CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Mobutu Sese Seko - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"e818bd3f-7342-4c1a-b1c4-0a5e8b34d767","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Mobutu_Sese_Seko","wgTitle":"Mobutu Sese Seko","wgCurRevisionId":1276093138,"wgRevisionId":1276093138,"wgArticleId":64240,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages using the Phonos extension","CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2025","Webarchive template wayback links","Source attribution","Webarchive template archiveis links","CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown","Articles with French-language sources (fr)","CS1 French-language sources (fr)","CS1 Italian-language sources (it)","CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl)","CS1 Portuguese-language sources (pt)","CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)","CS1 Korean-language sources (ko)", "Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use dmy dates from June 2022","EngvarB from June 2022","Pages including recorded pronunciations","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from February 2025","Articles needing additional references from November 2012","All articles needing additional references","All articles that may contain original research","Articles that may contain original research from May 2024","CS1 Czech-language sources (cs)","Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata","Mobutu Sese Seko","1930 births","1997 deaths","20th-century criminals","Commanders of the Legion of Merit","Deaths from cancer in Morocco","Deaths from prostate cancer","Democratic Republic of the Congo anti-communists","Democratic Republic of the Congo Roman Catholics","Marshals","Grand Collars of the Order of Prince Henry","Knights Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic", "Presidents for life","Leaders who took power by coup","Lumumba Government members","Ngbandi people","People from Mongala","People of the Cold War","People of the Congo Crisis","People of the Rwandan genocide","Political corruption","Politicide perpetrators","Popular Movement of the Revolution politicians","Presidents of the Democratic Republic of the Congo","Recipients of the Order of Isabella the Catholic","Soldiers of the Force Publique","Military coups in the Democratic Republic of the Congo","Zaire"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Mobutu_Sese_Seko","wgRelevantArticleId":64240,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0, "wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q164535","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.phonos.styles":"ready", "ext.phonos.icons":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","ext.phonos.init","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions", "wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.phonos.icons%2Cstyles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.18"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Mobutu.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1800"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Mobutu.jpg/800px-Mobutu.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Mobutu.jpg/640px-Mobutu.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="960"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Mobutu Sese Seko - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Mobutu_Sese_Seko rootpage-Mobutu_Sese_Seko skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Mobutu+Sese+Seko" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Mobutu+Sese+Seko" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Mobutu+Sese+Seko" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Mobutu+Sese+Seko" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Biography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Biography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Biography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Biography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_years_and_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_years_and_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early years and education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_years_and_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Army_service" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Army_service"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Army service</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Army_service-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_political_involvement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_political_involvement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Early political involvement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_political_involvement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Congo_Crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congo_Crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Congo Crisis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congo_Crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_coup_and_consolidation_of_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_coup_and_consolidation_of_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Second <i>coup</i> and consolidation of power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_coup_and_consolidation_of_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Authenticity_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Authenticity_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Authenticity campaign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Authenticity_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-One-man_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#One-man_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>One-man rule</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-One-man_rule-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle One-man rule subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-One-man_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Space_program" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_program"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Space program</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space_program-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Foreign policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Relations_with_Belgium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_Belgium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Relations with Belgium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_Belgium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relations_with_France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Relations with France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relations_with_the_People's_Republic_of_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_the_People's_Republic_of_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Relations with the People's Republic of China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_the_People's_Republic_of_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relations_with_the_Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_the_Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>Relations with the Soviet Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_the_Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relations_with_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.5</span> <span>Relations with the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coalition_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coalition_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Coalition government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coalition_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overthrow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overthrow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Overthrow</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overthrow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exile_and_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exile_and_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Exile and death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exile_and_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Family" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Family</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_art_and_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_art_and_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>In art and literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_art_and_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Awards_and_honors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Awards_and_honors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Awards and honors</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Awards_and_honors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Awards and honors subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Awards_and_honors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-National" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>National</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Foreign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Explanatory notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>General and cited references</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle General and cited references subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1.1</span> <span>English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1.2</span> <span>French</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1.3</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Mobutu Sese Seko</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 76 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-76" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">76 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88_%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%88" title="موبوتو سيسي سيكو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="موبوتو سيسي سيكو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88_%D8%B3%D8%B3%D8%B3%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%88" title="موبوتو سسسوکو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="موبوتو سسسوکو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%81_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%87_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8B" title="মোবুতু সেসে সেকো – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মোবুতু সেসে সেকো" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%82%D1%83_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE" title="Мабуту Сесе Секо – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Мабуту Сесе Секо" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%82%D1%83_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE" title="Мобуту Сесе Секо – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Мобуту Сесе Секо" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88_%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%88" title="موبوتو سيسي سيكو – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="موبوتو سيسي سيكو" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%BF%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%8D%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%A3%CE%AD%CF%83%CE%B5_%CE%A3%CE%AD%CE%BA%CE%BF" title="Μομπούτου Σέσε Σέκο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μομπούτου Σέσε Σέκο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88_%D8%B3%D8%B3%D9%87_%D8%B3%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%88" title="موبوتو سسه سوکو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="موبوتو سسه سوکو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AA%A8%EB%B6%80%ED%88%AC_%EC%84%B8%EC%84%B8_%EC%84%B8%EC%BD%94" title="모부투 세세 세코 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="모부투 세세 세코" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%A5_%D5%8D%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%B8_%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82" title="Սեսե Սեկո Մաբուտու – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սեսե Սեկո Մաբուտու" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BC_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8B" title="कर्नल जॉसेफ़ मोबूतो – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कर्नल जॉसेफ़ मोबूतो" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%91%D7%95%D7%98%D7%95_%D7%A1%D7%A1%D7%94_%D7%A1%D7%A7%D7%95" title="מובוטו ססה סקו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מובוטו ססה סקו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D" title="მობუტუ სესე სეკო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მობუტუ სესე სეკო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iosephus_Desideratus_Mobutu" title="Iosephus Desideratus Mobutu – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Iosephus Desideratus Mobutu" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B" title="मोबुटु सेसे सेको – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मोबुटु सेसे सेको" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D" title="მობუტუ სესე სეკო – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მობუტუ სესე სეკო" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88_%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%89_%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%88" title="موبوتو سيسى سيكو – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="موبوتو سيسى سيكو" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88_%D8%B3%D8%B3%D9%87_%D8%B3%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%88" title="موبوتو سسه سوکو – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="موبوتو سسه سوکو" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A2%E3%83%96%E3%83%84%E3%83%BB%E3%82%BB%E3%82%BB%E3%83%BB%E3%82%BB%E3%82%B3" title="モブツ・セセ・セコ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="モブツ・セセ・セコ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%82%D1%83_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE" title="Мобуту Сесе Секо – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Мобуту Сесе Секо" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%82%D1%83_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE" title="Мобуту Сесе Секо – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Мобуту Сесе Секо" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%82%D1%83_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE" title="Мобуту Сесе Секо – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Мобуту Сесе Секо" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B" title="மொபுட்டு செசெ செக்கோ – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மொபுட்டு செசெ செக்கோ" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B9_%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B_%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%81" title="โมบูตู เซเซ เซโก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โมบูตู เซเซ เซโก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%82%D1%83_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE" title="Мобуту Сесе Секо – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мобуту Сесе Секо" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%88" title="موبوتو سیسی سیکو – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="موبوتو سیسی سیکو" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%92%99%E5%8D%9A%E6%89%98%C2%B7%E5%A1%9E%E5%A1%9E%C2%B7%E5%A1%9E%E7%A7%91" title="蒙博托·塞塞·塞科 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="蒙博托·塞塞·塞科" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Mobutu Sese Seko" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%92%99%E5%8D%9A%E6%89%98%C2%B7%E5%A1%9E%E5%A1%9E%C2%B7%E5%A1%9E%E7%A7%91" title="蒙博托·塞塞·塞科 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="蒙博托·塞塞·塞科" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%92%99%E5%8D%9A%E6%89%98%C2%B7%E5%A1%9E%E5%A1%9E%C2%B7%E5%A1%9E%E7%A7%91" title="蒙博托·塞塞·塞科 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="蒙博托·塞塞·塞科" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q164535#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Mobutu_Sese_Seko" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&oldid=1276093138" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&id=1276093138&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMobutu_Sese_Seko"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMobutu_Sese_Seko"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Mobutu_S%C3%A9s%C3%A9_Seko" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q164535" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">President of Zaire from 1965 to 1997</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Mobutu Sese Seko</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Mobutu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Mobutu.jpg/220px-Mobutu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Mobutu.jpg/330px-Mobutu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Mobutu.jpg/440px-Mobutu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1130" data-file-height="1695" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Mobutu in 1983</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo#List_of_officeholders" title="List of presidents of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">President of Zaire</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />27 October 1971 – 16 May 1997</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>Himself</i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(as President of the DRC)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Laurent-D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9_Kabila" title="Laurent-Désiré Kabila">Laurent-Désiré Kabila</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(as President of the DRC)</span></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">2nd <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />24 November 1965 – 27 October 1971</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kasa-Vubu" title="Joseph Kasa-Vubu">Joseph Kasa-Vubu</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>Himself</i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(as <i>President of Zaire</i>)</span></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">5th <a href="/wiki/Chairperson_of_the_Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity">Chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />11 September 1967 – 14 September 1968</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Haile Selassie</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Houari_Boum%C3%A9di%C3%A8ne" title="Houari Boumédiène">Houari Boumédiène</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Joseph-Désiré Mobutu</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1930-10-14</span>)</span>14 October 1930<br /><a href="/wiki/Lisala" title="Lisala">Lisala</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89quateur_(former_province)" title="Équateur (former province)">Équateur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">7 September 1997<span style="display:none">(1997-09-07)</span> (aged 66)<br /><a href="/wiki/Rabat" title="Rabat">Rabat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rabat-Sal%C3%A9-K%C3%A9nitra" title="Rabat-Salé-Kénitra">Rabat-Salé-Kénitra</a>, Morocco</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Popular_Movement_of_the_Revolution" title="Popular Movement of the Revolution">Popular Movement of the Revolution</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Marie-Antoinette_Mobutu" title="Marie-Antoinette Mobutu">Marie-Antoinette Gbiatibwa Gogbe Yetene</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1955; died 1977)<wbr /></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712" /></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bobi_Ladawa_Mobutu" title="Bobi Ladawa Mobutu">Bobi Ladawa</a></div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1980)<wbr /></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">16, including <a href="/wiki/Nzanga_Mobutu" title="Nzanga Mobutu">Nzanga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kongulu_Mobutu" title="Kongulu Mobutu">Kongulu</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Military service</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Allegiance</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo"><img alt="Belgian Congo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Flag_of_the_Congo_Free_State.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Congo_Free_State.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Flag_of_the_Congo_Free_State.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Congo_Free_State.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Flag_of_the_Congo_Free_State.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Congo_Free_State.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a> (1949–1960)<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo"><img alt="Democratic Republic of the Congo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/31px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Congo-L%C3%A9opoldville" class="mw-redirect" title="Congo-Léopoldville">Congo-Léopoldville</a> (1960–1971)<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a><br />(1971–1997)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Branch/service</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo"><img alt="Belgian Congo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Flag_of_the_Congo_Free_State.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Congo_Free_State.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Flag_of_the_Congo_Free_State.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Congo_Free_State.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Flag_of_the_Congo_Free_State.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Congo_Free_State.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Force_Publique" title="Force Publique">Force Publique</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo"><img alt="Democratic Republic of the Congo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/31px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Arm%C3%A9e_Nationale_Congolaise" class="mw-redirect" title="Armée Nationale Congolaise">Congolese National Army</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire"><img alt="Zaire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Forces_Arm%C3%A9es_Za%C3%AFroises" class="mw-redirect" title="Forces Armées Zaïroises">Zairian Armed Forces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Years of service</th><td class="infobox-data">1949–1997</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Rank</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marshal" title="Marshal">Marshal</a> (Army)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiral" title="Admiral">Admiral</a> (Navy)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commander_in_chief" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander in chief">Commander in chief</a> (Military)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Battles/wars</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaba_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaba invasions">Shaba invasions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist" style="border: 4px double #d69d36;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="font-size: 110%; padding: 0; line-height: 150%;"><table style="width:100%"><tbody><tr> <td style="background:#002466; vertical-align:middle; padding:5px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mobutu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Mobutu.jpg/70px-Mobutu.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Mobutu.jpg/105px-Mobutu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Mobutu.jpg/140px-Mobutu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1130" data-file-height="1695" /></a></span></td> <td style="background:#002466; vertical-align:middle; padding:6px;"><span style="font-size:0.75em;"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFF">This article is part of a series<br /> about</span></span><br /><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><span style="font-size:0.95em;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span style="color:#FFF;">Mobutu Sese Seko</span></a></span></span></span></td> </tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mobutism" title="Mobutism">Mobutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Movement_of_the_Revolution" title="Popular Movement of the Revolution">Popular Movement of the Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifesto_of_N%27sele" title="Manifesto of N'sele">Manifesto of N'sele</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><b>Early political career</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binza_group" title="Binza group">Binza group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Lumumba_Government" title="Dissolution of the Lumumba Government">government dissolution</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <p><b>Presidency</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Zaire" title="Constitution of Zaire">Constitution of Zaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanleyville_mutinies" title="Stanleyville mutinies">Stanleyville mutinies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authenticit%C3%A9_(Zaire)" title="Authenticité (Zaire)"><i>Authenticité</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Mobutu_Sese_Seko_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Mobutu Sese Seko administration">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Presidential_Division" title="Special Presidential Division">Special Presidential Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Guard_(Zaire)" title="Civil Guard (Zaire)">Civil Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaba_I" title="Shaba I">Shaba I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaba_II" title="Shaba II">Shaba II</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rumble_in_the_Jungle" class="mw-redirect" title="Rumble in the Jungle">Rumble in the Jungle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zairean_political_exiles" title="Zairean political exiles">Political exiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Zaire_unrest" title="1991 Zaire unrest">1991 Zaire unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abacost" title="Abacost">Abacost</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Category:Mobutu Sese Seko">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mobutu" title="Template:Mobutu"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mobutu" title="Template talk:Mobutu"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mobutu" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mobutu"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa za Banga</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/uː/: 'oo' in 'goose'">uː</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/uː/: 'oo' in 'goose'">uː</span></span><span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span></span><span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span></span>/</a></span> <span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/f\/f3\/En-us-Mobutu_Sese_Seko_from_Zaire_pronunciation_%28Voice_of_America%29.ogg\/En-us-Mobutu_Sese_Seko_from_Zaire_pronunciation_%28Voice_of_America%29.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"En-us-Mobutu Sese Seko from Zaire pronunciation (Voice of America).ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f3/En-us-Mobutu_Sese_Seko_from_Zaire_pronunciation_%28Voice_of_America%29.ogg/En-us-Mobutu_Sese_Seko_from_Zaire_pronunciation_%28Voice_of_America%29.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-Mobutu_Sese_Seko_from_Zaire_pronunciation_(Voice_of_America).ogg" title="File:En-us-Mobutu Sese Seko from Zaire pronunciation (Voice of America).ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling">mə-<span style="font-size:90%">BOO</span>-too <span style="font-size:90%">SESS</span>-ay <span style="font-size:90%">SEK</span>-oh</i></a>; born <b>Joseph-Désiré Mobutu</b>; 14 October 1930 – 7 September 1997), often shortened to <b>Mobutu Sese Seko</b> or <b>Mobutu</b> and also known by his initials <b>MSS</b>, was a Congolese politician and military officer who was the first and only <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo#List_of_officeholders" title="List of presidents of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">president of Zaire</a> from 1971 to 1997. Previously, Mobutu served as the second <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> from 1965 to 1971. He also served as the fifth <a href="/wiki/Chairperson_of_the_Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity">chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity</a> from 1967 to 1968. During the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a>, Mobutu, serving as Chief of Staff of the Army and supported by Belgium and the United States, deposed the democratically elected government of left-wing nationalist <a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a> in 1960. Mobutu installed a government that arranged for Lumumba's execution in 1961, and continued to lead the country's armed forces until he took power directly in a second coup in 1965. </p><p>To consolidate his power, he established the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Movement_of_the_Revolution" title="Popular Movement of the Revolution">Popular Movement of the Revolution</a> as the <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">sole legal political party</a> in 1967, changed the Congo's name to <i>Zaire</i> in 1971, and his own name to Mobutu Sese Seko in 1972. Mobutu claimed that his political ideology was "neither left nor right, nor even centre",<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though nevertheless he developed a regime that was intensely <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocratic</a>. He attempted to purge the country of all <a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonization of the Congo">colonial cultural influence</a> through his program of "<a href="/wiki/Authenticit%C3%A9_(Zaire)" title="Authenticité (Zaire)">national authenticity</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mobutu was the object of a pervasive <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">cult of personality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-infoplease.com_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-infoplease.com-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his rule, he amassed a large personal fortune through economic exploitation and corruption,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading some to call his rule a "<a href="/wiki/Kleptocracy" title="Kleptocracy">kleptocracy</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He presided over a period of widespread human rights violations. Under his rule, the nation also suffered from uncontrolled inflation, a large debt, and massive currency <a href="/wiki/Devaluation" title="Devaluation">devaluations</a>. </p><p>Mobutu received strong support (military, diplomatic and economic) from the United States, France, and Belgium, given his opposition to <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7afrique" title="Françafrique">Francophone Africa</a>. He also built close ties with the governments of <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a> <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Greek_junta" title="Greek junta">Greek junta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1990, economic deterioration and unrest forced Mobutu Sese Seko into a coalition with political opponents and to allow a multiparty system. Although he used his troops to thwart change, his antics did not last long. In May 1997, rebel forces led by <a href="/wiki/Laurent-D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9_Kabila" title="Laurent-Désiré Kabila">Laurent-Désiré Kabila</a> overran the country and forced him into exile. Already suffering from advanced <a href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer" title="Prostate cancer">prostate cancer</a>, he died three months later in Morocco. Mobutu was notorious for corruption and nepotism: estimates of his personal wealth range from $50 million to $5 billion.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was known for extravagances such as shopping trips to Paris via the supersonic <a href="/wiki/Concorde" title="Concorde">Concorde</a> aircraft.<sup id="cite_ref-Time_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Time-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_years_and_education">Early years and education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early years and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mobutu, a member of the <a href="/wiki/Ngbandi_people" title="Ngbandi people">Ngbandi</a> ethnic group,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was born in 1930 in <a href="/wiki/Lisala" title="Lisala">Lisala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mobutu's mother, Marie Madeleine Yemo, was a hotel maid who fled to Lisala to escape the <a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harem</a> of a local village chief. There she met and married Albéric Gbemani, a cook for a Belgian judge.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly afterward she gave birth to Mobutu. The name "Mobutu" was selected by an uncle. </p><p>Gbemani died when Mobutu was eight.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thereafter, he was raised by an uncle and a grandfather. </p><p>The Belgian judge's wife took a liking to Mobutu and taught him to speak, read, and write fluently in the French language,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the official language of the country in the colonial period. His widowed mother Yemo relied on the help of relatives to support her four children, and the family moved often. Mobutu's earliest education took place in the capital <a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Léopoldville</a> (now Kinshasa). His mother eventually sent him to an uncle in <a href="/wiki/Mbandaka" title="Mbandaka">Coquilhatville</a> (present-day Mbandaka), where he attended the Christian Brothers School, a Catholic-mission boarding school. He excelled in academic subjects and ran the class newspaper. He was also known for his pranks and impish sense of humor.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A classmate recalled that when the Belgian priests, whose first language was Dutch, made an error in French, Mobutu would leap to his feet in class and point out the mistake. In 1949 Mobutu stowed away aboard a boat, traveling downriver to Léopoldville, where he met a girl. The priests found him several weeks later. At the end of the school year, in lieu of being sent to prison, he was ordered to serve seven years in the colonial army, the <a href="/wiki/Force_Publique" title="Force Publique">Force Publique</a> (FP). This was a usual punishment for rebellious students.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Army_service">Army service</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Army service"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mobutu found discipline in army life, as well as a father figure in Sergeant <a href="/wiki/Louis_Bobozo" title="Louis Bobozo">Louis Bobozo</a>. Mobutu kept up his studies by borrowing European newspapers from the Belgian officers and books from wherever he could find them, reading them on sentry duty and whenever he had a spare moment. His favorites were the writings of French president <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a>, British prime minister <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>, and Italian Renaissance philosopher <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a>. After passing a course in accounting, Mobutu began to dabble professionally in journalism. Still angry after his clashes with the school priests, he did not marry in a church. His contribution to the wedding festivities was a crate of beer, all his army salary could afford.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_political_involvement">Early political involvement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early political involvement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a soldier, Mobutu wrote in pseudonym on contemporary politics for <i>Actualités Africaines</i> (African News), a magazine set up by a Belgian colonial. In 1956, he quit the army and became a full-time journalist,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> writing for the Léopoldville daily <i><a href="/wiki/L%27Avenir_(Congolese_newspaper)" title="L'Avenir (Congolese newspaper)">L'Avenir</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two years later, he went to Belgium to cover the <a href="/wiki/Expo_%2758" class="mw-redirect" title="Expo '58">1958 World Exposition</a> and stayed to receive training in journalism. By this time, Mobutu had met many of the young Congolese intellectuals who were challenging colonial rule. He became friendly with <a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a> and joined Lumumba's <a href="/wiki/Mouvement_National_Congolais" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouvement National Congolais">Congolese National Movement</a> (MNC). Mobutu eventually became Lumumba's personal aide. Several contemporaries indicate that Belgian intelligence had recruited Mobutu to be an informer to the government.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 1960 talks in Brussels on Congolese independence, the US embassy held a reception for the Congolese delegation. Embassy staff were each assigned a list of delegation members to meet, and discussed their impressions afterward. The ambassador noted, "One name kept coming up. But it wasn't on anyone's list because he wasn't an official delegation member, he was Lumumba's secretary. But everyone agreed that this was an extremely intelligent man, very young, perhaps immature, but a man with great potential."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the general election, Lumumba was tasked with creating a government. He gave Mobutu the office of Secretary of State to the Presidency. Mobutu held much influence in the final determination of the rest of the government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanza1994113_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanza1994113-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He lost private access to Lumumba following independence, as the new prime minister grew busy and surrounded by aides and colleagues, leading the two to drift apart.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReid2023124_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReid2023124-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Congo_Crisis">Congo Crisis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Congo Crisis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colonel_Mobutu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Colonel_Mobutu.jpg/220px-Colonel_Mobutu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Colonel_Mobutu.jpg/330px-Colonel_Mobutu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Colonel_Mobutu.jpg/440px-Colonel_Mobutu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="776" data-file-height="669" /></a><figcaption>Colonel Mobutu in 1960</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mobutu_Sese_Seko_visit_to_Israel_(997009327452605171).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Mobutu in a 1963 visit to Israel, where he participated in a shortened IDF paratrooper course" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Mobutu_Sese_Seko_visit_to_Israel_%28997009327452605171%29.jpg/220px-Mobutu_Sese_Seko_visit_to_Israel_%28997009327452605171%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Mobutu_Sese_Seko_visit_to_Israel_%28997009327452605171%29.jpg/330px-Mobutu_Sese_Seko_visit_to_Israel_%28997009327452605171%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Mobutu_Sese_Seko_visit_to_Israel_%28997009327452605171%29.jpg/440px-Mobutu_Sese_Seko_visit_to_Israel_%28997009327452605171%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1557" data-file-height="1583" /></a><figcaption>Mobutu in a 1963 visit to Israel, where he participated in a shortened <a href="/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces" title="Israel Defense Forces">IDF</a> paratrooper course</figcaption></figure> <p>On 5 July 1960, soldiers of the <a href="/wiki/Force_Publique" title="Force Publique">Force Publique</a> stationed at Camp Léopold II in Léopoldville, dissatisfied with their all-white leadership and working conditions, <a href="/wiki/1960_Force_Publique_mutinies" title="1960 Force Publique mutinies">mutinied</a>. The revolt spread across the region in the following days. Mobutu assisted other officials in negotiating with the mutineers to secure the release of the officers and their families.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoskyns196588–89_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoskyns196588–89-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 8 July the full Council of Ministers convened in an extraordinary session under the chairmanship of President <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kasa-Vubu" title="Joseph Kasa-Vubu">Joseph Kasa-Vubu</a> at Camp Léopold II to address the task of Africanising the garrison.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanza1994191_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanza1994191-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ministers debated over who would make a suitable army chief of staff. The two main candidates for the post were Minister of Youth and Sports <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Mpolo" title="Maurice Mpolo">Maurice Mpolo</a> and Mobutu. The former had shown some influence over the mutinying troops, but Kasa-Vubu and the Bakongo ministers feared that he would enact a <i><a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a></i> if he were given power. The latter was perceived as calmer and more thoughtful.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanza1994192_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanza1994192-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lumumba saw Mpolo as courageous, but favored Mobutu's prudence. As the discussions continued, the cabinet began to divide according to who they preferred to serve as chief of staff. Lumumba wanted to keep both men in his government and wished to avoid upsetting one of their camps of supporters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanza1994192_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanza1994192-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the end Mobutu was given the role and awarded the rank of colonel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanza1994193_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanza1994193-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following day government delegations left the capital to oversee the Africanisation of the army; Mobutu was sent to <a href="/wiki/%C3%89quateur_(former_province)" title="Équateur (former province)">Équateur</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoskyns196592,_94_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoskyns196592,_94-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While he was there Mpolo acted as ANC Chief of Staff.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoskyns1965136_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoskyns1965136-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReid2023176_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReid2023176-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mobutu was affronted by this development, and upon his return to the capital he confronted Lumumba in a cabinet meeting, saying, "Either I was unworthy, and you have to dismiss me, or I faithfully accomplished my mission and so I keep my rank and functions."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReid2023176_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReid2023176-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British diplomat <a href="/wiki/Brian_Urquhart" title="Brian Urquhart">Brian Urquhart</a> serving with the United Nations wrote: "When I first met Mobutu in July 1960, he was Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba's chief military assistant and had just promoted himself from sergeant to lieutenant-colonel. By comparison with his boss, Mobutu was a pillar of pragmatism and common sense. It was to him that we appealed when our people were arrested by Lumumba's hashish-stimulated guards. It was he who would bring up, in a disarmingly casual way, Lumumba's most outrageous requests – that the UN should, for example, meet the pay roll of the potentially mutinous Congolese army. In those early days, Mobutu seemed a comparatively sensible young man, one who might even, at least now and then, have the best interests of his newly independent country at heart."<sup id="cite_ref-Urquhart_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urquhart-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Encouraged by a Belgian government intent on maintaining its access to rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence erupted in the south. Concerned that the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">United Nations force</a> sent to help restore order was not helping to crush the secessionists, Lumumba turned to the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> for assistance. He received massive military aid and about a thousand Soviet technical advisers within six weeks. As this was during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, the US government feared that the Soviet activity was a maneuver to spread communist influence in Central Africa. Kasa-Vubu was encouraged by the US and Belgium to dismiss Lumumba, which he did on 5 September. An outraged Lumumba declared Kasa-Vubu deposed. Parliament refused to recognise the dismissals and urged reconciliation, but no agreement was reached.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu each ordered Mobutu to arrest the other. As Army Chief of Staff, Mobutu came under great pressure from multiple sources. The embassies of Western nations, which helped pay the soldiers' salaries, as well as Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu's subordinates, all favored getting rid of the Soviet presence. On 14 September Mobutu launched a bloodless coup, declaring both Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba to be "neutralised" and establishing a new government of university graduates, the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Commissioners-General" title="College of Commissioners-General">College of Commissioners-General</a>. Lumumba rejected this action but was forced to retire to his residence, where UN peacekeepers prevented Mobutu's soldiers from arresting him. Urquhart recalled that on the day of the coup, Mobutu showed up unannounced at the UN headquarters in Léopoldville and refused to leave, until the radio announced the coup, leading Mobutu to say over and over again "<i>C'est moi!</i>" ("This is me!").<sup id="cite_ref-Urquhart_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urquhart-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recognizing that Mobutu had only gone to the UN headquarters in case the coup should fail, Urquhart ordered him out.<sup id="cite_ref-Urquhart_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urquhart-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Losing confidence that the international community would support his reinstatement, Lumumba fled in late November to join his supporters in <a href="/wiki/Kisangani" title="Kisangani">Stanleyville</a> to establish a <a href="/wiki/Free_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Free Republic of the Congo">new government</a>. He was captured by Mobutu's troops in early December, and incarcerated at his headquarters in <a href="/wiki/Mbanza-Ngungu" title="Mbanza-Ngungu"> Thysville</a>. However, Mobutu still considered him a threat, and transferred him to the rebelling <a href="/wiki/State_of_Katanga" title="State of Katanga">State of Katanga</a> on 17 January 1961. Lumumba disappeared from public view. It was later discovered that he was executed the same day by the secessionist forces of <a href="/wiki/Moise_Tshombe" class="mw-redirect" title="Moise Tshombe">Moise Tshombe</a>, after Mobutu's government turned him over.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mobutu_and_Kasa-Vubu_in_1961.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Mobutu_and_Kasa-Vubu_in_1961.jpg/220px-Mobutu_and_Kasa-Vubu_in_1961.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Mobutu_and_Kasa-Vubu_in_1961.jpg/330px-Mobutu_and_Kasa-Vubu_in_1961.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Mobutu_and_Kasa-Vubu_in_1961.jpg 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="234" /></a><figcaption>Colonel Joseph-Desiré Mobutu (left) with President Joseph Kasa-Vubu, 1961</figcaption></figure> <p>On 23 January 1961, Kasa-Vubu promoted Mobutu to major-general. Historian De Witte argues that this was a political action, "aimed to strengthen the army, the president's sole support, and Mobutu's position within the army".<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1964, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Mulele" title="Pierre Mulele">Pierre Mulele</a> led partisans in another rebellion. They quickly occupied two-thirds of the Congo. In response, the Congolese army, led by Mobutu, reconquered the entire territory through 1965.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_coup_and_consolidation_of_power">Second <i>coup</i> and consolidation of power</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Second coup and consolidation of power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Special:EditPage/Mobutu Sese Seko">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2012</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Second_Mobutu_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Second Mobutu coup d'état">Second Mobutu coup d'état</a></div> <p>Prime Minister Moise Tshombe's <a href="/wiki/Congolese_National_Convention" title="Congolese National Convention">Congolese National Convention</a> had won a large majority in the <a href="/wiki/1965_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_general_election" title="1965 Democratic Republic of the Congo general election">March 1965 elections</a>, but Kasa-Vubu appointed an anti-Tshombe leader, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89variste_Kimba" title="Évariste Kimba">Évariste Kimba</a>, as prime minister-designate. However, Parliament twice refused to confirm him. With the government in near-paralysis, Mobutu seized power in a bloodless coup on 24 November. He had turned 35 a month earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-cs1_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cs1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the auspices of a <a href="/wiki/State_of_exception" title="State of exception">state of exception</a> (<i>regime d'exception</i>), Mobutu assumed sweeping—almost absolute—powers for five years.<sup id="cite_ref-cs2_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cs2-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his first speech upon taking power, Mobutu told a large crowd at Léopoldville's main stadium that, since politicians had brought the Congo to ruin in five years, it would take him at least that long to set things right again, and therefore there would be no more political party activity for five years.<sup id="cite_ref-Anatomy_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anatomy-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 30 November 1965 Parliament approved a measure which turned over most legislative powers to Mobutu and his cabinet, though it retained the right to review his decrees. In early March 1966 he opened a new session of Parliament by declaring that he was revoking their right of review, and two weeks later his government permanently suspended the body and assumed all of its remaining functions.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Katoenen_overhemd_met_portret_van_Mobutu_TMnr_5829-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Katoenen_overhemd_met_portret_van_Mobutu_TMnr_5829-1.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Katoenen_overhemd_met_portret_van_Mobutu_TMnr_5829-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Katoenen_overhemd_met_portret_van_Mobutu_TMnr_5829-1.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Katoenen_overhemd_met_portret_van_Mobutu_TMnr_5829-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Katoenen_overhemd_met_portret_van_Mobutu_TMnr_5829-1.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Katoenen_overhemd_met_portret_van_Mobutu_TMnr_5829-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="577" /></a><figcaption>A Congolese cotton shirt embellished with a portrait of Mobutu from the collection of the <a href="/wiki/Tropenmuseum" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropenmuseum">Tropenmuseum</a> in Amsterdam</figcaption></figure> <p>Initially, Mobutu's government presented itself as apolitical or even anti-political. The word "politician" carried negative connotations, and became almost synonymous with someone who was wicked or corrupt. In 1966 the Corps of Volunteers of the Republic was established, a vanguard movement designed to mobilize popular support behind Mobutu, who was proclaimed the nation's "Second National Hero" after Lumumba. Despite the role he played in Lumumba's ousting, Mobutu worked to present himself as a successor to Lumumba's legacy. One of his key tenets early in his rule was "authentic Congolese nationalism". In 1966, Mobutu started renaming cities that had European names with more "authentic" African names, and in this way Léopoldville became Kinshasa, Stanleyville became Kisangani and Élisabethville became <a href="/wiki/Lubumbashi" title="Lubumbashi">Lubumbashi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199310_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdom199310-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>1967 marked the debut of the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Movement_of_the_Revolution" title="Popular Movement of the Revolution">Popular Movement of the Revolution</a> (MPR), which until 1990 was the nation's only legal political party. Among the themes advanced by the MPR in its doctrine, the Manifesto of N'Sele, were nationalism, revolution, and "authenticity". Revolution was described as a "truly national revolution, essentially pragmatic", which called for "the repudiation of both capitalism and communism". One of the MPR's slogans was "Neither left nor right", to which would be added "nor even center" in later years.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>That same year, all trade unions were consolidated into a single union, the <a href="/wiki/National_Union_of_Congolese_Workers" title="National Union of Congolese Workers">National Union of Zairian Workers</a>, and brought under government control. Mobutu intended for the union to serve as an instrument of support for government policy, rather than as an independent group. Independent trade unions were illegal until 1991.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mobutu_swearing_in,_1970.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Mobutu_swearing_in%2C_1970.jpg" decoding="async" width="213" height="342" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="213" data-file-height="342" /></a><figcaption>Mobutu sworn in as President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo following the 1970 election</figcaption></figure> <p>Facing many challenges early in his rule, Mobutu converted much opposition into submission through patronage; those he could not co-opt, he dealt with forcefully. In 1966, four cabinet members were arrested on charges of complicity in an attempted coup, tried by a military tribunal, and publicly executed in an open-air spectacle witnessed by over 50,000 people. Uprisings by former Katangan gendarmeries were crushed, as were the <a href="/wiki/Stanleyville_mutinies" title="Stanleyville mutinies">Stanleyville mutinies</a> of 1967 led by white mercenaries.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1970, nearly all potential threats to his authority had been smashed, and for the most part, law and order was brought to nearly all parts of the country. That year marked the pinnacle of Mobutu's legitimacy and power.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1970 King <a href="/wiki/Baudouin_of_Belgium" title="Baudouin of Belgium">Baudouin of Belgium</a> made a highly successful state visit to <a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Kinshasa</a>. That same year <a href="/wiki/1970_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_presidential_election" title="1970 Democratic Republic of the Congo presidential election">presidential</a> and <a href="/wiki/1970_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_parliamentary_election" title="1970 Democratic Republic of the Congo parliamentary election">legislative</a> elections were held. Although the constitution allowed for the existence of two parties, the MPR was the only party allowed to nominate candidates. For the presidential election, Mobutu was the only candidate. Voting was not secret; voters chose a green paper if they supported Mobutu's candidacy, and a red paper if they opposed his candidacy. Casting a green ballot was deemed a vote for hope, while a red ballot was deemed a vote for chaos. Under the circumstances, the result was inevitable–according to official figures, Mobutu was confirmed in office with near-unanimous support, garnering 10,131,669 votes to only 157 "no" votes.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It later emerged that almost 30,500 more votes were cast than the actual number of registered voters.<sup id="cite_ref-EISA_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EISA-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The legislative elections were held in a similar fashion. Voters were presented with a single list from the MPR; according to official figures, an implausible 98.33% of voters voted in favor of the MPR list.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As he consolidated power, Mobutu set up several military forces whose sole purpose was to protect him. These included the <a href="/wiki/Special_Presidential_Division" title="Special Presidential Division">Special Presidential Division</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_Guard_(Zaire)" title="Civil Guard (Zaire)">Civil Guard</a> and Service for Action, and Military Intelligence (SNIP).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Authenticity_campaign">Authenticity campaign</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Authenticity campaign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Authenticit%C3%A9_(Zaire)" title="Authenticité (Zaire)">Authenticité (Zaire)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Zaire_(1971%E2%80%931997).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/220px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/330px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/440px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption>Flag of Zaire</figcaption></figure> <p>Embarking on a campaign of pro-Africa cultural awareness, called <i><a href="/wiki/Authenticit%C3%A9_(Zaire)" title="Authenticité (Zaire)">authenticité</a></i>, Mobutu began renaming cities that reflected the colonial past, starting on 1 June 1966: Léopoldville became Kinshasa, Elisabethville became Lubumbashi, and Stanleyville became Kisangani. In October 1971, he renamed the country as the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Zaire" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Zaire">Republic of Zaire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199310_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdom199310-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He ordered the people to change their European names to African ones, and priests were warned that they would face five years' imprisonment if they were caught <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptizing</a> a Zairian child with a European name.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199310_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdom199310-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Western attire and ties were banned, and men were forced to wear a <a href="/wiki/Mao_suit" title="Mao suit">Mao-style tunic</a> known as an <i><a href="/wiki/Abacost" title="Abacost">abacost</a></i> (shorthand for <i>à bas le costume</i>, or "down with the suit").<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Christmas was moved from December to June because it was more of an "authentic" date.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199310_41-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdom199310-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1972, in accordance with his own decree of a year earlier, Mobutu renamed himself <i>Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga</i> (meaning "The all-powerful warrior who, because of his endurance and inflexible will to win, goes from conquest to conquest, leaving fire in his wake.").<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around this time, he eschewed his military uniform in favor of what would become his classic image—the tall, imposing man carrying a walking stick while wearing an abacost, thick-framed glasses, and leopard-skin <a href="/wiki/Toque" title="Toque">toque</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1974, a <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Zaire" title="Constitution of Zaire">new constitution</a> consolidated Mobutu's grip on the country. It defined the MPR as the "single institution" in the country. It was officially defined as "the nation politically organized"—in essence, the state was a transmission belt for the party. All citizens automatically became members of the MPR from birth. The constitution stated that the MPR was embodied by the party's president, who was elected every seven years at its national convention. At the same time, the party president was automatically nominated as the sole candidate for a seven-year term as president of the republic; he was confirmed in office by a referendum. The document codified the emergency powers Mobutu had exercised since 1965; it vested Mobutu with "plenitude of power exercise", effectively concentrating all governing power in his hands. Mobutu was reelected three times under this system, each time by implausibly high margins of 98 percent or more. A single list of MPR candidates was returned to the legislature every five years with equally implausible margins; official figures gave the MPR list unanimous or near-unanimous support. At one of those elections, in <a href="/wiki/1975_Zairean_parliamentary_election" title="1975 Zairean parliamentary election">1975</a>, formal voting was dispensed with altogether. Instead, the election took place by <a href="/wiki/Acclamation" title="Acclamation">acclaim</a>; candidates were presented at public locations around the country where they could be applauded.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="One-man_rule">One-man rule</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: One-man rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prince_Bernhard_and_Mobutu_Sese_Seko_1973.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Prince_Bernhard_and_Mobutu_Sese_Seko_1973.jpg/270px-Prince_Bernhard_and_Mobutu_Sese_Seko_1973.jpg" decoding="async" width="270" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Prince_Bernhard_and_Mobutu_Sese_Seko_1973.jpg/405px-Prince_Bernhard_and_Mobutu_Sese_Seko_1973.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Prince_Bernhard_and_Mobutu_Sese_Seko_1973.jpg/540px-Prince_Bernhard_and_Mobutu_Sese_Seko_1973.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1740" data-file-height="1664" /></a><figcaption>Mobutu Sese Seko with the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Prince_Bernhard_of_Lippe-Biesterfeld" title="Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld">Prince Bernhard</a> in 1973</figcaption></figure> <p>Early in his rule, Mobutu consolidated power by publicly executing political rivals, secessionists, coup plotters, and other threats to his rule. To set an example, many were <a href="/wiki/Hanging" title="Hanging">hanged</a> before large audiences. Such victims included former Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/%C3%89variste_Kimba" title="Évariste Kimba">Évariste Kimba</a>, who, with three cabinet members—Jérôme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy)—was tried in May 1966, and sent to the gallows on 30 May, before an audience of 50,000 spectators. The men were executed on charges of being in contact with Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi, for the purpose of planning a coup. Mobutu explained the executions as follows: "One had to strike through a spectacular example, and create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief takes a decision, he decides – period."<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1968, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Mulele" title="Pierre Mulele">Pierre Mulele</a>, Lumumba's Minister of Education and a rebel leader during the 1964 <a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a>, was lured out of exile in <a href="/wiki/Brazzaville" title="Brazzaville">Brazzaville</a> on the belief that he would receive amnesty. Instead, he was tortured and killed by Mobutu's forces. While Mulele was still alive, his eyes were gouged out, his genitals were ripped off, and his limbs were amputated one by one.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mobutu later switched to a new tactic, buying off political rivals. He used the slogan "Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer still"<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to describe his tactic of co-opting political opponents through bribery. A favorite Mobutu tactic was to play "musical chairs", rotating members of his government, switching the cabinet roster constantly to ensure that no one would pose a threat to his rule. Between November 1965 and April 1997, Mobutu reshuffled his cabinet 60 times.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016356_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016356-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The frequent cabinet reshuffles as intended encouraged insecurity in his ministers, who knew that the mercurial Mobutu would reshuffle his cabinet with no regard for efficiency and competence on the part of his ministers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016356_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016356-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The frequency that men entered and left the cabinet also encouraged gross corruption because ministers never knew how long they might be in office, thus encouraging them to steal as much as possible while they were in the cabinet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016356_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016356-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another tactic was to arrest and sometimes torture dissident members of the government, only to later pardon them and reward them with high office.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016356_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016356-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Congolese historian Emizet F. Kisangani wrote: "Most public officials knew that regardless of their inefficiency and degree of corruption, they could reenter the government. To hold a government position required neither a sense of management nor a good conscience. On most occasions, effectiveness and a good conscience were major obstacles to political advancement. Mobutu demanded absolute personal allegiance in return for the opportunity to accumulate wealth".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016356_53-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016356-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As early as 1970, it was estimated that Mobutu had stolen 60% of the national budget that year, marking him as one of the most corrupt leaders in Africa and the world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016356_53-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016356-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kisangani wrote that Mobutu created a system of <a href="/wiki/Institutional_corruption" title="Institutional corruption">institutional corruption</a> that greatly debased public morality by rewarding venality and greed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016355-356_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016355-356-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1972, Mobutu tried unsuccessfully to have himself named <a href="/wiki/President_for_life" title="President for life">president for life</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June 1983, he raised himself to the rank of <a href="/wiki/Marshal" title="Marshal">Marshal</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the order was signed by General Likulia Bolongo. <a href="/wiki/Victor_Nendaka_Bika" title="Victor Nendaka Bika">Victor Nendaka Bika</a>, in his capacity as Vice-President of the Bureau of the Central Committee, second authority in the land, addressed a speech filled with praise for President Mobutu. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mobutu_in_1978.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Mobutu_in_1978.jpg/220px-Mobutu_in_1978.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Mobutu_in_1978.jpg/330px-Mobutu_in_1978.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Mobutu_in_1978.jpg/440px-Mobutu_in_1978.jpg 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="809" /></a><figcaption>Mobutu Sese Seko in army fatigues, 1978</figcaption></figure> <p>To gain the revenues of Congolese resources, Mobutu initially <a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">nationalized</a> foreign-owned firms and forced European investors out of the country. But in many cases he handed the management of these firms to relatives and close associates, who quickly exercised their own corruption and stole the companies' assets. In 1973–1974, Mobutu launched his "Zairianization" campaign, nationalising foreign owned businesses that were handed over to Zairians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199310_41-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdom199310-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October 1973, the Arab <a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">oil shock</a> ended the "long summer" of prosperity in the West that had begun in 1945, and sent the world economy into its sharpest contraction since the Great Depression. One consequence of the oil shock and the resulting global recession was that the price of copper dropped by 50% over the course of 1974, which proved to be a disaster for Zaire as copper was its most important export.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199310_41-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdom199310-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The American historian Thomas Odom wrote because of the collapse in copper prices Zaire went from "prosperity to bankruptcy almost overnight" in 1974.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199310_41-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdom199310-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The economic collapse forced Zaire to turn towards the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to help it manage its debts which could no longer be serviced.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199310_41-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdom199310-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seeking an alternative source of support as the auditors for the IMF discovered major corruption within the Zairian finances, Mobutu visited China in 1974 and returned wearing a Mao jacket and the new title of <i>Citoyen Mobutu</i> ("Citizen Mobutu").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199311_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdom199311-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Influenced by the Cultural Revolution, Mobutu shifted to the left and announced his intention to "radicalize the Zairian revolution".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199311_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdom199311-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The businesses that Mobutu had just handed over to Zairians were in turn nationalized and placed under state control.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199311_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdom199311-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, Mobutu imposed a 50% salary cut to state employees, which led a failed coup attempt against him in June 1975.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199311_57-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdom199311-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Idi_Amin_and_Mobutu.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Idi_Amin_and_Mobutu.jpeg/220px-Idi_Amin_and_Mobutu.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Idi_Amin_and_Mobutu.jpeg/330px-Idi_Amin_and_Mobutu.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Idi_Amin_and_Mobutu.jpeg/440px-Idi_Amin_and_Mobutu.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="862" data-file-height="646" /></a><figcaption>President of <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a> <a href="/wiki/Idi_Amin" title="Idi Amin">Idi Amin</a> visits Zaire and meets Mobutu during the <a href="/wiki/Shaba_I" title="Shaba I">Shaba I</a> conflict in 1977</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1977, Mobutu's nationalizations had precipitated such an economic slump that Mobutu was forced to try to woo foreign investors back.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Katangan rebels based in <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a> invaded Zaire that year, in retaliation for Mobutu's support for anti-<a href="/wiki/MPLA" title="MPLA">MPLA</a> rebels. France airlifted 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into the country and repulsed the rebels, ending <a href="/wiki/Shaba_I" title="Shaba I">Shaba I</a>. The rebels attacked Zaire again, in greater numbers, in the <a href="/wiki/Shaba_II" title="Shaba II">Shaba II</a> invasion of 1978. The governments of Belgium and France deployed troops with logistical support from the United States and defeated the rebels again. The poor performance of the Zairian Army during both Shaba invasions, which humiliated Mobutu by forcing him to ask for foreign troops, did not lead to military reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016424_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016424-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Mobutu reduced the size of the Army from 51,000 troops in 1978 down to 23,000 troops in 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016424_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016424-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1980, it was estimated that about 90% of the Zairian Army were Ngbandi as Mobutu did not trust the other peoples of Zaire to serve in the Army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016424_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016424-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most loyal and best of Mobutu's units were his bodyguards, the Israeli-trained <i>Division Spéciale Présidentielle</i> that was made up exclusively of Ngbandi and was always commanded by one of Mobutu's relatives.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016425_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016425-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mobutu was re-elected in single-candidate elections in <a href="/wiki/1977_Zairean_presidential_election" title="1977 Zairean presidential election">1977</a> and <a href="/wiki/1984_Zairean_presidential_election" title="1984 Zairean presidential election">1984</a>. He spent most of his time increasing his personal fortune, which in 1988 was estimated to amount to no less than US$50 million.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He held most of it out of the country in <a href="/wiki/Swiss_banking" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss banking">Swiss banks</a> (however, a comparatively small $3.4 million was declared found in Swiss banks after he was ousted.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). This was almost equivalent to the amount of the country's foreign debt at the time. In a speech that he delivered on 20 May 1976 in a football stadium in Kinshasa that was filled with some 70,000 people, Mobutu openly accepted petty corruption, stating: "If you want to steal, steal a little in a nice way, but if you steal too much to become rich overnight, you will be caught".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016355_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016355-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1989, the government was forced to default on international loans from Belgium. </p><p>Mobutu owned a fleet of <a href="/wiki/Mercedes-Benz" title="Mercedes-Benz">Mercedes-Benz</a> vehicles that he used to travel between his numerous palaces, while the nation's roads deteriorated and many of his people starved. The infrastructure virtually collapsed, and many public service workers went months without being paid. Most of the money was siphoned off to Mobutu, his family, and top political and military leaders. Only the <a href="/wiki/Special_Presidential_Division" title="Special Presidential Division">Special Presidential Division</a> – on whom his physical safety depended – was paid adequately or regularly. A popular saying that "the civil servants pretended to work while the state pretended to pay them" expressed this grim reality.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Forces_Arm%C3%A9es_Za%C3%AFroises" class="mw-redirect" title="Forces Armées Zaïroises">Forces Armées Zaïroises</a></i> (FAZ) suffered from low morale made worse by irregular salaries, dismal living conditions, shortages of supplies and a venal officer corps.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoungTurner1985259_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoungTurner1985259-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The soldiers of the FAZ behaved very much like a brutal occupying force who supported themselves by robbing the civilian population of Zaire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoungTurner1985259_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoungTurner1985259-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A recurring feature of Mobutu's rule were the seemingly endless number of roadblocks put by the FAZ who extorted money from the drivers of any passing automobile or lorries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoungTurner1985259_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoungTurner1985259-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another feature of Mobutu's economic mismanagement, directly linked to the way he and his friends siphoned off so much of the country's wealth, was rampant inflation. The rapid decline in the real value of salaries strongly encouraged a culture of corruption and dishonesty among public servants of all kinds.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Mobutu was known for his opulent lifestyle. He cruised on the Congo on his yacht <i>Kamanyola</i>. In <a href="/wiki/Gbadolite" title="Gbadolite">Gbadolite</a>, he erected a palace, the "<a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles">Versailles</a> of the jungle".<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For shopping trips to Paris, he would charter a <a href="/wiki/Concorde" title="Concorde">Concorde</a> from <a href="/wiki/Air_France" title="Air France">Air France</a>; he had the <a href="/wiki/Gbadolite_Airport" title="Gbadolite Airport">Gbadolite Airport</a> constructed with a runway long enough to accommodate the Concorde's extended take-off and landing requirements.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1989, Mobutu chartered Concorde aircraft F-BTSD for a 26 June – 5 July trip to give a speech at the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Headquarters" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Headquarters">United Nations in New York City</a>, then again on 16 July for <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French bicentennial</a> celebrations in Paris (where he was a guest of President <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mitterrand" title="François Mitterrand">François Mitterrand</a>), and on 19 September for a flight from Paris to Gbadolite, and another nonstop flight from Gbadolite to <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a> with the youth choir of Zaire.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mobutu's rule earned a reputation as one of the world's foremost examples of <a href="/wiki/Kleptocracy" title="Kleptocracy">kleptocracy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">nepotism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Close relatives and fellow members of the Ngbandi tribe were awarded high positions in the military and government, and he groomed his eldest son, Nyiwa, to succeed him as president;<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, Nyiwa died from <a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> in 1994.<sup id="cite_ref-r1_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r1-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mobutu led one of the most enduring autocracies in Africa and amassed a personal fortune estimated to be over US$50 million by selling his nation's rich natural resources while the people lived in poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While in office, he formed a <a href="/wiki/Totalitarian_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian regime">totalitarian regime</a> responsible for numerous <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_violations" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights violations">human rights violations</a>, attempted to purge the country of all Belgian cultural influences, and maintained an <a href="/wiki/Anti-communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-communist">anti-communist</a> stance to gain positive international support.<sup id="cite_ref-Anatomy_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anatomy-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mobutucoin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Mobutucoin.jpg/250px-Mobutucoin.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Mobutucoin.jpg/375px-Mobutucoin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Mobutucoin.jpg/500px-Mobutucoin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="295" /></a><figcaption>10 Makuta coin depicting Mobutu Sese Seko</figcaption></figure> <p>Mobutu was the subject of one of the most pervasive <a href="/wiki/Personality_cult" class="mw-redirect" title="Personality cult">personality cults</a> of the twentieth century. The evening newscast opened with an image of him descending through clouds like a god. His portraits were hung in many public places, and government officials wore lapel pins bearing his portrait. He held such titles as "Father of the Nation", "Messiah", "Guide of the Revolution", "Helmsman", "Founder", "Savior of the People", and "Supreme Combatant". In the <a href="/wiki/When_We_Were_Kings" title="When We Were Kings">1996 documentary</a> of the <a href="/wiki/The_Rumble_in_the_Jungle" title="The Rumble in the Jungle">1974 Foreman–Ali fight</a> in Zaire, dancers receiving the fighters can be heard chanting "Sese Seko, Sese Seko". At one point, in early 1975, the media were forbidden to refer to anyone other than Mobutu by name; others were referred to only by the positions they held.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Edgerton_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edgerton-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mobutu successfully capitalized on <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> tensions among European nations and the United States. He gained significant support from the West and its international organizations such as the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space_program">Space program</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Space program"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the late 1970s, the West Germany company <a href="/wiki/OTRAG" title="OTRAG">OTRAG</a> was developing a program to send peaceful satellites into space at lower costs, but a 1954 amendment to the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brussels" title="Treaty of Brussels">Treaty of Brussels</a> prevented them from developing and launching missiles in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-:SpaceProgram_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:SpaceProgram-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, they paid Mobutu $130 million to develop their program in Zaire.<sup id="cite_ref-:Kenyon46_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Kenyon46-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a 1978 agreement with OTRAG, Mobutu gave the company a 25-year rented plot of land in Zaire.<sup id="cite_ref-:SpaceProgram_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:SpaceProgram-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first rocket, <a href="/wiki/OTRAG_(rocket)" title="OTRAG (rocket)">OTRAG-1</a>, was launched on May 18, 1977,<sup id="cite_ref-:SpaceProgram_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:SpaceProgram-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Mobutu watched from a distance.<sup id="cite_ref-:Kenyon46_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Kenyon46-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rocket took off successfully, but shortly afterwards fell and crashed back down to the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-:SpaceProgram_78-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:SpaceProgram-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:Kenyon46_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Kenyon46-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By June 6 of 1978, two more rockets had been launched and crashed in Zaire. Nevertheless Mobutu continued to promote the program, stating that 200 Zairians were employed by the project and the country would receive royalties from future rocket sales.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two years after the launch of the first rocket, the Soviet Union alleged that former Nazi scientists were involved with OTRAG, and became convinced that the company was secretly gathering military intelligence. Mobutu succumbed to Soviet pressure, ended the program, and cut ties with OTRAG.<sup id="cite_ref-:SpaceProgram_78-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:SpaceProgram-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_policy">Foreign policy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Foreign policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Mobutu_Sese_Seko_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Mobutu Sese Seko administration">Foreign policy of the Mobutu Sese Seko administration</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relations_with_Belgium">Relations with Belgium</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Relations with Belgium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Relations between Zaire and Belgium wavered between close intimacy and open hostility during the Mobutu years. More often than not, Belgian decision-makers responded in a lackluster way when Mobutu acted against the interests of Belgium, partly explained by the highly divided Belgian political class.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relations soured early in Mobutu's rule over disputes involving the substantial Belgian commercial and industrial holdings in the country, but they warmed soon afterwards. Mobutu and his family were received as personal guests of the Belgian monarch in 1968, and a convention for scientific and technical cooperation was signed that same year. During <a href="/wiki/King_Baudouin" class="mw-redirect" title="King Baudouin">King Baudouin</a>'s highly successful visit to <a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Kinshasa</a> in 1970, a treaty of friendship and cooperation between the two countries was signed. However, Mobutu tore up the treaty in 1974 in protest at Belgium's refusal to ban an anti-Mobutu book written by left-wing lawyer Jules Chomé.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mobutu's "<a href="/wiki/Authenticit%C3%A9_(Zaire)" title="Authenticité (Zaire)">Zairianisation</a>" policy, which expropriated foreign-held businesses and transferred their ownership to Zairians, added to the strain.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mobutu maintained several personal contacts with prominent Belgians. <a href="/wiki/Edmond_Leburton" title="Edmond Leburton">Edmond Leburton</a>, Belgian prime minister between 1973 and 1974, was someone greatly admired by the President.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alfred Cahen, career diplomat and <i>chef de cabinet</i> of minister <a href="/wiki/Henri_Simonet" title="Henri Simonet">Henri Simonet</a>, became a personal friend of Mobutu when he was a student at the <a href="/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_Libre_de_Bruxelles" class="mw-redirect" title="Université Libre de Bruxelles">Université Libre de Bruxelles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relations with King Baudouin were mostly cordial, until Mobutu released a bold statement about the <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Belgium" title="Monarchy of Belgium">Belgian royal family</a>. Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Wilfried_Martens" title="Wilfried Martens">Wilfried Martens</a> recalled in his memoirs that the palace gates closed completely after Mobutu published a handwritten letter of the King.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of that, Mobutu was one of only two heads of state who did not receive an invitation to the funeral of Baudouin, the other being <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> of <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>. Next to friendly ties with Belgians residing in Belgium, Mobutu had a number of Belgian advisors at his disposal. Some of them, such as Hugues Leclercq and <a href="/wiki/Colonel" title="Colonel">Colonel</a> Willy Mallants, were interviewed in <a href="/wiki/Thierry_Michel" title="Thierry Michel">Thierry Michel</a>'s documentary <i><a href="/wiki/Mobutu,_King_of_Zaire" title="Mobutu, King of Zaire">Mobutu, King of Zaire</a></i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relations_with_France">Relations with France</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Relations with France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As what was then the second most populous French-speaking country in the world (it has subsequently come to have a larger population than France) and the most populous one in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zaire was of great strategic interest to France.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis#The_First_Republic" title="Congo Crisis">First Republic</a> era, France tended to side with the conservative and federalist forces, as opposed to unitarists such as Lumumba.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly after the <a href="/wiki/Katanga_Province" title="Katanga Province">Katangan</a> secession was successfully crushed, Zaire (then called the Republic of the Congo) signed a treaty of technical and cultural cooperation with France. During the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Presidency of Charles de Gaulle">presidency</a> of <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a>, diplomatic relations between the two countries gradually grew stronger and closer due to their many shared geopolitical interests. In 1971, Finance Minister <a href="/wiki/Val%C3%A9ry_Giscard_d%27Estaing" title="Valéry Giscard d'Estaing">Valéry Giscard d'Estaing</a> paid a visit to Zaire; later, after becoming France's president, he would develop a close personal relationship with President Mobutu, and under his leadership, France became one of the Mobutu regime's closest and most important foreign allies.<sup id="cite_ref-GaiaLott2019ColdWarHistory_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GaiaLott2019ColdWarHistory-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Shaba invasions, France sided firmly with Mobutu: during the <a href="/wiki/Shaba_I" title="Shaba I">first Shaba invasion</a>, France airlifted 1,500 Moroccan troops to Zaire, and the rebels were repulsed;<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a year later, during the <a href="/wiki/Shaba_II" title="Shaba II">second Shaba invasion</a>, France itself (along with Belgium) would send <a href="/wiki/French_Foreign_Legion" title="French Foreign Legion">French Foreign Legion</a> paratroopers (<a href="/wiki/2nd_Foreign_Parachute_Regiment" title="2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment">2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment</a>) to aid Mobutu.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relations_with_the_People's_Republic_of_China"><span id="Relations_with_the_People.27s_Republic_of_China"></span>Relations with the People's Republic of China</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Relations with the People's Republic of China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Initially, Zaire's relationship with the People's Republic of China was no better than its relationship with the Soviet Union. Memories of Chinese aid to Mulele and other Maoist rebels in Kwilu province during the ill-fated <a href="/wiki/Simba_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Simba Rebellion">Simba Rebellion</a> remained fresh on Mobutu's mind. He also opposed seating the PRC at the United Nations. However, by 1972, he began to see the Chinese in a different light, as a counterbalance to both the Soviet Union as well as his intimate ties with the United States, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, and South Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-callagy_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-callagy-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In November 1972, Mobutu extended diplomatic recognition to the Chinese (as well as <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a>). The following year, Mobutu paid a visit to Beijing, where he met with chairman <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> and received promises of $100 million in technical aid.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1974, Mobutu made a surprise visit to both China and North Korea, during the time he was originally scheduled to visit the Soviet Union. Upon returning home, both his politics and rhetoric became markedly more radical; it was around this time that Mobutu began criticizing Belgium and the United States (the latter for not doing enough, in Mobutu's opinion, to combat white minority rule in South Africa and Rhodesia), introduced the "obligatory civic work" program called <i>salongo</i>, and initiated "radicalization" (an extension of 1973's "Zairianization" policy). Mobutu even borrowed a title – the Helmsman – from Mao. Incidentally, late 1974 to early 1975 was when his personality cult reached its peak.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>China and Zaire shared a common goal in central Africa, namely doing everything in their power to halt Soviet gains in the area. Accordingly, both Zaire and China covertly funneled aid to the <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_of_Angola" title="National Liberation Front of Angola">National Liberation Front of Angola</a> (and later, the <a href="/wiki/UNITA" title="UNITA">National Union for the Total Independence of Angola</a>) in order to prevent their former allies, the <a href="/wiki/MPLA" title="MPLA">People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola</a>, who were supported and augmented by <a href="/wiki/Military_of_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Cuba">Cuban forces</a>, from coming to power. The Cubans, who exercised considerable influence in Africa in support of leftist and anti-imperialist forces, were heavily sponsored by the Soviet Union during the period. In addition to inviting <a href="/wiki/Holden_Roberto" title="Holden Roberto">Holden Roberto</a>, the leader of the National Liberation Front of Angola, and his guerrillas to Beijing for training, China provided weapons and money to the rebels. Zaire itself launched an ill-fated, pre-emptive invasion of Angola in a bid to install a pro-Kinshasa government, but was repulsed by Cuban troops. The expedition was a fiasco with far-reaching repercussions, most notably the Shaba I and Shaba II invasions, both of which China opposed. China sent military aid to Zaire during both invasions, and accused the Soviet Union and Cuba (who were alleged to have supported the Shaban rebels, although this was and remains speculation) of working to de-stabilize central Africa.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relations_with_the_Soviet_Union">Relations with the Soviet Union</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Relations with the Soviet Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mobutu's relationship with the Soviet Union was frosty and tense. A staunch anti-communist, he was not anxious to recognize the Soviets; the USSR had supported—though mostly in words—both Patrice Lumumba, Mobutu's democratically elected predecessor, and the Simba rebellion. However, to project a non-aligned image, he did renew ties in 1967; the first Soviet ambassador arrived and presented his credentials in 1968.<sup id="cite_ref-Kasuka_2012_p._180_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kasuka_2012_p._180-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mobutu did, however, join the United States in condemning the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia">Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia</a> that year.<sup id="cite_ref-Schatzberg1991_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schatzberg1991-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mobutu viewed the Soviet presence as advantageous for two reasons: it allowed him to maintain an image of non-alignment, and it provided a convenient scapegoat for problems at home. For example, in 1970, he expelled four Soviet diplomats for carrying out "subversive activities", and in 1971, twenty Soviet officials were declared <i><a href="/wiki/Persona_non_grata" title="Persona non grata">persona non grata</a></i> for allegedly instigating student demonstrations at <a href="/wiki/Lovanium_University" title="Lovanium University">Lovanium University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kisangani2016_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kisangani2016-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> was the only major world capital Mobutu never visited, although he did accept an invitation to do so in 1974. For reasons unknown, he cancelled the visit at the last minute, and toured the People's Republic of China and North Korea instead.<sup id="cite_ref-Kasuka2012.2_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kasuka2012.2-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Relations cooled further in 1975, when the two countries found themselves on opposing sides in the <a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a>. This had a dramatic effect on Zairian foreign policy for the next decade; bereft of his claim to African leadership (Mobutu was one of the few leaders who refused to recognize the Marxist government of Angola), Mobutu turned increasingly to the US and its allies, adopting pro-American stances on such issues as the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet invasion of Afghanistan">Soviet invasion of Afghanistan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>'s position in international organizations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relations_with_the_United_States">Relations with the United States</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Relations with the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mobutu_Nixon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Mobutu_Nixon.jpg/220px-Mobutu_Nixon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Mobutu_Nixon.jpg/330px-Mobutu_Nixon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Mobutu_Nixon.jpg/440px-Mobutu_Nixon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2956" data-file-height="1885" /></a><figcaption>Mobutu Sese Seko and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> in Washington, D.C., October 1973</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mobutu_meets_with_President_George_Bush_at_the_White_House,_June_1989,_The_White_House_-_David_Valdez.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Mobutu_meets_with_President_George_Bush_at_the_White_House%2C_June_1989%2C_The_White_House_-_David_Valdez.jpg/220px-Mobutu_meets_with_President_George_Bush_at_the_White_House%2C_June_1989%2C_The_White_House_-_David_Valdez.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Mobutu_meets_with_President_George_Bush_at_the_White_House%2C_June_1989%2C_The_White_House_-_David_Valdez.jpg/330px-Mobutu_meets_with_President_George_Bush_at_the_White_House%2C_June_1989%2C_The_White_House_-_David_Valdez.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Mobutu_meets_with_President_George_Bush_at_the_White_House%2C_June_1989%2C_The_White_House_-_David_Valdez.jpg/440px-Mobutu_meets_with_President_George_Bush_at_the_White_House%2C_June_1989%2C_The_White_House_-_David_Valdez.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2668" data-file-height="1668" /></a><figcaption>Mobutu Sese Seko and U.S. President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> in Washington, D.C., 1989.</figcaption></figure> <p>For the most part, Zaire enjoyed warm relations with the United States. The United States was the third largest donor of aid to Zaire (after Belgium and France), and Mobutu befriended several US presidents, including <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a>. Relations did cool significantly in 1974–1975 over Mobutu's increasingly radical rhetoric (which included his scathing denunciations of American foreign policy),<sup id="cite_ref-Young_and_Turner,_p._372_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Young_and_Turner,_p._372-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and plummeted to an all-time low in the summer of 1975, when Mobutu accused the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> of plotting his overthrow and arrested eleven senior Zairian generals and several civilians, and condemned (<i>in absentia</i>) a former head of the Central Bank (<a href="/wiki/Albert_Ndele" title="Albert Ndele">Albert Ndele</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Young_and_Turner,_p._372_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Young_and_Turner,_p._372-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, many people viewed these charges with skepticism; in fact, one of Mobutu's staunchest critics, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Nzongola-Ntalaja" title="Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja">Nzongola-Ntalaja</a>, speculated that Mobutu invented the plot as an excuse to purge the military of talented officers who might otherwise pose a threat to his rule.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In spite of these hindrances, the chilly relationship quickly thawed when both countries found each other supporting the same side during the Angolan Civil War.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Because of Mobutu's poor human rights record, the <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Carter Administration</a> put some distance between itself and the <a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Kinshasa</a> government;<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even so, Zaire received nearly half the foreign aid Carter allocated to <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the first Shaba invasion, the United States played a relatively inconsequential role; its belated intervention consisted of little more than the delivery of non-lethal supplies. But during the second Shaba invasion, the US played a much more active and decisive role by providing transportation and logistical support to the French and Belgian paratroopers that were deployed to aid Mobutu against the rebels. Carter echoed Mobutu's (unsubstantiated) charges of Soviet and Cuban aid to the rebels, until it was apparent that no hard evidence existed to verify his claims.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1980, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">US House of Representatives</a> voted to terminate military aid to Zaire, but the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">US Senate</a> reinstated the funds, in response to pressure from Carter and American business interests in Zaire.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mobutu enjoyed a very warm relationship with the <a href="/wiki/Reagan_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan Administration">Reagan Administration</a>, through financial donations. During Reagan's presidency, Mobutu visited the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a> three times, and criticism of Zaire's human rights record by the US was effectively muted. During a state visit by Mobutu in 1983, Reagan praised the Zairian strongman as "a voice of good sense and goodwill".<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mobutu also had a cordial relationship with Reagan's successor, George H. W. Bush; he was the first African head of state to visit Bush at the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even so, Mobutu's relationship with the US radically changed shortly afterward with the end of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. With the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> gone, there was no longer any reason to support Mobutu as a bulwark against communism. Accordingly, the US and other Western powers began pressuring Mobutu to democratize the regime. Regarding the change in US attitude to his regime, Mobutu bitterly remarked: "I am the latest victim of the cold war, no longer needed by the US. The lesson is that my support for American policy counts for nothing."<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1993, Mobutu was denied a <a href="/wiki/Visa_(document)" class="mw-redirect" title="Visa (document)">visa</a> by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">US State Department</a> after he sought to visit Washington, D.C. </p><p>Mobutu also had friends in America outside Washington. Mobutu was befriended by televangelist <a href="/wiki/Pat_Robertson" title="Pat Robertson">Pat Robertson</a>, who promised to try to get the State Department to lift its ban on the African leader.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Coalition_government">Coalition government</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Coalition government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photo_Gbadolite_avec_Mobutu_et_Polspoel_1992.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Photo_Gbadolite_avec_Mobutu_et_Polspoel_1992.jpg/217px-Photo_Gbadolite_avec_Mobutu_et_Polspoel_1992.jpg" decoding="async" width="217" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Photo_Gbadolite_avec_Mobutu_et_Polspoel_1992.jpg/326px-Photo_Gbadolite_avec_Mobutu_et_Polspoel_1992.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Photo_Gbadolite_avec_Mobutu_et_Polspoel_1992.jpg/435px-Photo_Gbadolite_avec_Mobutu_et_Polspoel_1992.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2826" data-file-height="3082" /></a><figcaption>Gui Polspoel with Frédéric François and Mobutu in <a href="/wiki/Gbadolite" title="Gbadolite">Gbadolite</a>, 1992</figcaption></figure> <p>In May 1990, due to the ending of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> and a change in the international political climate, as well as economic problems and domestic unrest, Mobutu agreed to give up the MPR's monopoly of power. In early May 1990, students studying at the <a href="/wiki/Lubumbashi" title="Lubumbashi">Lubumbashi</a> campus of the <a href="/wiki/National_University_of_Zaire" title="National University of Zaire">National University of Zaire</a> protested against Mobutu's regime, demanding his resignation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016401_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016401-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the night of 11 May 1990, electricity was cut off to the campus while a special military unit called <i>Les Hiboux</i> ("The Owls") were sent in, armed with machetes and bayonets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016401_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016401-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the dawn of 12 May 1990, at least 290 students had been killed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016401_110-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016401-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The massacre led to the nations of the <a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</a> (now the European Union), the United States, and Canada to end all non-humanitarian aid to Zaire, which marked the beginning of the end of Western support for Mobutu.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016401_110-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016401-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mobutu appointed a transitional government that would lead to promised elections but he retained substantial powers. Following the <a href="/wiki/1991_Zaire_unrest" title="1991 Zaire unrest">1991 riots in Kinshasa</a> by unpaid soldiers, Mobutu brought opposition figures into a coalition government, but still connived to retain control of the security services and important ministries. Factional divisions led to the creation of two governments in 1993, one pro- and one anti-Mobutu. The anti-Mobutu government was headed by <a href="/wiki/Laurent_Monsengwo_Pasinya" title="Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya">Laurent Monsengwo</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Tshisekedi" title="Étienne Tshisekedi">Étienne Tshisekedi</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Union_for_Democracy_and_Social_Progress_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Union for Democracy and Social Progress (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">Union for Democracy and Social Progress</a> (UDPS).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The economic situation was still dismal, and in 1994 the two groups merged into the High Council of Republic – Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT). Mobutu appointed <a href="/wiki/Kengo_Wa_Dondo" class="mw-redirect" title="Kengo Wa Dondo">Kengo Wa Dondo</a>, an advocate of <a href="/wiki/Austerity" title="Austerity">austerity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Free-market" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-market">free-market</a> reforms, as prime minister. During this period, Mobutu was becoming increasingly physically frail and during one of his trips to Europe for medical treatment, ethnic <a href="/wiki/Tutsi" title="Tutsi">Tutsis</a> captured much of eastern Zaire. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overthrow">Overthrow</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Overthrow"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The seeds of Mobutu's downfall were sown in the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a>, when about 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus were massacred by about 200,000 Hutu extremists aided by the Rwandan government in 1994. The genocide ended when the Tutsi-dominated <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Patriotic_Front" title="Rwandan Patriotic Front">Rwandan Patriotic Front</a> seized the whole country, leading hundreds of thousands of Hutus including many of the genocidal killers, to flee into refugee camps in eastern Zaire. Mobutu welcomed the Hutu extremists as personal guests and allowed them to establish military and political bases in the eastern territories, from where they attacked and killed ethnic Tutsis across the border in Rwanda and in Zaire itself, ostensibly to prepare for a renewed offensive back into Rwanda. The new Rwandan government began sending military aid to the Zairian Tutsis in response. The resulting conflict began to destabilize eastern Zaire as a whole.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>When Mobutu's government issued an order in November 1996 forcing Tutsis to leave Zaire on penalty of death, the ethnic Tutsis in Zaire,<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> known as <a href="/wiki/Banyamulenge" title="Banyamulenge">Banyamulenge</a>, were the focal point of a rebellion. From eastern Zaire, the rebels, aided by foreign government forces under the leadership of President <a href="/wiki/Yoweri_Museveni" title="Yoweri Museveni">Yoweri Museveni</a> of <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a> and Rwandan Minister of Defense <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kagame" title="Paul Kagame">Paul Kagame</a> launched an offensive to overthrow Mobutu, joining forces with locals opposed to him under <a href="/wiki/Laurent-D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9_Kabila" title="Laurent-Désiré Kabila">Laurent-Désiré Kabila</a> as they marched west toward Kinshasa. Burundi and Angola also supported the growing rebellion, which mushroomed into the <a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Ailing with cancer, Mobutu was in <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> for treatment,<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and he was unable to coordinate the resistance which crumbled in front of the march. The rebel forces would have completely overrun the country far sooner than it ultimately did if not for the country's decrepit infrastructure. In most areas, no paved roads existed; the only vehicle paths were irregularly used dirt roads.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>By mid-1997, Kabila's forces resumed their advance, and the remains of Mobutu's army offered almost no resistance. On 16 May 1997, following failed peace talks held in <a href="/wiki/Pointe-Noire" title="Pointe-Noire">Pointe-Noire</a> on board the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Navy" title="South African Navy">South African Navy</a> ship <a href="/wiki/SAS_Outeniqua" title="SAS Outeniqua">SAS <i>Outeniqua</i></a> with Kabila and President of South Africa <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> (who chaired the talks), Mobutu fled into exile. Kabila's forces, known as the <a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Democratic_Forces_for_the_Liberation_of_Congo-Zaire" class="mw-redirect" title="Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire">Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire</a> (AFDL), proclaimed victory the next day. On 23 May 1997, Zaire was renamed the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dickovick_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dickovick-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exile_and_death">Exile and death</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Exile and death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mobutu went into temporary exile in <a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a>, until President <a href="/wiki/Gnassingb%C3%A9_Eyad%C3%A9ma" title="Gnassingbé Eyadéma">Gnassingbé Eyadéma</a> insisted that Mobutu leave the country a few days later.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 23 May 1997, he lived mostly in <a href="/wiki/Rabat,_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabat, Morocco">Rabat, Morocco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He died there on 7 September 1997 from <a href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer" title="Prostate cancer">prostate cancer</a> at the age of 66. He is interred in an above ground mausoleum at Rabat, in the Christian cemetery known as Cimetière Européen.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In December 2007, the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">National Assembly of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> recommended returning his remains, and interring them in a mausoleum in the DRC, which has not yet taken place. Mobutu remains interred in Morocco.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Family">Family</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Family"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mobutu was married twice. He married his first wife, <a href="/wiki/Marie-Antoinette_Mobutu" title="Marie-Antoinette Mobutu">Marie-Antoinette Gbiatibwa Gogbe Yetene</a>, in 1955.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had nine children. She died of <a href="/wiki/Congestive_heart_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Congestive heart failure">heart failure</a> on 22 October 1977 in <a href="/wiki/Genolier" title="Genolier">Genolier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, at the age of 36. On 1 May 1980, he married his mistress, <a href="/wiki/Bobi_Ladawa_Mobutu" title="Bobi Ladawa Mobutu">Bobi Ladawa</a>, on the eve of a visit by <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a>, thus legitimizing his relationship in the eyes of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Church</a>. Two of his sons from his first marriage died during his lifetime, Nyiwa (d. 16 September 1994) and Konga (d. 1992). Three more died in the years following his death: <a href="/wiki/Kongulu_Mobutu" title="Kongulu Mobutu">Kongulu</a> (d. 24 September 1998), Manda (d. 27 November 2004), and Ndokula (d. 4 November 2011).<sup id="cite_ref-r1_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r1-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His elder son from his second marriage, <a href="/wiki/Nzanga_Mobutu" title="Nzanga Mobutu">Nzanga Mobutu</a>, now the head of the family, finished fourth in the <a href="/wiki/2006_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_general_election" title="2006 Democratic Republic of the Congo general election">2006 presidential elections</a> and later served in the government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo as Minister of State and Deputy Prime Minister. Another son of his, Giala, has also served in the government of the Democratic Republic of Congo as both a member of the National Assembly and the Senate. A daughter, Yakpwa (nicknamed Yaki), was briefly married to a Belgian, Pierre Janssen, who later wrote a book<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that described Mobutu's lifestyle in vivid detail. </p><p>Altogether, Mobutu had sixteen children:<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>With Marie-Antoinette (first wife): Nyiwa, Ngombo, Manda, Konga, Ngawali, Yango, Yakpwa, Kongulu, Ndagbia (9)</li> <li>With Bobi Ladawa (second wife): Nzanga, Giala, Toku, Ndokula (4)</li> <li>With Kosia Ngama (mistress and twin sister of his second wife): Yalitho, Tende, Ayessa (3)</li></ul> <p>On trips across Zaire he appropriated the <i><a href="/wiki/Droit_de_cuissage" class="mw-redirect" title="Droit de cuissage">droit de cuissage</a></i> (right to deflower) as local chiefs offered him virgins; this practice was considered an honor for the virgin's family.<sup id="cite_ref-dvr_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dvr-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_art_and_literature">In art and literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: In art and literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mobutu was the subject of the three-part 1999 Belgian documentary <i><a href="/wiki/Mobutu,_King_of_Zaire" title="Mobutu, King of Zaire">Mobutu, King of Zaire</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Thierry_Michel" title="Thierry Michel">Thierry Michel</a>. Mobutu was also featured in the 2000 feature film <i><a href="/wiki/Lumumba_(film)" title="Lumumba (film)">Lumumba</a></i>, directed by <a href="/wiki/Raoul_Peck" title="Raoul Peck">Raoul Peck</a>, which detailed the pre-coup and coup years from the perspective of Lumumba. Mobutu also featured in the 1996 American documentary <i><a href="/wiki/When_We_Were_Kings" title="When We Were Kings">When We Were Kings</a></i>, which centred on the famed <a href="/wiki/Rumble_in_the_Jungle" class="mw-redirect" title="Rumble in the Jungle">Rumble in the Jungle</a> boxing bout between <a href="/wiki/George_Foreman" title="George Foreman">George Foreman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a> for the 1974 <a href="/wiki/Heavyweight" title="Heavyweight">heavyweight</a> championship of the world which took place in <a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Kinshasa</a> during Mobutu's rule. In the 1978 war adventure film <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wild_Geese" title="The Wild Geese">The Wild Geese</a></i>, the villain, General Ndofa, described in the film as an extremely corrupt leader of a copper-rich nation in central Africa, was a thinly disguised version of Mobutu.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurke2018110_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurke2018110-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mobutu also might be considered<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (May 2024)">original research?</span></a></i>]</sup> as the inspiration behind some of the characters in the works of the poetry of <a href="/wiki/Wole_Soyinka" title="Wole Soyinka">Wole Soyinka</a>, the novel <i><a href="/wiki/A_Bend_in_the_River" title="A Bend in the River">A Bend in the River</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/V._S._Naipaul" title="V. S. Naipaul">V. S. Naipaul</a>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Anthills_of_the_Savannah" title="Anthills of the Savannah">Anthills of the Savannah</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Chinua_Achebe" title="Chinua Achebe">Chinua Achebe</a>. <a href="/wiki/William_Close" title="William Close">William Close</a>, father of actress <a href="/wiki/Glenn_Close" title="Glenn Close">Glenn Close</a>, was once a personal physician to Mobutu and wrote a book focusing on his service in Zaire. <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Kingsolver" title="Barbara Kingsolver">Barbara Kingsolver</a>'s 1998 historical novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Poisonwood_Bible" title="The Poisonwood Bible">The Poisonwood Bible</a></i> depicts the events of the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a> from a fictional standpoint, featuring the role of Mobutu in the crisis. Mobutu was played by the Belgian actor <a href="/wiki/Marc_Zinga" title="Marc Zinga">Marc Zinga</a> in the 2011 film <i><a href="/wiki/Mister_Bob" title="Mister Bob">Mister Bob</a></i>. The French critic Isabelle Hanne praised Zinga's performance as Mobutu, writing he "brilliantly embodies this Shakespearian and bloodthirsty figure."<sup id="cite_ref-Hanne_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanne-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mobutu was included as an additional promotional card in the card-driven strategy game <i><a href="/wiki/Twilight_Struggle" title="Twilight Struggle">Twilight Struggle</a></i>. His card, when played, increases the <a href="/wiki/Political_stability" title="Political stability">stability</a> of the country then known as Zaire and increases the influence of the United States over the African nation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gbadolite_mobutu_palace_site.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Gbadolite_mobutu_palace_site.jpg/220px-Gbadolite_mobutu_palace_site.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Gbadolite_mobutu_palace_site.jpg/330px-Gbadolite_mobutu_palace_site.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Gbadolite_mobutu_palace_site.jpg/440px-Gbadolite_mobutu_palace_site.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="546" /></a><figcaption>Mobutu's palace in his hometown of <a href="/wiki/Gbadolite" title="Gbadolite">Gbadolite</a>, ransacked after he was deposed and exiled. Photographed <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2010</figcaption></figure> <p>According to Mobutu's <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">New York Times</a></i> obituary: "He built his political longevity on three pillars: violence, cunning, and the use of state funds to buy off enemies. His systematic looting of the national treasury and major industries gave birth to the term '<a href="/wiki/Kleptocracy" title="Kleptocracy">kleptocracy</a>' to describe a rule of official corruption that reputedly made him one of the world's wealthiest heads of state."<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2011, <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i> magazine described him as the "archetypal African dictator".<sup id="cite_ref-Time_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Time-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mobutu was infamous for amassing the equivalent of millions of US dollars from his country. According to the most conservative estimates, he stole US$50–125 million from his country, and some sources put the figure as high as US$150 million.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Pierre Janssen, the ex-husband of Mobutu's daughter Yaki, Mobutu had no concern for the cost of the expensive gifts he gave away to his cronies. Janssen married Yaki in a lavish ceremony that included three orchestras, a US$65,000 wedding cake, and a giant fireworks display. Yaki wore a US$70,000 wedding gown and US$3 million worth of jewels. Janssen wrote a book describing Mobutu's daily routine, which included several daily bottles of wine, retainers flown in from overseas, and lavish meals.<sup id="cite_ref-Edgerton_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edgerton-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Washington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Post">Washington Post</a>, Mobutu amassed between US$50-125 million from his country, ranking him as the third-most corrupt leader since 1984 and the most corrupt African leader during the same period.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Philip_Gourevitch" title="Philip Gourevitch">Philip Gourevitch</a>, in <i><a href="/wiki/We_Wish_to_Inform_You_That_Tomorrow_We_Will_Be_Killed_with_Our_Families" title="We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed with Our Families">We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed with Our Families</a></i> (1998), wrote: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Mobutu had really staged a funeral for a generation of African leadership of which he—the Dinosaur, as he had long been known—was the paragon: the client dictator of <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> <a href="/wiki/Neocolonialism" title="Neocolonialism">neocolonialism</a>, monomaniacal, perfectly corrupt, and absolutely ruinous to his nation.</p></blockquote> <p>Mobutu was instrumental in bringing the <a href="/wiki/Rumble_in_the_Jungle" class="mw-redirect" title="Rumble in the Jungle">Rumble in the Jungle</a> boxing match between <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Foreman" title="George Foreman">George Foreman</a> to Zaire on 30 October 1974. According to the documentary <i><a href="/wiki/When_We_Were_Kings" title="When We Were Kings">When We Were Kings</a></i>, promoter <a href="/wiki/Don_King_(boxing_promoter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Don King (boxing promoter)">Don King</a> promised each fighter five million dollars (U.S.) for the fight. To this end, King offered the bout to any African country that put up the money to host it, in exchange for recognition. Mobutu was willing to fund the ten million dollar purse and host the bout, in order to gain international recognition and legitimacy in the process. Mobutu gained Zaire and its people considerable publicity in the weeks even before the televised bout, as worldwide attention focused on his country. According to a quote in the film, Ali supposedly said: "Some countries go to war to get their names out there, and wars cost a lot more than ten million (dollars)." On 22 September 1974, Mobutu presented the rebuilt <a href="/wiki/Stade_Tata_Rapha%C3%ABl" title="Stade Tata Raphaël">20 May Stadium</a>, a multi-million-dollar sports project constructed to host the Ali-Foreman boxing card, to the Zaire Ministry of Youth and Sport, and to the people of Zaire.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Awards_and_honors">Awards and honors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Awards and honors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National">National</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: National"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a>: <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ribbon_bar_of_the_National_Order_of_the_Leopard_(Zaire).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Ribbon_bar_of_the_National_Order_of_the_Leopard_%28Zaire%29.svg/70px-Ribbon_bar_of_the_National_Order_of_the_Leopard_%28Zaire%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Ribbon_bar_of_the_National_Order_of_the_Leopard_%28Zaire%29.svg/105px-Ribbon_bar_of_the_National_Order_of_the_Leopard_%28Zaire%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Ribbon_bar_of_the_National_Order_of_the_Leopard_%28Zaire%29.svg/140px-Ribbon_bar_of_the_National_Order_of_the_Leopard_%28Zaire%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="218" data-file-height="60" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Order_of_the_Leopard" title="National Order of the Leopard">National Order of the Leopard</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign">Foreign</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Foreign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>: <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:BEL_-_Order_of_Leopold_-_Grand_Cordon_bar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/BEL_-_Order_of_Leopold_-_Grand_Cordon_bar.svg/70px-BEL_-_Order_of_Leopold_-_Grand_Cordon_bar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/BEL_-_Order_of_Leopold_-_Grand_Cordon_bar.svg/105px-BEL_-_Order_of_Leopold_-_Grand_Cordon_bar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/BEL_-_Order_of_Leopold_-_Grand_Cordon_bar.svg/140px-BEL_-_Order_of_Leopold_-_Grand_Cordon_bar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="218" data-file-height="60" /></a></span> Grand Cordon of the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Leopold_(Belgium)" title="Order of Leopold (Belgium)">Order of Leopold</a> (1969)<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/State_flag_of_Iran_%281964%E2%80%931980%29.svg/23px-State_flag_of_Iran_%281964%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/State_flag_of_Iran_%281964%E2%80%931980%29.svg/35px-State_flag_of_Iran_%281964%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/State_flag_of_Iran_%281964%E2%80%931980%29.svg/46px-State_flag_of_Iran_%281964%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="293" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_Iran" title="Pahlavi Iran">Imperial Iran</a>: <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:25th_Centennial_Anniversary_Medal_Ribbon_Bar_-_Imperial_Iran.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/25th_Centennial_Anniversary_Medal_Ribbon_Bar_-_Imperial_Iran.svg/70px-25th_Centennial_Anniversary_Medal_Ribbon_Bar_-_Imperial_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/25th_Centennial_Anniversary_Medal_Ribbon_Bar_-_Imperial_Iran.svg/105px-25th_Centennial_Anniversary_Medal_Ribbon_Bar_-_Imperial_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/25th_Centennial_Anniversary_Medal_Ribbon_Bar_-_Imperial_Iran.svg/140px-25th_Centennial_Anniversary_Medal_Ribbon_Bar_-_Imperial_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="957" data-file-height="247" /></a></span> Commemorative Medal of the <a href="/wiki/2,500-year_celebration_of_the_Persian_Empire" title="2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire">2500th Anniversary of the Founding of the Persian Empire</a> (1971)</li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>: <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cordone_di_gran_Croce_di_Gran_Cordone_OMRI_BAR.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Cordone_di_gran_Croce_di_Gran_Cordone_OMRI_BAR.svg/70px-Cordone_di_gran_Croce_di_Gran_Cordone_OMRI_BAR.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Cordone_di_gran_Croce_di_Gran_Cordone_OMRI_BAR.svg/105px-Cordone_di_gran_Croce_di_Gran_Cordone_OMRI_BAR.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Cordone_di_gran_Croce_di_Gran_Cordone_OMRI_BAR.svg/140px-Cordone_di_gran_Croce_di_Gran_Cordone_OMRI_BAR.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="218" data-file-height="60" /></a></span> Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Merit_of_the_Italian_Republic" title="Order of Merit of the Italian Republic">Order of Merit of the Italian Republic</a> (1973)<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>: <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Order_of_the_Golden_Ark.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Order_of_the_Golden_Ark.png/70px-Order_of_the_Golden_Ark.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Order_of_the_Golden_Ark.png/105px-Order_of_the_Golden_Ark.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Order_of_the_Golden_Ark.png/140px-Order_of_the_Golden_Ark.png 2x" data-file-width="156" data-file-height="44" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Golden_Ark" title="Order of the Golden Ark">Order of the Golden Ark</a> (1973)<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>: <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PRT_Order_of_Prince_Henry_-_Grand_Collar_BAR.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/PRT_Order_of_Prince_Henry_-_Grand_Collar_BAR.svg/70px-PRT_Order_of_Prince_Henry_-_Grand_Collar_BAR.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/PRT_Order_of_Prince_Henry_-_Grand_Collar_BAR.svg/105px-PRT_Order_of_Prince_Henry_-_Grand_Collar_BAR.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/PRT_Order_of_Prince_Henry_-_Grand_Collar_BAR.svg/140px-PRT_Order_of_Prince_Henry_-_Grand_Collar_BAR.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="218" data-file-height="60" /></a></span> Grand Collar of the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Prince_Henry" title="Order of Prince Henry">Order of Prince Henry</a> (1984)<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>: <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Order_of_Isabella_the_Catholic_-_Sash_of_Collar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Order_of_Isabella_the_Catholic_-_Sash_of_Collar.svg/70px-Order_of_Isabella_the_Catholic_-_Sash_of_Collar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Order_of_Isabella_the_Catholic_-_Sash_of_Collar.svg/105px-Order_of_Isabella_the_Catholic_-_Sash_of_Collar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Order_of_Isabella_the_Catholic_-_Sash_of_Collar.svg/140px-Order_of_Isabella_the_Catholic_-_Sash_of_Collar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="218" data-file-height="60" /></a></span> Knight of the Collar of the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Isabella_the_Catholic" title="Order of Isabella the Catholic">Order of Isabella the Catholic</a> (1983)<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>: <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Grand_Order_of_Mugunghwa_(South_Korea)_-_ribbon_bar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Grand_Order_of_Mugunghwa_%28South_Korea%29_-_ribbon_bar.svg/70px-Grand_Order_of_Mugunghwa_%28South_Korea%29_-_ribbon_bar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Grand_Order_of_Mugunghwa_%28South_Korea%29_-_ribbon_bar.svg/105px-Grand_Order_of_Mugunghwa_%28South_Korea%29_-_ribbon_bar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Grand_Order_of_Mugunghwa_%28South_Korea%29_-_ribbon_bar.svg/140px-Grand_Order_of_Mugunghwa_%28South_Korea%29_-_ribbon_bar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="218" data-file-height="60" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Grand_Order_of_Mugunghwa" title="Grand Order of Mugunghwa">Grand Order of Mugunghwa</a> (1982)<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>: <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Order_of_Brilliant_Jade_(Taiwan)_-_ribbon_bar.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Order_of_Brilliant_Jade_%28Taiwan%29_-_ribbon_bar.gif/70px-Order_of_Brilliant_Jade_%28Taiwan%29_-_ribbon_bar.gif" decoding="async" width="70" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Order_of_Brilliant_Jade_%28Taiwan%29_-_ribbon_bar.gif/105px-Order_of_Brilliant_Jade_%28Taiwan%29_-_ribbon_bar.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Order_of_Brilliant_Jade_%28Taiwan%29_-_ribbon_bar.gif/140px-Order_of_Brilliant_Jade_%28Taiwan%29_-_ribbon_bar.gif 2x" data-file-width="218" data-file-height="60" /></a></span> Grand Cordon of the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Brilliant_Jade" title="Order of Brilliant Jade">Order of Brilliant Jade</a> (1971)<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>: <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Legion_of_Merit_Commander_ribbon.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/US_Legion_of_Merit_Commander_ribbon.png/70px-US_Legion_of_Merit_Commander_ribbon.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/US_Legion_of_Merit_Commander_ribbon.png/105px-US_Legion_of_Merit_Commander_ribbon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/US_Legion_of_Merit_Commander_ribbon.png/140px-US_Legion_of_Merit_Commander_ribbon.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="123" /></a></span> Commander of the <a href="/wiki/Legion_of_Merit" title="Legion of Merit">Legion of Merit</a> (1964)<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Explanatory notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The name translates as "the warrior who goes from conquest to conquest, leaving fire in his path", "the warrior who leaves a trail of fire in his path", or "the warrior who knows no defeat because of his endurance and inflexible will and is all powerful, leaving fire in his wake as he goes from conquest to conquest".</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crawford Young, Thomas Edwin Turner, The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State, p. 210, 1985, University of Wisconsin Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vieira, Daviel Lazure: Precolonial Imaginaries and Colonial Legacies in Mobutu's "Authentic" Zaire in: Exploitation and Misrule in Colonial and Postcolonial Africa, (edited by) Kalu, Kenneth and Falola, Toyin, pp. 165–191, Palgrave Macmillan, 2019</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David F. Schmitz, The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1965–1989, pp. 9–36, 2006, Cambridge University Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-infoplease.com-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-infoplease.com_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/people/mobutu-sese-seko.html">"Mobutu Sese Seko"</a>. <i>The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia</i>. Columbia University Press. 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130508081852/http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/people/mobutu-sese-seko.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 May 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mobutu+Sese+Seko&rft.btitle=The+Columbia+Electronic+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoplease.com%2Fencyclopedia%2Fpeople%2Fmobutu-sese-seko.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240103131453/https://www.sinatimes.com/2020/01/03/revealing-the-ultimate-2020-list-the-10-most-corrupt-politicians-in-the-world/">"Revealing the Ultimate 2020 List: The 10 Most Corrupt Politicians in the World - The Sina Times"</a>. 3 January 2020. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sinatimes.com/2020/01/03/revealing-the-ultimate-2020-list-the-10-most-corrupt-politicians-in-the-world/">the original</a> on 3 January 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Revealing+the+Ultimate+2020+List%3A+The+10+Most+Corrupt+Politicians+in+the+World+-+The+Sina+Times&rft.date=2020-01-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sinatimes.com%2F2020%2F01%2F03%2Frevealing-the-ultimate-2020-list-the-10-most-corrupt-politicians-in-the-world%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAcemoglu,_DaronRobinson,_James_A.Verdier,_Thierry2004" class="citation journal cs1">Acemoglu, Daron; Robinson, James A. & Verdier, Thierry (April–May 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141229032121/http://economics.mit.edu/files/4462">"Kleptocracy and Divide-and-Rule: A Model of Personal Rule"</a>. <i>Journal of the European Economic Association</i>. <b>2</b> (<span class="nowrap">2–</span>3): <span class="nowrap">162–</span>192. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.687.1751">10.1.1.687.1751</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F154247604323067916">10.1162/154247604323067916</a> (inactive 12 February 2025). <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7846928">7846928</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://economics.mit.edu/files/4462">the original</a> on 29 December 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+European+Economic+Association&rft.atitle=Kleptocracy+and+Divide-and-Rule%3A+A+Model+of+Personal+Rule&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E162-%3C%2Fspan%3E192&rft.date=2004-04%2F2004-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.687.1751%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7846928%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F154247604323067916&rft.au=Acemoglu%2C+Daron&rft.au=Robinson%2C+James+A.&rft.au=Verdier%2C+Thierry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feconomics.mit.edu%2Ffiles%2F4462&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2025 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_February_2025" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2025">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPearce,_Justin2001" class="citation news cs1">Pearce, Justin (16 January 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1120825.stm">"DR Congo's troubled history"</a>. BBC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131029215023/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1120825.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 29 October 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=DR+Congo%27s+troubled+history&rft.date=2001-01-16&rft.au=Pearce%2C+Justin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fafrica%2F1120825.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://adst.org/2016/09/kleptocracy-and-anti-communism-when-mobutu-ruled-zaire/">"Kleptocracy and Anti-Communism: When Mobutu Ruled Zaire – Association for Diplomatic Studies & Training"</a>. <i>adst.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 January</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=adst.org&rft.atitle=Kleptocracy+and+Anti-Communism%3A+When+Mobutu+Ruled+Zaire+%E2%80%93+Association+for+Diplomatic+Studies+%26+Training&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fadst.org%2F2016%2F09%2Fkleptocracy-and-anti-communism-when-mobutu-ruled-zaire%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Washington Post, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1991/10/03/mobutu-a-rich-man-in-poor-standing/49e66628-3149-47b8-827f-159dff8ac1cd/">"Mobutu: A Rich man In Poor Standing".</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220925132512/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1991/10/03/mobutu-a-rich-man-in-poor-standing/49e66628-3149-47b8-827f-159dff8ac1cd/">Archived</a> 25 September 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 2 October 1991.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The New York Times, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1988/09/29/world/mobutu-s-village-basks-in-his-glory.html/">"Mobutu’s village basks in his glory".</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240320235638/https://www.nytimes.com/1988/09/29/world/mobutu-s-village-basks-in-his-glory.html">Archived</a> 20 March 2024 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 29 September 1988.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Time-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Time_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Time_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTharoor2011" class="citation news cs1">Tharoor, Ishaan (20 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111022191650/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2097426_2097427_2097458,00.html">"Mobutu Sese Seko"</a>. <i>Top 15 Toppled Dictators</i>. Time Magazine. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2097426_2097427_2097458,00.html">the original</a> on 22 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Top+15+Toppled+Dictators&rft.atitle=Mobutu+Sese+Seko&rft.date=2011-10-20&rft.aulast=Tharoor&rft.aufirst=Ishaan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fspecials%2Fpackages%2Farticle%2F0%2C28804%2C2097426_2097427_2097458%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?page=country&category=&publisher=&type=CHRON&coi=COD&rid=&docid=469f38813&skip=0">"Chronology for Ngbandi in the Dem. Rep. of the Congo"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" title="United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees">United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees</a>. 15 May 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180715010934/http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?page=country&category=&publisher=&type=CHRON&coi=COD&rid=&docid=469f38813&skip=0">Archived</a> from the original on 15 July 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chronology+for+Ngbandi+in+the+Dem.+Rep.+of+the+Congo&rft.pub=United+Nations+High+Commissioner+for+Refugees&rft.date=2013-05-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.refworld.org%2Fcgi-bin%2Ftexis%2Fvtx%2Frwmain%3Fpage%3Dcountry%26category%3D%26publisher%3D%26type%3DCHRON%26coi%3DCOD%26rid%3D%26docid%3D469f38813%26skip%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAkrasih,_Shirley2012" class="citation web cs1">Akrasih, Shirley (28 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140303231049/http://sites.davidson.edu/cis485/?p=3164">"AFRICA AND DEMOCRACY Joseph Mobutu, Dictator of the DRC, and His Life-Saving Support from the US"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Davidson_College" title="Davidson College">Davidson College</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sites.davidson.edu/cis485/?p=3164">the original</a> on 3 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AFRICA+AND+DEMOCRACY+Joseph+Mobutu%2C+Dictator+of+the+DRC%2C+and+His+Life-Saving+Support+from+the+US&rft.pub=Davidson+College&rft.date=2012-02-28&rft.au=Akrasih%2C+Shirley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsites.davidson.edu%2Fcis485%2F%3Fp%3D3164&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Edgerton2002" class="citation book cs1">Robert Edgerton (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k9n9aUHXtW4C&pg=PA198"><i>The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo</i></a>. Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0312304867" title="Special:BookSources/978-0312304867"><bdi>978-0312304867</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Troubled+Heart+of+Africa%3A+A+History+of+the+Congo&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0312304867&rft.au=Robert+Edgerton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk9n9aUHXtW4C%26pg%3DPA198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKenyon2018">Kenyon 2018</a>, p. 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Michela_Wrong" title="Michela Wrong">Wrong, Michela</a> (2009) <i>In the Footsteps of Mr Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo</i>. HarperCollins. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0061863610" title="Special:BookSources/0061863610">0061863610</a>. pp. 70–72</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKenyon2018">Kenyon 2018</a>, p. 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wrong, pp. 72–74</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wrong, pp. 74–75</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wrong, p. 75</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crawford Young and Thomas Turner, <i>The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State</i>, p. 175</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wrong, pp. 76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wrong, p. 67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanza1994113-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanza1994113_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKanza1994">Kanza 1994</a>, p. 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReid2023124-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReid2023124_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReid2023">Reid 2023</a>, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoskyns196588–89-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoskyns196588–89_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoskyns1965">Hoskyns 1965</a>, pp. 88–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanza1994191-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanza1994191_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKanza1994">Kanza 1994</a>, p. 191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanza1994192-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanza1994192_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanza1994192_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKanza1994">Kanza 1994</a>, p. 192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanza1994193-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanza1994193_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKanza1994">Kanza 1994</a>, p. 193.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoskyns196592,_94-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoskyns196592,_94_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoskyns1965">Hoskyns 1965</a>, pp. 92, 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoskyns1965136-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoskyns1965136_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoskyns1965">Hoskyns 1965</a>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReid2023176-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReid2023176_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReid2023176_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReid2023">Reid 2023</a>, p. 176.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Urquhart-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Urquhart_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Urquhart_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Urquhart_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUrquhart2019" class="citation web cs1">Urquhart, Brian (13 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.un.org/en/spotlight/character-sketches-joseph-mobutu-moise-tshombe-brian-urquhart">"Character Sketches: Mobutu and Tshombe -Two Congolese Rogues"</a>. <i>United Nations</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200707012527/https://news.un.org/en/spotlight/character-sketches-joseph-mobutu-moise-tshombe-brian-urquhart">Archived</a> from the original on 7 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+Nations&rft.atitle=Character+Sketches%3A+Mobutu+and+Tshombe+-Two+Congolese+Rogues&rft.date=2019-02-13&rft.aulast=Urquhart&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.un.org%2Fen%2Fspotlight%2Fcharacter-sketches-joseph-mobutu-moise-tshombe-brian-urquhart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt" class="citation book cs1">Schmidt, Elizabeth. <i>Foreign Intervention in Africa</i>. Cambridge UP. pp. <span class="nowrap">62–</span>65.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foreign+Intervention+in+Africa&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E62-%3C%2Fspan%3E65&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDe_WitteWright2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ludo_De_Witte" title="Ludo De Witte">De Witte, Ludo</a>; Wright, Ann (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Fl2lvKa_GEC"><i>The Assassination of Lumumba</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Verso_Books" title="Verso Books">Verso Books</a>. p. 127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85984-410-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85984-410-6"><bdi>978-1-85984-410-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111164936/https://books.google.com/books?id=2Fl2lvKa_GEC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Assassination+of+Lumumba&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Verso+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-85984-410-6&rft.aulast=De+Witte&rft.aufirst=Ludo&rft.au=Wright%2C+Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2Fl2lvKa_GEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cs1-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cs1_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLemarchand,_René1990" class="citation book cs1">Lemarchand, René (December 1990). "Mobutu's Second Coming". In Meditz, Sandra W.; Merrill, Tim (eds.). <i>Zaire: A country study</i>. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Research_Division" title="Federal Research Division">Federal Research Division</a>, <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mobutu%27s+Second+Coming&rft.btitle=Zaire%3A+A+country+study&rft.pub=Federal+Research+Division%2C+Library+of+Congress&rft.date=1990-12&rft.au=Lemarchand%2C+Ren%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cs2-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cs2_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTurner,_Thomas1990" class="citation book cs1">Turner, Thomas (December 1990). "The Party-State as a System of Rule". In Meditz, Sandra W.; Merrill, Tim (eds.). <i>Zaire: A country study</i>. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Research_Division" title="Federal Research Division">Federal Research Division</a>, <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Party-State+as+a+System+of+Rule&rft.btitle=Zaire%3A+A+country+study&rft.pub=Federal+Research+Division%2C+Library+of+Congress&rft.date=1990-12&rft.au=Turner%2C+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Anatomy-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Anatomy_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anatomy_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFrench1997" class="citation web cs1">French, Howard W. (17 May 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/africa/051797zaire-mobutu.html">"Anatomy of an Autocracy: Mobutu's 32-Year Reign"</a>. The New York Times on the Web. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120220192853/http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/africa/051797zaire-mobutu.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 February 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Anatomy+of+an+Autocracy%3A+Mobutu%27s+32-Year+Reign&rft.pub=The+New+York+Times+on+the+Web&rft.date=1997-05-17&rft.aulast=French&rft.aufirst=Howard+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpartners.nytimes.com%2Flibrary%2Fworld%2Fafrica%2F051797zaire-mobutu.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1">"Parliament Stripped of All Power by Mobutu: Congo Chief Expected to Decree Budget Ratification and Reduce Provinces to 14". <i>The Los Angeles Times</i>. Associated Press. 23 March 1966. p. 18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Parliament+Stripped+of+All+Power+by+Mobutu%3A+Congo+Chief+Expected+to+Decree+Budget+Ratification+and+Reduce+Provinces+to+14&rft.pages=18&rft.date=1966-03-23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdom199310-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199310_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199310_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199310_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199310_41-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199310_41-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199310_41-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199310_41-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199310_41-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOdom1993">Odom 1993</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anthony Mockler, 'The New Mercenaries,' Corgi Books, 1985, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-552-12558-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-552-12558-X">0-552-12558-X</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Callaghy, Thomas M. <i>The State-Society Struggle: Zaire in Comparative Perspective</i>, p. 164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EISA-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EISA_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/drcsecondrepublic.htm">DRC: Elections under the Second Republic</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100902212122/http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/drcsecondrepublic.htm">Archived</a> 2 September 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> EISA</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nohlen, D, Krennerich, M & Thibaut, B (1999) <i>Elections in Africa: A data handbook</i>, p294 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-829645-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-829645-2">0-19-829645-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKenyon2018">Kenyon 2018</a>, p. 36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw 2005, 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w1V1AAAAMAAJ&q=%22The+warrior+who+knows+no+defeat+because+of+his+endurance+and+inflexible+will+and+is+all+powerful,+leaving+fire+in+his+wake+as+he+goes+from+conquest+to+conquest%22"><i>Zaire: Continuity and Political Change in an Oppressive State</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230301190243/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=w1V1AAAAMAAJ&q=%22The+warrior+who+knows+no+defeat+because+of+his+endurance+and+inflexible+will+and+is+all+powerful,+leaving+fire+in+his+wake+as+he+goes+from+conquest+to+conquest%22&dq=%22The+warrior+who+knows+no+defeat+because+of+his+endurance+and+inflexible+will+and+is+all+powerful,+leaving+fire+in+his+wake+as+he+goes+from+conquest+to+conquest%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjv-7qpzOvWAhUCWBoKHcHeBaYQ6AEISzAG">Archived</a> 1 March 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Winsome J. Leslie, Westview Press, 1993, page 60</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Other translations of his name include "the all-powerful warrior who, because of his endurance and inflexible will to win, will go from conquest to conquest leaving fire in his wake", "the earthy, the peppery, all-powerful warrior who, by his endurance and will to win, goes from contest to contest leaving fire in his wake" and "the man who flies from victory to victory and leaves nothing behind him"<<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.plexoft.com/SBF/N04.html#Sese">http://www.plexoft.com/SBF/N04.html#Sese</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040807050253/http://www.plexoft.com/SBF/N04.html#Sese">Archived</a> 7 August 2004 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>> and "the all-powerful warrior who goes from conquest to conquest, leaving fire in his wake". (Wrong, p. 4)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Young and Turner, p. 57</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wrong, Michela (2002). <i>In The Footsteps of Mr. Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo</i>. Perennial. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-093443-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-093443-3">0-06-093443-3</a>. p. 90</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.voanews.com/content/a-13-2006-09-15-voa8/323431.html">Influential Africans: Mobutu Sese Seko</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140912005812/http://www.voanews.com/content/a-13-2006-09-15-voa8/323431.html">Archived</a> 12 September 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a>, 31 October 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016356-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016356_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016356_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016356_53-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016356_53-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016356_53-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016356_53-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKisangani2016">Kisangani 2016</a>, p. 356.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016355-356-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016355-356_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKisangani2016">Kisangani 2016</a>, p. 355-356.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Young and Turner, p. 211</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.upi.com/Archives/1983/05/19/Mobutu-grants-amnesty-to-political-prisoners-in-Zaire/5205422164800/">"Mobutu grants amnesty to political prisoners in Zaire"</a>. <i>UPI</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180803194447/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1983/05/19/Mobutu-grants-amnesty-to-political-prisoners-in-Zaire/5205422164800/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UPI&rft.atitle=Mobutu+grants+amnesty+to+political+prisoners+in+Zaire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.upi.com%2FArchives%2F1983%2F05%2F19%2FMobutu-grants-amnesty-to-political-prisoners-in-Zaire%2F5205422164800%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOdom199311-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199311_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199311_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199311_57-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOdom199311_57-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOdom1993">Odom 1993</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1072684.stm">BBC: "Timeline: Democratic Republic of Congo"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110926132503/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1072684.stm">Archived</a> 26 September 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. BBC News (11 March 2014). Retrieved on 23 April 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016424-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016424_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016424_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016424_59-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKisangani2016">Kisangani 2016</a>, p. 424.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016425-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016425_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKisangani2016">Kisangani 2016</a>, p. 425.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> The New York Times, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1988/09/29/world/mobutu-s-village-basks-in-his-glory.html/">"Mobutu’s village basks in his glory".</a> 29 September 1988. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9706/03/mobutu/">"Swiss banks find only $3.4 million in Mobutu assets"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031220182037/http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9706/03/mobutu/">Archived</a> 20 December 2003 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. CNN. 3 June 1997.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016355-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016355_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKisangani2016">Kisangani 2016</a>, p. 355.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/903324.stm">"BBC News | AFRICA | Mobutu's legacy: Show over substance"</a>. <i>news.bbc.co.uk</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180708004121/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/903324.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 8 July 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=news.bbc.co.uk&rft.atitle=BBC+News+%7C+AFRICA+%7C+Mobutu%27s+legacy%3A+Show+over+substance&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fafrica%2F903324.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoungTurner1985259-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoungTurner1985259_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoungTurner1985259_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoungTurner1985259_65-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYoungTurner1985">Young & Turner 1985</a>, p. 259.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Block1993" class="citation news cs1">Robert Block (14 February 1993). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/mobutu-goes-cruising-as-his-country-burns-the-cooks-son-is-feeding-zaire-to-the-crocodiles-robert-block-on-an-unpopular-survivor-1472846.html">"Mobutu goes cruising as his country burns: The cook's son is feeding Zaire to the crocodiles. Robert Block on an unpopular survivor"</a></span>. <i>The Independent</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220515/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/mobutu-goes-cruising-as-his-country-burns-the-cooks-son-is-feeding-zaire-to-the-crocodiles-robert-block-on-an-unpopular-survivor-1472846.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Mobutu+goes+cruising+as+his+country+burns%3A+The+cook%27s+son+is+feeding+Zaire+to+the+crocodiles.+Robert+Block+on+an+unpopular+survivor&rft.date=1993-02-14&rft.au=Robert+Block&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fmobutu-goes-cruising-as-his-country-burns-the-cooks-son-is-feeding-zaire-to-the-crocodiles-robert-block-on-an-unpopular-survivor-1472846.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw 2005, 47, 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.concorde-jet.com/e_photos.php?ref=club_concorde2136">Concorde supersonique jet / Gallery / Pictures</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090703131449/http://www.concorde-jet.com/e_photos.php?ref=club_concorde2136">Archived</a> 3 July 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Concorde-jet.com (30 September 1989). Retrieved on 23 April 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100903053140/http://www.transparency.org/content/download/4450/26759/file/GCR_2004_press_release_FINAL.pdf">"Plundering politicians and bribing multinationals undermine international development, says TI"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Transparency International. 25 March 2004. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.transparency.org/content/download/4450/26759/file/GCR_2004_press_release_FINAL.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 3 September 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plundering+politicians+and+bribing+multinationals+undermine+international+development%2C+says+TI&rft.pub=Transparency+International&rft.date=2004-03-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.transparency.org%2Fcontent%2Fdownload%2F4450%2F26759%2Ffile%2FGCR_2004_press_release_FINAL.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+zr0146)">"Zaire: A Country Study", "Establishment of a Personalistic Regime"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121205035514/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+zr0146)">Archived</a> 5 December 2012 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a>. Lcweb2.loc.gov. Retrieved on 23 April 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-r1-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-r1_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-r1_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051101160935/http://www.lefaso.net/article.php3?id_article=5300">"RDC : La mort prématurée de Manda Mobutu met un point final à l'histoire du "Zaïre"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. Archived from the original on 1 November 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 November</span> 2005</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=RDC+%3A+La+mort+pr%C3%A9matur%C3%A9e+de+Manda+Mobutu+met+un+point+final+%C3%A0+l%27histoire+du+%22Za%C3%AFre%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lefaso.net%2Farticle.php3%3Fid_article%3D5300&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span>. <i>Le Faso</i>. 24 December 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The New York Times, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1988/09/29/world/mobutu-s-village-basks-in-his-glory.html/">"Mobutu’s village basks in his glory".</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240711184112/https://www.nytimes.com/1988/09/29/world/mobutu-s-village-basks-in-his-glory.html/">Archived</a> 11 July 2024 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 29 September 1988.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120520151428/http://articles.cnn.com/1997-09-07/world/9709_07_mobutu.wrap_1_joseph-desire-mobutu-zaires-mobutu-sese-seko-after?_s=PM:WORLD">"Mobutu dies in exile in Morocco"</a>. CNN World. 7 September 1997. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.cnn.com/1997-09-07/world/9709_07_mobutu.wrap_1_joseph-desire-mobutu-zaires-mobutu-sese-seko-after?_s=PM:WORLD">the original</a> on 20 May 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mobutu+dies+in+exile+in+Morocco&rft.pub=CNN+World&rft.date=1997-09-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farticles.cnn.com%2F1997-09-07%2Fworld%2F9709_07_mobutu.wrap_1_joseph-desire-mobutu-zaires-mobutu-sese-seko-after%3F_s%3DPM%3AWORLD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCollins1997" class="citation web cs1">Collins, Carole J.L. (1 July 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fpif.org/reports/zairedemocratic_republic_of_the_congo">"Zaire/Democratic Republic of the Congo"</a>. Institute for Policy Studies. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130227022055/http://www.fpif.org/reports/zairedemocratic_republic_of_the_congo">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Zaire%2FDemocratic+Republic+of+the+Congo&rft.pub=Institute+for+Policy+Studies&rft.date=1997-07-01&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Carole+J.L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fpif.org%2Freports%2Fzairedemocratic_republic_of_the_congo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Young and Turner, p. 169</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edgerton-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Edgerton_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Edgerton_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Edgerton, Robert. <i>The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo</i>. <a href="/wiki/St._Martin%27s_Press" title="St. Martin's Press">St. Martin's Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-30486-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-30486-2">0-312-30486-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2823.htm#foreign">Department of State Background Notes: Congo (Kinshasa) Foreign Relations</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180609064336/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2823.htm#foreign">Archived</a> 9 June 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. State.gov. Retrieved on 23 April 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:SpaceProgram-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:SpaceProgram_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:SpaceProgram_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:SpaceProgram_78-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:SpaceProgram_78-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:SpaceProgram_78-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKovalchik2011" class="citation web cs1">Kovalchik, Kara (13 March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/27244/brief-history-congolese-space-program">"A Brief History of the Congolese Space Program"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Mental_Floss" title="Mental Floss">Mental Floss</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240711184113/https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/27244/brief-history-congolese-space-program">Archived</a> from the original on 11 July 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mental+Floss&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Congolese+Space+Program&rft.date=2011-03-13&rft.aulast=Kovalchik&rft.aufirst=Kara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mentalfloss.com%2Farticle%2F27244%2Fbrief-history-congolese-space-program&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:Kenyon46-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:Kenyon46_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Kenyon46_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Kenyon46_79-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKenyon2018">Kenyon 2018</a>, p. 46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1978/06/06/archives/launching-of-rocket-in-zaire-fails.html">"Launching of Rocket In Zaire Fails"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. 6 June 1978. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240711184116/https://www.nytimes.com/1978/06/06/archives/launching-of-rocket-in-zaire-fails.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 July 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Launching+of+Rocket+In+Zaire+Fails&rft.date=1978-06-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1978%2F06%2F06%2Farchives%2Flaunching-of-rocket-in-zaire-fails.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHendrickx2019" class="citation journal cs1">Hendrickx, Colin (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journalbelgianhistory.be/en/system/files/article_pdf/BTNG_Artikel_Colin_Hendrinck_2019_1.pdf">"Belgium and Mobutu's Zaire: Analysis of an Eventful Era"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Belgian_History" title="Journal of Belgian History">Journal of Belgian History</a></i>. <b>XLIX</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">102–</span>103. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210206031120/https://www.journalbelgianhistory.be/en/system/files/article_pdf/BTNG_Artikel_Colin_Hendrinck_2019_1.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 6 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Belgian+History&rft.atitle=Belgium+and+Mobutu%27s+Zaire%3A+Analysis+of+an+Eventful+Era&rft.volume=XLIX&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E102-%3C%2Fspan%3E103&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Hendrickx&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journalbelgianhistory.be%2Fen%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Farticle_pdf%2FBTNG_Artikel_Colin_Hendrinck_2019_1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Young and Turner, p. 172</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMatti2010" class="citation journal cs1">Matti, Stephanie (2010). "Resources and Rent Seeking in the Democratic Republic of Congo". <i>Third World Quarterly</i>. <b>31</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">401–</span>413. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01436597.2010.488471">10.1080/01436597.2010.488471</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154599459">154599459</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Third+World+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Resources+and+Rent+Seeking+in+the+Democratic+Republic+of+Congo&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E401-%3C%2Fspan%3E413&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01436597.2010.488471&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154599459%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Matti&rft.aufirst=Stephanie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gauthier_de_Villers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gauthier de Villers (page does not exist)">de Villers, Gauthier</a> (1995) <i>De Mobutu à Mobutu: trente ans de relations Belgique-Zaïre</i>. De Boeck Université. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1370-0715">1370-0715</a>. p. 49</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lanotte, Olivier et al. (2000) <i>La Belgique et l'Afrique Centrale : De 1960 à nos jours </i>. Éditions Complexe. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-87027-831-4" title="Special:BookSources/2-87027-831-4">2-87027-831-4</a>. p. 133</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Wilfried_Martens" title="Wilfried Martens">Martens, Wilfried</a> (2006) <i>De memoires: luctor et emergo</i>. Lannoo. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789020965209" title="Special:BookSources/9789020965209">9789020965209</a>. p.513</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+zr0171)">"Zaire: A Country Study", "Relations with France"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121213121808/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+zr0171)">Archived</a> 13 December 2012 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a>. Lcweb2.loc.gov. Retrieved on 23 April 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Meredith, Martin (2005). <i>The Fate of Africa: From the Hopes of Freedom to the Heart of Despair</i>. PublicAffairs. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58648-246-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-58648-246-7">1-58648-246-7</a>. p. 525</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GaiaLott2019ColdWarHistory-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GaiaLott2019ColdWarHistory_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLott2019" class="citation journal cs1">Lott, Gaia (27 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14682745.2018.1559830?journalCode=fcwh20">"East-West and West-West competition in the Great Lakes Region, 1975–85"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_History_(journal)" title="Cold War History (journal)">Cold War History</a></i>. <b>19</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">511–</span>528. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14682745.2018.1559830">10.1080/14682745.2018.1559830</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159433054">159433054</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230218231532/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14682745.2018.1559830?journalCode=fcwh20">Archived</a> from the original on 18 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cold+War+History&rft.atitle=East-West+and+West-West+competition+in+the+Great+Lakes+Region%2C+1975%E2%80%9385&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E511-%3C%2Fspan%3E528&rft.date=2019-02-27&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14682745.2018.1559830&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159433054%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lott&rft.aufirst=Gaia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F14682745.2018.1559830%3FjournalCode%3Dfcwh20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+zr0186)">"Zaire: A Country Study", "Shaba I"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090110002219/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+zr0186%29">Archived</a> 10 January 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Lcweb2.loc.gov (8 March 1977). Retrieved on 23 April 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+zr0187)">"Zaire: A Country Study", "Shaba II"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121212055917/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+zr0187)">Archived</a> 12 December 2012 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a>. Lcweb2.loc.gov. Retrieved on 23 April 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-cgsc.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/odom2/odom2.asp">"Shaba II: The French and Belgian Intervention in Zaire in 1978"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070609181927/http://www-cgsc.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/odom2/odom2.asp">Archived</a> 9 June 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Lieutenant Colonel Thomas P. Odom</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauvetage_de_Kolwezi" class="extiw" title="fr:Sauvetage de Kolwezi"><i>Sauvetage de Kolwezi</i></a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-callagy-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-callagy_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Callagy, Thomas M. (1983) <i>South Africa in Southern Africa: The Intensifying Vortex of Violence</i>. Praeger. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0030603064" title="Special:BookSources/0030603064">0030603064</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leslie, Winsome J. (1993) "Zaire in the International Arena" in <i>Zaire: Continuity and Political Change in an Oppressive State</i>. <a href="/wiki/Westview_Press" title="Westview Press">Westview Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86531-298-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-86531-298-2">0-86531-298-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kasuka_2012_p._180-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kasuka_2012_p._180_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKasuka2012" class="citation book cs1">Kasuka, B. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ragu4v8r--4C&pg=PA180"><i>Prominent African Leaders Since Independence</i></a>. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. p. 180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4700-4358-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4700-4358-2"><bdi>978-1-4700-4358-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230301190243/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ragu4v8r--4C&pg=PA180">Archived</a> from the original on 1 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prominent+African+Leaders+Since+Independence&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=CreateSpace+Independent+Publishing+Platform&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4700-4358-2&rft.aulast=Kasuka&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRagu4v8r--4C%26pg%3DPA180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schatzberg1991-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schatzberg1991_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMichael_G._Schatzberg1991" class="citation book cs1">Michael G. Schatzberg (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GjR2AAAAMAAJ"><i>Mobutu or chaos?: the United States and Zaire, 1960–1990</i></a>. University Press of America. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8191-8130-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8191-8130-5"><bdi>978-0-8191-8130-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230301190244/https://books.google.com/books?id=GjR2AAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 1 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mobutu+or+chaos%3F%3A+the+United+States+and+Zaire%2C+1960%E2%80%931990&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-8191-8130-5&rft.au=Michael+G.+Schatzberg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGjR2AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kisangani2016-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kisangani2016_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEmizet_Francois_Kisangani2016" class="citation book cs1">Emizet Francois Kisangani (18 November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sj9mDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA538"><i>Historical Dictionary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 538–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-7316-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-7316-0"><bdi>978-1-4422-7316-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230301190249/https://books.google.com/books?id=sj9mDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA538">Archived</a> from the original on 1 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+Democratic+Republic+of+the+Congo&rft.pages=538-&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2016-11-18&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-7316-0&rft.au=Emizet+Francois+Kisangani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dsj9mDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA538&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kasuka2012.2-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kasuka2012.2_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBridgette_Kasuka2012" class="citation book cs1">Bridgette Kasuka (8 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ragu4v8r--4C&pg=PA181"><i>Prominent African Leaders Since Independence</i></a>. Bankole Kamara Taylor. pp. 181–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4700-4358-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4700-4358-2"><bdi>978-1-4700-4358-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230301190248/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ragu4v8r--4C&pg=PA181">Archived</a> from the original on 1 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prominent+African+Leaders+Since+Independence&rft.pages=181-&rft.pub=Bankole+Kamara+Taylor&rft.date=2012-02-08&rft.isbn=978-1-4700-4358-2&rft.au=Bridgette+Kasuka&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRagu4v8r--4C%26pg%3DPA181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Young_and_Turner,_p._372-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Young_and_Turner,_p._372_100-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Young_and_Turner,_p._372_100-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Young and Turner, p. 372</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elliot and Dymally, p. 150</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+zr0172)">"Zaire: A Country Study", "Relations with the United States"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121212072101/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+zr0172)">Archived</a> 12 December 2012 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a>. Lcweb2.loc.gov (30 November 1973). Retrieved on 23 April 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lamb, David (1987) <i>The Africans</i>, Vintage, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0394753089" title="Special:BookSources/0394753089">0394753089</a>, p. 46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Young and Turner, p. 389</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elliot and Dymally, p. 88</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metroactive.com/papers/metro/05.22.97/cover/mobutu-9721.html">"When He Was King: On the trail of Marshal Mobutu Sese Seko, Zaire's former Kleptocrat-in-Chief"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081006213935/http://www.metroactive.com/papers/metro/05.22.97/cover/mobutu-9721.html">Archived</a> 6 October 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Metroactive (24 April 1990). Retrieved on 23 April 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060721174238/http://www.heritage.org/Research/Africa/upload/91612_1.pdf">"Zaire's Mobutu Visits America," by Michael Johns, Heritage Foundation Executive Memorandum #239, 29 June 1989</a><sup><a href="/wiki/Template:Unfit/doc" title="Template:Unfit/doc">[unfit]</a></sup>. Heritage.org. Retrieved on 23 April 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zagorin, Adam. (24 June 2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071021065501/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,161061,00.html">"Leaving Fire in His Wake"</a>. Time. Retrieved on 23 April 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-3868789.html">Mobutu said to have powerful US friends</a>. New York Amsterdam News. 24 May 1997. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130517115428/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-3868789.html">Archived</a> 17 May 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016401-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016401_110-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016401_110-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016401_110-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKisangani2016401_110-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKisangani2016">Kisangani 2016</a>, p. 401.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Atzili, Boaz (2012) <i>Good Fences, Bad Neighbors: Border Fixity and International Conflict</i>. University Of Chicago Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226031365" title="Special:BookSources/0226031365">0226031365</a> p. 188</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dipiazza, Francesca Davis (2007) <i>Democratic Republic of Congo in Pictures</i>. Twenty First Century Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0822585723" title="Special:BookSources/0822585723">0822585723</a>. p. 35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dickovick-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dickovick_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDickovick2008" class="citation book cs1">Dickovick, J. Tyler (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/africa20120000dick"><i>The World Today Series: Africa 2012</i></a>. Lanham, Maryland: Stryker-Post Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1610488815" title="Special:BookSources/978-1610488815"><bdi>978-1610488815</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+Today+Series%3A+Africa+2012&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Stryker-Post+Publications&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1610488815&rft.aulast=Dickovick&rft.aufirst=J.+Tyler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fafrica20120000dick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/ddd412eba59c464d6af9bcc55bdfc698">"Togo prods Mobutu to move on _ but to where?"</a>. <i>AP NEWS</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191203231513/https://apnews.com/ddd412eba59c464d6af9bcc55bdfc698">Archived</a> from the original on 3 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AP+NEWS&rft.atitle=Togo+prods+Mobutu+to+move+on+_+but+to+where%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2Fddd412eba59c464d6af9bcc55bdfc698&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRefugees" class="citation web cs1">Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6aaab48.html">"Refworld | Zaire: Information on events that occurred between 16 and 24 May 1997, including the rebel takeover"</a>. <i>Refworld</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191203231854/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6aaab48.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Refworld&rft.atitle=Refworld+%26%23124%3B+Zaire%3A+Information+on+events+that+occurred+between+16+and+24+May+1997%2C+including+the+rebel+takeover&rft.aulast=Refugees&rft.aufirst=United+Nations+High+Commissioner+for&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.refworld.org%2Fdocid%2F3ae6aaab48.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120722042242/http://www.afriquenligne.fr/actualites/politique/rd-congo:-pour-le-rapatriement-des-restes-de-mobutu-2007121713559/">"RD Congo: Pour le rapatriement des restes de Mobutu"</a>, Panapress, 17 December 2007 <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jeuneafrique.com/118918/archives-thematique/destins-de-famille-s/">"Destins de famille(s) – Jeune Afrique"</a>. <i>JeuneAfrique.com</i> (in French). 10 September 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210516131531/https://www.jeuneafrique.com/118918/archives-thematique/destins-de-famille-s/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=JeuneAfrique.com&rft.atitle=Destins+de+famille%28s%29+%E2%80%93+Jeune+Afrique&rft.date=2007-09-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jeuneafrique.com%2F118918%2Farchives-thematique%2Fdestins-de-famille-s%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Janssen, Pierre (1997). <i>À la cour de Mobutu</i>. Michel Lafon. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-84098-332-X" title="Special:BookSources/2-84098-332-X">2-84098-332-X</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jeuneafrique.com/118913/archives-thematique/enfants-de-mobutu/">"Enfants de Mobutu"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160516133428/http://www.jeuneafrique.com/118913/archives-thematique/enfants-de-mobutu">Archived</a> 16 May 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Mobutu's Children). <i><a href="/wiki/Jeune_Afrique" title="Jeune Afrique">Jeune Afrique</a></i>, 10 September 2007. Retrieved on 21 May 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dvr-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dvr_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDavid_van_Reybrouck2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_van_Reybrouck" class="mw-redirect" title="David van Reybrouck">David van Reybrouck</a> (25 March 2014). <a href="/wiki/Congo:_The_Epic_History_of_a_People" title="Congo: The Epic History of a People"><i>Congo: The Epic History of a People</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>, 2012. p. 384f. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-220011-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-220011-2"><bdi>978-0-06-220011-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Congo%3A+The+Epic+History+of+a+People&rft.pages=384f&rft.pub=HarperCollins%2C+2012&rft.date=2014-03-25&rft.isbn=978-0-06-220011-2&rft.au=David+van+Reybrouck&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurke2018110-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurke2018110_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurke2018">Burke 2018</a>, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hanne-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hanne_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHanne2011" class="citation news cs1">Hanne, Isabelle (3 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.liberation.fr/ecrans/2011/10/03/mister-bob-pantin-au-congo_951374/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Mister Bob", pantin au Congo"</a>. Liberation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210909122033/https://www.liberation.fr/ecrans/2011/10/03/mister-bob-pantin-au-congo_951374/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%22Mister+Bob%22%2C+pantin+au+Congo&rft.date=2011-10-03&rft.aulast=Hanne&rft.aufirst=Isabelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.liberation.fr%2Fecrans%2F2011%2F10%2F03%2Fmister-bob-pantin-au-congo_951374%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The World's Most Notorious Dictators</i>. Athlon Special Issue. 2017. p. 58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Washington Post, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1991/10/03/mobutu-a-rich-man-in-poor-standing/49e66628-3149-47b8-827f-159dff8ac1cd/">"Mobutu: A Rich man In Poor Standing".</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220925132512/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1991/10/03/mobutu-a-rich-man-in-poor-standing/49e66628-3149-47b8-827f-159dff8ac1cd/">Archived</a> 25 September 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 2 October 1991.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Washington Post, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1991/10/03/mobutu-a-rich-man-in-poor-standing/49e66628-3149-47b8-827f-159dff8ac1cd/">"Mobutu: A Rich man In Poor Standing".</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220925132512/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1991/10/03/mobutu-a-rich-man-in-poor-standing/49e66628-3149-47b8-827f-159dff8ac1cd/">Archived</a> 25 September 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 2 October 1991.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1974" class="citation news cs1">Johnson, Thomas A. (23 September 1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1974/09/23/archives/100000-cheers-greet-mobutu-gift-a-rebuilt-stadium.html">"100,000 Cheers Greet Mobutu 'Gift,' a Rebuilt Stadium"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200329115920/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/09/23/archives/100000-cheers-greet-mobutu-gift-a-rebuilt-stadium.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=100%2C000+Cheers+Greet+Mobutu+%27Gift%2C%27+a+Rebuilt+Stadium&rft.date=1974-09-23&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Thomas+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1974%2F09%2F23%2Farchives%2F100000-cheers-greet-mobutu-gift-a-rebuilt-stadium.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shs.cairn.info/revue-courrier-hebdomadaire-du-crisp-1969-38-page-1?lang=fr#s1n4">"La visite du président Mobutu en Belgique"</a>. <i>Cairn.info</i> (in French). <b>464</b> (38): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>21. 1969. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3917%2Fcris.464.0001">10.3917/cris.464.0001</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cairn.info&rft.atitle=La+visite+du+pr%C3%A9sident+Mobutu+en+Belgique&rft.volume=464&rft.issue=38&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E21&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3917%2Fcris.464.0001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshs.cairn.info%2Frevue-courrier-hebdomadaire-du-crisp-1969-38-page-1%3Flang%3Dfr%23s1n4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://documenti.camera.it/_dati/leg17/lavori/stampati/pdf/17PDL0060050.pdf">"Modifica all'articolo 5 della legge 3 marzo 1951, n. 178, in materia di revoca delle onorificenze dell'Ordine « Al merito della Repubblica italiana »"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>documenti.camera.it</i> (in Italian). 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=documenti.camera.it&rft.atitle=Modifica+all%27articolo+5+della+legge+3+marzo+1951%2C+n.+178%2C+in+materia+di+revoca+delle+onorificenze+dell%27Ordine+%C2%AB+Al+merito+della+Repubblica+italiana+%C2%BB&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocumenti.camera.it%2F_dati%2Fleg17%2Flavori%2Fstampati%2Fpdf%2F17PDL0060050.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationaalarchief.nl/onderzoeken/fotocollectie/ac33c994-d0b4-102d-bcf8-003048976d84">"Prins Bernhard in Zaire (voorheen Belgisch Congo), Prins Bernhard reikt President Mobutu van Zaire Orde van de Gouden Ark uit"</a>. <i>Nationaal Archief</i> (in Dutch). 1973<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nationaal+Archief&rft.atitle=Prins+Bernhard+in+Zaire+%28voorheen+Belgisch+Congo%29%2C+Prins+Bernhard+reikt+President+Mobutu+van+Zaire+Orde+van+de+Gouden+Ark+uit&rft.date=1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationaalarchief.nl%2Fonderzoeken%2Ffotocollectie%2Fac33c994-d0b4-102d-bcf8-003048976d84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.objectivo.pt/ditadores-distinguidos-com-ordens-honorificas-portuguesas/">"Ditadores distinguidos com ordens honoríficas portuguesas"</a>. <i>Jornal Objectivo</i> (in Portuguese). 15 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jornal+Objectivo&rft.atitle=Ditadores+distinguidos+com+ordens+honor%C3%ADficas+portuguesas&rft.date=2023-02-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.objectivo.pt%2Fditadores-distinguidos-com-ordens-honorificas-portuguesas%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-1983-30733">"Real Decreto 2894/1983, de 16 de noviembre, por el que se concede el Collar de la Orden de Isabel la Católica al Mariscal Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga, Presidente de la República del Zaire"</a>. <i>Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado</i> (in Spanish). 1983<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Agencia+Estatal+Bolet%C3%ADn+Oficial+del+Estado&rft.atitle=Real+Decreto+2894%2F1983%2C+de+16+de+noviembre%2C+por+el+que+se+concede+el+Collar+de+la+Orden+de+Isabel+la+Cat%C3%B3lica+al+Mariscal+Mobutu+Sese+Seko+Kuku+Ngbendu+Wa+Za+Banga%2C+Presidente+de+la+Rep%C3%BAblica+del+Zaire&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.boe.es%2Fdiario_boe%2Ftxt.php%3Fid%3DBOE-A-1983-30733&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newslibrary.naver.com/viewer/index.naver?articleId=1982060700329201004&editNo=2&printCount=1&publishDate=1982-06-07&officeId=00032&pageNo=1&printNo=11288&publishType=00020">"한·자이레 정상회담"</a>. <i>Naver News Library</i> (in Korean). 7 June 1982<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Naver+News+Library&rft.atitle=%ED%95%9C%C2%B7%EC%9E%90%EC%9D%B4%EB%A0%88+%EC%A0%95%EC%83%81%ED%9A%8C%EB%8B%B4&rft.date=1982-06-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewslibrary.naver.com%2Fviewer%2Findex.naver%3FarticleId%3D1982060700329201004%26editNo%3D2%26printCount%3D1%26publishDate%3D1982-06-07%26officeId%3D00032%26pageNo%3D1%26printNo%3D11288%26publishType%3D00020&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://taiwantoday.tw/news.php?unit=4&post=5703">"President Mobutu visits Taiwan"</a>. <i>Taiwan Today</i>. 1 May 1971<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Taiwan+Today&rft.atitle=President+Mobutu+visits+Taiwan&rft.date=1971-05-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftaiwantoday.tw%2Fnews.php%3Funit%3D4%26post%3D5703&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://valor.militarytimes.com/recipient/recipient-400871/">"Joseph-Désiré Mobutu"</a>. <i>Military Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Military+Times&rft.atitle=Joseph-D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9+Mobutu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvalor.militarytimes.com%2Frecipient%2Frecipient-400871%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_and_cited_references">General and cited references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: General and cited references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="English">English</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ayittey, George B.N. <i>Africa in Chaos: A Comparative History</i>. <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-21787-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-21787-0">0-312-21787-0</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBurke2018" class="citation book cs1">Burke, Kyle (2018). <i>Revolutionaries for the Right Anticommunist Internationalism and Paramilitary Warfare in the Cold War</i>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781469640747" title="Special:BookSources/9781469640747"><bdi>9781469640747</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutionaries+for+the+Right+Anticommunist+Internationalism+and+Paramilitary+Warfare+in+the+Cold+War&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781469640747&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Kyle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Callaghy, Thomas M. <i>Politics and Culture in Zaire</i>. Center for Political Studies. ASIN B00071MTTW</li> <li>Callaghy, Thomas M. <i>State-Society Struggle: Zaire in Comparative Perspective</i>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-05720-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-05720-2">0-231-05720-2</a></li> <li>Close, William T. <i>Beyond the Storm: Treating the Powerless & the Powerful in Mobutu's Congo/Zaire</i>. Meadowlark Springs Production. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9703371-4-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-9703371-4-0">0-9703371-4-0</a></li> <li>De Witte, Ludo. <i>The Assassination of Lumumba</i>. Verso. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85984-410-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-85984-410-3">1-85984-410-3</a></li> <li>Edgerton, Robert. <i>The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo</i>. <a href="/wiki/St._Martin%27s_Press" title="St. Martin's Press">St. Martin's Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-30486-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-30486-2">0-312-30486-2</a></li> <li>Elliot, Jeffrey M., and Mervyn M. Dymally (eds.). <i>Voices of Zaire: Rhetoric or Reality</i>. Washington Institute Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88702-045-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-88702-045-3">0-88702-045-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_W._French" title="Howard W. French">French, Howard W.</a> <i>A Continent for the Taking: The Tragedy and Hope of Africa</i>. Vintage. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4000-3027-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-4000-3027-7">1-4000-3027-7</a></li> <li>Gerard, Emmanuel, and Kuklick, Bruce. <i>Death in the Congo: Murdering Patrice Lumumba</i>, 2015, Harvard University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-72527-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-72527-0">978-0-674-72527-0</a></li> <li>Gould, David. <i>Bureaucratic Corruption and Underdevelopment in the Third World: The Case of Zaire</i>. ASIN B0006E1JR8</li> <li>Gran, Guy, and Galen Hull (eds.). <i>Zaire: The Political Economy of Underdevelopment</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-90358-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-90358-3">0-275-90358-3</a></li> <li>Harden, Blaine. <i>Africa: Dispatches from a Fragile Continent</i>. <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin" class="mw-redirect" title="Houghton Mifflin">Houghton Mifflin</a> Company. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-59746-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-395-59746-3">0-395-59746-3</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoskyns1965" class="citation book cs1">Hoskyns, Catherine (1965). <i>The Congo Since Independence: January 1960 – December 1961</i>. London: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/414961">414961</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Congo+Since+Independence%3A+January+1960+%E2%80%93+December+1961&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F414961&rft.aulast=Hoskyns&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKanza1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kanza" title="Thomas Kanza">Kanza, Thomas R.</a> (1994). <i>The Rise and Fall of Patrice Lumumba: Conflict in the Congo</i> (expanded ed.). Rochester, Vermont: Schenkman Books, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87073-901-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87073-901-9"><bdi>978-0-87073-901-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Patrice+Lumumba%3A+Conflict+in+the+Congo&rft.place=Rochester%2C+Vermont&rft.edition=expanded&rft.pub=Schenkman+Books%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-87073-901-9&rft.aulast=Kanza&rft.aufirst=Thomas+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kelly, Sean. <i>America's Tyrant: The CIA and Mobutu of Zaire</i>. American University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-879383-17-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-879383-17-9">1-879383-17-9</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKenyon2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kenyon" title="Paul Kenyon">Kenyon, Paul</a> (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e7GfEAAAQBAJ"><i>Dictatorland: The Men Who Stole Africa</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>: <a href="/wiki/Head_of_Zeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Head of Zeus">Head of Zeus</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9-781784-972141" title="Special:BookSources/9-781784-972141"><bdi>9-781784-972141</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictatorland%3A+The+Men+Who+Stole+Africa&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Head+of+Zeus&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9-781784-972141&rft.aulast=Kenyon&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3De7GfEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kingsolver, Barbara. <i>The Poisonwood Bible</i>. Harper Collins. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-606-19420-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-606-19420-7">0-606-19420-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKisangani2016" class="citation book cs1">Kisangani, Emizet F. (2016). <i>Historical Dictionary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</i>. Latham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781442273160" title="Special:BookSources/9781442273160"><bdi>9781442273160</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+Democratic+Republic+of+the+Congo&rft.place=Latham&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781442273160&rft.aulast=Kisangani&rft.aufirst=Emizet+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>MacGaffey, Janet (ed.). <i>The Real Economy of Zaire: The Contribution of Smuggling and Other Unofficial Activities to National Wealth</i>. Philadelphia: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Press" title="University of Pennsylvania Press">University of Pennsylvania Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8122-1365-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8122-1365-3">0-8122-1365-3</a></li> <li>Meditz, Sandra W. and Tim Merrill. <i>Zaire: A Country Study</i>. Claitor's Law Books and Publishing Division. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57980-162-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-57980-162-5">1-57980-162-5</a></li> <li>Mokoli, Mondonga M. <i>State Against Development: The Experience of Post-1965 Zaire</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwood Press">Greenwood Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-28213-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-28213-7">0-313-28213-7</a></li> <li>Mwakikagile, Godfrey. <i>Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era</i>, 2006, Chapter Six: "Congo in The 1960s: The Bleeding Heart of Africa." New Africa Press, South Africa. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9802534-1-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9802534-1-2">978-0-9802534-1-2</a>; Mwakikagile, Godfrey. <i>Africa is in A Mess: What Went Wrong and What Should Be Done</i>, 2006. New Africa Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9802534-7-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9802534-7-4">978-0-9802534-7-4</a></li> <li>Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges. <i>The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History</i>. Zed Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84277-053-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-84277-053-5">1-84277-053-5</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOdom1993" class="citation book cs1">Odom, Thomas Paul (1993). <i>Shaba II The French and Belgian Intervention in Zaire in 1978</i>. Fort Leavenworth: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, Combat Studies Institute. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781839310973" title="Special:BookSources/9781839310973"><bdi>9781839310973</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shaba+II+The+French+and+Belgian+Intervention+in+Zaire+in+1978&rft.place=Fort+Leavenworth&rft.pub=U.S.+Army+Command+and+General+Staff+College%2C+Combat+Studies+Institute&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9781839310973&rft.aulast=Odom&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFReid2023" class="citation book cs1">Reid, Stuart A. (2023). <i>The Lumumba Plot</i>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781524748814" title="Special:BookSources/9781524748814"><bdi>9781524748814</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lumumba+Plot&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781524748814&rft.aulast=Reid&rft.aufirst=Stuart+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Sandbrook, Richard (1985). <i>The Politics of Africa's Economic Stagnation</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-31961-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-31961-7">0-521-31961-7</a></li> <li>Schatzberg, Michael G. <i>The Dialectics of Oppression in Zaire</i>. <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-20694-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-20694-4">0-253-20694-4</a></li> <li>Schatzberg, Michael G. <i>Mobutu or Chaos?</i> University Press of America. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8191-8130-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8191-8130-7">0-8191-8130-7</a></li> <li>Stockwell, John. In Search of Enemies, W. W. Norton; First Edition (March 17, 1984) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0393009262" title="Special:BookSources/0393009262">0393009262</a></li> <li>Taylor, Jeffrey. <i>Facing the Congo: A Modern-Day Journey into the Heart of Darkness</i>. <a href="/wiki/Three_Rivers_Press" title="Three Rivers Press">Three Rivers Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0609808265" title="Special:BookSources/0609808265">0609808265</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYoungTurner1985" class="citation book cs1">Young, Crawford; Turner, Thomas (1985). <i>The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State</i>. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780299101138" title="Special:BookSources/9780299101138"><bdi>9780299101138</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Decline+of+the+Zairian+State&rft.place=Madison&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=9780299101138&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Crawford&rft.au=Turner%2C+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="French">French</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: French"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Braeckman, Colette. <i>Le Dinosaure, le Zaïre de Mobutu</i>. Fayard. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-213-02863-X" title="Special:BookSources/2-213-02863-X">2-213-02863-X</a></li> <li>Chomé, Jules. <i>L'ascension de Mobutu: Du sergent Désiré Joseph au général Sese Seko</i>. F. Maspero. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-7071-1075-2" title="Special:BookSources/2-7071-1075-2">2-7071-1075-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Dungia" title="Emmanuel Dungia">Dungia, Emmanuel</a>, <i>Mobutu et l'Argent du Zaïre, les révélations d'un diplomate, ex-agent des Services secrets</i>. L'Harmattan. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-7384-1133-9" title="Special:BookSources/2-7384-1133-9">2-7384-1133-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7384-1133-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7384-1133-4">978-2-7384-1133-4</a>.</li> <li>Mobutu Sese Seko. <i>Discours, allocutions et messages, 1965–1975</i>. Éditions J.A. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-85258-022-5" title="Special:BookSources/2-85258-022-5">2-85258-022-5</a></li> <li>Monheim, Francis. <i>Mobutu, l'homme seul</i>. Editions Actuelles. (Unknown ISBN)</li> <li>Ngbanda Nzambo-ku-Atumba, Honoré. <i>Ainsi sonne le glas! Les Derniers Jours du Maréchal Mobutu</i>. Gideppe. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-9512000-2-1" title="Special:BookSources/2-9512000-2-1">2-9512000-2-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Nguza_Karl-i-Bond" title="Jean Nguza Karl-i-Bond">Nguza Karl-i-Bond, Jean</a>. <i>Mobutu ou l'Incarnation du Mal Zairois</i>. Bellew Publishing Co Ltd. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86036-197-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-86036-197-7">0-86036-197-7</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other">Other</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShaw2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Shaw, Karl (2005) [2004]. <i>Power Mad!</i> [<i>Šílenství mocných</i>] (in Czech). Praha: Metafora. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-7359-002-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-80-7359-002-4"><bdi>978-80-7359-002-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+Mad%21&rft.place=Praha&rft.pub=Metafora&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-80-7359-002-4&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMobutu+Sese+Seko" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinsangani_battle_(1997)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinsangani battle (1997)">Kinsangani battle (1997)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Mobutu Sese Seko</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" class="extiw" title="c:Mobutu Sese Seko">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Mobutu_S%C3%A9s%C3%A9_Seko" class="extiw" title="q:Mobutu Sésé Seko">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q164535" class="extiw" title="d:Q164535">Data</a> from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/olmedia/1320000/audio/_1323066_drcongo_mobutu.ram">Speech by Mobutu, vowing to resist the rebel onslaught and remain in power</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com//WORLD/9709/07/mobutu.wrap/index.html">Obituary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/africa/051797zaire-mobutu.html">Anatomy of an Autocracy: Mobutu's 32-Year Reign</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> biography by <a href="/wiki/Howard_W._French" title="Howard W. French">Howard W. French</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/903324.stm">Mobutu's legacy: Show over substance</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/fooc50/4173100.stm">Hope and retribution in Zaire</a>, Allan Little, <i><a href="/wiki/From_Our_Own_Correspondent" title="From Our Own Correspondent">From Our Own Correspondent</a></i>, BBC News, 24 May 1997.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140608214731/http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/1989/06/zaires-mobutu-visits-america">"Zaire's Mobutu Visits America," by Michael Johns, Heritage Foundation Executive Memorandum #239, 29 June 1989</a><sup><a href="/wiki/Template:Unfit/doc" title="Template:Unfit/doc">[unfit]</a></sup></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ccccff;">Political offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kasa_Vubu" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Kasa Vubu">Joseph Kasa Vubu</a><b><br /><i>as </i></b><i>President of the Republic of the Congo </i></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/Heads_of_state_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Heads of state of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">President of Zaire</a></b> <br /> (<i>before 1971 <b><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>)</b></i><b> </b><br />24 November 1965 – 16 May 1997 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Laurent-D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9_Kabila" title="Laurent-Désiré Kabila">Laurent-Désiré Kabila</a><b><br /><i>as </i></b><i>President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo </i></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_(list)297" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Template:President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Template talk:President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Special:EditPage/Template:President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_(list)297" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="List of presidents of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">list</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_(L%C3%A9opoldville)" title="Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)">Republic of the Congo</a> (1960–1971)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kasa-Vubu" title="Joseph Kasa-Vubu">Joseph Kasa-Vubu</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Joseph Mobutu</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Flag_of_the_President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/100px-Flag_of_the_President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Flag_of_the_President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/150px-Flag_of_the_President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Flag_of_the_President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/200px-Flag_of_the_President_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Republic of Zaire</a> (1971–1997)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Joseph Mobutu/Mobutu Sese Seko</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a><br />(1997–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laurent-D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9_Kabila" title="Laurent-Désiré Kabila">Laurent-Désiré Kabila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kabila" title="Joseph Kabila">Joseph Kabila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Tshisekedi" title="Félix Tshisekedi">Félix Tshisekedi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chairpersons_of_the_Organisation_of_African_Unity_and_the_African_Union208" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_Union_chairpersons" title="Template:African Union chairpersons"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_Union_chairpersons" title="Template talk:African Union chairpersons"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_Union_chairpersons" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African Union chairpersons"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chairpersons_of_the_Organisation_of_African_Unity_and_the_African_Union208" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chairperson_of_the_Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity">Chairpersons of the Organisation of African Unity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chairperson_of_the_African_Union" title="Chairperson of the African Union">African Union</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisation of<br />African Unity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Selassie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Nasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">Nkrumah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Arthur_Ankrah" title="Joseph Arthur Ankrah">Ankrah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Selassie</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mobutu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houari_Boum%C3%A9di%C3%A8ne" title="Houari Boumédiène">Boumédiène</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadou_Ahidjo" title="Ahmadou Ahidjo">Ahidjo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Kaunda" title="Kenneth Kaunda">Kaunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moktar_Ould_Daddah" title="Moktar Ould Daddah">Daddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassan_II_of_Morocco" title="Hassan II of Morocco">Hassan II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakubu_Gowon" title="Yakubu Gowon">Gowon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Barre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idi_Amin" title="Idi Amin">Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seewoosagur_Ramgoolam" title="Seewoosagur Ramgoolam">Ramgoolam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_Bongo" title="Omar Bongo">Bongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaafar_Nimeiry" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaafar Nimeiry">Nimeiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Tolbert" title="William Tolbert">Tolbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9opold_S%C3%A9dar_Senghor" title="Léopold Sédar Senghor">Senghor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siaka_Stevens" title="Siaka Stevens">Stevens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_arap_Moi" title="Daniel arap Moi">Moi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengistu_Haile_Mariam" title="Mengistu Haile Mariam">Mengistu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Nyerere" title="Julius Nyerere">Nyerere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdou_Diouf" title="Abdou Diouf">Diouf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Sassou_Nguesso" title="Denis Sassou Nguesso">Nguesso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Kaunda" title="Kenneth Kaunda">Kaunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moussa_Traor%C3%A9" title="Moussa Traoré">Traoré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosni_Mubarak" title="Hosni Mubarak">Mubarak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoweri_Museveni" title="Yoweri Museveni">Museveni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Babangida" title="Ibrahim Babangida">Babangida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdou_Diouf" title="Abdou Diouf">Diouf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosni_Mubarak" title="Hosni Mubarak">Mubarak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zine_El_Abidine_Ben_Ali" title="Zine El Abidine Ben Ali">Ben Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meles_Zenawi" title="Meles Zenawi">Meles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Biya" title="Paul Biya">Biya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe">Mugabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Compaor%C3%A9" title="Blaise Compaoré">Compaoré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdelaziz_Bouteflika" title="Abdelaziz Bouteflika">Bouteflika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnassingb%C3%A9_Eyad%C3%A9ma" title="Gnassingbé Eyadéma">Eyadéma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Chiluba" title="Frederick Chiluba">Chiluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levy_Mwanawasa" title="Levy Mwanawasa">Mwanawasa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">African Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thabo_Mbeki" title="Thabo Mbeki">Mbeki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joaquim_Chissano" title="Joaquim Chissano">Chissano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olusegun_Obasanjo" title="Olusegun Obasanjo">Obasanjo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Sassou_Nguesso" title="Denis Sassou Nguesso">Nguesso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kufuor" title="John Kufuor">Kufuor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakaya_Kikwete" title="Jakaya Kikwete">Kikwete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bingu_wa_Mutharika" title="Bingu wa Mutharika">Mutharika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teodoro_Obiang_Nguema_Mbasogo" title="Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo">Obiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Boni_Yayi" title="Thomas Boni Yayi">Boni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hailemariam_Desalegn" title="Hailemariam Desalegn">Hailemariam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Ould_Abdel_Aziz" title="Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz">Abdel Aziz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe">Mugabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idriss_D%C3%A9by" title="Idriss Déby">Déby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_Cond%C3%A9" title="Alpha Condé">Condé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kagame" title="Paul Kagame">Kagame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdel_Fattah_el-Sisi" title="Abdel Fattah el-Sisi">Sisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Ramaphosa" title="Cyril Ramaphosa">Ramaphosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Tshisekedi" title="Félix Tshisekedi">Tshisekedi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macky_Sall" title="Macky Sall">Sall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azali_Assoumani" title="Azali Assoumani">Assoumani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Ould_Ghazouani" title="Mohamed Ould Ghazouani">Ghazouani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Lumumba_Government22" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lumumba_Government" title="Template:Lumumba Government"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lumumba_Government" title="Template talk:Lumumba Government"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lumumba_Government" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lumumba Government"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lumumba_Government22" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lumumba_Government" title="Lumumba Government">Lumumba Government</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Ministers957" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Ministers</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Prime Minister</a> and <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Defence_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="Minister of Defence (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">Minister of National Defence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="27" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/First_Congolese_government.jpg/250px-First_Congolese_government.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/First_Congolese_government.jpg/375px-First_Congolese_government.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/First_Congolese_government.jpg/500px-First_Congolese_government.jpg 2x" data-file-width="607" data-file-height="316" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Deputy Prime Minister</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Gizenga" title="Antoine Gizenga">Antoine Gizenga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="Minister of Foreign Affairs (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">Minister of Foreign Affairs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Bomboko" title="Justin Bomboko">Justin Bomboko</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister of External Commerce</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Bisukiro" title="Marcel Bisukiro">Marcel Bisukiro</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister Resident in Belgium</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Delvaux" title="Albert Delvaux">Albert Delvaux</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="Ministry of Justice (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">Minister of Justice</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9my_Mwamba" title="Rémy Mwamba">Rémy Mwamba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister-Delegate to the United Nations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kanza" title="Thomas Kanza">Thomas Kanza</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Interior_and_Security_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="Ministry of the Interior and Security (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">Minister of the Interior</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christophe_Gbenye" title="Christophe Gbenye">Christophe Gbenye</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Finance_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="Minister of Finance (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">Minister of Finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pascal_Nkayi" title="Pascal Nkayi">Pascal Nkayi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister of Economic Coordination and Planning</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alo%C3%AFs_Kabangi" title="Aloïs Kabangi">Aloïs Kabangi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister of Public Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_Ilunga" title="Alphonse Ilunga">Alphonse Ilunga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister of Agriculture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lutula" title="Joseph Lutula">Joseph Lutula</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister of Communications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_Songolo" title="Alphonse Songolo">Alphonse Songolo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister of Economic Affairs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Yav" title="Joseph Yav">Joseph Yav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister of Labour</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Masena" title="Joseph Masena">Joseph Masena</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister of Public Health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%A9goire_Kamanga" title="Grégoire Kamanga">Grégoire Kamanga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister of Mines and Power</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edmond_Rudahindwa" title="Edmond Rudahindwa">Edmond Rudahindwa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister of Social Affairs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Ngwenza" title="Antoine Ngwenza">Antoine Ngwenza</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister of Information and Cultural Affairs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anicet_Kashamura" title="Anicet Kashamura">Anicet Kashamura</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister of Youth and Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Mpolo" title="Maurice Mpolo">Maurice Mpolo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister of the Middle Classes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mbuyi" title="Joseph Mbuyi">Joseph Mbuyi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister of National Education and Fine Arts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Mulele" title="Pierre Mulele">Pierre Mulele</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister of Land Affairs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Mahamba" title="Alexandre Mahamba">Alexandre Mahamba</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister of State</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Grenfell" title="Georges Grenfell">Georges Grenfell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister of State</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kisolokele" title="Charles Kisolokele">Charles Kisolokele</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister of State</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bolya" title="Paul Bolya">Paul Bolya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minister of State</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Ngenge" title="André Ngenge">André Ngenge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Secretaries_of_State407" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Secretaries of State</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secretary of State to the Presidency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Joseph-Désiré Mobutu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secretary of State to the Presidency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lumbala" title="Jacques Lumbala">Jacques Lumbala</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secretary of State for External Commerce</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Kiwewa" title="Antoine Kiwewa">Antoine Kiwewa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secretary of State for Finance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Tshibangu" title="André Tshibangu">André Tshibangu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secretary of State for Justice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Liongo" title="Maximilien Liongo">Maximilien Liongo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Mandi" title="André Mandi">André Mandi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secretary of State for the Interior</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raphael_Batshikama" title="Raphael Batshikama">Raphael Batshikama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secretary of State for Defence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Nyembo" title="Albert Nyembo">Albert Nyembo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secretary of State for Information and Cultural Affairs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine-Roger_Bolamba" title="Antoine-Roger Bolamba">Antoine-Roger Bolamba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secretary of State for Economic Coordination and Planning</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_Nguvulu" title="Alphonse Nguvulu">Alphonse Nguvulu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Congo_Crisis_(1960–1965)5880" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Congo_Crisis_footer" title="Template:Congo Crisis footer"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Congo_Crisis_footer" title="Template talk:Congo Crisis footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Congo_Crisis_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Congo Crisis footer"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Congo_Crisis_(1960–1965)5880" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a> (1960–1965)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">Political leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cyrille_Adoula" title="Cyrille Adoula">Cyrille Adoula</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egide_Bocheley-Davidson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Egide Bocheley-Davidson (page does not exist)">Egide Bocheley-Davidson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Eyskens" title="Gaston Eyskens">Gaston Eyskens</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Christophe_Gbenye" title="Christophe Gbenye">Christophe Gbenye</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dag_Hammarskj%C3%B6ld" title="Dag Hammarskjöld">Dag Hammarskjöld</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Kalonji" title="Albert Kalonji">Albert Kalonji</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kasa-Vubu" title="Joseph Kasa-Vubu">Joseph Kasa-Vubu</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9o_Lef%C3%A8vre" title="Théo Lefèvre">Théo Lefèvre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Joseph-Désiré Mobutu</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Mulele" title="Pierre Mulele">Pierre Mulele</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gaston_Soumialot&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gaston Soumialot (page does not exist)">Gaston Soumialot</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/U_Thant" title="U Thant">U Thant</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mo%C3%AFse_Tshombe" title="Moïse Tshombe">Moïse Tshombe</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">Congolese<br />government forces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Congolese_National_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Congolese National Army">Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC)</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">Rebel forces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Katangese_Gendarmerie" title="Katangese Gendarmerie">Katangese Gendarmerie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_Kasai" title="South Kasai">South Kasai forces</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Armée Populaire de Libération ("Simbas")</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">UN contingent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">United Nations Operation in the Congo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo#Canadian_Army_involvement" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">Canada</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo#Irish_Army_involvement" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">Ireland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo#Swedish_Army_involvement" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">Sweden</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo#Indian_Army_leadership_and_involvement" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">India</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo#Ethiopia" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">Ethiopia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo#Ghana,_Nigeria,_Egypt" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">Ghana, Nigeria and Egypt</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">Other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/CIA_activities_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="CIA activities in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">CIA</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">Belgian /<br />mercenary units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mercenaries_and_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Mercenaries and the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Mercenaries</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2nd_Commando_Battalion_(Belgium)" title="2nd Commando Battalion (Belgium)">2nd Commando Battalion (Belgium)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/4th_Commando_Battalion_(Belgium)" title="4th Commando Battalion (Belgium)">4th Commando Battalion (Belgium)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=6th_Commando_Battalion_(Belgium)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="6th Commando Battalion (Belgium) (page does not exist)">6th Commando Battalion (Belgium)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=White_Legion_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="White Legion (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (page does not exist)">White Legion (Compagnie Internationale)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=5_Mechanised_Brigade_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="5 Mechanised Brigade (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (page does not exist)">5 Mechanised Brigade</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/4_Commando_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="4 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">4 Commando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/5_Commando_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="5 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">5 Commando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/6_Commando_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="6 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">6 Commando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=9_Commando_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="9 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (page does not exist)">9 Commando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=11_Commando_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="11 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (page does not exist)">11 Commando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=12_Commando_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="12 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (page does not exist)">12 Commando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=13_Commando_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="13 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (page does not exist)">13 Commando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=14_Commando_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="14 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (page does not exist)">14 Commando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=15_Commando_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="15 Commando (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (page does not exist)">15 Commando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=211_Makasi_Squadron_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="211 Makasi Squadron (Democratic Republic of the Congo) (page does not exist)">211th Makasi Squadron</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cuban_Exile_Naval_Force&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cuban Exile Naval Force (page does not exist)">Cuban Exile Naval Force</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">Commanders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">United Nations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Conor_Cruise_O%27Brien" title="Conor Cruise O'Brien">Conor Cruise O'Brien</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/K.A.S._Raja" title="K.A.S. Raja">K.A.S. Raja</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dewan_Prem_Chand" title="Dewan Prem Chand">Dewan Prem Chand</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pat_Quinlan_(Irish_Army_officer)" title="Pat Quinlan (Irish Army officer)">Pat Quinlan</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Congolese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Bobozo" title="Louis Bobozo">Louis Bobozo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Joseph-Désiré Mobutu</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Norbert_Moke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Norbert Moke (page does not exist)">Norbert Moke</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Belgian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Marie_Cr%C3%A8vecoeur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Marie Crèvecoeur (page does not exist)">Jean-Marie Crèvecoeur</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jules_Cr%C3%A8vecoeur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jules Crèvecoeur (page does not exist)">Jules Crèvecoeur</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Marc_Goosens" title="Marc Goosens">Marc Goosens</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Schramme" title="Jean Schramme">Jean Schramme</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Vandewalle" title="Frédéric Vandewalle">Frédéric Vandewalle</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Mercenary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bob_Denard" title="Bob Denard">Bob Denard</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Faulques" title="Roger Faulques">Roger Faulques</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Gardien_(mercenary)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Gardien (mercenary) (page does not exist)">Charles Gardien</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Germani&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hans Germani (page does not exist)">Hans Germani</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mad_Mike_Hoare" title="Mad Mike Hoare">Mike Hoare</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Fauntleroy_Julian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubert Fauntleroy Julian">Hubert Fauntleroy Julian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jack_Malloch" title="Jack Malloch">Jack Malloch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Siegfried_M%C3%BCller_(mercenary)" title="Siegfried Müller (mercenary)">Siegfried Müller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Peters_(mercenary)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Peters (mercenary) (page does not exist)">John Peters</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerry_Puren_(mercenary)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerry Puren (mercenary) (page does not exist)">Jerry Puren</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Trinquier" title="Roger Trinquier">Roger Trinquier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hugh_van_Oppen_(Mercenary)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hugh van Oppen (Mercenary) (page does not exist)">Hugh van Oppen</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Larry_Devlin" title="Larry Devlin">Larry Devlin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_%22Rip%22_Robertson" title="William "Rip" Robertson">William "Rip" Robertson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Che_Guevara#African_Congo" title="Che Guevara">Che Guevara</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">Main operations /<br />battles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1960_Force_Publique_mutinies" title="1960 Force Publique mutinies">Force Publique mutinies</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Secession crisis</span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/State_of_Katanga" title="State of Katanga">Katanga</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_Kasai" title="South Kasai">South Kasai</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_South_Kasai" title="Invasion of South Kasai">Invasion</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Free_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Free Republic of the Congo">Congo-Stanleyville</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Operation_in_the_Congo" title="United Nations Operation in the Congo">UN intervention</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Rum_Punch" title="Operation Rum Punch"><i>Rum Punch</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Niemba_ambush" title="Niemba ambush">Niemba ambush</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kabalo" title="Battle of Kabalo">Battle of Kabalo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jadotville" title="Siege of Jadotville">Jadotville</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Unokat" title="Operation Unokat"><i>UNOKAT</i></a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Camp_Massart" title="Attack on Camp Massart">Camp Massart</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Grandslam" title="Operation Grandslam"><i>Grandslam</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kindu_atrocity" title="Kindu atrocity">Kindu atrocity</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Port_Francqui_incident" title="Port Francqui incident">Port Francqui incident</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kanyarwanda_War" title="Kanyarwanda War">Kanyarwanda War</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kwilu_rebellion" title="Kwilu rebellion">Kwilu rebellion</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a> </span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragon_Rouge" title="Operation Dragon Rouge"><i>Dragon Rouge</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Operation_Dragon_Noir&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Operation Dragon Noir (page does not exist)"><i>Dragon Noir</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_White_Giant" title="Operation White Giant"><i>White Giant</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Violettes_Imperiales" title="Operation Violettes Imperiales"><i>Violettes Imperiales</i></a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_South" title="Operation South"><i>South</i></a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Stanleyville_mutinies" title="Stanleyville mutinies">Stanleyville mutinies</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">Other major events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Lumumba_Government" title="Dissolution of the Lumumba Government">Dissolution of the Lumumba Government</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba#Final_days_and_execution" title="Patrice Lumumba">Torture and killing of Lumumba</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Dag_Hammarskj%C3%B6ld" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Dag Hammarskjöld">Death of Dag Hammarskjöld</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;vertical-align:center;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Belgian_general_strike_of_1960%E2%80%931961" title="Belgian general strike of 1960–1961">Belgian general strike of 1960–1961</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">Decolonisation of Africa</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q164535#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2814" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q164535#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2814" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q164535#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000114802395">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/113789313">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/42544/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJd3HjwD4tCcgfPDqdY9Dq">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/11878434X">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79105734">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119163470">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119163470">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/01111948">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an49784913">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Mobutu Sese Seko"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jo20241247860&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1400813">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p071360840">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810677959205606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/386351">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007265408605171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14272630">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA0830622X?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1496042">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/11878434X.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/11878434X">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/02811647X">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10581000">NARA</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w622472f">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&oldid=1276093138">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&oldid=1276093138</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Category:Mobutu Sese Seko">Mobutu Sese Seko</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1930_births" title="Category:1930 births">1930 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1997_deaths" title="Category:1997 deaths">1997 deaths</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th-century_criminals" title="Category:20th-century criminals">20th-century criminals</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commanders_of_the_Legion_of_Merit" title="Category:Commanders of the Legion of Merit">Commanders of the Legion of Merit</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deaths_from_cancer_in_Morocco" title="Category:Deaths from cancer in Morocco">Deaths from cancer in Morocco</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deaths_from_prostate_cancer" title="Category:Deaths from prostate cancer">Deaths from prostate cancer</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_anti-communists" title="Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo anti-communists">Democratic Republic of the Congo anti-communists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_Roman_Catholics" title="Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo Roman Catholics">Democratic Republic of the Congo Roman Catholics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Marshals" title="Category:Marshals">Marshals</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Grand_Collars_of_the_Order_of_Prince_Henry" title="Category:Grand Collars of the Order of Prince Henry">Grand Collars of the Order of Prince Henry</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Knights_Grand_Cross_with_Collar_of_the_Order_of_Merit_of_the_Italian_Republic" title="Category:Knights Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic">Knights Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Presidents_for_life" title="Category:Presidents for life">Presidents for life</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Leaders_who_took_power_by_coup" title="Category:Leaders who took power by coup">Leaders who took power by coup</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lumumba_Government_members" title="Category:Lumumba Government members">Lumumba Government members</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ngbandi_people" title="Category:Ngbandi people">Ngbandi people</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:People_from_Mongala" title="Category:People from Mongala">People from Mongala</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:People_of_the_Cold_War" title="Category:People of the Cold War">People of the Cold War</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:People_of_the_Congo_Crisis" title="Category:People of the Congo Crisis">People of the Congo Crisis</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:People_of_the_Rwandan_genocide" title="Category:People of the Rwandan genocide">People of the Rwandan genocide</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_corruption" title="Category:Political corruption">Political corruption</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Politicide_perpetrators" title="Category:Politicide perpetrators">Politicide perpetrators</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Popular_Movement_of_the_Revolution_politicians" title="Category:Popular Movement of the Revolution politicians">Popular Movement of the Revolution politicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Presidents_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Category:Presidents of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Presidents of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Recipients_of_the_Order_of_Isabella_the_Catholic" title="Category:Recipients of the Order of Isabella the Catholic">Recipients of the Order of Isabella the Catholic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Soldiers_of_the_Force_Publique" title="Category:Soldiers of the Force Publique">Soldiers of the Force Publique</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_coups_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Category:Military coups in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Military coups in the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Zaire" title="Category:Zaire">Zaire</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_the_Phonos_extension" title="Category:Pages using the Phonos extension">Pages using the Phonos extension</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_February_2025" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2025">CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2025</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Source_attribution" title="Category:Source attribution">Source attribution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_archiveis_links" title="Category:Webarchive template archiveis links">Webarchive template archiveis links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:Articles with French-language sources (fr)">Articles with French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Italian-language_sources_(it)" title="Category:CS1 Italian-language sources (it)">CS1 Italian-language sources (it)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Dutch-language_sources_(nl)" title="Category:CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl)">CS1 Dutch-language sources (nl)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Portuguese-language_sources_(pt)" title="Category:CS1 Portuguese-language sources (pt)">CS1 Portuguese-language sources (pt)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Spanish-language_sources_(es)" title="Category:CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)">CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Korean-language_sources_(ko)" title="Category:CS1 Korean-language sources (ko)">CS1 Korean-language sources (ko)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_June_2022" title="Category:Use dmy dates from June 2022">Use dmy dates from June 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:EngvarB_from_June_2022" title="Category:EngvarB from June 2022">EngvarB from June 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_including_recorded_pronunciations" title="Category:Pages including recorded pronunciations">Pages including recorded pronunciations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_February_2025" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2025">Articles with unsourced statements from February 2025</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_November_2012" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from November 2012">Articles needing additional references from November 2012</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_that_may_contain_original_research" title="Category:All articles that may contain original research">All articles that may contain original research</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_that_may_contain_original_research_from_May_2024" title="Category:Articles that may contain original research from May 2024">Articles that may contain original research from May 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Czech-language_sources_(cs)" title="Category:CS1 Czech-language sources (cs)">CS1 Czech-language sources (cs)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_Sister_project_links_with_hidden_wikidata" title="Category:Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata">Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 16 February 2025, at 21:05<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mobutu_Sese_Seko&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia.svg" width="25" height="25" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" lang="en" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Mobutu Sese Seko</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>76 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-76d4c66f66-qq9p7","wgBackendResponseTime":260,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.599","walltime":"3.009","ppvisitednodes":{"value":34898,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":417165,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":48401,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":23,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":14,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":415578,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2657.400 1 -total"," 28.94% 768.946 3 Template:Reflist"," 19.15% 508.886 1 Template:Infobox_officeholder"," 10.04% 266.791 23 Template:Citation_needed"," 8.30% 220.519 44 Template:ISBN"," 8.18% 217.450 24 Template:Fix"," 7.61% 202.145 43 Template:Sfn"," 5.83% 154.976 1 Template:In_lang"," 5.11% 135.800 17 Template:Infobox_officeholder/office"," 4.89% 129.909 4 Template:Plainlist"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.476","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":37638026,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n}\n\"\"\ntable#1 {\n}\n\"\"\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAcemoglu,_DaronRobinson,_James_A.Verdier,_Thierry2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkrasih,_Shirley2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBridgette_Kasuka2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurke2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollins1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_van_Reybrouck2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_WitteWright2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDickovick2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmizet_Francois_Kisangani2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrench1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanne2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHendrickx2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoskyns1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKanza1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKasuka2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenyon2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKisangani2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKovalchik2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLott2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatti2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_G._Schatzberg1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOdom1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearce,_Justin2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRefugees\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReid2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_Block1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_Edgerton2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidt\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaw2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTharoor2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUrquhart2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoungTurner1985\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"African Union chairpersons\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Birth date\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 23,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 18,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 24,\n [\"Congo Conflict: 1960–1968\"] = 1,\n [\"Csref\"] = 2,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Mobutu\"] = 1,\n [\"DRCongoPres\"] = 1,\n [\"Death date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 1,\n [\"EngvarB\"] = 1,\n [\"Flag\"] = 11,\n [\"Flagicon\"] = 5,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 4,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 44,\n [\"ISSN\"] = 1,\n [\"In lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox officeholder\"] = 1,\n [\"Lumumba Government\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"Marriage\"] = 2,\n [\"Mobutu\"] = 1,\n [\"More citations needed section\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Original research inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Pipe\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 4,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Respell\"] = 1,\n [\"S-aft\"] = 1,\n [\"S-bef\"] = 1,\n [\"S-end\"] = 1,\n [\"S-off\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 43,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 3,\n [\"Unfit\"] = 2,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 22,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","500","26.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","200","10.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","120","6.5"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","120","6.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","100","5.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","80","4.3"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","80","4.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","80","4.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","80","4.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","60","3.2"],["[others]","440","23.7"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-5f44755944-zr68s","timestamp":"20250302033105","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Mobutu Sese Seko","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobutu_Sese_Seko","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q164535","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q164535","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-07-25T07:05:55Z","dateModified":"2025-02-16T21:05:42Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/3d\/Mobutu.jpg","headline":"He is a Zairian statesman. He became president in 1965 by a coup d'\u00e9tat and put an end to the Congolese crisis"}</script> </body> </html>