguineto_al_trasimeno%2C_200-150_ac_ca..JPG/225px-Putto_graziani%2C_con_dedica_al_dio_tec_sans%2C_da_sanguineto_al_trasimeno%2C_200-150_ac_ca..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Putto_graziani%2C_con_dedica_al_dio_tec_sans%2C_da_sanguineto_al_trasimeno%2C_200-150_ac_ca..JPG/300px-Putto_graziani%2C_con_dedica_al_dio_tec_sans%2C_da_sanguineto_al_trasimeno%2C_200-150_ac_ca..JPG 2x" data-file-width="1420" data-file-height="2120" /></a><figcaption>Putto Graziani, hollow-cast bronze on which is engraved the Etruscan inscription "To the god Tec Sans as a gift" (Tec Sans was the protectress of childhood), 3-2nd century BC, <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Museums" title="Vatican Museums">Museo Gregoriano Etrusco</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Museo_guarnacci,_urna_degli_sposi,_I_sec._ac._01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Museo_guarnacci%2C_urna_degli_sposi%2C_I_sec._ac._01.JPG/220px-Museo_guarnacci%2C_urna_degli_sposi%2C_I_sec._ac._01.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Museo_guarnacci%2C_urna_degli_sposi%2C_I_sec._ac._01.JPG/330px-Museo_guarnacci%2C_urna_degli_sposi%2C_I_sec._ac._01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Museo_guarnacci%2C_urna_degli_sposi%2C_I_sec._ac._01.JPG/440px-Museo_guarnacci%2C_urna_degli_sposi%2C_I_sec._ac._01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Sarcophagus of the Spouses, about 1st century BC, <a href="/wiki/Volterra" title="Volterra">Volterra</a>, Museo etrusco Guarnacci</figcaption></figure> <p>The question of the origins of the Etruscans has long been a subject of interest and debate among historians. In modern times, all the evidence gathered so far by prehistoric and protohistoric archaeologists, anthropologists, and etruscologists points to an autochthonous origin of the Etruscans.<sup id="cite_ref-Barker_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barker-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DeGrummond2014_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeGrummond2014-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Turfa2017_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turfa2017-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shipley2017_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shipley2017-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Benelli2021_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benelli2021-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no archaeological or linguistic evidence of a migration of the Lydians or Pelasgians into Etruria.<sup id="cite_ref-Wallace2010_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wallace2010-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Turfa2017_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turfa2017-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DeGrummond2014_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeGrummond2014-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shipley2017_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shipley2017-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Benelli2021_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benelli2021-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern <a href="/wiki/Etruscology" title="Etruscology">etruscologists</a> and archeologists, such as <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Pallottino" title="Massimo Pallottino">Massimo Pallottino</a> (1947), have shown that early historians' assumptions and assertions on the subject were groundless.<sup id="cite_ref-Pallottino1947_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1947-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2000, the etruscologist <a href="/wiki/Dominique_Briquel" title="Dominique Briquel">Dominique Briquel</a> explained in detail why he believes that ancient Greek narratives on Etruscan origins should not even count as historical documents.<sup id="cite_ref-Briquel2000_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Briquel2000-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argues that the ancient story of the Etruscans' 'Lydian origins' was a deliberate, politically motivated fabrication, and that ancient Greeks inferred a connection between the Tyrrhenians and the Pelasgians solely on the basis of certain Greek and local traditions and on the mere fact that there had been trade between the Etruscans and Greeks.<sup id="cite_ref-Hornblower2014_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hornblower2014-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Briquel2013_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Briquel2013-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He noted that, even if these stories include historical facts suggesting contact, such contact is more plausibly traceable to cultural exchange than to migration.<sup id="cite_ref-Briquel1990_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Briquel1990-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several archaeologists specializing in <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protohistory" title="Protohistory">Protohistory</a>, who have analyzed Bronze Age and Iron Age remains that were excavated in the territory of historical Etruria have pointed out that no evidence has been found, related either to <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a> or to <a href="/wiki/Social_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Social practices">social practices</a>, that can support a migration theory.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartoloni2014_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartoloni2014-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most marked and radical change that has been archaeologically attested in the area is the adoption, starting in about the 12th century BC, of the funeral rite of incineration in terracotta urns, which is a Continental European practice, derived from the <a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield culture</a>; there is nothing about it that suggests an ethnic contribution from <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartoloni2014_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartoloni2014-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2012 survey of the previous 30 years' archaeological findings, based on excavations of the major Etruscan cities, showed a continuity of culture from the last phase of the Bronze Age (13th–11th century BC) to the Iron Age (10th–9th century BC). This is evidence that the Etruscan civilization, which emerged around 900 BC, was built by people whose ancestors had inhabited that region for at least the previous 200 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Bagnasco2012_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bagnasco2012-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on this cultural continuity, there is now a consensus among archeologists that Proto-Etruscan culture developed, during the last phase of the Bronze Age, from the indigenous <a href="/wiki/Proto-Villanovan_culture" title="Proto-Villanovan culture">Proto-Villanovan culture</a>, and that the subsequent Iron Age <a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Villanovan culture</a> is most accurately described as an early phase of the Etruscan civilization.<sup id="cite_ref-Moser1996_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moser1996-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is possible that there were contacts between northern-central Italy and the <a href="/wiki/Mycenaeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycenaeans">Mycenaean world</a> at the end of the Bronze Age. However contacts between the inhabitants of Etruria and inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a> Islands, Asia Minor, and the Near East are attested only centuries later, when Etruscan civilization was already flourishing and Etruscan <a href="/wiki/Ethnogenesis" title="Ethnogenesis">ethnogenesis</a> was well established. The first of these attested contacts relate to the <a href="/wiki/Magna_Grecia" class="mw-redirect" title="Magna Grecia">Greek colonies in Southern Italy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phoenician%E2%80%93Punic_Sardinia" title="Phoenician–Punic Sardinia">Phoenician-Punic</a> colonies in <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>, and the consequent <a href="/wiki/Orientalizing_period" title="Orientalizing period">orientalizing period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stoddart_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stoddart-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the most common mistakes for a long time, even among some scholars of the past, has been to associate the later <a href="/wiki/Orientalizing_period" title="Orientalizing period">Orientalizing period</a> of Etruscan civilization with the question of its origins. Orientalization was an artistic and cultural phenomenon that spread among the Greeks themselves, and throughout much of the central and western Mediterranean, not only in Etruria.<sup id="cite_ref-Burkert1992_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burkert1992-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Orientalizing period in the Etruscans was due, as has been amply demonstrated by archeologists, to contacts with the Greeks and the Eastern Mediterranean and not to mass migrations.<sup id="cite_ref-d'agostino2003_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-d'agostino2003-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The facial features (the profile, almond-shaped eyes, large nose) in the frescoes and sculptures, and the depiction of reddish-brown men and light-skinned women, influenced by archaic Greek art, followed the artistic traditions from the Eastern Mediterranean, that had spread even among the Greeks themselves, and to a lesser extent also to other several civilizations in the central and western Mediterranean up to the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>. Actually, many of the tombs of the Late Orientalizing and Archaic periods, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Augurs" title="Tomb of the Augurs">Tomb of the Augurs</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Triclinium" title="Tomb of the Triclinium">Tomb of the Triclinium</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Leopards" title="Tomb of the Leopards">Tomb of the Leopards</a>, as well as other tombs from the archaic period in the <a href="/wiki/Monterozzi_necropolis" title="Monterozzi necropolis">Monterozzi necropolis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tarquinia" title="Tarquinia">Tarquinia</a>, were painted by Greek painters or, in any case, foreigner artists. These images have, therefore, a very limited value for a realistic representation of the Etruscan population.<sup id="cite_ref-deGrummond2014_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deGrummond2014-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was only from the end of the 4th century BC that evidence of physiognomic portraits began to be found in Etruscan art and Etruscan portraiture became more realistic.<sup id="cite_ref-Bandinelli1984_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bandinelli1984-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Genetic_research">Genetic research</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Genetic research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There have been numerous biological studies on the Etruscan origins, the oldest of which dates back to the 1950s when research was still based on blood tests of modern samples, and DNA analysis (including the analysis of ancient samples) was not yet possible.<sup id="cite_ref-Ciba1959_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ciba1959-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Perkins2017_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perkins2017-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Perkins2009_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perkins2009-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is only in very recent years, with the development of <a href="/wiki/Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">archaeogenetics</a>, that comprehensive studies containing the <a href="/wiki/Whole_genome_sequencing" title="Whole genome sequencing">whole genome sequencing</a> of Etruscan samples have been published, including <a href="/wiki/Autosomal_DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Autosomal DNA">autosomal DNA</a> and <a href="/wiki/Y-DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Y-DNA">Y-DNA</a>, autosomal DNA being the "most valuable to understand what really happened in an individual's history", as stated by geneticist <a href="/wiki/David_Reich_(geneticist)" title="David Reich (geneticist)">David Reich</a>, whereas previously studies were based only on <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">mitochondrial DNA</a> analysis, which contains less and limited information.<sup id="cite_ref-Reich2018_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reich2018-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An archeogenetic study focusing on the question of Etruscan origins was published in September 2021 in the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Science_Advances" title="Science Advances">Science Advances</a></i> and analyzed the <a href="/wiki/Autosomal_DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Autosomal DNA">autosomal DNA</a> and the uniparental markers (Y-DNA and mtDNA) of 48 Iron Age individuals from <a href="/wiki/Tuscany" title="Tuscany">Tuscany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lazio" title="Lazio">Lazio</a>, spanning from 800 to 1 BC, and concluding that the Etruscans were autochthonous (locally indigenous), and they had a genetic profile similar to their Latin neighbors. In the Etruscan individuals the ancestral component <a href="/wiki/Steppe-related_ancestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Steppe-related ancestry">Steppe</a> was present in the same percentages found in the previously analyzed Iron Age Latins, and in the Etruscan DNA was completely absent a signal of recent admixture with Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean. Both Etruscans and Latins joined firmly the European cluster, west of modern Italians. The Etruscans were a mixture of WHG, EEF, and Steppe ancestry; 75% of the Etruscan male individuals were found to belong to <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R-M269" title="Haplogroup R-M269">haplogroup R1b (R1b M269)</a>, especially its clade <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R-M269#R-P312" title="Haplogroup R-M269">R1b-P312</a> and its derivative <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R1b-L2" title="Haplogroup R1b-L2">R1b-L2</a>, whose direct ancestor is <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R-M269#R-U152" title="Haplogroup R-M269">R1b-U152</a>, while the most common mitochondrial DNA haplogroup among the Etruscans was <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_H_(mtDNA)" title="Haplogroup H (mtDNA)">H</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Posth2021_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Posth2021-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The conclusions of the 2021 study are in line with a 2019 study previously published in the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i> that analyzed the remains of eleven <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> individuals from the areas around Rome, of which four were Etruscan individuals, one buried in <a href="/wiki/Veio" class="mw-redirect" title="Veio">Veio Grotta Gramiccia</a> from the Villanovan era (900-800 BC) and three buried in La Mattonara Necropolis near <a href="/wiki/Civitavecchia" title="Civitavecchia">Civitavecchia</a> from the Orientalizing period (700-600 BC). The study concluded that Etruscans (900–600 BC) and the <a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latins</a> (900–500 BC) from <a href="/wiki/Latium_vetus" class="mw-redirect" title="Latium vetus">Latium vetus</a> were genetically similar,<sup id="cite_ref-Antonio2019_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Antonio2019-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with genetic differences between the examined Etruscans and Latins found to be insignificant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAntonio_et_al.20193_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAntonio_et_al.20193-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Etruscan individuals and contemporary Latins were distinguished from preceding populations of Italy by the presence of <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 30%</span> <a href="/wiki/Steppe_ancestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Steppe ancestry">steppe ancestry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAntonio_et_al.20192_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAntonio_et_al.20192-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their DNA was a mixture of two-thirds <a href="/wiki/Copper_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper Age">Copper Age</a> ancestry (<a href="/wiki/Early_European_Farmers" title="Early European Farmers">EEF</a> + <a href="/wiki/Western_Hunter-Gatherer" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Hunter-Gatherer">WHG</a>; Etruscans ~66–72%, Latins ~62–75%), and one-third <a href="/wiki/Steppe-related_ancestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Steppe-related ancestry">Steppe-related ancestry</a> (Etruscans ~27–33%, Latins ~24–37%).<sup id="cite_ref-Antonio2019_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Antonio2019-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only sample of <a href="/wiki/Y-DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Y-DNA">Y-DNA</a> extracted belonged to <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_J_(Y-DNA)" title="Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)">haplogroup J-M12 (J2b-L283)</a>, found in an individual dated 700-600 BC, and carried exactly the M314 derived allele also found in a Middle Bronze Age individual from <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a> (1631–1531 BC). While the four samples of <a href="/wiki/MtDNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MtDNA">mtDNA</a> extracted belonged to haplogroups <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)#Haplogroup_U5" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup U (mtDNA)">U5a1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_H_(mtDNA)" title="Haplogroup H (mtDNA)">H</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_T_(mtDNA)" title="Haplogroup T (mtDNA)">T2b32</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_K_(mtDNA)" title="Haplogroup K (mtDNA)">K1a4</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAntonio_et_al.2019Table_2_Sample_Information,_Rows_33-35_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAntonio_et_al.2019Table_2_Sample_Information,_Rows_33-35-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the older studies, only based on mitochondrial DNA, a mtDNA study, published in 2018 in the journal <a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Physical_Anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="American Journal of Physical Anthropology">American Journal of Physical Anthropology</a>, compared both ancient and modern samples from Tuscany, from the <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a>, Etruscan age, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman age</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, and Present-day, and concluded that the Etruscans appear as a local population, intermediate between the prehistoric and the other samples, placing in the temporal network between the <a href="/wiki/Eneolithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eneolithic">Eneolithic Age</a> and the Roman Age.<sup id="cite_ref-Leonardi2018_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leonardi2018-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A couple of <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">mitochondrial DNA</a> studies, published in 2013 in the journals <a href="/wiki/PLOS_One" title="PLOS One">PLOS One</a> and <a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Physical_Anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="American Journal of Physical Anthropology">American Journal of Physical Anthropology</a>, based on Etruscan samples from Tuscany and Latium, concluded that the Etruscans were an indigenous population, showing that Etruscan mtDNA appears to fall very close to a Neolithic population from <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a> (<a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>) and to other Tuscan populations, strongly suggesting that the Etruscan civilization developed locally from the <a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Villanovan culture</a>, as already supported by archaeological evidence and anthropological research,<sup id="cite_ref-Moser1996_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moser1996-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Claassen2004_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Claassen2004-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that genetic links between Tuscany and western <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> date back to at least 5,000 years ago during the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> and the "most likely separation time between Tuscany and Western Anatolia falls around 7,600 years ago", at the time of the migrations of <a href="/wiki/Early_European_Farmers" title="Early European Farmers">Early European Farmers</a> (EEF) from Anatolia to Europe in the early Neolithic. The ancient Etruscan samples had mitochondrial DNA haplogroups (mtDNA) <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_JT_(mtDNA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup JT (mtDNA)">JT</a> (subclades of <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_J_(mtDNA)" title="Haplogroup J (mtDNA)">J</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_T_(mtDNA)" title="Haplogroup T (mtDNA)">T</a>) and <a href="/wiki/U5b" class="mw-redirect" title="U5b">U5</a>, with a minority of <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_H1_(mtDNA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup H1 (mtDNA)">mtDNA H1b</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ghirotto2013_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ghirotto2013-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tassi2013_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tassi2013-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An earlier mtDNA study published in 2004, based on about 28 samples of individuals, who lived from 600 to 100 BC, in <a href="/wiki/Veneto" title="Veneto">Veneto</a>, Etruria, and Campania, stated that the Etruscans had no significant heterogeneity, and that all mitochondrial lineages observed among the Etruscan samples appear typically European or <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asian</a>, but only a few <a href="/wiki/Haplotype" title="Haplotype">haplotypes</a> were shared with modern populations. Allele sharing between the Etruscans and modern populations is highest among <a href="/wiki/German_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="German (people)">Germans</a> (seven haplotypes in common), the <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornish</a> from the South West of Britain (five haplotypes in common), the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish peoples">Turks</a> (four haplotypes in common), and the <a href="/wiki/Tuscany" title="Tuscany">Tuscans</a> (two haplotypes in common).<sup id="cite_ref-Vernesi2004_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vernesi2004-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While, the modern populations with the shortest genetic distance from the ancient Etruscans, based solely on mtDNA and FST, were <a href="/wiki/Tuscans" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuscans">Tuscans</a> followed by the Turks, other populations from the Mediterranean and the Cornish after.<sup id="cite_ref-Vernesi2004_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vernesi2004-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This study was much criticized by other geneticists, because "data represent severely damaged or partly contaminated mtDNA sequences" and "any comparison with modern population data must be considered quite hazardous",<sup id="cite_ref-Bandelt2004_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bandelt2004-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bandelt2005_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bandelt2005-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thomas2005_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas2005-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and archaeologists, who argued that the study was not clear-cut and had not provided evidence that the Etruscans were an intrusive population to the European context.<sup id="cite_ref-Perkins2009_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perkins2009-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Perkins2017_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perkins2017-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the collective volume <i>Etruscology</i> published in 2017, British archeologist Phil Perkins, echoing an earlier article of his from 2009, provides an analysis of the state of DNA studies and writes that "none of the DNA studies to date conclusively prove that [the] Etruscans were an intrusive population in Italy that originated in the Eastern Mediterranean or Anatolia" and "there are indications that the evidence of DNA can support the theory that Etruscan people are autochthonous in central Italy".<sup id="cite_ref-Perkins2017_75-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perkins2017-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Perkins2009_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perkins2009-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his 2021 book, <i>A Short History of Humanity</i>, German geneticist <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Krause" title="Johannes Krause">Johannes Krause</a>, co-director of the <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_the_Science_of_Human_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jena" title="Jena">Jena</a>, concludes that it is likely that the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language">Etruscan language</a> (as well as <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Sardinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleo-Sardinian">Paleo-Sardinian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Minoan_language" title="Minoan language">Minoan</a>) "developed on the continent in the course of the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Revolution</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Krause2020_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krause2020-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Periodization_of_Etruscan_civilization">Periodization of Etruscan civilization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Periodization of Etruscan civilization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Villanovan culture</a></div> <p>The Etruscan civilization begins with the early Iron Age <a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Villanovan culture</a>, regarded as the oldest phase, that occupied a large area of northern and central Italy during the Iron Age.<sup id="cite_ref-Neri_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neri-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bartolonivillanoviana_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartolonivillanoviana-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Torellicolonna2000_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torellicolonna2000-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Torellibriquel2000_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torellibriquel2000-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Torellibartoloni2000_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torellibartoloni2000-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Etruscans themselves dated the origin of the Etruscan nation to a date corresponding to the 11th or 10th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Bartolonivillanoviana_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartolonivillanoviana-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BartoloniTreccani_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BartoloniTreccani-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Villanovan culture emerges with the phenomenon of regionalization from the late Bronze Age culture called "<a href="/wiki/Proto-Villanovan_culture" title="Proto-Villanovan culture">Proto-Villanovan</a>", part of the central European <a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield culture system</a>. In the last Villanovan phase, called the recent phase (about 770–730 BC), the Etruscans established relations of a certain consistency with the first <a href="/wiki/Magna_Grecia" class="mw-redirect" title="Magna Grecia">Greek immigrants in southern Italy</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Ischia" title="Ischia">Pithecusa</a> and then in <a href="/wiki/Cuma_(Italy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuma (Italy)">Cuma</a>), so much so as to initially absorb techniques and figurative models and soon more properly cultural models, with the introduction, for example, of writing, of a new way of banqueting, of a heroic funerary ideology, that is, a new aristocratic way of life, such as to profoundly change the physiognomy of Etruscan society.<sup id="cite_ref-BartoloniTreccani_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BartoloniTreccani-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, thanks to the growing number of contacts with the Greeks, the Etruscans entered what is called the <a href="/wiki/Orientalizing_period" title="Orientalizing period">Orientalizing phase</a>. In this phase, there was a heavy influence in Greece, most of Italy and some areas of Spain, from the most advanced areas of the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">eastern Mediterranean</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also directly Phoenician, or otherwise Near Eastern, craftsmen, merchants and artists contributed to the spread in southern Europe of Near Eastern cultural and artistic motifs. The last three phases of Etruscan civilization are called, respectively, Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic, which roughly correspond to the homonymous phases of the ancient Greek civilization. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chronology">Chronology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Chronology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" width="700px"> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="10"><b>Etruscan civilization</b><br />(900–27 BC)<sup id="cite_ref-Bartoloni2012h_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bartoloni2012h-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td rowspan="4">Villanovan period<br />(900–720 BC) </td> <td>Villanovan I </td> <td>900–800 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>Villanovan II </td> <td>800–720 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td><small>Villanovan III (Bologna area)</small> </td> <td><small>720–680 BC<sup id="cite_ref-Montanari2004_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montanari2004-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></small> </td></tr> <tr> <td><small>Villanovan IV (Bologna area)</small> </td> <td><small>680–540 BC<sup id="cite_ref-Montanari2004_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montanari2004-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></small> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">Orientalizing period<br />(720–580 BC) </td> <td>Early Orientalizing </td> <td>720–680 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>Middle Orientalizing </td> <td>680–625 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>Late Orientalizing </td> <td>625–580 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1">Archaic period<br />(580–480 BC) </td> <td>Archaic </td> <td>580–480 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1">Classical period<br />(480–320 BC) </td> <td>Classical </td> <td>480–320 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1">Hellenistic period<br />(320–27 BC) </td> <td>Hellenistic </td> <td>320–27 BC </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expansion">Expansion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Expansion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Etruria_Padana" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruria Padana">Etruria Padana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Etruria_Campana" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruria Campana">Etruria Campana</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Europe_with_indication_of_the_directions_of_the_traffic_of_Etruscan_and_Greek_products_-_(English_language_version).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Map_of_Europe_with_indication_of_the_directions_of_the_traffic_of_Etruscan_and_Greek_products_-_%28English_language_version%29.svg/220px-Map_of_Europe_with_indication_of_the_directions_of_the_traffic_of_Etruscan_and_Greek_products_-_%28English_language_version%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Map_of_Europe_with_indication_of_the_directions_of_the_traffic_of_Etruscan_and_Greek_products_-_%28English_language_version%29.svg/330px-Map_of_Europe_with_indication_of_the_directions_of_the_traffic_of_Etruscan_and_Greek_products_-_%28English_language_version%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Map_of_Europe_with_indication_of_the_directions_of_the_traffic_of_Etruscan_and_Greek_products_-_%28English_language_version%29.svg/440px-Map_of_Europe_with_indication_of_the_directions_of_the_traffic_of_Etruscan_and_Greek_products_-_%28English_language_version%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2045" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption>Etruscan territories and major spread pathways of Etruscan products</figcaption></figure> <p>Etruscan expansion was focused both to the north beyond the <a href="/wiki/Apennine_Mountains" title="Apennine Mountains">Apennine Mountains</a> and into Campania. Some small towns in the sixth century BC disappeared during this time, ostensibly subsumed by greater, more powerful neighbors. However, it is certain that the political structure of the Etruscan culture was similar to, albeit more aristocratic than, <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a> in the south. The mining and commerce of metal, especially <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron_(material)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron (material)">iron</a>, led to an enrichment of the Etruscans and to the expansion of their influence in the Italian peninsula and the western <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. Here, their interests collided with those of the Greeks, especially in the sixth century BC, when <a href="/wiki/Phocaea" title="Phocaea">Phocaeans</a> of Italy founded colonies along the coast of <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a>. This led the Etruscans to ally themselves with <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthage</a>, whose interests also collided with the Greeks.<sup id="cite_ref-historyone_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historyone-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-historytwo_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytwo-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around 540 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alalia" title="Battle of Alalia">Battle of Alalia</a> led to a new distribution of power in the western Mediterranean. Though the battle had no clear winner, <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> managed to expand its sphere of influence at the expense of the Greeks, and Etruria saw itself relegated to the northern <a href="/wiki/Tyrrhenian_Sea" title="Tyrrhenian Sea">Tyrrhenian Sea</a> with full ownership of <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a>. From the first half of the 5th century BC, the new political situation meant the beginning of the Etruscan decline after losing their southern provinces. In 480 BC, Etruria's ally Carthage was defeated by a coalition of Magna Graecia cities led by <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse, Sicily</a>. A few years later, in 474 BC, Syracuse's tyrant <a href="/wiki/Hiero_I_of_Syracuse" title="Hiero I of Syracuse">Hiero</a> defeated the Etruscans at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cumae" title="Battle of Cumae">Battle of Cumae</a>. Etruria's influence over the cities of <a href="/wiki/Latium" title="Latium">Latium</a> and Campania weakened, and the area was taken over by Romans and <a href="/wiki/Samnites" title="Samnites">Samnites</a>. </p><p>In the 4th century BC, Etruria saw a <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gallic</a> invasion end its influence over the <a href="/wiki/Po_Valley" title="Po Valley">Po Valley</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic coast</a>. Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a> had started annexing Etruscan cities. This led to the loss of the northern Etruscan provinces. During the <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Etruscan_Wars" title="Roman–Etruscan Wars">Roman–Etruscan Wars</a>, Etruria was conquered by Rome in the 3rd century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-historyone_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historyone-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-historytwo_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historytwo-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etruscan_League">Etruscan League</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Etruscan League"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_cities" title="Etruscan cities">Etruscan cities</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:0_Mars_de_Todi_-_Museo_Gregoriano_Etruscano_(1).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/0_Mars_de_Todi_-_Museo_Gregoriano_Etruscano_%281%29.JPG/220px-0_Mars_de_Todi_-_Museo_Gregoriano_Etruscano_%281%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/0_Mars_de_Todi_-_Museo_Gregoriano_Etruscano_%281%29.JPG/330px-0_Mars_de_Todi_-_Museo_Gregoriano_Etruscano_%281%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/0_Mars_de_Todi_-_Museo_Gregoriano_Etruscano_%281%29.JPG/440px-0_Mars_de_Todi_-_Museo_Gregoriano_Etruscano_%281%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3888" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mars_of_Todi" title="Mars of Todi">Mars of Todi</a>, an Etruscan <a href="/wiki/Bronze_sculpture" title="Bronze sculpture">bronze sculpture</a>, c. 400 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>According to legend,<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there was a period between 600 BC and 500 BC in which an <a href="/wiki/Political_alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Political alliance">alliance</a> was formed among twelve Etruscan settlements, known today as the <i>Etruscan League</i>, <i>Etruscan Federation</i>, or <i>Dodecapolis</i> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Δωδεκάπολις</span>). According to a legend, the Etruscan League of twelve cities was founded by <a href="/wiki/Tarchon" title="Tarchon">Tarchon</a> and his brother <a href="/wiki/Tyrrhenus" title="Tyrrhenus">Tyrrhenus</a>. Tarchon lent his name to the city of <a href="/wiki/Tarquinia" title="Tarquinia">Tarchna</a>, or Tarquinnii, as it was known by the Romans. Tyrrhenus gave his name to the <a href="/wiki/Tyrrhenians" title="Tyrrhenians">Tyrrhenians</a>, the alternative name for the Etruscans. Although there is no consensus on which cities were in the league, the following list may be close to the mark: <a href="/wiki/Arezzo" title="Arezzo">Arretium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerveteri" title="Cerveteri">Caisra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chiusi" title="Chiusi">Clevsin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cortona" title="Cortona">Curtun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perugia" title="Perugia">Perusna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Populonia" title="Populonia">Pupluna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Veii" title="Veii">Veii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tarquinia" title="Tarquinia">Tarchna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vetulonia" title="Vetulonia">Vetluna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volterra" title="Volterra">Volterra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bolsena" title="Bolsena">Velzna</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vulci" title="Vulci">Velch</a>. Some modern authors include <a href="/wiki/Rusellae" title="Rusellae">Rusellae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The league was mostly an economic and religious league, or a loose confederation, similar to the Greek states. During the later <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">imperial</a> times, when Etruria was just one of many regions controlled by Rome, the number of cities in the league increased by three. This is noted on many later grave stones from the 2nd century BC onwards. According to <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, the twelve <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-states</a> met once a year at the <a href="/wiki/Fanum_Voltumnae" title="Fanum Voltumnae">Fanum Voltumnae</a> at <a href="/wiki/Volsinii" title="Volsinii">Volsinii</a>, where a leader was chosen to represent the league.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were two other Etruscan leagues ("<a href="/wiki/Lega_dei_popoli" title="Lega dei popoli">Lega dei popoli</a>"): that of <a href="/wiki/Campania" title="Campania">Campania</a>, the main city of which was <a href="/wiki/Capua" title="Capua">Capua</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Po_Valley" title="Po Valley">Po Valley</a> city-states in northern Italy, which included <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spina" title="Spina">Spina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adria" title="Adria">Adria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possible_founding_of_Rome">Possible founding of Rome</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Possible founding of Rome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Founding of Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20090414-Civit%C3%A0-di-Bagnoregio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/20090414-Civit%C3%A0-di-Bagnoregio.jpg/220px-20090414-Civit%C3%A0-di-Bagnoregio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/20090414-Civit%C3%A0-di-Bagnoregio.jpg/330px-20090414-Civit%C3%A0-di-Bagnoregio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/20090414-Civit%C3%A0-di-Bagnoregio.jpg/440px-20090414-Civit%C3%A0-di-Bagnoregio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3880" data-file-height="2608" /></a><figcaption>A former Etruscan walled town, <a href="/wiki/Civita_di_Bagnoregio" title="Civita di Bagnoregio">Civita di Bagnoregio</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg/220px-Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg/330px-Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg/440px-Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>The <i><a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Wolf" title="Capitoline Wolf">Capitoline Wolf</a></i>, long considered an Etruscan bronze, feeding the twins <a href="/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus" title="Romulus and Remus">Romulus and Remus</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Those who subscribe to a <a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latin</a> foundation of Rome followed by an Etruscan invasion typically speak of an Etruscan "influence" on Roman culture – that is, cultural objects which were adopted by Rome from neighboring Etruria. The prevailing view is that Rome was founded by Latins who later merged with Etruscans. In this interpretation, Etruscan cultural objects are considered influences rather than part of a heritage.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rome was probably a small settlement until the arrival of the Etruscans, who constructed the first elements of its urban infrastructure such as the drainage system.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main criterion for deciding whether an object originated at Rome and traveled by influence to the Etruscans, or descended to the Romans from the Etruscans, is date. Many, if not most, of the Etruscan cities were older than Rome. If one finds that a given feature was there first, it cannot have originated at Rome. A second criterion is the opinion of the ancient sources. These would indicate that certain institutions and customs came directly from the Etruscans. Rome is located on the edge of what was Etruscan territory. When Etruscan settlements turned up south of the border, it was presumed that the Etruscans spread there after the foundation of Rome, but the settlements are now known to have preceded Rome. </p><p>Etruscan settlements were frequently built on hills – the steeper the better – and surrounded by thick walls. According to <a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Roman mythology</a>, when <a href="/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus" title="Romulus and Remus">Romulus and Remus</a> founded Rome, they did so on the <a href="/wiki/Palatine_Hill" title="Palatine Hill">Palatine Hill</a> according to Etruscan ritual; that is, they began with a <i><a href="/wiki/Pomerium" title="Pomerium">pomerium</a></i> or sacred ditch. Then, they proceeded to the walls. Romulus was required to kill Remus when the latter jumped over the wall, breaking its magic spell (see also under <a href="/wiki/Pons_Sublicius" title="Pons Sublicius">Pons Sublicius</a>). The name of Rome is attested in Etruscan in the form <i>Ruma-χ</i> meaning 'Roman', a form that mirrors other attested ethnonyms in that language with the same suffix <i>-χ</i>: <i>Velzna-χ</i> '(someone) from Volsinii' and <i>Sveama-χ</i> '(someone) from <a href="/wiki/Sovana" title="Sovana">Sovana</a>'. This in itself, however, is not enough to prove Etruscan origin conclusively. If Tiberius is from <i>θefarie</i>, then Ruma would have been placed on the <i>Thefar</i> (<a href="/wiki/Tiber" title="Tiber">Tiber</a>) river. A heavily discussed topic among scholars is who was the founding population of Rome. In 390 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Allia" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Allia">city of Rome was attacked</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a>, and as a result may have lost many – though not all – of its earlier records. </p><p>Later history relates that some Etruscans lived in the <i><a href="/wiki/Vicus_Tuscus" title="Vicus Tuscus">Vicus Tuscus</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the "Etruscan quarter", and that there was an Etruscan line of kings (albeit ones descended from a Greek, <a href="/wiki/Demaratus_of_Corinth" title="Demaratus of Corinth">Demaratus of Corinth</a>) that succeeded kings of Latin and Sabine origin. Etruscophile historians would argue that this, together with evidence for institutions, religious elements and other cultural elements, proves that Rome was founded by Etruscans. </p><p>Under Romulus and <a href="/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius">Numa Pompilius</a>, the people were said to have been divided into thirty <a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">curiae</a> and three <a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">tribes</a>. Few Etruscan words entered <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, but the names of at least two of the tribes – <i>Ramnes</i> and <i>Luceres</i> – seem to be Etruscan. The last kings may have borne the Etruscan title <i>lucumo</i>, while the <a href="/wiki/Regalia" title="Regalia">regalia</a> were traditionally considered of Etruscan origin – the golden crown, the sceptre, the <i>toga palmata</i> (a special robe), the <i>sella curulis</i> (<a href="/wiki/Curule_seat" title="Curule seat">curule chair</a>), and above all the primary symbol of state power: the <i><a href="/wiki/Fasces" title="Fasces">fasces</a></i>. The latter was a bundle of whipping rods surrounding a double-bladed <a href="/wiki/Axe" title="Axe">axe</a>, carried by the king's <a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">lictors</a>. An example of the fasces are the remains of bronze rods and the axe from a tomb in Etruscan <a href="/wiki/Vetulonia" title="Vetulonia">Vetulonia</a>. This allowed archaeologists to identify the depiction of a fasces on the grave <a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">stele</a> of Avele Feluske, who is shown as a warrior wielding the fasces. The most telling Etruscan feature is the word <i>populus</i>, which appears as an Etruscan deity, <a href="/wiki/Fufluns" title="Fufluns">Fufluns</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_families_of_Etruscan_origin">Roman families of Etruscan origin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Roman families of Etruscan origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancharia_gens" title="Ancharia gens">Ancharia gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arruntia_gens" title="Arruntia gens">Arruntia gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caecinia_gens" title="Caecinia gens">Caecinia gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caelia_gens" title="Caelia gens">Caelia gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesennia_gens" title="Caesennia gens">Caesennia gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceionia_gens" title="Ceionia gens">Ceionia gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilnia_gens" title="Cilnia gens">Cilnia gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herminia_gens" title="Herminia gens">Herminia gens</a> – <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patrician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erucia_gens" title="Erucia gens">Erucia gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lartia_gens" title="Lartia gens">Lartia gens</a> – Patrician</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpernia_gens" title="Perpernia gens">Perpernia gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persia_gens" title="Persia gens">Persia gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasinia_gens" title="Rasinia gens">Rasinia gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanquinia_gens" title="Sanquinia gens">Sanquinia gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spurinnia_gens" title="Spurinnia gens">Spurinnia gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapsennia_gens" title="Tapsennia gens">Tapsennia gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarquinia_gens" title="Tarquinia gens">Tarquinia gens</a> – Patrician (?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarquitia_gens" title="Tarquitia gens">Tarquitia gens</a> – Patrician</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urgulania_gens" title="Urgulania gens">Urgulania gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verginia_gens" title="Verginia gens">Verginia gens</a> – Patrician</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volumnia_gens" title="Volumnia gens">Volumnia gens</a> – Patrician</li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_society" title="Etruscan society">Etruscan society</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daily_life_of_the_Etruscans" title="Daily life of the Etruscans">Daily life of the Etruscans</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government">Government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_society#Government" title="Etruscan society">Etruscan governance</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Etruscan_mother_and_child_500_to_450_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Etruscan_mother_and_child_500_to_450_BCE.jpg/170px-Etruscan_mother_and_child_500_to_450_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Etruscan_mother_and_child_500_to_450_BCE.jpg/255px-Etruscan_mother_and_child_500_to_450_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Etruscan_mother_and_child_500_to_450_BCE.jpg/340px-Etruscan_mother_and_child_500_to_450_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1298" data-file-height="2092" /></a><figcaption>Etruscan mother and child, 500–450 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>The historical Etruscans had achieved a <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">state</a> system of society, with remnants of the <a href="/wiki/Chiefdom" title="Chiefdom">chiefdom</a> and tribal forms. Rome was in a sense the first Italic state, but it began as an Etruscan one. It is believed that the Etruscan government style changed from total <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a> to <a href="/wiki/Oligarchic" class="mw-redirect" title="Oligarchic">oligarchic</a> <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republic</a> (as the Roman Republic) in the 6th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The government was viewed as being a central authority, ruling over all tribal and clan organizations. It retained the power of life and death; in fact, the <a href="/wiki/Gorgon" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorgon">gorgon</a>, an ancient symbol of that power, appears as a motif in Etruscan decoration. The adherents to this state power were united by a common religion. Political unity in Etruscan society was the city-state, which was probably the referent of <span title="Etruscan-language romanization"><i lang="ett-Latn">methlum</i></span>, "district". Etruscan texts name quite a number of <a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">magistrates</a>, without much of a hint as to their function: The <span title="Etruscan-language romanization"><i lang="ett-Latn">camthi</i></span>, the <span title="Etruscan-language romanization"><i lang="ett-Latn">parnich</i></span>, the <span title="Etruscan-language romanization"><i lang="ett-Latn">purth</i></span>, the <span title="Etruscan-language romanization"><i lang="ett-Latn">tamera</i></span>, the <span title="Etruscan-language romanization"><i lang="ett-Latn">macstrev</i></span>, and so on. The people were the <i>mech</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family">Family</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Family"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_society#Rise_of_the_family" title="Etruscan society">Etruscan society: Rise of the family</a> and <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Etruscan_society" title="Women in Etruscan society">Women in Etruscan society</a></div> <p>The princely tombs were not of individuals. The inscription evidence shows that families were interred there over long periods, marking the growth of the aristocratic family as a fixed institution, parallel to the <i><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">gens</a></i> at Rome and perhaps even its model. The Etruscans could have used any model of the eastern Mediterranean. That the growth of this class is related to the new acquisition of wealth through trade is unquestioned. The wealthiest cities were located near the coast. At the center of the society was the married couple, <i>tusurthir</i>. The Etruscans were a monogamous society that emphasized pairing. </p><p>Similarly, the behavior of some wealthy women is not uniquely Etruscan. The apparent promiscuous revelry has a spiritual explanation. Swaddling and Bonfante (among others) explain that depictions of the nude embrace, or symplegma, "had the power to ward off evil", as did baring the breast, which was adopted by <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">western culture</a> as an <a href="/wiki/Apotropaic_magic" title="Apotropaic magic">apotropaic device</a>, appearing finally on the figureheads of sailing ships as a nude female upper torso. It is also possible that Greek and Roman attitudes to the Etruscans were based on a misunderstanding of the place of women within their society. In both Greece and the earliest Republican Rome, respectable women were confined to the house and mixed-sex socialising did not occur. Thus, the freedom of <a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Etruscan_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in the Etruscan society">women within Etruscan society</a> could have been misunderstood as implying their sexual availability.<sup id="cite_ref-Briquel,_Dominique_2007_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Briquel,_Dominique_2007-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of Etruscan tombs carry funerary inscriptions in the form "X son of (father) and (mother)", indicating the importance of the mother's side of the family.<sup id="cite_ref-Briquel,_Dominique_2007_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Briquel,_Dominique_2007-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_military_history" title="Etruscan military history">Etruscan military history</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Padanian_Etruria" title="Padanian Etruria">Padanian Etruria</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Etruscan_warrior_near_Viterbe_Italy_circa_500_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Etruscan_warrior_near_Viterbe_Italy_circa_500_BCE.jpg/200px-Etruscan_warrior_near_Viterbe_Italy_circa_500_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Etruscan_warrior_near_Viterbe_Italy_circa_500_BCE.jpg/300px-Etruscan_warrior_near_Viterbe_Italy_circa_500_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Etruscan_warrior_near_Viterbe_Italy_circa_500_BCE.jpg/400px-Etruscan_warrior_near_Viterbe_Italy_circa_500_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1558" data-file-height="2412" /></a><figcaption>Etruscan warrior, found near <a href="/wiki/Viterbo" title="Viterbo">Viterbo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, dated <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 500 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>The Etruscans, like the contemporary cultures of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a>, had a significant military tradition. In addition to marking the rank and power of certain individuals, warfare was a considerable economic advantage to Etruscan civilization. Like many ancient societies, the Etruscans conducted campaigns during summer months, raiding neighboring areas, attempting to gain territory and combating <a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">piracy</a> as a means of acquiring valuable resources, such as land, prestige, goods, and slaves. It is likely that individuals taken in battle would be ransomed back to their families and clans at high cost. Prisoners could also potentially be sacrificed on tombs to honor fallen leaders of Etruscan society, not unlike the sacrifices made by <a href="/wiki/Achilles" title="Achilles">Achilles</a> for <a href="/wiki/Patroclus" title="Patroclus">Patrocles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bookone_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bookone-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-booktwo_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-booktwo-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bookthree_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bookthree-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>550 BC: Etruscan-<a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Punic</a> coalition against Greece off the coast of Corsica</li> <li>540 BC: <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlacht_von_Alalia" class="extiw" title="de:Schlacht von Alalia">naval victory at Alalia</a></li> <li>524 BC: Defeat at <a href="/wiki/Cumae" title="Cumae">Cyme</a> against the Greeks</li> <li>510 BC: Fall of the Etruscan kingship of <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Superbus" title="Lucius Tarquinius Superbus">Lucius Tarquinius Superbus</a> in Rome</li> <li>508 BC: <a href="/wiki/Lars_Porsena" title="Lars Porsena">Lars Porsena</a> besieges Rome</li> <li>508 BC: War between <a href="/wiki/War_between_Clusium_and_Aricia" title="War between Clusium and Aricia">Clusium and Aricia</a></li> <li>482 BC: Beginning of the conflict between <a href="/wiki/Veii" title="Veii">Veii</a> and Rome</li> <li>474 BC: Defeat of the Etruscans against <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a> in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Cyme&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Cyme (page does not exist)">Battle of Cyme</a> (also Cumae)</li> <li>430 BC 406 BC: Defeat against the <a href="/wiki/Samnites" title="Samnites">Samnites</a> in <a href="/wiki/Campania" title="Campania">Campania</a></li> <li>406 BC: Siege of Veii by Rome</li> <li>396 BC: Destruction of Veii by Rome</li> <li>from 396 BC: Invasion of the Celts into the <a href="/wiki/Po_Valley" title="Po Valley">Po Valley</a></li> <li>384 BC: Plunder of <a href="/wiki/Pyrgi" title="Pyrgi">Pyrgi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Santa_Severa" title="Santa Severa">Santa Severa</a>) by <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_I_of_Syracuse" title="Dionysius I of Syracuse">Dionysius I of Syracuse</a></li> <li>358 BC: Alliance of <a href="/wiki/Tarquinia" title="Tarquinia">Tarquinia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cerveteri" title="Cerveteri">Cerveteri</a> against Rome</li> <li>310 BC: Defeat against the Romans at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Vadimo_(310_BC)" title="Battle of Lake Vadimo (310 BC)">Lake Vadimone</a></li> <li>300 BC: Pyrgi becomes a Roman colony</li> <li>280 BC: Defeat of <a href="/wiki/Vulci" title="Vulci">Vulci</a> against Rome</li> <li>264 BC 100 BC: Defeat of <a href="/wiki/Volsinii" title="Volsinii">Volsinii</a> against Rome</li> <li>260 BC: Subjugation by the Gauls in the Po Valley</li> <li>205 BC: Support of <a href="/wiki/Publius_Cornelius_Scipio_Africanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus">Scipio</a> in the campaign against <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a></li> <li>183 BC: Foundation of the Roman colony in <a href="/wiki/Saturnia" title="Saturnia">Saturnia</a></li> <li>90 BC: Granting of <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a></li> <li>82 BC: Repression of <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla_Felix" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix">Sulla</a> in Etruria</li> <li>79 BC: Capitulation of <a href="/wiki/Volterra" title="Volterra">Volterra</a></li> <li>from 40 BC: Final Romanization of Etruria</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cities">Cities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_cities" title="Etruscan cities">Etruscan cities</a></div> <p>The range of Etruscan civilization is marked by <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_cities" title="Etruscan cities">its cities</a>. They were entirely assimilated by Italic, <a href="/wiki/Celt" class="mw-redirect" title="Celt">Celtic</a>, or Roman ethnic groups, but the names survive from inscriptions and their ruins are of aesthetic and historic interest in most of the cities of central Italy. Etruscan cities flourished over most of Italy during the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Iron Age">Roman Iron Age</a>, marking the farthest extent of Etruscan civilization. They were gradually assimilated first by Italics in the south, then by Celts in the north and finally in Etruria itself by the growing Roman Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-bookone_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bookone-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>That many Roman cities were formerly Etruscan was well known to all the Roman authors. Some cities were founded by Etruscans in prehistoric times, and bore entirely Etruscan names. Others were colonized by Etruscans who Etruscanized the name, usually <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-booktwo_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-booktwo-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Agriculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Etruscans were aware of the techniques of <a href="/wiki/Irrigation#History" title="Irrigation">water accumulation and conservation</a> in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Greece. They built canals and dams to irrigate the land, and drained and reclaimed swamps. The archaeological remains of this infrastructure are still evident in the maritime southwestern parts of <a href="/wiki/Tuscany" title="Tuscany">Tuscany</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Vite maritata</i> is a <a href="/wiki/Viticulture" title="Viticulture">viticulture</a> technique exploiting <a href="/wiki/Companion_planting" title="Companion planting">companion planting</a> named after the <a href="/wiki/Maremma" title="Maremma">Maremma</a> region of Italy which may be relevant to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was developed around the area by these early predecessors of the Romans who cultivated plant as nearly as possible in their natural habitat. The <a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">vines</a> from which wine is made are a kind of <a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">liana</a> that naturally intertwine with trees such as maples or willows.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan religion</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chimera_d%27arezzo,_fi,_03.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Chimera_d%27arezzo%2C_fi%2C_03.JPG/200px-Chimera_d%27arezzo%2C_fi%2C_03.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Chimera_d%27arezzo%2C_fi%2C_03.JPG/300px-Chimera_d%27arezzo%2C_fi%2C_03.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Chimera_d%27arezzo%2C_fi%2C_03.JPG/400px-Chimera_d%27arezzo%2C_fi%2C_03.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2368" data-file-height="2037" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Chimera_of_Arezzo" title="Chimera of Arezzo">Chimera of Arezzo</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chimera_d%27arezzo,_firenze,_05_firma.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Chimera_d%27arezzo%2C_firenze%2C_05_firma.JPG/200px-Chimera_d%27arezzo%2C_firenze%2C_05_firma.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Chimera_d%27arezzo%2C_firenze%2C_05_firma.JPG/300px-Chimera_d%27arezzo%2C_firenze%2C_05_firma.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Chimera_d%27arezzo%2C_firenze%2C_05_firma.JPG/400px-Chimera_d%27arezzo%2C_firenze%2C_05_firma.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Inscription of <a href="/wiki/Tinia" title="Tinia">Tinia</a> on the Chimera's leg</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The Etruscan system of belief was an <a href="/wiki/Immanent" class="mw-redirect" title="Immanent">immanent</a> <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheism</a>; that is, all visible phenomena were considered to be a manifestation of <a href="/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">divine</a> power and that power was subdivided into <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">deities</a> that acted continually on the world of man and could be dissuaded or persuaded in favor of human affairs. How to understand the will of deities, and how to behave, had been revealed to the Etruscans by two initiators, <a href="/wiki/Tages" title="Tages">Tages</a>, a childlike figure born from tilled land and immediately gifted with prescience, and <a href="/wiki/Vegoia" title="Vegoia">Vegoia</a>, a female figure. Their teachings were kept in a series of sacred books. Three layers of deities are evident in the extensive Etruscan art motifs. One appears to be divinities of an indigenous nature: <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscan mythology">Catha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Usil" title="Usil">Usil</a>, the sun; <i>Tivr</i>, the moon; <a href="/wiki/Selvans" title="Selvans">Selvans</a>, a civil god; <a href="/wiki/Turan_(goddess)" class="mw-redirect" title="Turan (goddess)">Turan</a>, the goddess of love; <a href="/wiki/Laran" title="Laran">Laran</a>, the god of war; <a href="/wiki/Leinth" title="Leinth">Leinth</a>, the goddess of death; <a href="/wiki/Maris_(mythology)" title="Maris (mythology)">Maris</a>; <a href="/wiki/Thalna" title="Thalna">Thalna</a>; <a href="/wiki/Turms" title="Turms">Turms</a>; and the ever-popular <a href="/wiki/Fufluns" title="Fufluns">Fufluns</a>, whose name is related in some way to the city of <a href="/wiki/Populonia" title="Populonia">Populonia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Populus_Romanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Populus Romanus">populus Romanus</a>, possibly, the god of the people.<sup id="cite_ref-bookonereligion_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bookonereligion-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-booktworeligion_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-booktworeligion-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ruling over this pantheon of lesser deities were higher ones that seem to reflect the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European religion">Indo-European</a> system: Tin or <a href="/wiki/Tinia" title="Tinia">Tinia</a>, the sky, <a href="/wiki/Uni_(mythology)" title="Uni (mythology)">Uni</a> his wife (<a href="/wiki/Juno_(mythology)" title="Juno (mythology)">Juno</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Cel_(goddess)" title="Cel (goddess)">Cel</a>, the earth goddess. In addition, some Greek and Roman gods were inspired by the Etruscan system: <a href="/wiki/Artume" title="Artume">Aritimi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Artemis" title="Artemis">Artemis</a>), <a href="/wiki/Menrva" title="Menrva">Menrva</a> (<a href="/wiki/Minerva" title="Minerva">Minerva</a>), Pacha (<a href="/wiki/Dionysus" title="Dionysus">Dionysus</a>). The Greek heroes taken from <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> also appear extensively in art motifs.<sup id="cite_ref-bookonereligion_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bookonereligion-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-booktworeligion_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-booktworeligion-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture">Architecture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_architecture" title="Etruscan architecture">Etruscan architecture</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hypogeum_cyark_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Hypogeum_cyark_1.jpg/200px-Hypogeum_cyark_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Hypogeum_cyark_1.jpg/300px-Hypogeum_cyark_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Hypogeum_cyark_1.jpg/400px-Hypogeum_cyark_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1565" data-file-height="799" /></a><figcaption>3D view, facing west, of the Etruscan Hypogeum of the Volumnis, <a href="/wiki/Perugia" title="Perugia">Perugia</a>, Italy, cut from a <a href="/wiki/3D_scanner" class="mw-redirect" title="3D scanner">laser scan</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Relatively little is known about the architecture of the ancient Etruscans. They adapted the native Italic styles with influence from the external appearance of <a href="/wiki/Greek_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek architecture">Greek architecture</a>. In turn, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">ancient Roman architecture</a> began with Etruscan styles, and then accepted still further Greek influence. <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Roman temples</a> show many of the same differences in form to Greek ones that Etruscan temples do, but like the Greeks, use stone, in which they closely copy Greek conventions. The houses of the wealthy were evidently often large and comfortable, but the burial chambers of tombs, often filled with grave-goods, are the nearest approach to them to survive. In the southern Etruscan area, tombs have large rock-cut chambers under a <a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">tumulus</a> in large <a href="/wiki/Necropolis" title="Necropolis">necropoleis</a>, and these, together with some city walls, are the only Etruscan constructions to survive. Etruscan architecture is not generally considered as part of the body of Greco-Roman <a href="/wiki/Classical_architecture" title="Classical architecture">classical architecture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-booktwoarchitecture_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-booktwoarchitecture-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art_and_music">Art and music</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Art and music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_art" title="Etruscan art">Etruscan art</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Danseurs_et_musiciens,_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg/200px-Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg/300px-Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg/400px-Danseurs_et_musiciens%2C_tombe_des_l%C3%A9opards.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2892" data-file-height="1603" /></a><figcaption>5th century BC fresco of dancers and musicians, <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Leopards" title="Tomb of the Leopards">Tomb of the Leopards</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monterozzi_necropolis" title="Monterozzi necropolis">Monterozzi necropolis</a>, Tarquinia, Italy</figcaption></figure> <p>Etruscan art was produced by the Etruscan civilization between the 9th and 2nd centuries BC. Particularly strong in this tradition were figurative sculpture in terracotta (particularly lifesize on <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagus" title="Sarcophagus">sarcophagi</a> or temples), wall-painting and <a href="/wiki/Metalworking" title="Metalworking">metalworking</a> (especially engraved bronze mirrors). Etruscan sculpture in cast bronze was famous and widely exported, but few large examples have survived (the material was too valuable, and recycled later). In contrast to terracotta and bronze, there was apparently little Etruscan sculpture in stone, despite the Etruscans controlling fine sources of marble, including <a href="/wiki/Carrara_marble" title="Carrara marble">Carrara marble</a>, which seems not to have been exploited until the Romans. Most surviving Etruscan art comes from tombs, including all the <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">fresco</a> wall-paintings, a minority of which show scenes of feasting and some narrative mythological subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bucchero" title="Bucchero">Bucchero</a> wares in black were the early and native styles of fine Etruscan pottery. There was also a tradition of elaborate <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_vase_painting" title="Etruscan vase painting">Etruscan vase painting</a>, which sprung from its Greek equivalent; the Etruscans were the main export market for <a href="/wiki/Pottery_of_ancient_Greece" title="Pottery of ancient Greece">Greek vases</a>. Etruscan temples were heavily decorated with colorfully painted terracotta <a href="/wiki/Antefix" title="Antefix">antefixes</a> and other fittings, which survive in large numbers where the wooden superstructure has vanished. Etruscan art was strongly connected to <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">religion</a>; the afterlife was of major importance in Etruscan art.<sup id="cite_ref-etruscianartmusic_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-etruscianartmusic-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Etruscan musical instruments seen in frescoes and bas-reliefs are different types of pipes, such as the <a href="/wiki/Aulos" title="Aulos">plagiaulos</a> (the pipes of <a href="/wiki/Pan_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan (mythology)">Pan</a> or <a href="/wiki/Syrinx" title="Syrinx">Syrinx</a>), the alabaster pipe and the famous double pipes, accompanied on percussion instruments such as the <a href="/wiki/Tintinnabulum_(Ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tintinnabulum (Ancient Rome)">tintinnabulum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timpani" title="Timpani">tympanum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crotales" title="Crotales">crotales</a>, and later by stringed instruments like the <a href="/wiki/Lyre" title="Lyre">lyre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kithara" title="Kithara">kithara</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language">Etruscan language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian languages</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Perugia,_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria,_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Perugia%2C_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria%2C_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg/170px-Perugia%2C_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria%2C_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Perugia%2C_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria%2C_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg/255px-Perugia%2C_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria%2C_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Perugia%2C_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria%2C_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg/340px-Perugia%2C_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria%2C_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cippus_Perusinus" title="Cippus Perusinus">Cippus Perusinus</a>. 3rd–2nd century BC, San Marco near <a href="/wiki/Perugia" title="Perugia">Perugia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Etruscans left around 13,000 <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">inscriptions</a> which have been found so far, only a small minority of which are of significant length. Attested from 700 BC to AD 50, the relation of Etruscan to other languages has been a source of long-running speculation and study. The Etruscans are believed to have spoken a <a href="/wiki/Pre-Indo-European_languages" title="Pre-Indo-European languages">Pre-Indo-European</a><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Paleo-European_languages" title="Paleo-European languages">Paleo-European language</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Haarmann2014_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haarmann2014-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the majority consensus is that Etruscan is related only to other members of what is called the <a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian language family</a>, which in itself is an <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">isolate family</a>, that is unrelated directly to other known language groups. Since <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Rix" title="Helmut Rix">Rix</a> (1998), it is widely accepted that the Tyrsenian family groups <a href="/wiki/Raetic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Raetic language">Raetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lemnian_language" title="Lemnian language">Lemnian</a> are related to Etruscan.<sup id="cite_ref-Rix-2008_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rix-2008-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lanena_knjiga_(Liber_linteus_Zagrebiensis).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Lanena_knjiga_%28Liber_linteus_Zagrebiensis%29.jpg/220px-Lanena_knjiga_%28Liber_linteus_Zagrebiensis%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Lanena_knjiga_%28Liber_linteus_Zagrebiensis%29.jpg/330px-Lanena_knjiga_%28Liber_linteus_Zagrebiensis%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Lanena_knjiga_%28Liber_linteus_Zagrebiensis%29.jpg/440px-Lanena_knjiga_%28Liber_linteus_Zagrebiensis%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="1539" /></a><figcaption>Samples of Etruscan script, from the <a href="/wiki/Liber_linteus" class="mw-redirect" title="Liber linteus">Liber linteus</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Etruscan texts, written in a space of seven centuries, use a form of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a> due to close contact between the Etruscans and the Greek colonies at <a href="/wiki/Ischia" title="Ischia">Pithecusae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cumae" title="Cumae">Cumae</a> in the 8th century BC (until it was no longer used, at the beginning of the 1st century AD). Etruscan inscriptions disappeared from <a href="/wiki/Chiusi" title="Chiusi">Chiusi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perugia" title="Perugia">Perugia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arezzo" title="Arezzo">Arezzo</a> around this time. Only a few fragments survive, religious and especially funeral texts, most of which are late (from the 4th century BC). In addition to the original texts that have survived to this day, there are a large number of quotations and allusions from classical authors. In the 1st century BC, <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> wrote that literary culture was one of the great achievements of the Etruscans. Little is known of it and even what is known of their language is due to the repetition of the same few words in the many inscriptions found (by way of the modern epitaphs) contrasted in bilingual or trilingual texts with Latin and <a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a>. Out of the aforementioned genres, is just one such Volnio (Volnius) cited in classical sources mentioned.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With a few exceptions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Liber_Linteus" title="Liber Linteus">Liber Linteus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Thesaurus_Linguae_Etruscae" class="mw-redirect" title="Thesaurus Linguae Etruscae">only written records in the Etruscan language</a> that remain are inscriptions, mainly funerary. The language is written in the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">Etruscan alphabet</a>, a script related to the early <a href="/wiki/Euboean_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Euboean alphabet">Euboean Greek alphabet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many thousand inscriptions in Etruscan are known, mostly <a href="/wiki/Epitaph" title="Epitaph">epitaphs</a>, and a few <a href="/wiki/Thesaurus_Linguae_Etruscae" class="mw-redirect" title="Thesaurus Linguae Etruscae">very short texts</a> have survived, which are mainly religious. Etruscan imaginative literature is evidenced only in references by later Roman authors, but it is evident from their visual art that the Greek myths were well-known.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the founding of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B9%CE%B8%CE%B7%CE%BA%CE%BF%E1%BF%A6%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%B9" class="extiw" title="wikt:Πιθηκοῦσαι">Pithekussai</a> on <a href="/wiki/Ischia" title="Ischia">Ischia</a> and Kyme (lat. <a href="/wiki/Cumae" title="Cumae">Cumae</a>) in <a href="/wiki/Campania" title="Campania">Campania</a> in the course of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek colonization">Greek colonization</a>, the Etruscans came under the influence of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek culture">Greek culture</a> in the 8th century BC. The Etruscans adopted an <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabet</a> from the western Greek colonists that came from their homeland, the Euboean <a href="/wiki/Chalkis" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalkis">Chalkis</a>. This alphabet from Cumae is therefore also called Euboean<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or Chalcidian<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alphabet. The oldest written records of the Etruscans date from around 700 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="24">Euboean alphabet<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;width:20px">Letter </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Alpha_06.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Greek_Alpha_06.svg/20px-Greek_Alpha_06.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Greek_Alpha_06.svg/30px-Greek_Alpha_06.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Greek_Alpha_06.svg/40px-Greek_Alpha_06.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Beta_16.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Greek_Beta_16.svg/20px-Greek_Beta_16.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Greek_Beta_16.svg/30px-Greek_Beta_16.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Greek_Beta_16.svg/40px-Greek_Beta_16.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Gamma_archaic_1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Greek_Gamma_archaic_1.svg/20px-Greek_Gamma_archaic_1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Greek_Gamma_archaic_1.svg/30px-Greek_Gamma_archaic_1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Greek_Gamma_archaic_1.svg/40px-Greek_Gamma_archaic_1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Delta_03.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Greek_Delta_03.svg/20px-Greek_Delta_03.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Greek_Delta_03.svg/30px-Greek_Delta_03.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Greek_Delta_03.svg/40px-Greek_Delta_03.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Epsilon_archaic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Greek_Epsilon_archaic.svg/20px-Greek_Epsilon_archaic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Greek_Epsilon_archaic.svg/30px-Greek_Epsilon_archaic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Greek_Epsilon_archaic.svg/40px-Greek_Epsilon_archaic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Digamma_oblique.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Greek_Digamma_oblique.svg/20px-Greek_Digamma_oblique.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Greek_Digamma_oblique.svg/30px-Greek_Digamma_oblique.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Greek_Digamma_oblique.svg/40px-Greek_Digamma_oblique.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Zeta_archaic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Greek_Zeta_archaic.svg/20px-Greek_Zeta_archaic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Greek_Zeta_archaic.svg/30px-Greek_Zeta_archaic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Greek_Zeta_archaic.svg/40px-Greek_Zeta_archaic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Eta_archaic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Greek_Eta_archaic.svg/20px-Greek_Eta_archaic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Greek_Eta_archaic.svg/30px-Greek_Eta_archaic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Greek_Eta_archaic.svg/40px-Greek_Eta_archaic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Theta_archaic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Greek_Theta_archaic.svg/20px-Greek_Theta_archaic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Greek_Theta_archaic.svg/30px-Greek_Theta_archaic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Greek_Theta_archaic.svg/40px-Greek_Theta_archaic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Iota_normal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Greek_Iota_normal.svg/20px-Greek_Iota_normal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Greek_Iota_normal.svg/30px-Greek_Iota_normal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Greek_Iota_normal.svg/40px-Greek_Iota_normal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Kappa_normal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Greek_Kappa_normal.svg/20px-Greek_Kappa_normal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Greek_Kappa_normal.svg/30px-Greek_Kappa_normal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Greek_Kappa_normal.svg/40px-Greek_Kappa_normal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Lambda_06.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Greek_Lambda_06.svg/20px-Greek_Lambda_06.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Greek_Lambda_06.svg/30px-Greek_Lambda_06.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Greek_Lambda_06.svg/40px-Greek_Lambda_06.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Mu_02.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Greek_Mu_02.svg/20px-Greek_Mu_02.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Greek_Mu_02.svg/30px-Greek_Mu_02.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Greek_Mu_02.svg/40px-Greek_Mu_02.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Nu_straight.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Greek_Nu_straight.svg/20px-Greek_Nu_straight.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Greek_Nu_straight.svg/30px-Greek_Nu_straight.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Greek_Nu_straight.svg/40px-Greek_Nu_straight.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Xi_archaic_grid.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Greek_Xi_archaic_grid.svg/20px-Greek_Xi_archaic_grid.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Greek_Xi_archaic_grid.svg/30px-Greek_Xi_archaic_grid.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Greek_Xi_archaic_grid.svg/40px-Greek_Xi_archaic_grid.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Omicron_04.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Greek_Omicron_04.svg/20px-Greek_Omicron_04.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Greek_Omicron_04.svg/30px-Greek_Omicron_04.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Greek_Omicron_04.svg/40px-Greek_Omicron_04.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Pi_archaic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Greek_Pi_archaic.svg/20px-Greek_Pi_archaic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Greek_Pi_archaic.svg/30px-Greek_Pi_archaic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Greek_Pi_archaic.svg/40px-Greek_Pi_archaic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_San_02.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Greek_San_02.svg/20px-Greek_San_02.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Greek_San_02.svg/30px-Greek_San_02.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Greek_San_02.svg/40px-Greek_San_02.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Koppa_normal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Greek_Koppa_normal.svg/20px-Greek_Koppa_normal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Greek_Koppa_normal.svg/30px-Greek_Koppa_normal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Greek_Koppa_normal.svg/40px-Greek_Koppa_normal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Rho_pointed.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Greek_Rho_pointed.svg/20px-Greek_Rho_pointed.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Greek_Rho_pointed.svg/30px-Greek_Rho_pointed.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Greek_Rho_pointed.svg/40px-Greek_Rho_pointed.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Sigma_normal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Greek_Sigma_normal.svg/20px-Greek_Sigma_normal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Greek_Sigma_normal.svg/30px-Greek_Sigma_normal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Greek_Sigma_normal.svg/40px-Greek_Sigma_normal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Tau_normal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Greek_Tau_normal.svg/20px-Greek_Tau_normal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Greek_Tau_normal.svg/30px-Greek_Tau_normal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Greek_Tau_normal.svg/40px-Greek_Tau_normal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Upsilon_normal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Greek_Upsilon_normal.svg/20px-Greek_Upsilon_normal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Greek_Upsilon_normal.svg/30px-Greek_Upsilon_normal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Greek_Upsilon_normal.svg/40px-Greek_Upsilon_normal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Chi_normal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Greek_Chi_normal.svg/20px-Greek_Chi_normal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Greek_Chi_normal.svg/30px-Greek_Chi_normal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Greek_Chi_normal.svg/40px-Greek_Chi_normal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Phi_02.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Greek_Phi_02.svg/20px-Greek_Phi_02.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Greek_Phi_02.svg/30px-Greek_Phi_02.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Greek_Phi_02.svg/40px-Greek_Phi_02.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td> <td style="width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Psi_straight.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Greek_Psi_straight.svg/20px-Greek_Psi_straight.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Greek_Psi_straight.svg/30px-Greek_Psi_straight.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Greek_Psi_straight.svg/40px-Greek_Psi_straight.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="43" data-file-height="53" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Transcription </td> <td>A </td> <td>B </td> <td>G </td> <td>D </td> <td>E </td> <td>V </td> <td>Z </td> <td>H </td> <td>TH </td> <td>I </td> <td>K </td> <td>L </td> <td>M </td> <td>N </td> <td>X </td> <td>O </td> <td>P </td> <td>Ś </td> <td>Q </td> <td>R </td> <td>S </td> <td>T </td> <td>U </td> <td>X </td> <td>PH </td> <td>CH </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>One of the oldest Etruscan written documents is found on the <a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tavoletta_di_Marsiliana" class="extiw" title="it:Tavoletta di Marsiliana">tablet of Marsiliana d’Albegna</a> from the hinterland of <a href="/wiki/Vulci" title="Vulci">Vulci</a>, which is now kept in the <a href="/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum_of_Florence" class="mw-redirect" title="National Archaeological Museum of Florence">National Archaeological Museum</a> of <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>. A western Greek model alphabet is engraved on the edge of this <a href="/wiki/Wax_tablet" title="Wax tablet">wax tablet</a> made of <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a>. In accordance with later Etruscan writing habits, the <a href="/wiki/Letter_(alphabet)" title="Letter (alphabet)">letters</a> in this model alphabet were mirrored and arranged from right to left: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="24">Early Etruscan alphabet<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;width:20px">Letter </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanA-01.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/EtruscanA-01.svg/20px-EtruscanA-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/EtruscanA-01.svg/30px-EtruscanA-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/EtruscanA-01.svg/40px-EtruscanA-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanB-01.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/EtruscanB-01.svg/20px-EtruscanB-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/EtruscanB-01.svg/30px-EtruscanB-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/EtruscanB-01.svg/40px-EtruscanB-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanC-01.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/EtruscanC-01.svg/20px-EtruscanC-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/EtruscanC-01.svg/30px-EtruscanC-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/EtruscanC-01.svg/40px-EtruscanC-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanD-01.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/EtruscanD-01.svg/20px-EtruscanD-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/EtruscanD-01.svg/30px-EtruscanD-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/EtruscanD-01.svg/40px-EtruscanD-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanE-01.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/EtruscanE-01.svg/20px-EtruscanE-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/EtruscanE-01.svg/30px-EtruscanE-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/EtruscanE-01.svg/40px-EtruscanE-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanF-01.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/EtruscanF-01.svg/20px-EtruscanF-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/EtruscanF-01.svg/30px-EtruscanF-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/EtruscanF-01.svg/40px-EtruscanF-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanZ-01.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/EtruscanZ-01.svg/20px-EtruscanZ-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/EtruscanZ-01.svg/30px-EtruscanZ-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/EtruscanZ-01.svg/40px-EtruscanZ-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanH-02.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/EtruscanH-02.svg/20px-EtruscanH-02.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/EtruscanH-02.svg/30px-EtruscanH-02.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/EtruscanH-02.svg/40px-EtruscanH-02.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanTH-03.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/EtruscanTH-03.svg/20px-EtruscanTH-03.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/EtruscanTH-03.svg/30px-EtruscanTH-03.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/EtruscanTH-03.svg/40px-EtruscanTH-03.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="185" data-file-height="180" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanI-01.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/EtruscanI-01.svg/20px-EtruscanI-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/EtruscanI-01.svg/30px-EtruscanI-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/EtruscanI-01.svg/40px-EtruscanI-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanK-01.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/EtruscanK-01.svg/20px-EtruscanK-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/EtruscanK-01.svg/30px-EtruscanK-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/EtruscanK-01.svg/40px-EtruscanK-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanL-01.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/EtruscanL-01.svg/20px-EtruscanL-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/EtruscanL-01.svg/30px-EtruscanL-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/EtruscanL-01.svg/40px-EtruscanL-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanM-01.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/EtruscanM-01.svg/20px-EtruscanM-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/EtruscanM-01.svg/30px-EtruscanM-01.svg.png 1.5x, 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typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanT-01.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/EtruscanT-01.svg/20px-EtruscanT-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/EtruscanT-01.svg/30px-EtruscanT-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/EtruscanT-01.svg/40px-EtruscanT-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanV-01.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/EtruscanV-01.svg/20px-EtruscanV-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/EtruscanV-01.svg/30px-EtruscanV-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/EtruscanV-01.svg/40px-EtruscanV-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanX-01.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/EtruscanX-01.svg/20px-EtruscanX-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/EtruscanX-01.svg/30px-EtruscanX-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/EtruscanX-01.svg/40px-EtruscanX-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanPH-01.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/EtruscanPH-01.svg/20px-EtruscanPH-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/EtruscanPH-01.svg/30px-EtruscanPH-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/EtruscanPH-01.svg/40px-EtruscanPH-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a></span> </td> <td style="text-align:center;width:20px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanKH-01.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/EtruscanKH-01.svg/20px-EtruscanKH-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/EtruscanKH-01.svg/30px-EtruscanKH-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/EtruscanKH-01.svg/40px-EtruscanKH-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Transcription </td> <td align="center">A </td> <td align="center">B </td> <td align="center">C </td> <td align="center">D </td> <td align="center">E </td> <td align="center">F </td> <td align="center">Z </td> <td align="center">H </td> <td align="center">TH </td> <td align="center">I </td> <td align="center">K </td> <td align="center">L </td> <td align="center">M </td> <td align="center">N </td> <td align="center">S </td> <td align="center">O </td> <td align="center">P </td> <td align="center">SH </td> <td align="center">Q </td> <td align="center">R </td> <td align="center">S </td> <td align="center">T </td> <td align="center">U </td> <td align="center">X </td> <td align="center">PH </td> <td align="center">KH </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>The script with these letters was first used in southern Etruria around 700 BC in the Etruscan <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_cities" title="Etruscan cities">Cisra</a> (lat. <a href="/wiki/Caere" title="Caere">Caere</a>), today's <a href="/wiki/Cerveteri" title="Cerveteri">Cerveteri</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The science of writing quickly reached central and northern Etruria. From there, the alphabet spread from <a href="/wiki/Volterra" title="Volterra">Volterra</a> (Etr. <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_cities" title="Etruscan cities">Velathri</a>) to <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_cities" title="Etruscan cities">Felsina</a>, today's <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>, and later from <a href="/wiki/Chiusi" title="Chiusi">Chiusi</a> (Etr. <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_cities" title="Etruscan cities">Clevsin</a>) to the Po Valley. In southern Etruria, the writing spread from <a href="/wiki/Tarquinia" title="Tarquinia">Tarquinia</a> (Etr. <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_cities" title="Etruscan cities">Tarchna</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Veii" title="Veii">Veii</a> (Etr. <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_cities" title="Etruscan cities">Veia</a>) further south to Campania, which was controlled by the Etruscans at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the following centuries the Etruscans consistently used the letters mentioned, so that the <a href="/wiki/Deciphering" class="mw-redirect" title="Deciphering">deciphering</a> of the Etruscan inscriptions is not a problem. As in Greek, the characters were subject to regional and temporal changes. Overall, one can distinguish an archaic script from the 7th to 5th centuries from a more recent script from the 4th to 1st centuries BC, in which some characters were no longer used, including the X for a sh sound. In addition, in writing and language, the emphasis on the first syllable meant that internal vowels were not reproduced, e.g. <i><a href="/wiki/Menrva" title="Menrva">Menrva</a></i> instead of <i>Menerva</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accordingly, <a href="/wiki/Linguists" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguists">linguists</a> also distinguish between Old and New Etruscan.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Etruscan_bucchero_cock.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Etruscan_bucchero_cock.jpg/220px-Etruscan_bucchero_cock.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Etruscan_bucchero_cock.jpg/330px-Etruscan_bucchero_cock.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Etruscan_bucchero_cock.jpg/440px-Etruscan_bucchero_cock.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Bucchero cockerel from <a href="/wiki/Viterbo" title="Viterbo">Viterbo</a>. Small Etruscan bottle from 630 to 620 BCE with an early form of the alphabet</figcaption></figure> <p>Alongside the <a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tavoletta_di_Marsiliana" class="extiw" title="it:Tavoletta di Marsiliana">tablet of Marsiliana d’Albegna</a>, around 70 objects with model alphabets have been preserved from the early period.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most famous of these are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabastron" title="Alabastron">Alabastron</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Regolini-Galassi_tomb" title="Regolini-Galassi tomb">Regolini-Galassi tomb</a> in Cerveteri</li> <li><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucchero-Amphore_von_Formello" class="extiw" title="de:Bucchero-Amphore von Formello">Bucchero amphora from Formello</a></li> <li><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucchero-H%C3%A4hnchen_von_Viterbo" class="extiw" title="de:Bucchero-Hähnchen von Viterbo">Bucchero cockerel from Viterbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucchero" title="Bucchero">Bucchero</a> vessel from the necropolis of Sorbo near Cerveteri</li></ul> <p>As all four artifacts date from the 7th century B.C. come from, the alphabets are always written clockwise.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last object has the special feature that, in addition to the letters of the alphabet, almost all consonants are shown in sequence in connection with the vowels I, A, U and E (<a href="/wiki/Syllabary" title="Syllabary">Syllabary</a>). This syllabic writing system was probably used to practice the written characters.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Perugia,_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria,_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Perugia%2C_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria%2C_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg/220px-Perugia%2C_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria%2C_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Perugia%2C_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria%2C_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg/330px-Perugia%2C_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria%2C_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Perugia%2C_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria%2C_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg/440px-Perugia%2C_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria%2C_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cippus_Perusinus" title="Cippus Perusinus">Cippus Perusinus</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The most important Etruscan written monuments that contain a large number of words include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liber_Linteus" title="Liber Linteus">Liber Linteus</a> (<i>Liber Linteus Zagrabiensis</i>) – ritual text with around 1400 words</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabula_Capuana" title="Tabula Capuana">Clay Tablet of Capua</a> (<i>Tabula</i> or <i>Tegula Capuana</i>) – ritual text as a bustrophedon with 62 lines and around 300 words</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabula_Cortonensis" title="Tabula Cortonensis">Tablet of Cortona</a> (<i>Tabula Cortonensis</i>) – contract text with a length of 32 lines and about 200 words</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cippus_Perusinus" title="Cippus Perusinus">Cippus Perusinus</a> – travertine block with 46 lines and about 125 words from near <a href="/wiki/Perugia" title="Perugia">Perugia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrgi_Tablets" title="Pyrgi Tablets">Pyrgi Tablets</a> – parallel texts in Etruscan and <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenician script">Punic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarcophagus_of_Laris_Pulenas" title="Sarcophagus of Laris Pulenas">Sarcophagus of Laris Pulenas</a> – grave inscription of Laris Pulena with nine lines of text on a sarcophagus scroll</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liver_of_Piacenza" title="Liver of Piacenza">Liver of Piacenza</a> – model of a sheep's liver with 40 inscriptions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Plaque_of_Magliano" title="Lead Plaque of Magliano">Lead Plaque of Magliano</a> – sacrificial instructions with 70 words</li> <li><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleistreifen_von_Santa_Marinella" class="extiw" title="de:Bleistreifen von Santa Marinella">Lead strip from Santa Marinella</a> – two fragments of a sacrificial vow</li> <li>Building inscription of the tomb of San Manno near Perugia – 30-word consecration inscription</li> <li><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryballe_Poup%C3%A9" class="extiw" title="fr:Aryballe Poupé">Aryballe Poupé</a> – Clockwise dedication inscription on a bucchero bottle</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscanian_dice" title="Tuscanian dice">Tuscanian dice</a> – Two dice with the numbers 1 to 6</li></ul> <p>No further Etruscan literature has survived and from the early 1st century AD, inscriptions with Etruscan characters have ceased to exist. All existing ancient Etruscan written documents are systematically collected in the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Etruscarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum">Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum</a>. </p><p>In the middle of the 7th century BC, the Romans adopted the Etruscan writing system and letters. In particular, they used the three different characters C, K and Q for a K sound. Z was also initially adopted into the Roman alphabet, although the affricate TS did not occur in the Latin language. Later, Z was replaced in the alphabet by the newly formed letter G, which was derived from C, and Z was finally placed at the end of the alphabet.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The letters Θ, Φ and Ψ were omitted by the Romans because the corresponding aspirated sounds did not occur in their language. </p><p>The Etruscan alphabet spread across the northern and central parts of the Italian peninsula. It is assumed that the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Oscan_language" title="Oscan language">Oscan script</a>, probably in the 6th century BC, was fundamentally influenced by Etruscan. The characters of the <a href="/wiki/Umbrian_language" title="Umbrian language">Umbrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Faliscan_language" title="Faliscan language">Faliscan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Venetic_language" title="Venetic language">Venetic</a> languages can also be traced back to Etruscan alphabets.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Italy" title="Category:History of Italy">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italy" title="History of Italy">History of <span class="fn org label">Italy</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1839_Monin_Map_of_Ancienne_Italy_Atlas_Universel_de_G%C3%A9ographie_Ancienne_and_Moderne.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Old map of Italian peninsula"><img alt="Old map of Italian peninsula" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/1839_Monin_Map_of_Ancienne_Italy_Atlas_Universel_de_G%C3%A9ographie_Ancienne_and_Moderne.jpg/150px-1839_Monin_Map_of_Ancienne_Italy_Atlas_Universel_de_G%C3%A9ographie_Ancienne_and_Moderne.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/1839_Monin_Map_of_Ancienne_Italy_Atlas_Universel_de_G%C3%A9ographie_Ancienne_and_Moderne.jpg/225px-1839_Monin_Map_of_Ancienne_Italy_Atlas_Universel_de_G%C3%A9ographie_Ancienne_and_Moderne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/1839_Monin_Map_of_Ancienne_Italy_Atlas_Universel_de_G%C3%A9ographie_Ancienne_and_Moderne.jpg/300px-1839_Monin_Map_of_Ancienne_Italy_Atlas_Universel_de_G%C3%A9ographie_Ancienne_and_Moderne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4584" data-file-height="6272" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;color: var(--color-base)">Early</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Italy" title="Prehistoric Italy">Prehistoric Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic civilization</a> (18th–3rd c. BC)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Etruscan civilization</a> (12th–6th c. BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a> (8th–3rd c. BC)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> (753 BC–509 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a> (509 BC–27 BC) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_expansion_in_Italy" title="Roman expansion in Italy">Roman expansion in Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Roman Italy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Populares" class="mw-redirect" title="Populares">Populares</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Optimates" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimates">Optimates</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a> (27 BC–286 AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> (286 AD–476 AD) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Italy" title="Praetorian prefecture of Italy">Praetorian prefecture of Italy</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;color: var(--color-base)">Romano-Barbarian Kingdoms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Odoacer#King_of_Italy" title="Odoacer">Odoacer's</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 476–493</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 493–553</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandal</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 435–534</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombard</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 568–774</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">Frankish</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a>)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 774–962</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)#Imperial_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">Germanic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 962–1801</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;color: var(--color-base)">Medieval</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Italy in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Italy" title="Byzantine Italy">Byzantine reconquest of Italy</a> (6th–8th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Islam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Normans</a> in southern Italy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_city-states" title="Italian city-states">Italian city-states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guelphs_and_Ghibellines" title="Guelphs and Ghibellines">Guelphs and Ghibellines</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;color: var(--color-base)">Early modern</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a> (14th–16th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a> (1494–1559)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic revival</a> (1545–1648)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_early_modern_Italy" title="History of early modern Italy">Mid-16th c. to early 19th c.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleonic</a> Italy (1801–1814)</li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Republic_(Napoleonic)" title="Italian Republic (Napoleonic)">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)">Kingdom</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Risorgimento</a></i> (1815–1871)</li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Young_Italy" title="Young Italy">Young Italy</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;color: var(--color-base)">Modern</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)" title="History of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)">Monarchy</a> (1861–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Colonial Empire</a> (1882–1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Italy during World War I">Italy in World War I</a> (1914–1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist Italy (1922–1943)">Fascism</a> (1922–1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Italy in World War II</a> (1940–1945)</li> <li>Fascist <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Partisans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">Italian Civil War</a> (1943–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Italian_Republic" title="History of the Italian Republic">Republic</a> (1946–<i>present</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead</a> (1970s–1980s) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maxi_Trial" title="Maxi Trial">Maxi Trial</a> (1986–1992)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mani_pulite" title="Mani pulite">Mani pulite</a></i> (1992–2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a> (2007–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_European_migrant_crisis" title="2015 European migrant crisis">European migrant crisis</a> (2014–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Italy">COVID-19 pandemic</a> (2020–<i>present</i>)</li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;color: var(--color-base)">By topic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_citizenship" title="History of Italian citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_coins_in_Italy" title="History of coins in Italy">Currency and coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Italy" title="Economic history of Italy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_fashion" title="History of Italian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_flags" title="List of Italian flags">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historic states of Italy">Historic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Italy" title="LGBT history in Italy">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy" title="Military history of Italy">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_Italy" title="Music history of Italy">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Italy" title="Name of Italy">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Italy" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Italy">Postage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Italy" title="History of rail transport in Italy">Railway</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <p><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Italian_history" title="Timeline of Italian history">Timeline</a><br /> </p> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/16px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/24px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/32px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Italy" title="Portal:Italy">Italy portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#f8eaba;font-size:175%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient history</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:1px solid #ccc;background:#efefef;font-weight:normal;"> Preceded by <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistory</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Near East</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_civilization" title="Kish civilization">Kish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armi_(Syria)" title="Armi (Syria)">Armi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hattians" title="Hattians">Hatti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilmun" title="Dilmun">Dilmun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magan_(civilization)" title="Magan (civilization)">Magan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatna" title="Qatna">Qatna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amurru_kingdom" title="Amurru kingdom">Amurru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkesh" title="Urkesh">Urkesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygians" title="Phrygians">Phrygians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alashiya" title="Alashiya">Alashiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Israel and Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabaeans" title="Sabaeans">Sabaʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himyarite_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite kingdom">Himyar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anatolia" title="History of Anatolia">Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_ancient_Levant" title="History of the ancient Levant">The Levant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe#Ancient_Europe" title="History of Europe">Europe</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_civilization" title="Aegean civilization">Aegean Civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacians" title="Dacians">Dacians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelasgians" title="Pelasgians">Pelasgians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argaric_culture" title="Argaric culture">Argaric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torrean_civilization" title="Torrean civilization">Torrean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talaiotic_culture" title="Talaiotic culture">Talaiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartessos" title="Tartessos">Tartessos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanches" title="Guanches">Guanches</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Etruscans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_Pre-Roman_peoples_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="List of the Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_peoples_of_Italy" title="List of ancient peoples of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles" title="History of the British Isles">British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracia" title="Thracia">Thracia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacia" title="Dacia">Dacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malta" title="History of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Caucasus" title="History of the Caucasus">Caucasus</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerma_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerma kingdom">Kerma kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobians" title="Macrobians">Macrobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Kingdom of Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Simien" title="Kingdom of Simien">Kingdom of Simien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harla_kingdom" title="Harla kingdom">Harla kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbaria_(region)" title="Barbaria (region)">Barbaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosylon" title="Mosylon">Mosylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heis_(town)" title="Heis (town)">Mundus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toniki" title="Toniki">Toniki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromata" title="Aromata">Aromata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalites" title="Avalites">Avalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarapion" title="Sarapion">Sarapion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikon_(Somalia)" title="Nikon (Somalia)">Nicon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essina" title="Essina">Essina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rauso" title="Rauso">Rauso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nilotic_peoples" title="Nilotic peoples">Nilotic Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_Africa_throughout_history" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history">African kingdoms</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Africa" title="History of North Africa">North Africa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garamantes" title="Garamantes">Garamantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasamones" title="Nasamones">Nasamones chiefdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battiadae" title="Battiadae">Cyrene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blemmyes" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massylii" title="Massylii">Massylii Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numidia" title="Numidia">Numidia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauretania" title="Mauretania">Mauretania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobatia" title="Nobatia">Nobatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ouarsenis" title="Kingdom of Ouarsenis">Kingdom of Ouarsenis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandal_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Vandal kingdom">Kingdom of the Vandals and Alans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Capsus" title="Kingdom of Capsus">Kingdom of Capsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauro-Roman_Kingdom" title="Mauro-Roman Kingdom">Kingdom of Masuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Aur%C3%A8s" title="Kingdom of the Aurès">Kingdom of the Aurès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makuria" title="Makuria">Kingdom of Makuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hodna" title="Hodna">Kingdom of Hodna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemencha" title="Nemencha">Nemencha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laguatan" title="Laguatan">Laguatan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alodia" title="Alodia">Alodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Altava" title="Kingdom of Altava">Kingdom of Altava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Libya" title="Ancient Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_Africa_throughout_history" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history">African kingdoms</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe#History" title="Eurasian Steppe">Eurasian Steppe</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scytho-Siberian_world" title="Scytho-Siberian world">Scythia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_peoples" title="Tungusic peoples">Tungusic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohe_people" title="Mohe people">Mohe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_(historical_people)" title="Qiang (historical people)">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donghu_people" title="Donghu people">Donghu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huna_people" title="Huna people">Hunas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xionites" title="Xionites">Xionites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Huns" title="Iranian Huns">Iranian Huns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Mongols" title="Proto-Mongols">Proto-Mongols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuhuan" title="Wuhuan">Wuhuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumo_Xi" title="Kumo Xi">Kumo Xi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuyuhun" title="Tuyuhun">Tuyuhun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiwei_people" title="Shiwei people">Shiwei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Avars" title="Pannonian Avars">Pannonian Avars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_migration" title="Turkic migration">Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_(people)" title="Hu (people)">Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Barbarians" title="Four Barbarians">Four Barbarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Barbarians" title="Five Barbarians">Five Barbarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_nomads" title="Eurasian nomads">Eurasian nomads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomadic_empire" title="Nomadic empire">Nomadic empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Siberia" title="History of Siberia">Siberia</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Central_Asia" title="History of Central Asia">Central Asia</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kangju" title="Kangju">Kangju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Bactrian kingdom">Greco-Bactrian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Greek kingdom">Yavana kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badakhshan" title="Badakhshan">Badakhshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazm" title="Khwarazm">Khwarazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margiana" title="Margiana">Margiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahae" title="Dahae">Dahae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fergana_Valley#History" title="Fergana Valley">Fergana Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin#History" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_China" title="History of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan#Prehistoric_and_ancient_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korea#Prehistoric_and_Antiquity_period" title="History of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mongolia#Ancient_period" title="History of Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tibet" title="History of Tibet">Tibet</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history" title="Outline of South Asian history">South Asia</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">Middle kingdoms</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Northern_America" title="Northern America">Northern America</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopewell_tradition" title="Hopewell tradition">Hopewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_Puebloans" title="Ancestral Puebloans">Ancestral Puebloans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam">Hohokam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogollon_culture" title="Mogollon culture">Mogollon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fremont_culture" title="Fremont culture">Fremont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patayan" title="Patayan">Patayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinagua" title="Sinagua">Sinagua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Dorset" title="Pre-Dorset">Pre-Dorset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thule_people" title="Thule people">Thule people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glades_culture" title="Glades culture">Glades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Johns_culture" title="St. Johns culture">St. Johns culture</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Mesoamerica</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epi-Olmec_culture" title="Epi-Olmec culture">Epi-Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacha" title="Capacha">Capacha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huastec_civilization" title="Huastec civilization">Huastec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixtec_culture" title="Mixtec culture">Mixtec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xochipala" title="Xochipala">Xochipala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gran_Cocl%C3%A9" title="Gran Coclé">Gran Coclé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izapa" title="Izapa">Izapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlatilco_culture" title="Tlatilco culture">Tlatilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuicuilco" title="Cuicuilco">Cuicuilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mezcala_culture" title="Mezcala culture">Mezcala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chup%C3%ADcuaro" title="Chupícuaro">Chupícuaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quelepa" title="Quelepa">Quelepa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Mexico_shaft_tomb_tradition" title="Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition">Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teuchitl%C3%A1n_culture" title="Teuchitlán culture">Teuchitlán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veraguas_culture" title="Veraguas culture">Veraguas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diquis" title="Diquis">Diquis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholula_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Cholula (Mesoamerican site)">Cholula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teotihuacan" title="Teotihuacan">Teotihuacan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nicoya" title="Kingdom of Nicoya">Nicoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_Veracruz_culture" title="Classic Veracruz culture">Veracruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totonac_culture" title="Totonac culture">Totonac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec" title="Toltec">Toltec</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Andean_South_America" title="History of Andean South America">Andes</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caral%E2%80%93Supe_civilization" title="Caral–Supe civilization">Caral–Supe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casma%E2%80%93Sechin_culture" title="Casma–Sechin culture">Casma–Sechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chav%C3%ADn_culture" title="Chavín culture">Chavín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paracas_culture" title="Paracas culture">Paracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazca_culture" title="Nazca culture">Nazca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moche_culture" title="Moche culture">Moche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lima_culture" title="Lima culture">Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Caribbean" title="History of the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ortoiroid_people" title="Ortoiroid people">Ortoiroid people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanahatabey" title="Guanahatabey">Guanahatabey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladoid" title="Saladoid">Saladoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinago" title="Kalinago">Kalinago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalina_people" title="Kalina people">Kalina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arawak" title="Arawak">Arawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Caribbean" title="Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafaring_in_the_Pre-Columbian_Caribbean" title="Seafaring in the Pre-Columbian Caribbean">Seafaring</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Africa" title="History of West Africa">West Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kintampo_Complex" title="Kintampo Complex">Kintampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhar_Tichitt" title="Dhar Tichitt">Dhar Tichitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oualata" title="Oualata">Oualata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nok_culture" title="Nok culture">Nok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sao_civilisation" title="Sao civilisation">Sao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekoi_people" title="Ekoi people">Ekoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegambia" title="Senegambia">Senegambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer_prehistory" title="Serer prehistory">Serer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegambian_stone_circles" title="Senegambian stone circles">Senegambia megaliths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-imperial_Mali" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-imperial Mali">Pre-imperial Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djenn%C3%A9-Djenno" title="Djenné-Djenno">Djenné-Djenno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igodomigodo" title="Igodomigodo">Igodomigodo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bura_culture" title="Bura culture">Bura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahelian_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahelian kingdoms">Sahelian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Ghana Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takrur" title="Takrur">Takrur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Pygmies" title="African Pygmies">Pygmies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_Africa_throughout_history" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history">African kingdoms</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Melanesians" title="Melanesians">Melanesians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Australia" title="Prehistory of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesia#History" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesia#History" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesia#History" title="Polynesia">Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93ng_B%C3%A0ng_dynasty" title="Hồng Bàng dynasty">Hồng Bàng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suvarnabhumi" title="Suvarnabhumi">Suvarnabhumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhanavati" title="Singhanavati">Singhanavati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sungai_Batu" title="Sungai Batu">Sungai Batu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mon_kingdoms" title="Mon kingdoms">Mon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyu_city-states" title="Pyu city-states">Pyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaton_kingdom" title="Thaton kingdom">Thaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%82u_L%E1%BA%A1c" title="Âu Lạc">Âu Lạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanyue" title="Nanyue">Nanyue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chi_Tu" title="Chi Tu">Chi Tu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tun_Sun" title="Tun Sun">Tun Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funan" title="Funan">Funan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambralinga" title="Tambralinga">Tambralinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagaung_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Tagaung kingdom">Tagaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangga_Negara" title="Gangga Negara">Gangga Negara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Ksetra_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Ksetra kingdom">Sri Ksetra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A2m_%E1%BA%A4p" title="Lâm Ấp">Lâm Ấp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quduqian" title="Quduqian">Quduqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Pan_(kingdom)" title="Pan Pan (kingdom)">Pan Pan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rakhine" title="History of Rakhine">Arakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutai" title="Kutai">Kutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xitu" title="Xitu">Xitu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarumanagara" title="Tarumanagara">Tarumanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantoli" title="Kantoli">Kantoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Pahang_kingdom" title="Old Pahang kingdom">Mueang Pahang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavo_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavo kingdom">Lavo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalingga_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalingga kingdom">Kalingga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melayu_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Melayu kingdom">Melayu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaravati" title="Dvaravati">Dvaravati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chenla" title="Chenla">Chenla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shailendra_dynasty" title="Shailendra dynasty">Shailendra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_Cambodia" title="Early history of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Laos" title="History of Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malaysia" title="History of Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Myanmar" title="History of Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initial_states_of_Thailand" title="Initial states of Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam" title="History of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Brunei" title="History of Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indonesia" title="History of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-colonial_Timor" title="Pre-colonial Timor">Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_the_Philippines" title="Prehistory of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_Singapore" title="Early history of Singapore">Singapore</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">See also</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_maritime_history" title="Ancient maritime history">Ancient maritime history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protohistory" title="Protohistory">Protohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Copper Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature" title="Ancient literature">Ancient literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_warfare" title="Ancient warfare">Ancient warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border:1px solid #ccc;background:#efefef;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_history" title="Category:Ancient history">Category</a></li> <li>Followed by <a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_history" title="Template:Ancient history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_history" title="Template talk:Ancient history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <li><a href="/wiki/Daily_life_of_the_Etruscans" title="Daily life of the Etruscans">Daily life of the Etruscans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanum_Voltumnae" title="Fanum Voltumnae">Fanum Voltumnae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruria" title="Etruria">Etruria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_art" title="Etruscan art">Etruscan art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language">Etruscan language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_origins" title="Etruscan origins">Etruscan origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_peoples_of_Italy" title="List of ancient peoples of Italy">List of ancient peoples of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrrhenians" title="Tyrrhenians">Tyrrhenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Villanovan culture</a></li> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Bartoloni2012h-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bartoloni2012h_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartoloni2012h_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartoloni2012h_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartoloni2012h_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartoloni2012h_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBartoloni2012" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bartoloni, Gilda, ed. (2012). <i>Introduzione all'Etruscologia</i> (in Italian). Milan: Hoepli. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8820348700" title="Special:BookSources/978-8820348700"><bdi>978-8820348700</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduzione+all%27Etruscologia&rft.place=Milan&rft.pub=Hoepli&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-8820348700&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPottsSmith2022" class="citation journal cs1">Potts, Charlotte R.; Smith, Christopher J. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10814-021-09169-x">"The Etruscans: Setting New Agendas"</a>. <i>Journal of Archaeological Research</i>. <b>30</b> (4): 597–644. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10814-021-09169-x">10.1007/s10814-021-09169-x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10023%2F24245">10023/24245</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Research&rft.atitle=The+Etruscans%3A+Setting+New+Agendas&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=597-644&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10023%2F24245&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10814-021-09169-x&rft.aulast=Potts&rft.aufirst=Charlotte+R.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Christopher+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs10814-021-09169-x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoring2004" class="citation book cs1">Goring, Elizabeth (2004). <i>Treasures from Tuscany: the Etruscan legacy</i>. Edinburgh: National Museums Scotland Enterprises. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1901663907" title="Special:BookSources/978-1901663907"><bdi>978-1901663907</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treasures+from+Tuscany%3A+the+Etruscan+legacy&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=National+Museums+Scotland+Enterprises&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1901663907&rft.aulast=Goring&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeighton2004" class="citation book cs1">Leighton, Robert (2004). <i>Tarquinia. An Etruscan City</i>. Duckworth Archaeological Histories. London: Duckworth. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7156-3162-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7156-3162-4"><bdi>0-7156-3162-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tarquinia.+An+Etruscan+City&rft.place=London&rft.series=Duckworth+Archaeological+Histories&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Duckworth&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-7156-3162-4&rft.aulast=Leighton&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Camporeale2004-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Camporeale2004_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCamporeale2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giovannangelo_Camporeale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giovannangelo Camporeale (page does not exist)">Camporeale, Giovannangelo</a>, ed. (2004) [2001]. <i>The Etruscans Outside Etruria</i>. Translated by Hartmann, Thomas Michael. Los Angeles: Getty Trust.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Etruscans+Outside+Etruria&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pub=Getty+Trust&rft.date=2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dellafina2005-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dellafina2005_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDella_Fina2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Della Fina, Giuseppe (2005). <i>Etruschi, la vita quotidiana</i> (in Italian). Rome: L'Erma di Bretschneider. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788882653330" title="Special:BookSources/9788882653330"><bdi>9788882653330</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etruschi%2C+la+vita+quotidiana&rft.place=Rome&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=L%27Erma+di+Bretschneider&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9788882653330&rft.aulast=Della+Fina&rft.aufirst=Giuseppe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barker-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barker_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barker_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarkerRasmussen2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Graeme_Barker" title="Graeme Barker">Barker, Graeme</a>; <a href="/wiki/Tom_Rasmussen" title="Tom Rasmussen">Rasmussen, Tom</a> (2000). <i>The Etruscans</i>. The Peoples of Europe. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22038-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22038-1"><bdi>978-0-631-22038-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Etruscans&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=The+Peoples+of+Europe&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-631-22038-1&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=Graeme&rft.au=Rasmussen%2C+Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DeGrummond2014-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DeGrummond2014_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeGrummond2014_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeGrummond2014_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Grummond2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Thomson_de_Grummond" title="Nancy Thomson de Grummond">De Grummond, Nancy T.</a> (2014). "Ethnicity and the Etruscans". In McInerney, Jeremy (ed.). <i>A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean</i>. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 405–422. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118834312">10.1002/9781118834312</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444337341" title="Special:BookSources/9781444337341"><bdi>9781444337341</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ethnicity+and+the+Etruscans&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ethnicity+in+the+Ancient+Mediterranean&rft.place=Chichester&rft.pages=405-422&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118834312&rft.isbn=9781444337341&rft.aulast=De+Grummond&rft.aufirst=Nancy+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Turfa2017-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Turfa2017_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Turfa2017_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Turfa2017_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurfa2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean_MacIntosh_Turfa" title="Jean MacIntosh Turfa">Turfa, Jean MacIntosh</a> (2017). "The Etruscans". In Farney, Gary D.; Bradley, Gary (eds.). <i>The Peoples of Ancient Italy</i>. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 637–672. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9781614513001">10.1515/9781614513001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61451-520-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61451-520-3"><bdi>978-1-61451-520-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Etruscans&rft.btitle=The+Peoples+of+Ancient+Italy&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=637-672&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9781614513001&rft.isbn=978-1-61451-520-3&rft.aulast=Turfa&rft.aufirst=Jean+MacIntosh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shipley2017-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shipley2017_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shipley2017_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shipley2017_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShipley2017" class="citation book cs1">Shipley, Lucy (2017). "Where is home?". <i>The Etruscans: Lost Civilizations</i>. London: Reaktion. pp. 28–46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781780238623" title="Special:BookSources/9781780238623"><bdi>9781780238623</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Where+is+home%3F&rft.btitle=The+Etruscans%3A+Lost+Civilizations&rft.place=London&rft.pages=28-46&rft.pub=Reaktion&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781780238623&rft.aulast=Shipley&rft.aufirst=Lucy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Benelli2021-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Benelli2021_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Benelli2021_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Benelli2021_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenelli2021" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Benelli, Enrico (2021). "Le origini. Dai racconti del mito all'evidenza dell'archeologia". <i>Gli Etruschi</i> (in Italian). Milan: Idea Libri-Rusconi Editore. pp. 9–24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8862623049" title="Special:BookSources/978-8862623049"><bdi>978-8862623049</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Le+origini.+Dai+racconti+del+mito+all%27evidenza+dell%27archeologia&rft.btitle=Gli+Etruschi&rft.place=Milan&rft.pages=9-24&rft.pub=Idea+Libri-Rusconi+Editore&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-8862623049&rft.aulast=Benelli&rft.aufirst=Enrico&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Neri-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Neri_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Neri_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeri2012" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Neri, Diana (2012). "Il periodo villanoviano nell'Emilia occidentale". <i>Gli etruschi tra VIII e VII secolo a.C. nel territorio di Castelfranco Emilia (MO)</i> (in Italian). Florence: All'Insegna del Giglio. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8878145337" title="Special:BookSources/978-8878145337"><bdi>978-8878145337</bdi></a>. <q>Il termine "Villanoviano" è entrato nella letteratura archeologica quando, a metà dell '800, il conte Gozzadini mise in luce le prime tombe ad incinerazione nella sua proprietà di Villanova di Castenaso, in località Caselle (BO). La cultura villanoviana coincide con il periodo più antico della civiltà etrusca, in particolare durante i secoli IX e VIII a.C. e i termini di Villanoviano I, II e III, utilizzati dagli archeologi per scandire le fasi evolutive, costituiscono partizioni convenzionali della prima età del Ferro</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Il+periodo+villanoviano+nell%27Emilia+occidentale&rft.btitle=Gli+etruschi+tra+VIII+e+VII+secolo+a.C.+nel+territorio+di+Castelfranco+Emilia+%28MO%29&rft.place=Florence&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=All%27Insegna+del+Giglio&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-8878145337&rft.aulast=Neri&rft.aufirst=Diana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bartolonivillanoviana-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bartolonivillanoviana_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartolonivillanoviana_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartolonivillanoviana_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartoloni2012" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bartoloni, Gilda (2012) [2002]. <i>La cultura villanoviana. All'inizio della storia etrusca</i> (in Italian) (III ed.). Rome: Carocci editore. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788843022618" title="Special:BookSources/9788843022618"><bdi>9788843022618</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+cultura+villanoviana.+All%27inizio+della+storia+etrusca&rft.place=Rome&rft.edition=III&rft.pub=Carocci+editore&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9788843022618&rft.aulast=Bartoloni&rft.aufirst=Gilda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Torellicolonna2000-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Torellicolonna2000_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Torellicolonna2000_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColonna2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Colonna_(archaeologist)" title="Giovanni Colonna (archaeologist)">Colonna, Giovanni</a> (2000). "I caratteri originali della civiltà Etrusca". In Torelli, Mario (ed.). <i>Gi Etruschi</i> (in Italian). Milan: Bompiani. pp. 25–41.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=I+caratteri+originali+della+civilt%C3%A0+Etrusca&rft.btitle=Gi+Etruschi&rft.place=Milan&rft.pages=25-41&rft.pub=Bompiani&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Colonna&rft.aufirst=Giovanni&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Torellibriquel2000-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Torellibriquel2000_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Torellibriquel2000_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBriquel2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Dominique_Briquel" title="Dominique Briquel">Briquel, Dominique</a> (2000). "Le origini degli Etruschi: una questione dibattuta fin dall'antichità". In Torelli, Mario (ed.). <i>Gi Etruschi</i> (in Italian). Milan: Bompiani. pp. 43–51.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Le+origini+degli+Etruschi%3A+una+questione+dibattuta+fin+dall%27antichit%C3%A0&rft.btitle=Gi+Etruschi&rft.place=Milan&rft.pages=43-51&rft.pub=Bompiani&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Briquel&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Torellibartoloni2000-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Torellibartoloni2000_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Torellibartoloni2000_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartoloni2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bartoloni, Gilda (2000). "Le origini e la diffusione della cultura villanoviana". In Torelli, Mario (ed.). <i>Gi Etruschi</i> (in Italian). Milan: Bompiani. pp. 53–71.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Le+origini+e+la+diffusione+della+cultura+villanoviana&rft.btitle=Gi+Etruschi&rft.place=Milan&rft.pages=53-71&rft.pub=Bompiani&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Bartoloni&rft.aufirst=Gilda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moser1996-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Moser1996_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moser1996_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moser1996_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoser1996" class="citation book cs1">Moser, Mary E. (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/etruscanitaly00john/page/29">"The origins of the Etruscans: new evidence for an old question"</a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/John_F._Hall" title="John F. Hall">Hall, John Franklin</a> (ed.). <i>Etruscan Italy: Etruscan Influences on the Civilizations of Italy from Antiquity to the Modern Era</i>. Provo, UT: Museum of Art, Brigham Young University. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/etruscanitaly00john/page/29">29</a>–43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0842523340" title="Special:BookSources/0842523340"><bdi>0842523340</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+origins+of+the+Etruscans%3A+new+evidence+for+an+old+question&rft.btitle=Etruscan+Italy%3A+Etruscan+Influences+on+the+Civilizations+of+Italy+from+Antiquity+to+the+Modern+Era&rft.place=Provo%2C+UT&rft.pages=29-43&rft.pub=Museum+of+Art%2C+Brigham+Young+University&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0842523340&rft.aulast=Moser&rft.aufirst=Mary+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fetruscanitaly00john%2Fpage%2F29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rix-2008-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rix-2008_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rix-2008_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rix-2008_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRix2008" class="citation book cs1">Rix, Helmut (2008). "Etruscan". In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge"><i>The Ancient Languages of Europe</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge/page/141">141–64</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521684958" title="Special:BookSources/9780521684958"><bdi>9780521684958</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Etruscan&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Languages+of+Europe&rft.pages=141-64&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780521684958&rft.aulast=Rix&rft.aufirst=Helmut&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientlanguages00roge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mysteriousetruscans.com/cities.html">"A good map of the Italian range and cities of the culture at the beginning of its history"</a>. mysteriousetruscans.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+good+map+of+the+Italian+range+and+cities+of+the+culture+at+the+beginning+of+its+history&rft.pub=mysteriousetruscans.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mysteriousetruscans.com%2Fcities.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The topic of the "League of Etruria" is covered in Freeman, pp. 562–65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLivius" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livius, Titus</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ab_Urbe_Condita_Libri" class="mw-redirect" title="Ab Urbe Condita Libri"><i>Ab Urbe Condita Libri</i></a> [<i>The History of Rome</i>] (in Latin). Vol. V.33. <q>The passage identifies the <a href="/wiki/Raetia" title="Raetia">Raetii</a> as a remnant of the 12 cities "beyond the <a href="/wiki/Apennine_Mountains" title="Apennine Mountains">Apennines</a>".</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ab+Urbe+Condita+Libri&rft.aulast=Livius&rft.aufirst=Titus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolybius" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Polybius/2*.html#17">"Campanian Etruscans mentioned"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Campanian+Etruscans+mentioned&rft.au=Polybius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FPolybius%2F2%2A.html%2317&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The entire subject with complete ancient sources in footnotes was worked up by George Dennis in his <i>Introduction</i>. In the <a href="/wiki/LacusCurtius" title="LacusCurtius">LacusCurtius</a> transcription, the references in Dennis's footnotes link to the texts in English or Latin; the reader may also find the English of some of them on <a href="/wiki/WikiSource" class="mw-redirect" title="WikiSource">WikiSource</a> or other Internet sites. As the work has already been done by Dennis and Thayer, the complete work-up is not repeated here.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cary-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cary_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaryScullard1979" class="citation book cs1">Cary, M.; Scullard, H. H. (1979). <i>A History of Rome</i> (3rd ed.). Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-38395-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-38395-9"><bdi>0-312-38395-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Rome&rft.pages=28&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.+Martin%27s&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-312-38395-9&rft.aulast=Cary&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Scullard%2C+H.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bonfante2000-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bonfante2000_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonfanteBonfante2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Giuliano_Bonfante" title="Giuliano Bonfante">Bonfante, Giuliano</a>; <a href="/wiki/Larissa_Bonfante" title="Larissa Bonfante">Bonfante, Larissa</a> (2002) [1983]. <i>The Etruscan language. An introduction</i> (Rev. ed.). Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0719055407" title="Special:BookSources/0719055407"><bdi>0719055407</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Etruscan+language.+An+introduction&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0719055407&rft.aulast=Bonfante&rft.aufirst=Giuliano&rft.au=Bonfante%2C+Larissa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSassatelli" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sassatelli, Giuseppe. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4847350">"Celti ed Etruschi nell'Etruria Padana e nell'Italia settentrionale"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in Italian).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Celti+ed+Etruschi+nell%27Etruria+Padana+e+nell%27Italia+settentrionale&rft.aulast=Sassatelli&rft.aufirst=Giuseppe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F4847350&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmendola2019" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Amendola, Carlo (2019-08-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://celticworld.it/2019/08/28/etruschi-e-celti-della-gallia-meridionale-parte-1/">"Etruschi e Celti della Gallia meridionale – parte 1"</a>. <i>CelticWorld</i> (in Italian)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-02-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CelticWorld&rft.atitle=Etruschi+e+Celti+della+Gallia+meridionale+%E2%80%93+parte+1&rft.date=2019-08-28&rft.aulast=Amendola&rft.aufirst=Carlo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcelticworld.it%2F2019%2F08%2F28%2Fetruschi-e-celti-della-gallia-meridionale-parte-1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rasenna comes from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDionysius_of_Halicarnassus" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a>. <i>Roman Antiquities</i>. I.30.3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Antiquities&rft.pages=I.30.3&rft.au=Dionysius+of+Halicarnassus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span> The syncopated form, Rasna, is inscriptional and is inflected.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The topic is covered in Pallottino, p. 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some inscriptions, such as the cippus of Cortona, feature the Raśna (pronounced Rashna) alternative, as is described at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBodroghy" class="citation web cs1">Bodroghy, Gabor Z. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080416143745/http://users.tpg.com.au/etr/etrusk/po/origins.html">"Origins"</a>. <i>The Palaeolinguistic Connection</i>. Etruscan. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.tpg.com.au/etr/etrusk/po/origins.html">the original</a> on 16 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Palaeolinguistic+Connection&rft.atitle=Origins&rft.aulast=Bodroghy&rft.aufirst=Gabor+Z.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusers.tpg.com.au%2Fetr%2Fetrusk%2Fpo%2Forigins.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=*turrhno/s"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Τυρρηνός</span></span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=*turshno/s"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Τυρσηνός</span></span></a>. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Liddell" title="Henry Liddell">Liddell, Henry George</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Scott_(philologist)" title="Robert Scott (philologist)">Scott, Robert</a>; <i><a href="/wiki/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="A Greek–English Lexicon">A Greek–English Lexicon</a></i> at the <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=Tyrrheni">Tyrrheni</a>. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. <i><a href="/wiki/A_Latin_Dictionary" title="A Latin Dictionary">A Latin Dictionary</a></i> on <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grummond-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grummond_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson_de_Grummond2006" class="citation book cs1">Thomson de Grummond, Nancy (2006). <i>Etruscan Myth, Sacred History, and Legend</i>. Philadelphia: Penn Museum of Archaeology. pp. 201–208. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781931707862" title="Special:BookSources/9781931707862"><bdi>9781931707862</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etruscan+Myth%2C+Sacred+History%2C+and+Legend&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=201-208&rft.pub=Penn+Museum+of+Archaeology&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781931707862&rft.aulast=Thomson+de+Grummond&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to Félix Gaffiot's <i>Dictionnaire Illustré Latin Français</i>, the major authors of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a>, and others) used the term <i>Tusci</i>. Cognate words developed, including <i>Tuscia</i> and <i>Tusculanensis</i>. <i>Tuscī</i> was clearly the principal term used to designate things Etruscan; <i>Etruscī</i> and <i>Etrusia</i>/<i>Etrūria</i> were used less often, mainly by Cicero and Horace, and they lack cognates.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=etruscan&searchmode=none">"Online Etymological Dictionary"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Online+Etymological+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fsearch%3Detruscan%26searchmode%3Dnone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span> the English use of <i>Etruscan</i> dates from 1706.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=Tusci">Tusci</a>. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. <i><a href="/wiki/A_Latin_Dictionary" title="A Latin Dictionary">A Latin Dictionary</a></i> on <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiss" class="citation web cs1">Weiss, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ling.cornell.edu/people/Weiss/Cuibono.pdf">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Cui bono?' The beneficiary phrases of the third Iguvine table"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ling.cornell.edu/people/Weiss/Cuibono.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27Cui+bono%3F%27+The+beneficiary+phrases+of+the+third+Iguvine+table&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Cornell+University&rft.aulast=Weiss&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fling.cornell.edu%2Fpeople%2FWeiss%2FCuibono.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarl_Darling_Buck1904" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Darling_Buck" title="Carl Darling Buck">Carl Darling Buck</a> (1904). <i>Introduction: A Grammar of Oscan and Umbrian</i>. Boston: Gibb & Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction%3A+A+Grammar+of+Oscan+and+Umbrian&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Gibb+%26+Company&rft.date=1904&rft.au=Carl+Darling+Buck&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPartridge1983" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Partridge, Eric (1983). "tower". <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsshortetym0000part"><i>Origins</i></a></span>. New York: Greenwich House. p. 730. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780517414255" title="Special:BookSources/9780517414255"><bdi>9780517414255</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=tower&rft.btitle=Origins&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=730&rft.pub=Greenwich+House&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9780517414255&rft.aulast=Partridge&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginsshortetym0000part&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-B51-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-B51_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-B51_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The Bonfantes (2003), p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=tu/rsis"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">τύρσις</span></span></a> in <a href="/wiki/Henry_Liddell" title="Henry Liddell">Liddell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Scott_(philologist)" title="Robert Scott (philologist)">Scott</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Partridge (1983)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonfanteBonfante2002" class="citation book cs1">Bonfante, Giuliano; Bonfante, Larissa (2002). <i>The Etruscan Language: An Introduction, Revised Edition</i>. Manchester University Press. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0719055409" title="Special:BookSources/978-0719055409"><bdi>978-0719055409</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Etruscan+Language%3A+An+Introduction%2C+Revised+Edition&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0719055409&rft.aulast=Bonfante&rft.aufirst=Giuliano&rft.au=Bonfante%2C+Larissa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DHI30-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DHI30_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Book I, Section 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beekes, R. <i>Etymological Dictionary of Greek</i> Brill (2010) pp.1520-1521</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kretschmer, Paul. "Nordische Lehnwörter im Altgriechischen" in <i>Glotta</i> 22 (1934) pp. 110 ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrauss_Clay201632–34-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrauss_Clay201632–34_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStrauss_Clay2016">Strauss Clay 2016</a>, pp. 32–34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hesiod, <i>Theogony</i> 1015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Homeric Hymn to Dionysus, 7.7–8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown545560-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brown545560_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Pairman Brown, <i>Israel and Hellas</i>, Vol. 2 (2000) p. 211</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Strab.+6.2&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239">Geography</a></i>. Book VI, Chapter II. Perseus Digital Library. Tufts University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220902170714/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Strab.+6.2&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239">Archived</a> from the original on 2 September 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2022.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">6.137</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">4.109</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5.2,_citing_Anticlides-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-5.2,_citing_Anticlides_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-5.2,_citing_Anticlides_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Strab.+5.2&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239">Geography</a></i>. Book V, Chapter II. Perseus Digital Library. Tufts University.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220902165216/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Strab.+5.2&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239">Archived</a> from the original on 2 September 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2022.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-1.94-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1.94_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">1.94</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDionysius_of_Halicarnassus" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a>. <i>Roman Antiquities</i>. 1.28–3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Antiquities&rft.pages=1.28-3&rft.au=Dionysius+of+Halicarnassus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morritt545560-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Morritt545560_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorritt2010" class="citation book cs1">Morritt, Robert D. (2010). <i>Stones that Speak</i>. p. 272.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stones+that+Speak&rft.pages=272&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Morritt&rft.aufirst=Robert+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dionysius-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dionysius_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dionysius_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDionysius_of_Halicarnassus" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a>. <i>Roman Antiquities</i>. Book I, Chapters 30 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Antiquities&rft.pages=Book+I%2C+Chapters+30+1&rft.au=Dionysius+of+Halicarnassus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLivius" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livius, Titus</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ab_Urbe_Condita_Libri" class="mw-redirect" title="Ab Urbe Condita Libri"><i>Ab Urbe Condita Libri</i></a> [<i>The History of Rome</i>]. Book 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ab+Urbe+Condita+Libri&rft.pages=Book+5&rft.aulast=Livius&rft.aufirst=Titus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlinius_Secundus" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Plinius Secundus, Gaius. <i>Naturalis Historia, Liber III, 133</i> (in Latin).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naturalis+Historia%2C+Liber+III%2C+133&rft.aulast=Plinius+Secundus&rft.aufirst=Gaius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wallace2010-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wallace2010_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallace2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rex_E._Wallace" title="Rex E. Wallace">Wallace, Rex E.</a> (2010). "Italy, Languages of". In Gagarin, Michael (ed.). <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome</i>. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 97–102. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195170726.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195170726" title="Special:BookSources/9780195170726"><bdi>9780195170726</bdi></a>. <q>Etruscan origins lie in the distant past. Despite the claim by Herodotus, who wrote that Etruscans migrated to Italy from Lydia in the eastern Mediterranean, there is no material or linguistic evidence to support this. Etruscan material culture developed in an unbroken chain from Bronze Age antecedents. As for linguistic relationships, Lydian is an Indo-European language. Lemnian, which is attested by a few inscriptions discovered near Kamania on the island of Lemnos, was a dialect of Etruscan introduced to the island by commercial adventurers. Linguistic similarities connecting Etruscan with Raetic, a language spoken in the sub-Alpine regions of northeastern Italy, further militate against the idea of eastern origins.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Italy%2C+Languages+of&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Ancient+Greece+and+Rome&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pages=97-102&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195170726.001.0001&rft.isbn=9780195170726&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=Rex+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pallottino1947-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1947_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPallottino1947" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Massimo_Pallottino" title="Massimo Pallottino">Pallottino, Massimo</a> (1947). <i>L'origine degli Etruschi</i> (in Italian). Rome: Tumminelli.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27origine+degli+Etruschi&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=Tumminelli&rft.date=1947&rft.aulast=Pallottino&rft.aufirst=Massimo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Briquel2000-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Briquel2000_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBriquel2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Dominique_Briquel" title="Dominique Briquel">Briquel, Dominique</a> (2000). "Le origini degli Etruschi: una questione dibattuta sin dall'antichità". In <a href="/wiki/Mario_Torelli" title="Mario Torelli">Torelli, Mario</a> (ed.). <i>Gli Etruschi</i> (in Italian). Milan: Bompiani. pp. 43–51.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Le+origini+degli+Etruschi%3A+una+questione+dibattuta+sin+dall%E2%80%99antichit%C3%A0&rft.btitle=Gli+Etruschi&rft.place=Milan&rft.pages=43-51&rft.pub=Bompiani&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Briquel&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hornblower2014-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hornblower2014_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHornblowerSpawforthEidinow2014" class="citation book cs1">Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther, eds. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0awiBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA292"><i>The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization</i></a>. Oxford Companions (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 291–292. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191016752" title="Special:BookSources/9780191016752"><bdi>9780191016752</bdi></a>. <q>Briquel's convincing demonstration that the famous story of an exodus, led by Tyrrhenus from Lydia to Italy, was a deliberate political fabrication created in the Hellenized milieu of the court at Sardis in the early 6th cent. BCE.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Classical+Civilization&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Oxford+Companions&rft.pages=291-292&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780191016752&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0awiBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA292&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Briquel2013-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Briquel2013_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBriquel2013" class="citation book cs1">Briquel, Dominique (2013). "Etruscan Origins and the Ancient Authors". In Turfa, Jean (ed.). <i>The Etruscan World</i>. London and New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 36–56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-67308-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-67308-2"><bdi>978-0-415-67308-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Etruscan+Origins+and+the+Ancient+Authors&rft.btitle=The+Etruscan+World&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pages=36-56&rft.pub=Routledge+Taylor+%26+Francis+Group&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-415-67308-2&rft.aulast=Briquel&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Briquel1990-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Briquel1990_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBriquel1990" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Dominique_Briquel" title="Dominique Briquel">Briquel, Dominique</a> (1990). "Le problème des origines étrusques". <i>Lalies</i>. Sessions de linguistique et de littérature (in French). Paris: Presses de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure (published 1992): 7–35.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lalies&rft.atitle=Le+probl%C3%A8me+des+origines+%C3%A9trusques&rft.pages=7-35&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Briquel&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bartoloni2014-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bartoloni2014_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bartoloni2014_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartoloni2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bartoloni, Gilda (2014). "Gli artigiani metallurghi e il processo formativo nelle "Origini" degli Etruschi". <i>" Origines " : percorsi di ricerca sulle identità etniche nell'Italia antica</i>. Mélanges de l'École française de Rome: Antiquité (in Italian). Vol. 126–2. Rome: École française de Rome. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7283-1138-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7283-1138-5"><bdi>978-2-7283-1138-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gli+artigiani+metallurghi+e+il+processo+formativo+nelle+%22Origini%22+degli+Etruschi&rft.btitle=%22+Origines+%22+%3A+percorsi+di+ricerca+sulle+identit%C3%A0+etniche+nell%27Italia+antica&rft.place=Rome&rft.series=M%C3%A9langes+de+l%27%C3%89cole+fran%C3%A7aise+de+Rome%3A+Antiquit%C3%A9&rft.pub=%C3%89cole+fran%C3%A7aise+de+Rome&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-2-7283-1138-5&rft.aulast=Bartoloni&rft.aufirst=Gilda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bagnasco2012-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bagnasco2012_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBagnasco_Gianni" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bagnasco Gianni, Giovanna. "Origine degli Etruschi". In Bartoloni, Gilda (ed.). <i>Introduzione all'Etruscologia</i> (in Italian). Milan: Ulrico Hoepli Editore. pp. 47–81.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Origine+degli+Etruschi&rft.btitle=Introduzione+all%27Etruscologia&rft.place=Milan&rft.pages=47-81&rft.pub=Ulrico+Hoepli+Editore&rft.aulast=Bagnasco+Gianni&rft.aufirst=Giovanna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stoddart-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stoddart_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStoddart1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Stoddart" title="Simon Stoddart">Stoddart, Simon</a> (1989). "Divergent trajectories in central Italy 1200–500 BC". In Champion, Timothy C. (ed.). <i>Centre and Periphery – Comparative Studies in Archaeology</i>. London and New York: Taylor & Francis (published 2005). pp. 89–102.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Divergent+trajectories+in+central+Italy+1200%E2%80%93500+BC&rft.btitle=Centre+and+Periphery+%E2%80%93+Comparative+Studies+in+Archaeology&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pages=89-102&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Stoddart&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burkert1992-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Burkert1992_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurkert1992" class="citation book cs1">Burkert, Walter (1992). <i>The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age</i>. Enciclopedia del Mediterraneo. London: Thames and Hudson.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Orientalizing+Revolution%3A+Near+Eastern+Influence+on+Greek+Culture+in+the+Early+Archaic+Age&rft.place=London&rft.series=Enciclopedia+del+Mediterraneo&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Burkert&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-d'agostino2003-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-d'agostino2003_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFd'Agostino2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">d'Agostino, Bruno (2003). "Teorie sull'origine degli Etruschi". <i>Gli Etruschi</i>. Enciclopedia del Mediterraneo (in Italian). Vol. 26. Milan: Jaca Book. pp. 10–19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Teorie+sull%27origine+degli+Etruschi&rft.btitle=Gli+Etruschi&rft.place=Milan&rft.series=Enciclopedia+del+Mediterraneo&rft.pages=10-19&rft.pub=Jaca+Book&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=d%27Agostino&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-deGrummond2014-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-deGrummond2014_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Grummond2014" class="citation book cs1">de Grummond, Nancy Thomson (2014). "Ethnicity and the Etruscans". <i>Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean</i>. Chichester, Uk: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 413–414. <q>The facial features, however, are not likely to constitute a true portrait, but rather partake of a formula for representing the male in Etruria in Archaic art. It has been observed that the formula used—with the face in profile, showing almond-shaped eyes, a large nose, and a domed up profile of the top of the head—has its parallels in images from the eastern Mediterranean. But these features may show only artistic conventions and are therefore of limited value for determining ethnicity.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ethnicity+and+the+Etruscans&rft.btitle=Companion+to+Ethnicity+in+the+Ancient+Mediterranean&rft.place=Chichester%2C+Uk&rft.pages=413-414&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=de+Grummond&rft.aufirst=Nancy+Thomson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bandinelli1984-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bandinelli1984_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBianchi_Bandinelli1984" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ranuccio_Bianchi_Bandinelli" title="Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli">Bianchi Bandinelli, Ranuccio</a> (1984). "Il problema del ritratto". <i>L'arte classica</i> (in Italian). Roma: <a href="/wiki/Editori_Riuniti" title="Editori Riuniti">Editori Riuniti</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Il+problema+del+ritratto&rft.btitle=L%27arte+classica&rft.place=Roma&rft.pub=Editori+Riuniti&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Bianchi+Bandinelli&rft.aufirst=Ranuccio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ciba1959-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ciba1959_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA_Ciba_Foundation_Symposium1959" class="citation book cs1">A Ciba Foundation Symposium (1959) [1958]. <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Wolstenholme" title="Gordon Wolstenholme">Wolstenholme, Gordon</a>; O'Connor, Cecilia M. (eds.). <i>Medical Biology and Etruscan Origins</i>. London: J & A Churchill Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-71493-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-71493-5"><bdi>978-0-470-71493-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medical+Biology+and+Etruscan+Origins&rft.place=London&rft.pub=J+%26+A+Churchill+Ltd&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=978-0-470-71493-5&rft.au=A+Ciba+Foundation+Symposium&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Perkins2017-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Perkins2017_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Perkins2017_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Perkins2017_75-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerkins2017" class="citation book cs1">Perkins, Phil (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uk8_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA109">"Chapter 8: DNA and Etruscan identity"</a>. In Naso, Alessandro (ed.). <i>Etruscology</i>. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 109–118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1934078495" title="Special:BookSources/978-1934078495"><bdi>978-1934078495</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+8%3A+DNA+and+Etruscan+identity&rft.btitle=Etruscology&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=109-118&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1934078495&rft.aulast=Perkins&rft.aufirst=Phil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Duk8_DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Perkins2009-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Perkins2009_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Perkins2009_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Perkins2009_76-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerkins2009" class="citation book cs1">Perkins, Phil (2009). "DNA and Etruscan identity". In Perkins, Phil; Swaddling, Judith (eds.). <i>Etruscan by Definition: Papers in Honour of Sybille Haynes</i>. London: The British Museum Research Publications. pp. 95–111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0861591732" title="Special:BookSources/978-0861591732"><bdi>978-0861591732</bdi></a>. 173.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=DNA+and+Etruscan+identity&rft.btitle=Etruscan+by+Definition%3A+Papers+in+Honour+of+Sybille+Haynes&rft.place=London&rft.pages=95-111&rft.pub=The+British+Museum+Research+Publications&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0861591732&rft.aulast=Perkins&rft.aufirst=Phil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reich2018-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Reich2018_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReich2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Reich_(geneticist)" title="David Reich (geneticist)">Reich, David</a> (2018). "Ancient DNA Opens the Floodgates". <i>Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 53–59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198821250" title="Special:BookSources/9780198821250"><bdi>9780198821250</bdi></a>. <q>But mitochondrial DNA only records information on the entirely female line, a tiny fraction of the many tens of thousands of lineages that have contributed to any person's genome. To understand what really happened in an individual's history, it is incomparably more valuable to examine all ancestral lineages together.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+DNA+Opens+the+Floodgates&rft.btitle=Who+We+Are+and+How+We+Got+Here%3A+Ancient+DNA+and+the+New+Science+of+the+Human+Past&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=53-59&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780198821250&rft.aulast=Reich&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Posth2021-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Posth2021_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPosthZaroSpyrou2021" class="citation journal cs1">Posth, Cosimo; Zaro, Valentina; Spyrou, Maria A. (September 24, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8462907">"The origin and legacy of the Etruscans through a 2000-year archeogenomic time transect"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Science_Advances" title="Science Advances">Science Advances</a></i>. <b>7</b> (39). Washington DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science: eabi7673. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021SciA....7.7673P">2021SciA....7.7673P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fsciadv.abi7673">10.1126/sciadv.abi7673</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8462907">8462907</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34559560">34559560</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+Advances&rft.atitle=The+origin+and+legacy+of+the+Etruscans+through+a+2000-year+archeogenomic+time+transect&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=39&rft.pages=eabi7673&rft.date=2021-09-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8462907%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34559560&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fsciadv.abi7673&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021SciA....7.7673P&rft.aulast=Posth&rft.aufirst=Cosimo&rft.au=Zaro%2C+Valentina&rft.au=Spyrou%2C+Maria+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8462907&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Antonio2019-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Antonio2019_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Antonio2019_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAntonioGaoM._Moots2019" class="citation journal cs1">Antonio, Margaret L.; Gao, Ziyue; M. Moots, Hannah (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7093155">"Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>366</b> (6466). Washington D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science (published November 8, 2019): 708–714. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019Sci...366..708A">2019Sci...366..708A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aay6826">10.1126/science.aay6826</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2318%2F1715466">2318/1715466</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7093155">7093155</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31699931">31699931</a>. <q>Interestingly, although Iron Age individuals were sampled from both Etruscan (n=3) and Latin (n=6) contexts, we did not detect any significant differences between the two groups with f4 statistics in the form of f4(RMPR_Etruscan, RMPR_Latin; test population, Onge), suggesting shared origins or extensive genetic exchange between them.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Ancient+Rome%3A+A+genetic+crossroads+of+Europe+and+the+Mediterranean&rft.volume=366&rft.issue=6466&rft.pages=708-714&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7093155%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019Sci...366..708A&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31699931&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aay6826&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2318%2F1715466&rft.aulast=Antonio&rft.aufirst=Margaret+L.&rft.au=Gao%2C+Ziyue&rft.au=M.+Moots%2C+Hannah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7093155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAntonio_et_al.20193-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAntonio_et_al.20193_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAntonio_et_al.2019">Antonio et al. 2019</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAntonio_et_al.20192-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAntonio_et_al.20192_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAntonio_et_al.2019">Antonio et al. 2019</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAntonio_et_al.2019Table_2_Sample_Information,_Rows_33-35-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAntonio_et_al.2019Table_2_Sample_Information,_Rows_33-35_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAntonio_et_al.2019">Antonio et al. 2019</a>, Table 2 Sample Information, Rows 33-35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leonardi2018-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Leonardi2018_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeonardiSandionigiConzatoVai2018" class="citation journal cs1">Leonardi, Michela; Sandionigi, Anna; Conzato, Annalisa; Vai, Stefania; Lari, Martina (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.23679">"The female ancestor's tale: Long-term matrilineal continuity in a nonisolated region of Tuscany"</a>. <i>American Journal of Physical Anthropology</i>. <b>167</b> (3). New York City: John Wiley & Sons (published September 6, 2018): 497–506. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.23679">10.1002/ajpa.23679</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30187463">30187463</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52161000">52161000</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physical+Anthropology&rft.atitle=The+female+ancestor%27s+tale%3A+Long-term+matrilineal+continuity+in+a+nonisolated+region+of+Tuscany&rft.volume=167&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=497-506&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A52161000%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30187463&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fajpa.23679&rft.aulast=Leonardi&rft.aufirst=Michela&rft.au=Sandionigi%2C+Anna&rft.au=Conzato%2C+Annalisa&rft.au=Vai%2C+Stefania&rft.au=Lari%2C+Martina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1002%2Fajpa.23679&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Claassen2004-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Claassen2004_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClaassenWree2004" class="citation journal cs1">Claassen, Horst; Wree, Andreas (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0940960204800323">"The Etruscan skulls of the Rostock anatomical collection – How do they compare with the skeletal findings of the first thousand years B.C.?"</a>. <i>Annals of Anatomy</i>. <b>186</b> (2). Amsterdam: Elsevier: 157–163. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0940-9602%2804%2980032-3">10.1016/S0940-9602(04)80032-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15125046">15125046</a>. <q>Seven Etruscan skulls were found in Corneto Tarquinia in the years 1881 and 1882 and were given as [a] present to Rostock's anatomical collection in 1882. The origin of the Etruscans who were contemporary with the Celts is not yet clear; according to Herodotus they had emigrated from Lydia in Asia Minor to Italy. To fit the Etruscan skulls into an ethnological grid they were compared with skeletal remains of the first thousand years B.C.E. All skulls were found to be male; their age ranged from 20 to 60 years, with an average age of about thirty. A comparison of the median sagittal outlines of the Etruscan skulls and the contemporary Hallstatt-Celtic skulls from North Bavaria showed that the former were shorter and lower. Maximum skull length, minimum frontal breadth, ear bregma height, bizygomatical breadth and orbital breadth of the Etruscan skulls were statistically significantly less developed compared to Hallstatt-Celtics from North Bavaria. In comparison to other contemporary skeletal remains the Etruscan skulls had no similarities in common with Hallstatt-Celtic skulls from North Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg but rather with Hallstatt-Celtic skulls from Hallstatt in Austria. Compared to chronologically adjacent skeletal remains the Etruscan skulls did not show similarities with Early Bronze Age skulls from Moravia but with Latène-Celtic skulls from Manching in South Bavaria. Due to the similarities of the Etruscan skulls with some Celtic skulls from South Bavaria and Austria, it seems more likely that the Etruscans were original inhabitants of Etruria than immigrants.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Anatomy&rft.atitle=The+Etruscan+skulls+of+the+Rostock+anatomical+collection+%E2%80%93+How+do+they+compare+with+the+skeletal+findings+of+the+first+thousand+years+B.C.%3F&rft.volume=186&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=157-163&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0940-9602%2804%2980032-3&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15125046&rft.aulast=Claassen&rft.aufirst=Horst&rft.au=Wree%2C+Andreas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS0940960204800323&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ghirotto2013-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ghirotto2013_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhirottoTassiFumagalliColonna2013" class="citation journal cs1">Ghirotto, Silvia; Tassi, Francesca; Fumagalli, Erica; Colonna, Vincenza; Sandionigi, Anna; Lari, Martina; Vai, Stefania; Petiti, Emmanuele; Corti, Giorgio; Rizzi, Ermanno; De Bellis, Gianluca; Caramelli, David; Barbujani, Guido (6 February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3566088">"Origins and evolution of the Etruscans' mtDNA"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>8</b> (2): e55519. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PLoSO...855519G">2013PLoSO...855519G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0055519">10.1371/journal.pone.0055519</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3566088">3566088</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23405165">23405165</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Origins+and+evolution+of+the+Etruscans%27+mtDNA&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=e55519&rft.date=2013-02-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3566088%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23405165&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0055519&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013PLoSO...855519G&rft.aulast=Ghirotto&rft.aufirst=Silvia&rft.au=Tassi%2C+Francesca&rft.au=Fumagalli%2C+Erica&rft.au=Colonna%2C+Vincenza&rft.au=Sandionigi%2C+Anna&rft.au=Lari%2C+Martina&rft.au=Vai%2C+Stefania&rft.au=Petiti%2C+Emmanuele&rft.au=Corti%2C+Giorgio&rft.au=Rizzi%2C+Ermanno&rft.au=De+Bellis%2C+Gianluca&rft.au=Caramelli%2C+David&rft.au=Barbujani%2C+Guido&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3566088&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tassi2013-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tassi2013_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTassiGhirottoCaramelliBarbujani2013" class="citation journal cs1">Tassi, Francesca; Ghirotto, Silvia; Caramelli, David; Barbujani, Guido; et al. (2013). "Genetic evidence does not support an Etruscan origin in Anatolia". <i>American Journal of Physical Anthropology</i>. <b>152</b> (1): 11–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.22319">10.1002/ajpa.22319</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23900768">23900768</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physical+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Genetic+evidence+does+not+support+an+Etruscan+origin+in+Anatolia.&rft.volume=152&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=11-18&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fajpa.22319&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23900768&rft.aulast=Tassi&rft.aufirst=Francesca&rft.au=Ghirotto%2C+Silvia&rft.au=Caramelli%2C+David&rft.au=Barbujani%2C+Guido&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vernesi2004-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vernesi2004_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vernesi2004_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFC._Vernesi_e_Altri2004" class="citation journal cs1">C. Vernesi e Altri (March 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1181945">"The Etruscans: A population-genetic study"</a>. <i>American Journal of Human Genetics</i>. <b>74</b> (4): 694–704. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F383284">10.1086/383284</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1181945">1181945</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15015132">15015132</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=The+Etruscans%3A+A+population-genetic+study&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=694-704&rft.date=2004-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1181945%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15015132&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F383284&rft.au=C.+Vernesi+e+Altri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1181945&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bandelt2004-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bandelt2004_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBandelt2004" class="citation journal cs1">Bandelt, Hans-Jürgen (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182123">"Etruscan artifacts"</a>. <i>American Journal of Human Genetics</i>. <b>75</b> (5): 919–920. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F425180">10.1086/425180</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182123">1182123</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15457405">15457405</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=Etruscan+artifacts&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=919-920&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1182123%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15457405&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F425180&rft.aulast=Bandelt&rft.aufirst=Hans-J%C3%BCrgen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1182123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bandelt2005-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bandelt2005_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBandelt2005" class="citation journal cs1">Bandelt, Hans-Jürgen (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.ejhg.5201476">"Mosaics of ancient mitochondrial DNA: positive indicators of nonauthenticity"</a>. <i>European Journal of Human Genetics</i>. <b>13</b> (10): 1106–1112. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.ejhg.5201476">10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201476</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16077732">16077732</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19958417">19958417</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=Mosaics+of+ancient+mitochondrial+DNA%3A+positive+indicators+of+nonauthenticity&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1106-1112&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19958417%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16077732&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsj.ejhg.5201476&rft.aulast=Bandelt&rft.aufirst=Hans-J%C3%BCrgen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fsj.ejhg.5201476&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomas2005-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thomas2005_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilbert2005" class="citation journal cs1">Gilbert, Marcus Thomas Pius (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/fulltext/S0169-5347(05)00226-0">"Assessing ancient DNA studies"</a>. <i>Trends in Ecology & Evolution (TREE)</i>. <b>20</b> (10): 541–544. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2005.07.005">10.1016/j.tree.2005.07.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16701432">16701432</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Ecology+%26+Evolution+%28TREE%29&rft.atitle=Assessing+ancient+DNA+studies&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=541-544&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tree.2005.07.005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16701432&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=Marcus+Thomas+Pius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cell.com%2Ftrends%2Fecology-evolution%2Ffulltext%2FS0169-5347%2805%2900226-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Krause2020-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Krause2020_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrauseTrappe2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Krause" title="Johannes Krause">Krause, Johannes</a>; Trappe, Thomas (2021) [2019]. <i>A Short History of Humanity: A New History of Old Europe</i> [<i>Die Reise unserer Gene: Eine Geschichte über uns und unsere Vorfahren</i>]. Translated by Waight, Caroline (I ed.). New York: Random House. p. 217. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780593229422" title="Special:BookSources/9780593229422"><bdi>9780593229422</bdi></a>. <q>It's likely that Basque, Paleo-Sardinian, Minoan, and Etruscan developed on the continent in the course of the Neolithic Revolution. Sadly, the true diversity of the languages that once existed in Europe will never be known.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Humanity%3A+A+New+History+of+Old+Europe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=217&rft.edition=I&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9780593229422&rft.aulast=Krause&rft.aufirst=Johannes&rft.au=Trappe%2C+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BartoloniTreccani-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BartoloniTreccani_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BartoloniTreccani_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gilda_Bartoloni&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gilda Bartoloni (page does not exist)">Gilda Bartoloni</a>, "La cultura villanoviana", in <i>Enciclopedia dell'Arte Antica</i>, Treccani, Rome 1997, vol. VII, p. 1173 e s 1970, p. 922. (Italian)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Burkert" title="Walter Burkert">Walter Burkert</a>, <i>The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age</i>, 1992.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Montanari2004-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Montanari2004_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Montanari2004_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiovanna_Bermond_Montanari2004" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Giovanna Bermond Montanari (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/l-italia-preromana-i-siti-etruschi-bologna_%28Il-Mondo-dell%27Archeologia%29/">"L'Italia preromana. I siti etruschi: Bologna"</a> (in Italian). <a href="/wiki/Treccani" title="Treccani">Treccani</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 12,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=L%27Italia+preromana.+I+siti+etruschi%3A+Bologna&rft.pub=Treccani&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Giovanna+Bermond+Montanari&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fl-italia-preromana-i-siti-etruschi-bologna_%2528Il-Mondo-dell%2527Archeologia%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-historyone-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-historyone_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historyone_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonfante1986" class="citation book cs1">Bonfante, Larissa (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4QaXZky58FIC&q=Etruscan+League&pg=PA58"><i>Etruscan life and afterlife</i></a>. Wayne State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-1813-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-1813-3"><bdi>978-0-8143-1813-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-04-22</span></span> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etruscan+life+and+afterlife&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-8143-1813-3&rft.aulast=Bonfante&rft.aufirst=Larissa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4QaXZky58FIC%26q%3DEtruscan%2BLeague%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-historytwo-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-historytwo_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-historytwo_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Franklin_Hall1996" class="citation book cs1">John Franklin Hall (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bUhT7i7XhOAC&q=Etruscan+League&pg=PA198"><i>Etruscan Italy</i></a>. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8425-2334-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8425-2334-9"><bdi>978-0-8425-2334-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 April</span> 2009</span> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etruscan+Italy&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8425-2334-9&rft.au=John+Franklin+Hall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbUhT7i7XhOAC%26q%3DEtruscan%2BLeague%26pg%3DPA198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy VII.21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/etruschi_(Dizionario-di-Storia)/">"Etruschi"</a> [Etruscans]. <i>Dizionario di storia</i> (in Italian). <a href="/wiki/Treccani" title="Treccani">Treccani</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dizionario+di+storia&rft.atitle=Etruschi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fetruschi_%28Dizionario-di-Storia%29%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mysteriousetruscans.com/cities.html">"The Etruscan League of 12"</a>. <i>mysteriousetruscans.com</i>. 2 April 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mysteriousetruscans.com&rft.atitle=The+Etruscan+League+of+12&rft.date=2009-04-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mysteriousetruscans.com%2Fcities.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavisFrankforter2004" class="citation news cs1">Davis, Madison; Frankforter, Daniel (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GrnsU27t2X8C&q=Rome+was+founded+by+Italics&pg=PA810">"The Shakespeare Name Dictionary"</a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780203642276" title="Special:BookSources/9780203642276"><bdi>9780203642276</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-09-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Shakespeare+Name+Dictionary&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780203642276&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Madison&rft.au=Frankforter%2C+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGrnsU27t2X8C%26q%3DRome%2Bwas%2Bfounded%2Bby%2BItalics%26pg%3DPA810&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunningham,_Reich2006" class="citation book cs1">Cunningham, Reich (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/culturevaluessur02cunn"><i>Cultures and Values: A survey of the humanities</i></a></span>. Thomson/Wadsworth. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/culturevaluessur02cunn/page/92">92</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0534582272" title="Special:BookSources/978-0534582272"><bdi>978-0534582272</bdi></a>. <q>The later Romans' own grandiose picture of the early days of their city was intended to glamorize its origins, but only with the arrival of the Etruscans did anything like an urban center begin to develop.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultures+and+Values%3A+A+survey+of+the+humanities&rft.pages=92&rft.pub=Thomson%2FWadsworth&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0534582272&rft.au=Cunningham%2C+Reich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fculturevaluessur02cunn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes2012" class="citation book cs1">Hughes (2012). <i>Rome: A cultural, visual, and personal history</i>. p. 24. <q>Some Roman technical achievements began in Etruscan expertise. Though the Etruscans never came up with an aqueduct, they were good at drainage, and hence they were the ancestors of Rome's monumental sewer systems.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome%3A+A+cultural%2C+visual%2C+and+personal+history&rft.pages=24&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Hughes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tacitus, Cornelius. <i>The Annals & The Histories</i>. Trans. Alfred Church and William Brodribb. New York, 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJean-Paul_Thuillier2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jean-Paul Thuillier (2006). <i>Les Étrusques</i> (in French). Éditions du Chêne. p. 142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2842776585" title="Special:BookSources/2842776585"><bdi>2842776585</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+%C3%89trusques&rft.pages=142&rft.pub=%C3%89ditions+du+Ch%C3%AAne&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=2842776585&rft.au=Jean-Paul+Thuillier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Briquel,_Dominique_2007-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Briquel,_Dominique_2007_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Briquel,_Dominique_2007_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Briquel, Dominique; Svensson Pär (2007). Etruskerna. Alhambras pocket encyklopedi, 99-1532610-6; 88 (1. uppl.). Furulund: Alhambra. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789188992970" title="Special:BookSources/9789188992970">9789188992970</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bookone-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bookone_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bookone_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorelli2000" class="citation book cs1">Torelli, Mario (2000). <i>The Etruscans</i>. Rizzoli International Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Etruscans&rft.pub=Rizzoli+International+Publications&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Torelli&rft.aufirst=Mario&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-booktwo-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-booktwo_107-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-booktwo_107-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDupey" class="citation book cs1">Dupey, Trevor. <i>The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History</i>. Rizzoli Harper Collins Publisher.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Harper+Encyclopedia+of+Military+History&rft.pub=Rizzoli+Harper+Collins+Publisher&rft.aulast=Dupey&rft.aufirst=Trevor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bookthree-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bookthree_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDora_Jane_Hamblin1975" class="citation book cs1">Dora Jane Hamblin (1975). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/etruscans00hamb"><i>The Etruscans</i></a></span>. Time Life Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Etruscans&rft.pub=Time+Life+Books&rft.date=1975&rft.au=Dora+Jane+Hamblin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fetruscans00hamb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://antropocene.it/en/2022/11/21/the-etruscans-and-agriculture/">"The Etruscans and agriculture"</a>. <i>Un Mondo Ecosostenibile</i>. 21 November 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240113105505/https://antropocene.it/en/2022/11/21/the-etruscans-and-agriculture/">Archived</a> from the original on January 13, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Un+Mondo+Ecosostenibile&rft.atitle=The+Etruscans+and+agriculture&rft.date=2022-11-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fantropocene.it%2Fen%2F2022%2F11%2F21%2Fthe-etruscans-and-agriculture%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLimbergen2024" class="citation web cs1">Limbergen, Dimitri Van (2024-01-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/ancient-roman-wine-production-may-hold-clues-for-battling-climate-change-214518">"Ancient Roman wine production may hold clues for battling climate change"</a>. <i>The Conversation</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240229223137/https://theconversation.com/ancient-roman-wine-production-may-hold-clues-for-battling-climate-change-214518">Archived</a> from the original on February 29, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Conversation&rft.atitle=Ancient+Roman+wine+production+may+hold+clues+for+battling+climate+change&rft.date=2024-01-04&rft.aulast=Limbergen&rft.aufirst=Dimitri+Van&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fancient-roman-wine-production-may-hold-clues-for-battling-climate-change-214518&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMazzeo2023" class="citation web cs1">Mazzeo, Jacopo (June 6, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wineenthusiast.com/culture/wine/vite-maritata/">"Vite Maritata, an Ancient Vine-Growing Technique, Makes a Comeback"</a>. <i>Wine Enthusiast Magazine</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240113105433/https://www.wineenthusiast.com/culture/wine/vite-maritata/">Archived</a> from the original on Jan 13, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wine+Enthusiast+Magazine&rft.atitle=Vite+Maritata%2C+an+Ancient+Vine-Growing+Technique%2C+Makes+a+Comeback&rft.date=2023-06-06&rft.aulast=Mazzeo&rft.aufirst=Jacopo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wineenthusiast.com%2Fculture%2Fwine%2Fvite-maritata%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bookonereligion-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bookonereligion_112-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bookonereligion_112-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrummondThomson2006" class="citation book cs1">Grummond, De; Thomson, Nancy (2006). <i>Etruscan Mythology, Sacred History and Legend: An Introduction</i>. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etruscan+Mythology%2C+Sacred+History+and+Legend%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Museum+of+Archaeology&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Grummond&rft.aufirst=De&rft.au=Thomson%2C+Nancy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-booktworeligion-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-booktworeligion_113-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-booktworeligion_113-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon2009" class="citation book cs1">Simon, Erika (20 April 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hQtbJyFCd40C&q=Etruscan+religion&pg=PA1"><i>The religion of the Etruscans</i></a>. University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70687-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70687-3"><bdi>978-0-292-70687-3</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+religion+of+the+Etruscans&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2009-04-20&rft.isbn=978-0-292-70687-3&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=Erika&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhQtbJyFCd40C%26q%3DEtruscan%2Breligion%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-booktwoarchitecture-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-booktwoarchitecture_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoëthiusLingRasmussen1994" class="citation book cs1">Boëthius, Axel; Ling, Roger; Rasmussen, Tom (1994). <i>Etruscan and early Roman architecture</i>. Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etruscan+and+early+Roman+architecture&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Bo%C3%ABthius&rft.aufirst=Axel&rft.au=Ling%2C+Roger&rft.au=Rasmussen%2C+Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/it/2-1024/i-banchetti-etruschi/">"I banchetti etruschi"</a> (in Italian)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=I+banchetti+etruschi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2Ftrans%2Fit%2F2-1024%2Fi-banchetti-etruschi%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-etruscianartmusic-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-etruscianartmusic_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpivey1997" class="citation book cs1">Spivey, Nigel (1997). <i>Etruscan Art</i>. London: Thames and Hudson.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etruscan+Art&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Spivey&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Massimo_Pallottino" title="Massimo Pallottino">Massimo Pallottino</a>, <i>La langue étrusque Problèmes et perspectives</i>, 1978.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mauro Cristofani, <i>Introduction to the study of the Etruscan</i>, Leo S. Olschki, 1991.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Romolo A. Staccioli, <i>The "mystery" of the Etruscan language</i>, Newton & Compton publishers, Rome, 1977.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haarmann2014-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Haarmann2014_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaarmann2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harald_Haarmann" title="Harald Haarmann">Haarmann, Harald</a> (2014). "Ethnicity and Language in the Ancient Mediterranean". In McInerney, Jeremy (ed.). <i>A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean</i>. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 17–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118834312.ch2">10.1002/9781118834312.ch2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444337341" title="Special:BookSources/9781444337341"><bdi>9781444337341</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ethnicity+and+Language+in+the+Ancient+Mediterranean&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ethnicity+in+the+Ancient+Mediterranean&rft.place=Chichester%2C+UK&rft.pages=17-33&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Inc&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118834312.ch2&rft.isbn=9781444337341&rft.aulast=Haarmann&rft.aufirst=Harald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a>, <i>De lingua Latina</i>, 5.55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaras2015" class="citation book cs1">Maras, Daniele F. (2015). "Etruscan and Italic Literacy and the Case of Rome". In Bloome, W. Martin (ed.). <i>A Companion to Ancient Education</i>. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. p. 202.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Etruscan+and+Italic+Literacy+and+the+Case+of+Rome&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Education&rft.place=Chichester%2C+UK&rft.pages=202&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Maras&rft.aufirst=Daniele+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNielsenRathje" class="citation book cs1">Nielsen, Marjatta; Rathje, Annette. "Artumes in Etruria—the Borrowed Goddess". In Fischer-Hansen, Tobias; Poulsen, Birte (eds.). <i>From Artemis to Diana: The Goddess of Man and Beast</i>. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 261. <q>A massive Greek impact is clear especially in the coastal territory, which has led many to believe that the Etruscans were entirely Hellenized. Countless depictions show that Greek myths were, indeed, adopted and well-known to the Etruscans.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Artumes+in+Etruria%E2%80%94the+Borrowed+Goddess&rft.btitle=From+Artemis+to+Diana%3A+The+Goddess+of+Man+and+Beast&rft.place=Copenhagen&rft.pages=261&rft.pub=Museum+Tusculanum+Press&rft.aulast=Nielsen&rft.aufirst=Marjatta&rft.au=Rathje%2C+Annette&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Larissa Bonfante, Giuliano Bonfante: <i>The Etruscan Language: An Introduction.</i> p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedhelm Prayon: <i>The Etruscans. History, religion, art.</i> p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Larissa Bonfante, Giuliano Bonfante: <i>The Etruscan Language: An Introduction.</i> p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven Roger Fischer: <i>History of Writing.</i> S. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven Roger Fischer: <i>History of Writing.</i> S. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Larissa Bonfante, Giuliano Bonfante: <i>The Etruscan Language: An Introduction.</i> p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Larissa Bonfante, Giuliano Bonfante: <i>The Etruscan Language: An Introduction.</i> p. 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Larissa Bonfante, Giuliano Bonfante: <i>The Etruscan Language: An Introduction.</i> p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedhelm Prayon: <i>Die Etrusker. History, Religion, Art.</i> pp. 38–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Larissa Bonfante, Giuliano Bonfante: <i>The Etruscan Language: An Introduction.</i> p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Larissa Bonfante, Giuliano Bonfante: <i>The Etruscan Language: An Introduction.</i> p. 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Larissa Bonfante, Giuliano Bonfante: <i>The Etruscan Language: An Introduction.</i> p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven Roger Fischer: <i>History of Writing.</i> pp. 141–142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Larissa Bonfante, Giuliano Bonfante: <i>The Etruscan Language: An Introduction.</i> p. 117.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAntonio_et_al.2019" class="citation journal cs1">Antonio, Margaret L.; et al. (November 8, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7093155">"Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>366</b> (6466). <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>: 708–714. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019Sci...366..708A">2019Sci...366..708A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aay6826">10.1126/science.aay6826</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7093155">7093155</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31699931">31699931</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Ancient+Rome%3A+A+genetic+crossroads+of+Europe+and+the+Mediterranean&rft.volume=366&rft.issue=6466&rft.pages=708-714&rft.date=2019-11-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7093155%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31699931&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aay6826&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019Sci...366..708A&rft.aulast=Antonio&rft.aufirst=Margaret+L.&rft.au=Gao%2C+Ziyue&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7093155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrauss_Clay2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jenny_Strauss_Clay" title="Jenny Strauss Clay">Strauss Clay, Jenny</a> (2016). "Visualizing Divinity: The Reception of the <i>Homeric Hymns</i> in Greek Vase Painting". In Faulkner, Andrew; Vergados, Athanassios; Schwab, Andreas (eds.). <i>The Reception of the Homeric Hymns</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 29–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198728788.003.0002">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198728788.003.0002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191795510" title="Special:BookSources/9780191795510"><bdi>9780191795510</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Visualizing+Divinity%3A+The+Reception+of+the+Homeric+Hymns+in+Greek+Vase+Painting&rft.btitle=The+Reception+of+the+Homeric+Hymns&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=29-52&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198728788.003.0002&rft.isbn=9780191795510&rft.aulast=Strauss+Clay&rft.aufirst=Jenny&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+civilization" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bartoloni, Gilda (ed). <i>Introduzione all'Etruscologia</i> (in Italian). Milan: Hoepli, 2012.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Bell" title="Sinclair Bell">Sinclair Bell</a> and Carpino A. Alexandra (eds). <i>A Companion to the Etruscans</i>, Oxford; Chichester; Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell, 2016.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuliano_Bonfante" title="Giuliano Bonfante">Bonfante, Giuliano</a> and <a href="/wiki/Larissa_Bonfante" title="Larissa Bonfante">Bonfante Larissa</a>. <i>The Etruscan Language: An Introduction</i>. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002.</li> <li>Bonfante, Larissa. <i>Out of Etruria: Etruscan Influence North and South</i>. Oxford: B.A.R., 1981.</li> <li>Bonfante, Larissa. <i>Etruscan Life and Afterlife: A Handbook of Etruscan Studies</i>. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1986.</li> <li>Bonfante, Larissa. <i>Etruscan Myths</i>. London: British Museum Press, 2006.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominique_Briquel" title="Dominique Briquel">Briquel, Dominique</a>. <i>Les Étrusques, peuple de la différence</i>, series Civilisations U, éditions Armand Colin, Paris, 1993.</li> <li>Briquel, Dominique. <i>La civilisation étrusque</i>, éditions Fayard, Paris, 1999.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Thomson_de_Grummond" title="Nancy Thomson de Grummond">De Grummond, Nancy T</a>. (2014). <i>Ethnicity and the Etruscans</i>. In McInerney, Jeremy (ed.). <i>A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean</i>. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 405–422.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sybille_Haynes" title="Sybille Haynes">Haynes, Sybille</a>. <i>Etruscan Civilization: A Cultural History.</i> Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2000.</li> <li>Izzet, Vedia. <i>The Archaeology of Etruscan Society</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.</li> <li>Naso, Alessandro (ed). <i>Etruscology</i>, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massimo_Pallottino" title="Massimo Pallottino">Pallottino, Massimo</a>. <i>Etruscologia</i>. Milan: Hoepli, 1942 (English ed., <i>The Etruscans</i>. <a href="/wiki/David_Ridgway_(scholar)" title="David Ridgway (scholar)">David Ridgway</a>, editor. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1975).</li> <li>Shipley, Lucy. <i>The Etruscans: Lost Civilizations</i>, London: Reaktion Books, 2017.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Smith_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Smith (academic)">Smith, C</a>. <i>The Etruscans: a very short introduction </i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.</li> <li>Spivey, Nigel. <i>Etruscan Art</i>. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Swaddling" title="Judith Swaddling">Swaddling, Judith</a> and Philip Perkins. <i>Etruscan by Definition: The Culture, Regional, and Personal Identity of the Etruscans: Papers in Honor of Sybille Haynes</i>. London: British Museum, 2009.</li> <li>* Torelli, M. (ed.) (2001) <i>The Etruscans</i>. London.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turfa,_Jean_MacIntosh" class="mw-redirect" title="Turfa, Jean MacIntosh">Turfa, Jean MacIntosh</a> (ed). <i>The Etruscan World</i>. London: Routledge, 2013.</li> <li>Turfa, Jean MacIntosh. <i>The Etruscans</i>. In Farney, Gary D.; Bradley, Gary (eds.). <i>The Peoples of Ancient Italy</i>. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 637–672.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cities_and_sites">Cities and sites</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Cities and sites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060508054703/http://www.eng.archeopg.arti.beniculturali.it/canale.asp?id=499">(Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici dell'Umbria) "The Cai Cutu Etruscan tomb"</a> An undisturbed late Etruscan family tomb, reused between the 3rd and 1st century BC, reassembled in the National Archeological Museum of Perugia</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090922211541/http://archive.cyark.org/hypogeum-of-the-volumnis-info">Hypogeum of the Volumnis digital media archive</a> (<a href="/wiki/Creative_commons" class="mw-redirect" title="Creative commons">creative commons</a>-licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas), data from a <a href="/wiki/University_of_Ferrara" title="University of Ferrara">University of Ferrara</a>/<a href="/wiki/CyArk" title="CyArk">CyArk</a> research partnership</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_civilization&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; 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.navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Etruscan_civilization" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Etruscans" title="Template:Etruscans"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Etruscans" title="Template talk:Etruscans"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Etruscans" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Etruscans"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Etruscan_civilization" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Etruscan civilization</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_history" title="Etruscan history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_origins" title="Etruscan origins">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Villanovan culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padanian_Etruria" title="Padanian Etruria">Padanian Etruria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Founding of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrrhenus" title="Tyrrhenus">Tyrrhenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrrhenians" title="Tyrrhenians">Tyrrhenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarchon" title="Tarchon">Tarchon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Vibenna" title="Aulus Vibenna">Aulus Vibenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caelius_Vibenna" title="Caelius Vibenna">Caelius Vibenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capys" title="Capys">Capys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Priscus" title="Lucius Tarquinius Priscus">Lucius Tarquinius Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanaquil" title="Tanaquil">Tanaquil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servius_Tullius" title="Servius Tullius">Servius Tullius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Superbus" title="Lucius Tarquinius Superbus">Lucius Tarquinius Superbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arruns_Tarquinius_(son_of_Tarquin_the_Proud)" title="Arruns Tarquinius (son of Tarquin the Proud)">Arruns Tarquinius (son of Tarquin the Proud)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lars_Porsena" title="Lars Porsena">Lars Porsena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lars_Tolumnius" title="Lars Tolumnius">Lars Tolumnius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titus_Vestricius_Spurinna" title="Titus Vestricius Spurinna">Titus Vestricius Spurinna</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:GiorcesVeiiApollo1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Apollo of Veii"><img alt="Apollo of Veii" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/GiorcesVeiiApollo1.jpg/75px-GiorcesVeiiApollo1.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/GiorcesVeiiApollo1.jpg/113px-GiorcesVeiiApollo1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/GiorcesVeiiApollo1.jpg/150px-GiorcesVeiiApollo1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="327" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Culture">Culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_society" title="Etruscan society">society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_of_Veii" title="Apollo of Veii">Apollo of Veii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_architecture" title="Etruscan architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_art" title="Etruscan art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimera_of_Arezzo" title="Chimera of Arezzo">Chimera of Arezzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_coins" title="Etruscan coins">Coins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Speculorum_Etruscorum" title="Corpus Speculorum Etruscorum">Corpus Speculorum Etruscorum</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Etruscan_League">Etruscan League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Etruscan_names_for_Greek_heroes" title="List of Etruscan names for Greek heroes">Etruscan names for Greek heroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiburtine_Sibyl" title="Tiburtine Sibyl">Tiburtine Sibyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanum_Voltumnae" title="Fanum Voltumnae">Fanum Voltumnae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haruspex" title="Haruspex">Haruspex/Extispicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_jewelry" title="Etruscan jewelry">Jewelry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lausus" title="Lausus">Lausus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liver_of_Piacenza" title="Liver of Piacenza">Liver of Piacenza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mezentius" title="Mezentius">Mezentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monterozzi_necropolis" title="Monterozzi necropolis">Monterozzi necropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Etruscan_mythological_figures" title="List of Etruscan mythological figures">Mythological figures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persius" title="Persius">Persius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poppilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Poppilia">Poppilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raeti" class="mw-redirect" title="Raeti">Raeti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Religion</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sarcophagus_of_the_Spouses" title="Sarcophagus of the Spouses">Sarcophagus of the Spouses</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tages" title="Tages">Tages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_terracotta_warriors" title="Etruscan terracotta warriors">Terracotta warriors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titus_Larcius" title="Titus Larcius">Titus Larcius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Roaring_Lions" title="Tomb of the Roaring Lions">Tomb of the Roaring Lions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegoia" title="Vegoia">Vegoia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulca" title="Vulca">Vulca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_military_history" title="Etruscan military history">Military history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alalia" title="Battle of Alalia">Battle of Alalia (540 BC–535 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rome_(509_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Rome (509 BC)">Siege of Rome (509 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rome_(508_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Rome (508 BC)">Siege of Rome (508 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Cremera" title="Battle of the Cremera">Battle of the Cremera (477 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cumae" title="Battle of Cumae">Battle of Cumae (474 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fidenae_(437_BC)" title="Battle of Fidenae (437 BC)">Battle of Fidenae (437 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Fidenae_(435_BC)" title="Capture of Fidenae (435 BC)">Capture of Fidenae (435 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Veii" title="Battle of Veii">Battle of Veii (c. 396 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Vadimo_(310_BC)" title="Battle of Lake Vadimo (310 BC)">Battle of Lake Vadimo (310 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Populonia" title="Battle of Populonia">Battle of Populonia (282 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman-Etruscan_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman-Etruscan Wars">Roman-Etruscan Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language">Language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cippus_Perusinus" title="Cippus Perusinus">Cippus Perusinus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Etruscarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum">Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Liber_Linteus" title="Liber Linteus">Liber Linteus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrgi_Tablets" title="Pyrgi Tablets">Pyrgi Tablets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raetic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Raetic language">Raetic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemnian_language" title="Lemnian language">Lemnian language</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tabula_Capuana" title="Tabula Capuana">Tabula Capuana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tabula_Cortonensis" title="Tabula Cortonensis">Tabula Cortonensis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Etruscan_origin" title="List of English words of Etruscan origin">English words of Etruscan origin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Archeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Archeology">Archeology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bucchero" title="Bucchero">Bucchero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuniculi" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuniculi">Cuniculi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscology" title="Etruscology">Etruscology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impasto_(pottery)" title="Impasto (pottery)">Impasto (pottery)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monteleone_Chariot" class="mw-redirect" title="Monteleone Chariot">Monteleone Chariot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Etruscan_Museum" title="National Etruscan Museum">National Etruscan Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negau_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Negau helmet">Negau helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portonaccio" title="Portonaccio">Portonaccio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Orcus" title="Tomb of Orcus">Tomb of Orcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus_of_Montefortini" title="Tumulus of Montefortini">Tumulus of Montefortini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicus_Tuscus" title="Vicus Tuscus">Vicus Tuscus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_cities" title="Etruscan cities">Key sites</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acquarossa,_Italy" title="Acquarossa, Italy">Acquarossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adria" title="Adria">Adria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al%C3%A9ria" title="Aléria">Aleria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baratti_(town)" title="Baratti (town)">Baratti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caere" title="Caere">Caere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceri" title="Ceri">Ceri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerveteri" title="Cerveteri">Cerveteri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civita_di_Bagnoregio" title="Civita di Bagnoregio">Civita di Bagnoregio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clusium" title="Clusium">Clusium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumae" title="Cumae">Cumae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruria" title="Etruria">Etruria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falerii" title="Falerii">Falerii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fescennia" title="Fescennia">Fescennia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidenae" title="Fidenae">Fidenae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norchia" title="Norchia">Norchia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orvieto" title="Orvieto">Orvieto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perusia" title="Perusia">Perusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poggio_Colla" title="Poggio Colla">Poggio Colla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populonia" title="Populonia">Populonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrgi" title="Pyrgi">Pyrgi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusellae" title="Rusellae">Rusellae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Giovenale" title="San Giovenale">San Giovenale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spina" title="Spina">Spina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarquinia" title="Tarquinia">Tarquinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscania" title="Tuscania">Tuscania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veii" title="Veii">Veii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vetulonia" title="Vetulonia">Vetulonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vie_Cave" class="mw-redirect" title="Vie Cave">Vie Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volsinii" title="Volsinii">Volsinii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volterra" title="Volterra">Volterra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulci" title="Vulci">Vulci</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Italy" title="Portal:Italy">Portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Italy_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Italy_topics" title="Template:Italy topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Italy_topics" title="Template talk:Italy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Italy_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Italy topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Italy_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Italy" title="Outline of Italy">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italy" title="History of Italy">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Italian_history" title="Timeline of Italian history">Timeline of Italian history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_citizenship" title="History of Italian citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_coins_in_Italy" title="History of coins in Italy">Currency and coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Italy" title="Economic history of Italy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_fashion" title="History of Italian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_flags" title="List of Italian flags">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historic states of Italy">Historic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Italy" title="LGBT history in Italy">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy" title="Military history of Italy">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_Italy" title="Music history of Italy">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Italy" title="Name of Italy">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Italy" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Italy">Postage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Italy" title="History of rail transport in Italy">Railways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Prehistory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Italy" title="Prehistoric Italy">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Italy" title="Neolithic Italy">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Villanovan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terramare_culture" title="Terramare culture">Terramare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinaldone_culture" title="Rinaldone culture">Rinaldone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apennine_culture" title="Apennine culture">Apennine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golasecca_culture" title="Golasecca culture">Golasecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canegrate_culture" title="Canegrate culture">Canegrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latial_culture" title="Latial culture">Latial</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_peoples_of_Italy" title="List of ancient peoples of Italy">Ancient peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osci" title="Osci">Osci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picentes" title="Picentes">Picentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnites" title="Samnites">Samnites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbri" title="Umbri">Umbri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Veneti" title="Adriatic Veneti">Veneti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Etruscans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Celts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligures" title="Ligures">Ligures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messapians" title="Messapians">Messapians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_expansion_in_Italy" title="Roman expansion in Italy">Roman conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Roman Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li>Italy under <a href="/wiki/Odoacer#King_of_Italy" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogoths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Italy" title="Byzantine Italy">Byzantium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">the Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_medieval_kingdoms" title="Sardinian medieval kingdoms">the Sardinian Judicates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Normans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guelphs_and_Ghibellines" title="Guelphs and Ghibellines">Guelphs and Ghibellines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombard_League" title="Lombard League">Lombard League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Sicilian_Vespers" title="War of the Sicilian Vespers">War of the Sicilian Vespers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_city-states" title="Italian city-states">Italian city-states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Siena" title="Republic of Siena">Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Duchy of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_early_modern_Italy" title="History of early modern Italy">Early Modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)">Napoleonic Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Austrian occupation and Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Late modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="First Italian War of Independence">First War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">Second War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%A7ard_exodus" title="Niçard exodus">Niçard exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Expedition of the Thousand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Third Italian War of Independence">Third War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">Capture of Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)" title="History of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)">Monarchy and the World Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Colonial Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Italy during World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Fourth War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy">Fascist Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy" title="Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy">Fall of the Fascist regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Resistance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Social Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">Civil War</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Italian_Republic" title="History of the Italian Republic">Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">Institutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istrian%E2%80%93Dalmatian_exodus" title="Istrian–Dalmatian exodus">Istrian–Dalmatian exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_economic_miracle" title="Italian economic miracle">Economic Boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxi_Trial" title="Maxi Trial">Maxi Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mani_pulite" title="Mani pulite">Mani pulite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Italy">Coronavirus pandemic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Italy" title="Geography of Italy">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italy_(geographical_region)" title="Italy (geographical region)">Italian geographical region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Italy" title="Climate of Italy">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Italy" title="Climate change in Italy">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Italy" title="Geology of Italy">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Italy" title="Fauna of Italy">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Italy" title="Flora of Italy">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Italy" title="List of mountains in Italy">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_foothills" title="Alpine foothills">Prealps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apennine_Mountains" title="Apennine Mountains">Apennines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_of_Italy" title="Volcanism of Italy">Volcanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Italy" title="List of volcanoes in Italy">Volcanoes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_Italy" title="List of beaches in Italy">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_canals_in_Italy" title="List of canals in Italy">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_caves_in_Italy" title="List of caves in Italy">Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Italy" title="List of earthquakes in Italy">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Italy" title="List of islands of Italy">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Italy" title="List of lakes of Italy">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Marine_Protected_Areas_of_Italy" title="List of Marine Protected Areas of Italy">Marine protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Italy" title="List of national parks of Italy">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regional_parks_of_Italy" title="List of regional parks of Italy">Regional parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Italy" title="List of rivers of Italy">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_valleys_of_Italy" title="List of valleys of Italy">Valleys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Italy" title="Politics of Italy">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Italy" title="Constitution of Italy">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Italy" title="Elections in Italy">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Italy" title="Foreign relations of Italy">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Italy" title="Government of Italy">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Italy" title="Human rights in Italy">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Italy">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Italy" title="Judiciary of Italy">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Italy" title="Law of Italy">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Italy" title="Law enforcement in Italy">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Armed_Forces" title="Italian Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_nationality_law" title="Italian nationality law">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Parliament" title="Italian Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Italy" title="List of political parties in Italy">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Italy" title="President of Italy">President</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Italy" title="List of presidents of Italy">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" title="Prime Minister of Italy">Prime Minister</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Italy" title="List of prime ministers of Italy">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Italy)" title="Council of Ministers (Italy)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Italy" title="Regions of Italy">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Italy" title="Provinces of Italy">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_cities_of_Italy" title="Metropolitan cities of Italy">Metropolitan cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Italy" title="List of cities in Italy">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comune" title="Comune">Comune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_municipalities_of_Italy" title="List of municipalities of Italy">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_intelligence_agencies" title="Italian intelligence agencies">Security and intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Italy" title="Economy of Italy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Italy" title="Economy of Italy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_regions_by_GDP" title="List of Italian regions by GDP">Italian regions by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Italy" title="Agriculture in Italy">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Italy" title="Automotive industry in Italy">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Italy" title="Banking in Italy">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Italy" title="List of banks in Italy">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Italy" title="Bank of Italy">Central Bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_brands" title="List of Italian brands">Brands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Italy" title="List of companies of Italy">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Italy" title="Energy in Italy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_Italy" title="List of exports of Italy">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Italy" title="Science and technology in Italy">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">Southern question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borsa_Italiana" title="Borsa Italiana">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Italy" title="Taxation in Italy">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in Italy">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Italy" title="Tourism in Italy">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_Italy" title="List of trade unions in Italy">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Italy" title="Transport in Italy">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airports_in_Italy" title="List of airports in Italy">air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Italy" title="Rail transport in Italy">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_Italy" title="Roads in Italy">road</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_welfare_state" title="Italian welfare state">Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_wine" title="Italian wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Italy" title="Category:Society of Italy">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nobility_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobility of Italy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Italy" title="Censorship in Italy">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Italy" title="Corruption in Italy">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Italy" title="Crime in Italy">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Italy" title="Demographics of Italy">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Italy" title="Education in Italy">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_diaspora" title="Italian diaspora">Emigration and diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_Italy" title="Gambling in Italy">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Italy" title="Health in Italy">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Italy" title="Healthcare in Italy">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Italy" title="Immigration to Italy">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Italian inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_from_Italy" title="List of people from Italy">People</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Italy" title="Languages of Italy">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Italian" title="Regional Italian">Regional</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_provinces_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Italian provinces by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_Italy" title="Orders, decorations, and medals of Italy">Orders, decorations, and medals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Italy" title="Poverty in Italy">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Italy" title="Prostitution in Italy">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_public_administration" title="Italian public administration">Public administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Italy" title="Racism in Italy">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Italy" title="Religion in Italy">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Italy" title="Social class in Italy">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Italy" title="Terrorism in Italy">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Italy" title="Water supply and sanitation in Italy">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Italy" title="Women in Italy">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Italy" title="Culture of Italy">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duecento" title="Duecento">Duecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trecento" title="Trecento">Trecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quattrocento" title="Quattrocento">Quattrocento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinquecento" title="Cinquecento">Cinquecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seicento" title="Seicento">Seicento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_culture_(1700s)" title="History of Italian culture (1700s)">Settecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Neoclassical_and_19th-century_art" title="Italian Neoclassical and 19th-century art">Ottocento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Il_Canto_degli_Italiani" title="Il Canto degli Italiani">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of Italy">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_art" title="Italian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles_in_Italy" title="List of castles in Italy">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cathedrals_in_Italy" title="List of cathedrals in Italy">Cathedrals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Italy" title="Cinema of Italy">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emblem_of_Italy" title="Emblem of Italy">Coat of arm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_cuisine" title="Italian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_design" title="Italian design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_fashion" title="Italian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Italy" title="Flag of Italy">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_Italy" title="Folklore of Italy">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gardens_in_Italy" title="List of gardens in Italy">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Italy" title="Internet in Italy">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italophilia" title="Italophilia">Italophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_libraries_in_Italy" title="List of libraries in Italy">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_literature" title="Italian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Italy" title="Mass media in Italy">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Italy" title="List of museums in Italy">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Italy" title="Music of Italy">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology_of_Italy" title="Mythology of Italy">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Italy" title="National symbols of Italy">National symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_palaces_in_Italy" title="List of palaces in Italy">Palaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Italy" title="Public holidays in Italy">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Italy" title="Sport in Italy">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Italy" title="Television in Italy">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Italy" title="Theatre of Italy">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditions_of_Italy" title="Traditions of Italy">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Italy" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Italy">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/16px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/24px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/32px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Italy" title="Portal:Italy">Italy portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Italy" title="Category:Italy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Former_monarchies_Italian_peninsula" title="Template:Former monarchies Italian peninsula"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Former_monarchies_Italian_peninsula" title="Template talk:Former monarchies Italian peninsula"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Former_monarchies_Italian_peninsula" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Former monarchies Italian peninsula"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historic states of Italy">List of historic states of Italy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Pre-Roman period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Etruscan civilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etruria" title="Etruria">Etruria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnites" title="Samnites">Samnites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osci" title="Osci">Osci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Cisalpine Gaul</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Veneti" title="Adriatic Veneti">Veneti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligures" title="Ligures">Ligures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbri" title="Umbri">Umbri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iapygians" title="Iapygians">Iapygians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picentes" title="Picentes">Picentes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a> (753 BC–509 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> (509 BC–27 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> (27 BC–395 AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> (395–476 AD)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Medieval<br />and<br />Early Modern<br />states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Barbarian kingdoms<br />(476–774)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(476%E2%80%93493)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Italy (476–493)">Odoacer's rule</a> (476–493)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogothic rule</a> (493–553)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom" title="Vandal Kingdom">Vandal rule</a> (435–534)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombard rule</a> (568–774) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Benevento" title="Duchy of Benevento">Duchy of Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Friuli" title="Duchy of Friuli">Duchy of Friuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Ivrea" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Ivrea">Duchy of Ivrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Spoleto" title="Duchy of Spoleto">Duchy of Spoleto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Tridentum" title="Duchy of Tridentum">Duchy of Tridentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Tuscia" title="Duchy of Tuscia">Duchy of Tuscia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> (584–751)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" title="Exarchate of Ravenna">Exarchate of Ravenna</a> (584–751) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Rome" title="Duchy of Rome">Duchy of Rome</a> (533–751)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Perugia" title="Duchy of Perugia">Duchy of Perugia</a> (554–752)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_the_Pentapolis" title="Duchy of the Pentapolis">Duchy of the Pentapolis</a> (554–752)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Exarchate of Africa</a> (585–698)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a><br />(754–1870)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrimony_of_Saint_Peter" title="Patrimony of Saint Peter">Patrimony of Saint Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campagna_e_Marittima_Province" title="Campagna e Marittima Province">Campagna e Marittima Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Castro" title="Duchy of Castro">Duchy of Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Ferrara" title="Duchy of Ferrara">Duchy of Ferrara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma_and_Piacenza" title="Duchy of Parma and Piacenza">Duchy of Parma and Piacenza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Urbino" title="Duchy of Urbino">Duchy of Urbino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a><br />and other<br />independent<br />states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Brixen" title="Prince-Bishopric of Brixen">Bishopric of Bressanone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corsican_Republic" title="Corsican Republic">Corsican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_separatum_(Fiume)" title="Corpus separatum (Fiume)">City of Fiume and its District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Gorizia" title="County of Gorizia">County of Gorizia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_County_of_Gorizia_and_Gradisca" title="Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca">Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Guastalla" title="County of Guastalla">County of Guastalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Santa_Fiora" title="County of Santa Fiora">County of Santa Fiora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Guastalla" title="Duchy of Guastalla">Duchy of Guastalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">Kingdom of Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Ancona" title="March of Ancona">Ancona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Ceva" title="Marquisate of Ceva">Ceva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Finale" title="Marquisate of Finale">Finale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Friuli" title="March of Friuli">March of Friuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patria_del_Friuli" title="Patria del Friuli">Patria del Friuli (Patriarchate of Aquileia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Ivrea" title="March of Ivrea">Ivrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Istria" title="March of Istria">Istria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margraviate_of_Mantua" class="mw-redirect" title="Margraviate of Mantua">Mantua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Milan" title="Lordship of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Montferrat" title="March of Montferrat">March of Montferrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Montferrat" title="Duchy of Montferrat">Duchy of Montferrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Free_City_of_Trieste" title="Imperial Free City of Trieste">Trieste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Turin" title="March of Turin">Turin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Tuscany" title="March of Tuscany">Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_of_Verona" title="March of Verona">Verona</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Ivrea" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Ivrea">Duchy of Ivrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Duchy of Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Mantua" title="Duchy of Mantua">Duchy of Mantua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Massa_and_Carrara" title="Duchy of Massa and Carrara">Duchy of Massa and Carrara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Merania" title="Duchy of Merania">Duchy of Merania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Mirandola" title="Duchy of Mirandola">Duchy of Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Modena_and_Reggio" title="Duchy of Modena and Reggio">Duchy of Modena and Reggio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Piombino" title="Principality of Piombino">Principality of Piombino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Reggio" title="Duchy of Reggio">Duchy of Reggio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Saluzzo" title="Marquisate of Saluzzo">Marquisate of Saluzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Spoleto" title="Duchy of Spoleto">Duchy of Spoleto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Diocese_of_Tarentaise" title="Ancient Diocese of Tarentaise">Bishopric of Tarantasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Trent" title="Prince-Bishopric of Trent">Prince-Bishopric of Trento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savoyard_state" title="Savoyard state">Savoyard state</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Savoy" title="County of Savoy">County of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Piedmont" title="Prince of Piedmont">Piedmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Aosta" title="Duchy of Aosta">Duchy of Aosta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Nice" title="County of Nice">County of Nice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tende" title="Tende">County of Tenda</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a><br />(697–1797)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dogado" title="Dogado">Dogado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domini_di_Terraferma" title="Domini di Terraferma">Domini di Terraferma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stato_da_M%C3%A0r" title="Stato da Màr">Stato da Màr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other Republics<br />(c. 1000–1797)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Cospaia" title="Republic of Cospaia">Republic of Cospaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Lucca" title="Republic of Lucca">Republic of Lucca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Massa" title="Republic of Massa">Republic of Massa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Siena" title="Republic of Siena">Republic of Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Noli" title="Republic of Noli">Republic of Noli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Republic of Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ancona" title="Republic of Ancona">Republic of Ancona</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_south_Italian_principalities" title="List of south Italian principalities">Southern Italy</a><br />(774–1139)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Byzantine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Duchy of Amalfi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Gaeta" title="Duchy of Gaeta">Duchy of Gaeta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catepanate_of_Italy" title="Catepanate of Italy">Catepanate of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longobardia" title="Longobardia">Longobardia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucania_(theme)" title="Lucania (theme)">Theme of Lucania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Naples" title="Duchy of Naples">Duchy of Naples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicily_(theme)" title="Sicily (theme)">Theme of Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Sicily">Byzantine Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Sorrento" title="Duchy of Sorrento">Duchy of Sorrento</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Arab</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Bari" title="Emirate of Bari">Emirate of Bari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Sicily" title="Muslim Sicily">Muslim Sicily</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Lombard</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Benevento" title="Duchy of Benevento">Principality of Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Salerno" title="Principality of Salerno">Principality of Salerno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Capua" title="Principality of Capua">Principality of Capua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Norman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Apulia_and_Calabria" title="County of Apulia and Calabria">County of Apulia and Calabria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Aversa" class="mw-redirect" title="County of Aversa">County of Aversa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Sicily" title="County of Sicily">County of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Taranto" title="Principality of Taranto">Principality of Taranto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a> <br />(from the 9th century)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_medieval_kingdoms" title="Sardinian medieval kingdoms">Judicates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agugliastra" title="Agugliastra">Agugliastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Arborea" title="Judicate of Arborea">Arborea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Cagliari" title="Judicate of Cagliari">Cagliari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Gallura" title="Judicate of Gallura">Gallura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicate_of_Logudoro" title="Judicate of Logudoro">Logudoro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquisate_of_Oristano" title="Marquisate of Oristano">Oristano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Sassari" title="Republic of Sassari">Republic of Sassari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1324%E2%80%931720)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1324–1720)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> (1324–1861)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a><br />(1130–1816) and<br /><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a><br />(1282–1816)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Presidi" title="State of the Presidi">State of the Presidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duke_of_San_Donato" title="Duke of San Donato">Duke of San Donato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Sora" title="Duchy of Sora">Duchy of Sora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Bari" title="Duchy of Bari">Duchy of Bari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Taranto" title="Principality of Taranto">Principality of Taranto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Sancti_Benedicti" title="Terra Sancti Benedicti">Terra Sancti Benedicti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_Republic_(1647%E2%80%931648)" title="Neapolitan Republic (1647–1648)">Neapolitan Republic</a> (1647–1648)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospitaller_Malta" title="Hospitaller Malta">Hospitaller Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gozo_(1798%E2%80%931800)" title="Gozo (1798–1800)">Gozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malta_Protectorate" title="Malta Protectorate">Malta Protectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Malta" title="Crown Colony of Malta">Crown Colony of Malta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French Revolutionary</a><br /> and <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">Napoleonic</a> eras<br />(1792–1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Republics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Republic" title="Cisalpine Republic">Cisalpinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cispadane_Republic" title="Cispadane Republic">Cispadania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Republic_(Napoleonic)" title="Italian Republic (Napoleonic)">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligurian_Republic" title="Ligurian Republic">Liguria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Lucca" title="Republic of Lucca">Lucca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthenopean_Republic" title="Parthenopean Republic">Parthenopea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piedmontese_Republic" title="Piedmontese Republic">Piedmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(1798%E2%80%931799)" title="Roman Republic (1798–1799)">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subalpine_Republic" title="Subalpine Republic">Subalpinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpadane_Republic" title="Transpadane Republic">Transpadania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Monarchies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Benevento" title="Duchy of Benevento">Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Etruria" title="Kingdom of Etruria">Etruria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Guastalla" title="Duchy of Guastalla">Guastalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Lucca_and_Piombino" title="Principality of Lucca and Piombino">Lucca and Piombino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Massa_and_Carrara" title="Duchy of Massa and Carrara">Massa and Carrara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Naples (Napoleonic)">Naples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Pontecorvo" title="Principality of Pontecorvo">Pontecorvo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Benevento" title="Principality of Benevento">Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Elba" title="Principality of Elba">Elba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Corsican_Kingdom" title="Anglo-Corsican Kingdom">Corsica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Post-Napoleonic<br />states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Genoa" title="Duchy of Genoa">Duchy of Genoa</a> (1815–1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Lucca" title="Duchy of Lucca">Duchy of Lucca</a> (1815–1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Massa_and_Carrara" title="Duchy of Massa and Carrara">Duchy of Massa and Carrara</a> (1814–1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Modena_and_Reggio" title="Duchy of Modena and Reggio">Duchy of Modena and Reggio</a> (1814–1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma_and_Piacenza" title="Duchy of Parma and Piacenza">Duchy of Parma and Piacenza</a> (1814–1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a> (1815–1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_United_Provinces" title="Italian United Provinces">Italian United Provinces</a> (1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Days_of_Milan" title="Five Days of Milan">Provisional Government of Milan</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marco" title="Republic of San Marco">Republic of San Marco</a> (1848–1849)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic_(1849%E2%80%931850)" title="Roman Republic (1849–1850)">Roman Republic</a> (1849–1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_Central_Italy" title="United Provinces of Central Italy">United Provinces of Central Italy</a> (1859–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a> (1814–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a> (1816–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia</a> (1815–1866)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States#Italian_unification" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> (1814–1870)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Post-unification" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-<a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">unification</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a> (1861–1946) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian Empire</a> (1882–1960)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_State_of_Fiume" title="Free State of Fiume">Free State of Fiume</a> (1920–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a> (1943–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Territory_of_Trieste" title="Free Territory of Trieste">Free Territory of Trieste</a> (1947–1954)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17161#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17161#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17161#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" 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