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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>War breaks out</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_breaks_out-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mayan_independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mayan_independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Mayan independence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mayan_independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century_and_the_end_of_the_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century_and_the_end_of_the_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>20th century and the end of the war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century_and_the_end_of_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item 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vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input 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<input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 15 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-15" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">15 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasteoorlog" title="Kasteoorlog – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kasteoorlog" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_Castes" title="Guerra de Castes – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerra de Castes" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kastenkrieg" title="Kastenkrieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kastenkrieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_Castas" title="Guerra de Castas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra de Castas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasten_gerra" title="Kasten gerra – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kasten gerra" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_des_castes" title="Guerre des castes – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerre des castes" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_delle_caste" title="Guerra delle caste – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerra delle caste" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kastenoorlog" title="Kastenoorlog – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kastenoorlog" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kastenkrieg" title="Kastenkrieg – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Kastenkrieg" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_das_Castas" title="Guerra das Castas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerra das Castas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Юкатанская война рас – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Юкатанская война рас" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kastien_sota" title="Kastien sota – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kastien sota" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kastkriget_i_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Kastkriget i Yucatán – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kastkriget i Yucatán" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Юкатанська війна рас – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Юкатанська війна рас" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%A4%E5%8D%A1%E5%9D%A6%E7%A7%8D%E5%A7%93%E4%B9%8B%E6%88%98" title="尤卡坦种姓之战 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="尤卡坦种姓之战" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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.ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Caste+War+of+Yucat%C3%A1n%22">"Caste War of Yucatán"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Caste+War+of+Yucat%C3%A1n%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Caste+War+of+Yucat%C3%A1n%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Caste+War+of+Yucat%C3%A1n%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Caste+War+of+Yucat%C3%A1n%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Caste+War+of+Yucat%C3%A1n%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Caste War of Yucatán<br /><i>ba'atabil kichkelem Yúum</i></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Indian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexican Indian Wars">Mexican Indian Wars</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chan_Santa_Cruz_Maya.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Chan_Santa_Cruz_Maya.gif/300px-Chan_Santa_Cruz_Maya.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="358" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Chan_Santa_Cruz_Maya.gif/450px-Chan_Santa_Cruz_Maya.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Chan_Santa_Cruz_Maya.gif/600px-Chan_Santa_Cruz_Maya.gif 2x" data-file-width="1957" data-file-height="2333" /></a></span><br /><i>Mayan territory, circa 1870.</i></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>1847–1915 <span style="font-size:85%;">(skirmishes continued until 1933)</span></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> and Northern <a href="/wiki/Pet%C3%A9n_Department" title="Petén Department">Petén</a> in Guatemala</div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <p><b>1847–1883:</b> Mayan victory </p> <ul><li>State of Chan Santa Cruz established.</li></ul> <p><b>1884–1915:</b> Mexican victory </p> <ul><li>Mexico recaptures the Yucatan Peninsula</li> <li>Minor Clashes until 1933</li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Chan_Santa_Cruz.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chan_Santa_Cruz.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Chan_Santa_Cruz.svg/35px-Flag_of_Chan_Santa_Cruz.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Chan_Santa_Cruz.svg/46px-Flag_of_Chan_Santa_Cruz.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="680" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Chan_Santa_Cruz" title="Chan Santa Cruz">Mayan State of Chan Santa Cruz</a><br /> <b>Supported by:</b> <br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a><br /> </p> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flag_of_British_Honduras_%281919%E2%80%931981%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_British_Honduras_%281919%E2%80%931981%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flag_of_British_Honduras_%281919%E2%80%931981%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_British_Honduras_%281919%E2%80%931981%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flag_of_British_Honduras_%281919%E2%80%931981%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_British_Honduras_%281919%E2%80%931981%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/British_Honduras" title="British Honduras">British Honduras</a> (until 1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_peoples" title="Maya peoples">Maya people</a></li></ul></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Mexico_%281823-1864%2C_1867-1893%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281823-1864%2C_1867-1893%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Mexico_%281823-1864%2C_1867-1893%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281823-1864%2C_1867-1893%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Mexico_%281823-1864%2C_1867-1893%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281823-1864%2C_1867-1893%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Porfiriato" title="Porfiriato">Mexico</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Guatemala_%281843-1851%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Guatemala_%281843-1851%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Guatemala_%281843-1851%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Guatemala_%281843-1851%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Guatemala_%281843-1851%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Guatemala_%281843-1851%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Yucatan.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Yucatan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Yucatan.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Yucatan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Yucatan.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_Yucatan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Yucatan" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Yucatan">Republic of Yucatan</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1847–1848)</span><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flag_of_British_Honduras_%281919%E2%80%931981%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_British_Honduras_%281919%E2%80%931981%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flag_of_British_Honduras_%281919%E2%80%931981%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_British_Honduras_%281919%E2%80%931981%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flag_of_British_Honduras_%281919%E2%80%931981%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_British_Honduras_%281919%E2%80%931981%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/British_Honduras" title="British Honduras">British Honduras</a> (from 1897)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"> 300,000 dead<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Caste War of Yucatán</b> or <i><b>ba'atabil kichkelem Yúum</b></i><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1847–1915) began with the revolt of native <a href="/wiki/Maya_peoples" title="Maya peoples">Maya people</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a> against <a href="/wiki/Hispanic" title="Hispanic">Hispanic</a> populations, called <i>Yucatecos</i>. The latter had held political and economic control of the region after the Spanish colonization of Yucatán and the submission of the Maya people in the late 16th century. It was one of the most successful modern Native American revolts.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A lengthy war ensued between the Yucateco forces based in the northwest of the Yucatán and the independent Maya in the southeast.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Caste War took place within the economic and political context of late colonial and post-independence <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Yucatán">Yucatán</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the eighteenth century, Yucatán's population had expanded considerably, and white and <a href="/wiki/Mestizo" title="Mestizo">mestizo</a> Mexicans migrated to rural towns. Economic opportunities, primarily in the production of <a href="/wiki/Henequen_industry_in_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Henequen industry in Yucatán">henequen</a> and sugar cane, attracted investment and encroachment onto indigenous <a href="/wiki/Customary_land" title="Customary land">customary lands</a> in the south and east of the peninsula.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly after the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_War_of_Independence" title="Mexican War of Independence">Mexican War of Independence</a> in 1821, the Yucatecan congress passed a series of laws that facilitated and encouraged this process. By the 1840s, <a href="/wiki/Alienated_land" title="Alienated land">land alienation</a> had increased precipitously, forcing much of the Maya peasantry to work as indebted laborers on large estates (<i><a href="/wiki/Hacienda" title="Hacienda">haciendas</a></i>). This had a dramatic effect on the Maya and precipitated the war.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1850s, the United Kingdom recognized the Maya state because of the value of its trade with <a href="/wiki/British_Honduras" title="British Honduras">British Honduras</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a>) and provided arms to the rebels at the beginning of the insurgency.<sup id="cite_ref-Yucatán_en_el_tiempo_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yucatán_en_el_tiempo-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1867, the Maya occupied parts of the western part of the Yucatán, including the District of <a href="/wiki/Pet%C3%A9n_Department" title="Petén Department">Petén</a>, where the Xloschá and Macanché tribes allied with them. Growing investment in Mexico resulted in a change in United Kingdom policy. In 1893, London signed a new treaty with the Mexican government, recognizing its control of all of the Yucatán, formalizing the border with British Honduras, and closing the British colony to trade with <a href="/wiki/Chan_Santa_Cruz" title="Chan Santa Cruz">Chan Santa Cruz</a>, the capital of the Maya. </p><p>The war unofficially ended in 1901 when the Mexican army occupied Chan Santa Cruz and subdued neighboring areas. The formal end came in 1915 when Mexican forces led by Yucatán Governor <a href="/wiki/Salvador_Alvarado" title="Salvador Alvarado">Salvador Alvarado</a> subdued the territory. Alvarado introduced reforms from the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican Revolution</a> that ended some Maya grievances. Skirmishes with small settlements that rejected Mexican control continued until 1933. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_War_of_Yucat%C3%A1n&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a> colonial times, the Yucatán population (like most of <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a>) operated under a <a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">legal caste system</a>: <a href="/wiki/Peninsulares" title="Peninsulares">peninsulares</a> (officials born in Spain) were at the top, the <i><a href="/wiki/Criollo_people" title="Criollo people">criollos</a></i> of Spanish descent in the next level, followed by the <i><a href="/wiki/Mestizo" title="Mestizo">mestizo</a></i> population (of partial indigenous descent but culturally European/Hispanic), next descendants of the natives who had collaborated with the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Spanish conquest of Yucatán</a>, and at the bottom were the other native <i><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">indios</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_Spain" title="Slavery in New Spain">African slaves</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some historians have argued that the conflict was more of an inter-ethnic conflict than a caste conflict. It was the members of a large sector of the <a href="/wiki/Maya_peoples" title="Maya peoples">Maya</a>, not fully assimilated or subdued and living for the most part in the east, who led the struggle. They rebelled against the Europeans, Mestizos, and the assimilated Maya who lived in the area. Not all of the Maya participated in the revolt. For example, Maya in the southern region remained neutral for most of the conflict. In the northern portion of the peninsula, many Maya fought directly against the insurgents.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The indigenous population was concentrated in the <a href="/wiki/Campeche" title="Campeche">Campeche</a>-<a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9rida,_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Mérida, Yucatán">Mérida</a> region. This was known as the <i>Camino Real,</i> because the majority of the peninsulares and criollos lived in that area.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (February 2019)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Caste_War_of_Yucat%C3%A1n#...or,_because_it_was_along_the_King's_Highway,_no?" title="Talk:Caste War of Yucatán">discuss</a></i>]</sup> The Maya roughly outnumbered the Latino and Spaniard groups by three to one throughout the Yucatán, but in the east, this ratio was closer to five to one. The elites maintained the strictest discipline and control over the Maya population in the east. The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Mexico" title="Catholic Church in Mexico">Catholic Church</a>, generally allied with the stronger classes, also had a preponderant role where the military organization was strongest. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_War_of_Independence" title="Mexican War of Independence">Mexican War of Independence</a>, the intelligentsia of Yucatán watched the events to the north. Following 1820, they organized their resistance to Spain, forming the Patriotic Confederation, which declared independence from Spain in 1821. The confederation subsequently joined the <a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First Mexican Empire</a> that same year; in 1823 it became a part of the federal Mexican government as the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Republic of Yucatán">Federated Republic of Yucatán</a>. The government of the republic, based in <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a>, tended towards centralization, which some people in frontier areas resented. </p><p>Near the end of the next decade, several provinces revolted against the central government, including <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a> in the south and Texas in the north (which was receiving significant unsanctioned European immigration from the United States in the eastern section). To bear the costs of the war against Texas, the national government imposed several taxes, including raising importation duties and the movement of local goods. </p><p>In response to this, on 2 May 1839, a federalist movement led by <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Im%C3%A1n" title="Santiago Imán">Santiago Imán</a> created a rival government in <a href="/wiki/Tizim%C3%ADn" title="Tizimín">Tizimín</a>, which soon took over <a href="/wiki/Valladolid,_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Valladolid, Yucatán">Valladolid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Espita_Municipality" title="Espita Municipality">Espita</a>, <a href="/wiki/Izamal" title="Izamal">Izamal</a>, and finally <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9rida,_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Mérida, Yucatán">Mérida</a> on the Yucatán peninsula.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Imán appealed to the indigenous Maya population, providing them with firearms. He promised to give them land free of tribute and exploitation. With their support, he prevailed in battle. In February 1840, Imán proclaimed Yucatán's return to a federal regime, then in 1841, declared it to be an independent republic. <a href="/wiki/Antonio_L%C3%B3pez_de_Santa_Anna" title="Antonio López de Santa Anna">Antonio López de Santa Anna</a>, head of the Mexican government, did not accept this independence, and invaded Yucatán in 1842, establishing a blockade. Land invasion followed, but the Mexican forces were frustrated in their attempts to take either Campeche or Mérida and withdrew to <a href="/wiki/Tampico" title="Tampico">Tampico</a>. </p><p>As Yucatán was struggling against Mexican authority, its population became divided into factions. One faction, based in Mérida, was led by <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Barbachano" title="Miguel Barbachano">Miguel Barbachano</a>, who leaned toward reintegration with Mexico. The other faction was led by <a href="/wiki/Santiago_M%C3%A9ndez" title="Santiago Méndez">Santiago Méndez</a>, based in Campeche. He feared reintegration would expose the region to attack by the United States, as tensions loomed on the northern border that would soon break out in the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a>. By 1847, the Yucatán Republic had effectively two capitals in the two cities. At the same time, in their struggle against the central government, both leaders had integrated numerous Maya into their armies as soldiers. The Maya, having taken up arms in the course of the war, decided not to set them down again. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="War_breaks_out">War breaks out</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_War_of_Yucat%C3%A1n&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: War breaks out"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Henequen_industry_in_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Henequen industry in Yucatán">Henequen industry in Yucatán</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guerra_de_Castas.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Guerra_de_Castas.JPG/180px-Guerra_de_Castas.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Guerra_de_Castas.JPG/270px-Guerra_de_Castas.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Guerra_de_Castas.JPG/360px-Guerra_de_Castas.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2292" data-file-height="3056" /></a><figcaption>Oil painting of the Caste War, c. 1850</figcaption></figure> <p>The war was rooted in the defense of Santa Cruz Indian communal lands against the expansion of private ownership, which had accompanied the boom in the production of <a href="/wiki/Henequen" class="mw-redirect" title="Henequen">henequen</a>, or agave, an industrial fiber used in rope production.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After discovering the value of the plant, from 1833, the wealthier Hispanic Yucatecos developed plantations to cultivate it on a large scale. Not long after the henequen boom, a boom in sugar production led to more wealth for the upper class. They expanded their sugar and henequen plantations by encroaching on Maya communal lands and typically abused their Maya workers by treating them poorly and underpaying them.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (See also Wikipedia article on <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9rida,_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Mérida, Yucatán">Mérida</a>). </p><p>In their correspondence with <a href="/wiki/British_Honduras" title="British Honduras">British Honduras</a> (Belize), rebel Maya leaders cited oppressive taxation as the immediate cause of the war. <a href="/wiki/Jacinto_Pat" title="Jacinto Pat">Jacinto Pat</a>, for example, wrote in 1848 that "what we want is liberty and not oppression, because before we were subjugated with the many contributions and taxes that they imposed on us."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pat's companion, <a href="/wiki/Cecilio_Chi" title="Cecilio Chi">Cecilio Chi</a>, added in 1849 that promises made by the rebel Santiago Imán, that he was "liberating the Indians from the payment of contributions," was a reason to resist the central government. But Imán continued to levy such taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 1847, Méndez learned that a large force of armed Maya with supplies had gathered near Vallodolid at the Culumpich, a property owned by Jacinto Pat, the Maya <i>batab</i> (leader). Fearing revolt, Méndez arrested <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Antonio_Ay" title="Manuel Antonio Ay">Manuel Antonio Ay</a>, the principal Maya leader of Chichimilá, accused him of planning a revolt, and executed him at the town square of Valladolid. Searching for other insurgents, Méndez burned the town of Tepich and repressed its residents. In the following months, Méndez forces sacked several Maya towns and engaged in arbitrary executions. </p><p>Cecilio Chi, the Maya leader of Tepich, with Jacinto Pat attacked <a href="/wiki/Tepich" title="Tepich">Tepich</a> on 30 July 1847. In reaction to the indiscriminate massacre of Maya that had taken place, Chi ordered that all the non-Maya population be killed. By the spring of 1848, the Maya forces had taken over most of the Yucatán, except the walled cities of <a href="/wiki/Campeche,_Campeche" class="mw-redirect" title="Campeche, Campeche">Campeche</a> and <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9rida,_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Mérida, Yucatán">Mérida</a> and the southwest coast. In his 1849 letter, Cecilio Chi noted that Santiago Méndez had come to "put every Indian, big and little, to death" but that the Maya had responded in kind. He wrote "it has pleased God and good fortune that a much greater portion of them [whites] than of the Indians [have died].<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Yucatecan troops held the road from Mérida to the port of <a href="/wiki/Sisal,_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Sisal, Yucatán">Sisal</a>. The Yucatecan governor <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Barbachano" title="Miguel Barbachano">Miguel Barbachano</a> had prepared a decree to evacuate Mérida but was possibly delayed in publishing it by the lack of suitable paper in the besieged capital. The decree became unnecessary when the republican troops suddenly broke the siege and took the offensive with major advances. Historians disagree on the reason for this defeat. According to some<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (December 2020)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup>, the majority of the Maya troops, not realizing the unique strategic advantage of their siege situation, had left the lines to plant their crops, planning to return after planting. It is said<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (December 2020)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> that the appearance of flying ants <a href="/wiki/Swarming" class="mw-redirect" title="Swarming">swarming</a> after heavy rains was the traditional signal for the Maya to start planting. They abandoned the battle. Others argue that the Maya had not laid up enough supplies for the campaign, and were unable to feed their forces any longer, and their break up was to search for food.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p><p>Governor <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Barbachano" title="Miguel Barbachano">Miguel Barbachano</a> of Yucatán sought allies, sending representatives to <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> to seek Spanish help, to <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a> to gain aid from the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, and to the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, but none of these foreign powers would intervene. In the United States, the situation in the Yucatán was debated in Congress, but there was no will to fight.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequently, Barbachano turned to <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a> and accepted a return to Mexican authority. Yucatán was officially reunited with Mexico on 17 August 1848. Yucateco forces rallied, aided by guns, money, and troops from Mexico City, and pushed back the Maya from more than half of the state. </p><p>By 1850, the Maya occupied two distinct regions in the southeast. In the decade that followed, a stalemate developed, with the Yucatecan government in control of the northwest, and the Maya in control of the southeast, with a sparsely populated jungle frontier in between. In 1850, the Maya of the southeast were inspired to continue the struggle by the apparition of the "Talking Cross". This apparition, believed to be a way in which God communicated with the Maya, dictated that the war continue. Chan Santa Cruz (Small Holy Cross) became the religious and political center of the Maya resistance, and the rebellion became infused with religious meaning. The largest of the independent Maya states was named Chan Santa Cruz, as was its capital city (now named <a href="/wiki/Felipe_Carrillo_Puerto,_Quintana_Roo" title="Felipe Carrillo Puerto, Quintana Roo">Felipe Carrillo Puerto</a> in Quintana Roo). The followers of the Cross were known as the <i>Cruzo</i>. </p><p>The government of Yucatán first declared war over in 1855, but regular skirmishes and occasional deadly major assaults continued by each side. The <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> recognized the Chan Santa Cruz Maya as a <i>de facto</i> independent nation, in part because of the major trade between Chan Santa Cruz and <a href="/wiki/British_Honduras" title="British Honduras">British Honduras</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a>). During the war, the Yucatán government sold Maya prisoners into slavery, and the Peninsula became a platform for the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Cuban slave trade</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mayan_independence">Mayan independence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_War_of_Yucat%C3%A1n&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mayan independence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Chan Santa Cruz state, stretching from north of <a href="/wiki/Tulum" title="Tulum">Tulum</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a> border and a considerable distance inland, was the largest of the independent Maya communities of the era but not the only one. José María Echeverría, a sergeant in the army taken captive by the Maya, resided in the town in 1851–1853. He reported later that it had about 200 Maya and 200 whites, all well-armed and apparently fighting together. The whites were under their commander, "a man of reddish complexion". They also had several outlying communities under their control; one contained about 100 people and the others unknown numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1858, an English visitor thought the Maya had 1,500 fighting men in all. He noted that they took the Santa Cruz with them and that its priests were prominent in the society.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Ixcanha Maya community had a population of some 1,000 people, who refused the Cruzob's break with traditional <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Catholicism</a>. In the years of stalemate, Ixcanha agreed to nominal recognition of the government of Mexico in exchange for some guns to defend themselves from Cruzob raids and the promise that the Mexican government would otherwise leave them alone. Mexico City gave Ixcanha autonomy to govern itself through 1894 (following a treaty with the United Kingdom that recognized Mexico's rule over the Yucatán), as it was more worried about the Chan Santa Cruz. </p><p>Another important group were the Icaiche Maya, who dominated the jungles of the lower center of the peninsula. In the 1860s under their leader Marcus Canul, they battled against the Mexicans, the Cruzob, and the British from the nearby settlement of <a href="/wiki/British_Honduras" title="British Honduras">British Honduras</a>. Marcus Canul and the Icaiche Maya routed a detachment of British troops on 21 December 1866, at the Battle of San Pedro Yalbac. In 1867, the British mounted a counter-offensive, equipped with newly arrived <a href="/wiki/Congreve_rocket" title="Congreve rocket">Congreve rockets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Church_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Church-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This counter-offensive burned down the villages of San Pedro, Santa Teresa, San José, Naranjal, Cerro, Santa Cruz, and Chunbalche.<sup id="cite_ref-Jones78_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones78-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Maya briefly took <a href="/wiki/Corozal_Town" title="Corozal Town">Corozal Town</a> in 1870 and their last major attack was on 1 September 1872, when Canul was mortally wounded at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Orange_Walk" title="Battle of Orange Walk">Battle of Orange Walk</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bosquesitiado_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bosquesitiado-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new Icaiche leaders promised friendship with the British. They soon agreed with the Mexican central government similar to that of the Ixcanha. Years after, the Belize Estate and Produce Company (BEC) began a series of campaigns to forcibly remove Maya from the Yalbac area. </p><p>Negotiations in 1883 led to a treaty signed on 11 January 1884, in <a href="/wiki/Belize_City" title="Belize City">Belize City</a> by a Chan Santa Cruz general and the Vice-Governor of Yucatán. It recognized Mexican sovereignty over Chan Santa Cruz in exchange for Mexican recognition of Chan Santa Cruz leader <a href="/wiki/Crescencio_Poot" title="Crescencio Poot">Crescencio Poot</a> as Governor of the State of Chan Santa Cruz. The following year a <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a> took place in Chan Santa Cruz, and the government declared the treaty cancelled. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="20th_century_and_the_end_of_the_war">20th century and the end of the war</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_War_of_Yucat%C3%A1n&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 20th century and the end of the war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Views_on_and_of_Yucatan_-_A_typical_field_of_henequen_(cropped_1911).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Views_on_and_of_Yucatan_-_A_typical_field_of_henequen_%28cropped_1911%29.jpg/250px-Views_on_and_of_Yucatan_-_A_typical_field_of_henequen_%28cropped_1911%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Views_on_and_of_Yucatan_-_A_typical_field_of_henequen_%28cropped_1911%29.jpg/375px-Views_on_and_of_Yucatan_-_A_typical_field_of_henequen_%28cropped_1911%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Views_on_and_of_Yucatan_-_A_typical_field_of_henequen_%28cropped_1911%29.jpg/500px-Views_on_and_of_Yucatan_-_A_typical_field_of_henequen_%28cropped_1911%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="977" data-file-height="673" /></a><figcaption>An early 20th century henequen field in Yucatán</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1893, the United Kingdom maintained good relations with Mexico's <a href="/wiki/Porfirio_D%C3%ADaz" title="Porfirio Díaz">Porfirio Díaz</a> administration, and British investment in Mexico had become of much greater economic importance than the trade between the Cruzob and Belize.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The UK signed a treaty with Mexico recognizing Mexican sovereignty over the region, formalizing the border between Mexico and British Honduras, and closing their colony's border to trade with the Chan Santa Cruz "rebels". As Belize merchants were Chan Santa Cruz's main source of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a> and guns, this was a serious blow for the independent Maya. </p><p>In previous decades, the Mexican Army had twice managed to fight its way to the town of Chan Santa Cruz but was driven back both times. In 1901, Mexican general Ignacio Bravo led his troops to the town to stay, occupying it with a large force. Over the next few years, he subdued surrounding villages. Bravo telegraphed the news that the war was over on May 5, 1901. While this is the date most frequently given for the end of the war, fighting continued, although on a smaller scale. On 13 December 1901, the material for building the <a href="/wiki/Decauville_railway_Vig%C3%ADa_Chico-Santa_Cruz" title="Decauville railway Vigía Chico-Santa Cruz">Decauville railway Vigía Chico-Santa Cruz</a> was ordered in <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a>. It was officially opened on 4 September 1905. </p><p>With their capital lost, the Cruzob split into smaller groups, often hiding in small hamlets in the jungle. Their numbers were seriously reduced by deaths from epidemics of <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, endemic diseases carried by General Bravo's troops. Inspired by the persistent Talking Cross sect, the Maya of Chan Santa Cruz remained actively hostile to the Mexican government well into the twentieth century. For many years, any non-Maya who entered the jungles of what is now the Mexican state of <a href="/wiki/Quintana_Roo" title="Quintana Roo">Quintana Roo</a> was at risk of being killed outright. The combination of new economic factors, such as the entry of the <a href="/wiki/Wrigley_Company" title="Wrigley Company">Wrigley Company</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Chicle" title="Chicle">chicle</a> hunters into the region, and the political and social changes resulting from the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican Revolution</a>, eventually reduced the hatred and hostility. In one form or another, war and armed struggle had continued for more than 50 years, and an estimated 40,000–50,000 people died in the hostilities. </p><p>The war was officially declared over for the final time in September 1915 by General <a href="/wiki/Salvador_Alvarado" title="Salvador Alvarado">Salvador Alvarado</a>. Alvarado, sent by the revolutionary government in Mexico City to restore order in Yucatán, became governor of the state and implemented reforms that mitigated grievances that had caused the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the war had been declared over many times before in previous decades, records show that the last time the Mexican army considered it necessary to take by force an area village that had never recognized Mexican law was in April 1933. Five Maya and two Mexican soldiers died in the battle for the village of Dzula, which was the last skirmish of a conflict lasting more than 85 years.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_developments">Later developments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_War_of_Yucat%C3%A1n&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Later developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chiapas_conflict" title="Chiapas conflict">Chiapas conflict</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monumento_a_los_H%C3%A9roes_de_la_Guerra_de_Castas,_M%C3%A9rida,_Yucat%C3%A1n_(01).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Monumento_a_los_H%C3%A9roes_de_la_Guerra_de_Castas%2C_M%C3%A9rida%2C_Yucat%C3%A1n_%2801%29.jpg/250px-Monumento_a_los_H%C3%A9roes_de_la_Guerra_de_Castas%2C_M%C3%A9rida%2C_Yucat%C3%A1n_%2801%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Monumento_a_los_H%C3%A9roes_de_la_Guerra_de_Castas%2C_M%C3%A9rida%2C_Yucat%C3%A1n_%2801%29.jpg/375px-Monumento_a_los_H%C3%A9roes_de_la_Guerra_de_Castas%2C_M%C3%A9rida%2C_Yucat%C3%A1n_%2801%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Monumento_a_los_H%C3%A9roes_de_la_Guerra_de_Castas%2C_M%C3%A9rida%2C_Yucat%C3%A1n_%2801%29.jpg/500px-Monumento_a_los_H%C3%A9roes_de_la_Guerra_de_Castas%2C_M%C3%A9rida%2C_Yucat%C3%A1n_%2801%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Monument erected in 1883 in Eulogio Rosado Park to the heroes of the Caste War</figcaption></figure> <p>Since the late 20th century, a similar conflict has existed in the Mexican state of <a href="/wiki/Chiapas" title="Chiapas">Chiapas</a>, in the southern part of the country, in which indigenous people have declared war on the Mexican government. The Mayan <a href="/wiki/Zapatista_Army_of_National_Liberation" title="Zapatista Army of National Liberation">Zapatista Army (EZLN)</a> on January 1, 1994, the day when the <a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">North American Free Trade Agreement</a> (NAFTA) came into effect, issued its First Declaration from the <a href="/wiki/Lacandon_Jungle" title="Lacandon Jungle">Lacandon Jungle</a> and its Revolutionary Laws. The EZLN effectively declared war on the Mexican government, which it considered sufficiently out of touch with the will of the people to make it illegitimate. The EZLN stressed that it opted for armed struggle due to the lack of results achieved through peaceful means of protest (such as sit-ins and marches).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In September 2020, archaeologists from the <a href="/wiki/Instituto_Nacional_de_Antropolog%C3%ADa_e_Historia" title="Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia">Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia</a> (INAH) identified the remains of the ship <i>La Unión</i> as one that was used to carry Maya slaves from Yucatán to Cuba during the Caste War.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2021, the governments of Mexico and Guatemala apologized to the Mayan people for the repression and war of extermination carried out by both states in the almost 50 years that the war lasted. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_War_of_Yucat%C3%A1n&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Santa_Cruz" title="Chan Santa Cruz">Chan Santa Cruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Mexico-related_articles" title="Index of Mexico-related articles">Index of Mexico-related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justo_Sierra_O%27Reilly" title="Justo Sierra O'Reilly">Justo Sierra O'Reilly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">Indigenous land rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Mexico" title="List of wars involving Mexico">List of wars involving Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">Casta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapatista_Army_of_National_Liberation" title="Zapatista Army of National Liberation">Zapatista Army of National Liberation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_War_of_Yucat%C3%A1n&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gabbert, W. (2019). <i>Violence and the Caste War of Yucatán</i>. (Cambridge Latin American Studies) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Page 269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFArturo_Arias2018" class="citation book cs1">Arturo Arias (2018). <i>Recovering Lost Footprints, Volume 2: Contemporary Maya Narratives</i>. State University of New York Press. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1438472607" title="Special:BookSources/978-1438472607"><bdi>978-1438472607</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recovering+Lost+Footprints%2C+Volume+2%3A+Contemporary+Maya+Narratives&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1438472607&rft.au=Arturo+Arias&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+War+of+Yucat%C3%A1n" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReed2001" class="citation book cs1">Reed, Nelson A. (2001). <i>The Caste War of Yucatán</i> (Rev. ed.). Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4000-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4000-5"><bdi>978-0-8047-4000-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Caste+War+of+Yucat%C3%A1n&rft.place=Stanford%2C+Calif&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-4000-5&rft.aulast=Reed&rft.aufirst=Nelson+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+War+of+Yucat%C3%A1n" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://exhibits.lib.unc.edu/exhibits/show/maya/caste-war">"The Caste War · Ancient and Living Maya in the 19th and 20th Centuries: Archaeological Discovery, Literary Voice, and Political Struggle · UNC Libraries"</a>. <i>exhibits.lib.unc.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-08-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=exhibits.lib.unc.edu&rft.atitle=The+Caste+War+%C2%B7+Ancient+and+Living+Maya+in+the+19th+and+20th+Centuries%3A+Archaeological+Discovery%2C+Literary+Voice%2C+and+Political+Struggle+%C2%B7+UNC+Libraries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fexhibits.lib.unc.edu%2Fexhibits%2Fshow%2Fmaya%2Fcaste-war&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+War+of+Yucat%C3%A1n" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095553999">"Caste Wars"</a>. <i>Oxford Reference</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Reference&rft.atitle=Caste+Wars&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Foi%2Fauthority.20110803095553999&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+War+of+Yucat%C3%A1n" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199766581/obo-9780199766581-0039.xml">"The Caste War of Yucatán"</a>. <i>obo</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-08-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=obo&rft.atitle=The+Caste+War+of+Yucat%C3%A1n&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordbibliographies.com%2Fdisplay%2Fdocument%2Fobo-9780199766581%2Fobo-9780199766581-0039.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+War+of+Yucat%C3%A1n" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nichols, Christopher M. "Caste Wars." In <a href="/wiki/David_Carrasco" title="David Carrasco">Davíd Carrasco</a> (ed).<i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures</i>. Vol 1. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195188431" title="Special:BookSources/9780195188431">9780195188431</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195108156" title="Special:BookSources/9780195108156">9780195108156</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephens2017" class="citation cs2">Stephens, Michele McArdle (2017-07-27), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/latinamericanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.001.0001/acrefore-9780199366439-e-386">"Caste Wars in Yucatán"</a>, <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History</i>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199366439.013.386">10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.386</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-936643-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-936643-9"><bdi>978-0-19-936643-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-08-13</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caste+Wars+in+Yucat%C3%A1n&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Latin+American+History&rft.date=2017-07-27&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199366439.013.386&rft.isbn=978-0-19-936643-9&rft.aulast=Stephens&rft.aufirst=Michele+McArdle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Flatinamericanhistory%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199366439.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199366439-e-386&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+War+of+Yucat%C3%A1n" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nichols: "Caste Wars", 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195188431" title="Special:BookSources/9780195188431">9780195188431</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195108156" title="Special:BookSources/9780195108156">9780195108156</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yucatán_en_el_tiempo-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Yucatán_en_el_tiempo_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasares_G._Cantón,_RaúlDuch_Colell,_JuanAntochiw_Kolpa,_MichelZavala_Vallado,_Silvio1998" class="citation book cs1">Casares G. 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</li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartínez2004" class="citation journal cs1">Martínez, María Elena (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3491806">"The Black Blood of New Spain: Limpieza de Sangre, Racial Violence, and Gendered Power in Early Colonial Mexico"</a>. <i>The William and Mary Quarterly</i>. <b>61</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">479–</span>520. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3491806">10.2307/3491806</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-5597">0043-5597</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3491806">3491806</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+William+and+Mary+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Black+Blood+of+New+Spain%3A+Limpieza+de+Sangre%2C+Racial+Violence%2C+and+Gendered+Power+in+Early+Colonial+Mexico&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E479-%3C%2Fspan%3E520&rft.date=2004&rft.issn=0043-5597&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3491806%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3491806&rft.aulast=Mart%C3%ADnez&rft.aufirst=Mar%C3%ADa+Elena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3491806&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+War+of+Yucat%C3%A1n" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.juridicas.unam.mx/publica/librev/rev/nuant/cont/1/cnt/cnt3.pdf">Luis Barjau, El concepto casta y la Guerra en Yucatán, Investigaciones Jurídicas de la UNAM</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRugeley1995" class="citation journal cs1">Rugeley, Terry (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/483215">"The Maya Elites of Nineteenth-Century Yucatán"</a>. <i>Ethnohistory</i>. <b>42</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">477–</span>493. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F483215">10.2307/483215</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0014-1801">0014-1801</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/483215">483215</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnohistory&rft.atitle=The+Maya+Elites+of+Nineteenth-Century+Yucat%C3%A1n&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E477-%3C%2Fspan%3E493&rft.date=1995&rft.issn=0014-1801&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F483215%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F483215&rft.aulast=Rugeley&rft.aufirst=Terry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F483215&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+War+of+Yucat%C3%A1n" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexander2003" class="citation journal cs1">Alexander, Rani T. 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United States. Congress. Senate. April 29, 1848. Read, referred to the Committee on Foreign Relations, and ordered to be printed. [Washington, D.C.] 19 pages, 30th Congress, 1st session. Senate. Ex. Doc. No. 40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSerrano_Nájera2017" class="citation web cs1">Serrano Nájera, José Luis (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0538c4tt">"Interethnic Mayan and Afro-descendent Relations through War, Trade, and Slavery during the Mayan Caste Wars, 1848–1901"</a>. <i>UCLA Historical Journal</i>. 28(1)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-10-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UCLA+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=Interethnic+Mayan+and+Afro-descendent+Relations+through+War%2C+Trade%2C+and+Slavery+during+the+Mayan+Caste+Wars%2C+1848%E2%80%931901&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Serrano+N%C3%A1jera&rft.aufirst=Jos%C3%A9+Luis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F0538c4tt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+War+of+Yucat%C3%A1n" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Report of 8 November 1856", in Rugeley, <i>Maya Wars</i>, pp. 62–64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Anderson, 15 February 1858 in Rugeley, <i>Maya Wars,</i> p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Church-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Church_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChurchYaegerKray2019" class="citation book cs1">Church, Minette C.; Yaeger, Jason; Kray, Christine A. 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Cham, Switzerland: Springer. p. 92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319954257" title="Special:BookSources/9783319954257"><bdi>9783319954257</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Re-Centering+the+Narrative%3A+British+Colonial+Memory+and+the+San+Pedro+Maya&rft.btitle=Archaeologies+of+the+British+in+Latin+America&rft.place=Cham%2C+Switzerland&rft.series=Contributions+To+Global+Historical+Archaeology&rft.pages=92&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9783319954257&rft.aulast=Church&rft.aufirst=Minette+C.&rft.au=Yaeger%2C+Jason&rft.au=Kray%2C+Christine+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+War+of+Yucat%C3%A1n" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jones78-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jones78_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBolland1977" class="citation book cs1">Bolland, O. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">Sep 17,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=news.yahoo.com&rft.atitle=Mexico+identifies+submerged+wreck+of+Mayan+slave+ship&rft.aulast=STEVENSON&rft.aufirst=MARK&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.yahoo.com%2Fmexico-identifies-submerged-wreck-mayan-185906482.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACaste+War+of+Yucat%C3%A1n" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_War_of_Yucat%C3%A1n&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li>Alexander, Rani T. ed. (2004) <i>Yaxcabá and the caste war of Yucatán</i> University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.</li> <li>Bricker, Victoria. (1981) <i>The Indian Christ, the Indian King</i> University of Texas Press, Austin.</li> <li>Brannon, Jeffery and Joseph, Gilbert Michael. (1991) <i>Land, labor & capital in modern Yucatán: Essays in regional history and political economy</i> University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.</li> <li>Cline, Howard F. (1958) <i>Regionalism and Society in Yucatán, 1825–1847. Related Studies in Early Nineteenth Century Yucatecan Social History. Part 3</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</li> <li>Dumond, Don E. (1997) <i>The Machete and the Cross: Campesino Rebellion in Yucatan</i> University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Farriss" title="Nancy Farriss">Farriss, Nancy Marguerite</a>. (1984) <i>Maya society under colonial rule: The collective enterprise of survival</i> Princeton University Press, Princeton.</li> <li>Gabbert, Wolfgang. (2004) <i>Becoming Maya: Ethnicity and social inequality in Yucatán since 1500</i> University of Arizona Press, Tucson</li> <li>Joseph, Gilbert. (1985) "From Caste War to Class war: The Historiography of Modern Yucatán (c. 1750–1940)." <i>Hispanic American Historical Review</i> 65(1)111-34.</li> <li>Joseph, Gilbert. (1998) "The United States, Feuding Elites, and Rural Revolt in Yucatán, 1836–1915" in <i>Rural Revolt in Mexico: U.S. Intervention and the Domain of Subaltern Politics, expanded edition</i>. Durham: Duke University Press pp. 173–206.</li> <li>Patch, Robert. "Decolonization, the Agrarian Problem, and the Origins of the Caste War, 1812–1847." In Land, Labor, and Capital in Modern Yucatan, edited by J. T. Brannon and G. M. Joseph, pp. 51–82. Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1991. [Investigates the alienation of Indian lands and its causal role in the Caste Wars.]</li> <li>Reed, Nelson. (1964) <i>The Caste War of Yucatan</i> Stanford University Press, Palo Alto.</li> <li>Reina, Leticia. (1980) <i>Las rebeliones campesinas en México, 1819–1906</i> (in Spanish) Siglo Veintiuno Editores, Mexico City.</li> <li>Restall, Matthew. (1997) <i>The Maya world: Yucatec culture and society, 1550–1850</i> Stanford University Press, Palo Alto.</li> <li>Rugeley, Terry. (1996) <i>Yucatan's Maya Peasantry and the Origins of the Caste War</i> University of Texas Press, Austin.</li> <li>Rugeley, Terry. ed. (2001) <i>Maya Wars: Ethnographic Accounts from Nineteenth-Century Yucatan</i> University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.</li> <li>Sullivan, Paul. (2004) <i>Xuxub Must Die: The Lost Histories of a Murder on the Yucatan</i> University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh.</li> <li>Wells, Allen. (1996) <i>Summer of discontent, seasons of upheaval: Elite politics and rural insurgency in Yucatan, 1876–1915</i> Stanford University Press, 1996, Palo Alto.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caste_War_of_Yucat%C3%A1n&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030802142205/http://www.planeta.com/ecotravel/mexico/yucatan/tales/0303yucatan.html">Tales From The Yucatan: The Caste War of the Yucatan</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061016190749/http://www.planeta.com/ecotravel/mexico/yucatan/tales/0409castewar.html">The Caste War, the Church of the Speaking Cross, and the Cruzob Maya – by Jeanine Kitchel</a> ← Dead link</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.northernbelize.com/hist_caste.html">The Caste Wars of the Yucatan and Northern Belize</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051125204808/http://www.northernbelize.com/hist_caste.html">Archived</a> 2005-11-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mexicolesstraveled.com/talkingcross.htm">In Search of the Talking Cross of Chan Santa Cruz</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120327072249/http://mexicolesstraveled.com/talkingcross.htm">Archived</a> 2012-03-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output 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