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.ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2019)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Corn_vs_Ethanol_production.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Corn_vs_Ethanol_production.webp/300px-Corn_vs_Ethanol_production.webp.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Corn_vs_Ethanol_production.webp/450px-Corn_vs_Ethanol_production.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Corn_vs_Ethanol_production.webp/600px-Corn_vs_Ethanol_production.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="1588" data-file-height="406" /></a><figcaption>Corn vs Ethanol production in the United States <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Total corn production (<a href="/wiki/Bushel" title="Bushel">bushels</a>) (left)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Corn used for <a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel" title="Ethanol fuel">Ethanol fuel</a> (bushels) (left)</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Percent of corn used for Ethanol (right)</div> </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blender_fuels_pump_-_East_Lansing,_MI.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Blender_fuels_pump_-_East_Lansing%2C_MI.JPG/220px-Blender_fuels_pump_-_East_Lansing%2C_MI.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Blender_fuels_pump_-_East_Lansing%2C_MI.JPG/330px-Blender_fuels_pump_-_East_Lansing%2C_MI.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Blender_fuels_pump_-_East_Lansing%2C_MI.JPG/440px-Blender_fuels_pump_-_East_Lansing%2C_MI.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Blender fuels pump in 2012 selling the standard <a href="/wiki/Gasohol#E10_or_less" class="mw-redirect" title="Gasohol">E10</a> ethanol blend together with <a href="/wiki/Common_ethanol_fuel_mixtures#E15" title="Common ethanol fuel mixtures">E15</a>, E30 and <a href="/wiki/E85" title="E85">E85</a> in <a href="/wiki/East_Lansing,_Michigan" title="East Lansing, Michigan">East Lansing, Michigan</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fuel_ethanol_production_by_state_in_2016_(43142667775).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Fuel_ethanol_production_by_state_in_2016_%2843142667775%29.png/260px-Fuel_ethanol_production_by_state_in_2016_%2843142667775%29.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Fuel_ethanol_production_by_state_in_2016_%2843142667775%29.png/390px-Fuel_ethanol_production_by_state_in_2016_%2843142667775%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Fuel_ethanol_production_by_state_in_2016_%2843142667775%29.png/520px-Fuel_ethanol_production_by_state_in_2016_%2843142667775%29.png 2x" data-file-width="572" data-file-height="286" /></a><figcaption>Ethanol fuel production by state</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> became the world's largest producer of <a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel" title="Ethanol fuel">ethanol fuel</a> in 2005. The U.S. produced 15.8 billion <a href="/wiki/Gallon" title="Gallon">U.S. liquid gallons</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> fuel in 2019, and 13.9 billion <a href="/wiki/Gallon" title="Gallon">U.S. liquid gallons</a> (52.6 billion liters) in 2011,<a href="#cite_note-RFAOutlook2012-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Annual_Ethanol_Production-2">[2]</a> an increase from 13.2 billion <a href="/wiki/Gallon" title="Gallon">U.S. liquid gallons</a> (49.2 billion liters) in 2010, and up from 1.63 billion gallons in 2000.<a href="#cite_note-RFAProd2010-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> and U.S. production accounted for 87.1% of global production in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-RFAOutlook2012-1">[1]</a> In the U.S, ethanol fuel is mainly used as an <a href="/wiki/Oxygenate" title="Oxygenate">oxygenate</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Common_ethanol_fuel_mixtures#E10_or_less" title="Common ethanol fuel mixtures">low-level blends</a> up to 10 percent, and, increasingly, as <a href="/wiki/E85" title="E85">E85</a> fuel for <a href="/wiki/Flexible-fuel_vehicle" title="Flexible-fuel vehicle">flex-fuel vehicles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EthanolUse-4">[4]</a> The U.S. government subsidizes ethanol production.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> The ethanol market share in the U.S. gasoline supply grew by volume from just over 1 percent in 2000 to more than 3 percent in 2006 to 10 percent in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-RFAOutlook2012-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-RFA2011-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-USDA0410-8">[8]</a> Domestic production capacity increased fifteen times after 1990, from 900 million US gallons to 1.63 billion US gal in 2000, to 13.5 billion US gallons in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-RFA2011-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-RFA2E-9">[9]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Renewable_Fuels_Association" title="Renewable Fuels Association">Renewable Fuels Association</a> reported 209 ethanol distilleries in operation located in 29 states in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-RFAOutlook2012-1">[1]</a> By 2012 most cars on U.S. roads could run on blends of up to 10% ethanol(<a href="/wiki/Common_ethanol_fuel_mixtures#E10_or_less" title="Common ethanol fuel mixtures">E10</a>), and manufacturers had begun producing vehicles designed for much higher percentages. However, the fuel systems of cars, trucks, and motorcycles sold before the ethanol mandate may suffer substantial damage from the use of 10% ethanol blends. Flexible-fuel cars, trucks, and minivans use gasoline/ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline up to 85% ethanol (<a href="/wiki/Common_ethanol_fuel_mixtures#E85" title="Common ethanol fuel mixtures">E85</a>). By early 2013 there were around 11 million E85-capable vehicles on U.S. roads.<a href="#cite_note-FFV11m-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-E15-11">[11]</a> Regular use of E85 is low due to lack of fueling infrastructure, but is common in the <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EERE08-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-SusEthanol-13">[13]</a> In January 2011 the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Environmental Protection Agency">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA) granted a waiver to allow up to 15% of ethanol blended with gasoline (<a href="/wiki/Common_ethanol_fuel_mixtures#E15" title="Common ethanol fuel mixtures">E15</a>) to be sold only for cars and light pickup trucks with a <a href="/wiki/Model_year" title="Model year">model year</a> of 2001 or later. The EPA waiver authorizes, but does not require stations to offer E15. Like the limitations suffered by sales of E85, commercialization of E15 is constrained by the lack of infrastructure as most fuel stations do not have enough pumps to offer the new E15 blend, few existing pumps are certified to dispense E15, and no dedicated tanks are readily available to store E15.<a href="#cite_note-NYT1013-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-USAToday1013-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT012111-16">[16]</a> Historically most U.S. ethanol has come from <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">corn</a>, and the required electricity for many <a href="/wiki/Distillery" class="mw-redirect" title="Distillery">distilleries</a> came mainly from <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>. There is a debate about ethanol's <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a> and environmental impact.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The primary issues related to the large amount of <a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable land</a> required for crops and ethanol production's impact on <a href="/wiki/Food_vs._fuel" title="Food vs. fuel">grain supply</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels" title="Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels">indirect land use change</a> (ILUC) effects, as well as issues regarding its <a href="/wiki/Energy_returned_on_energy_invested" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy returned on energy invested">energy balance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_intensity" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon intensity">carbon intensity</a> considering its <a href="/wiki/Life_cycle_assessment" class="mw-redirect" title="Life cycle assessment">full life cycle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WorldBank-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-ARBproposal-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Oxfam-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fargione08-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Science08-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gasoline_with_less_than_10%25_83_MIA_12_2008.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Gasoline_with_less_than_10%25_83_MIA_12_2008.jpg/200px-Gasoline_with_less_than_10%25_83_MIA_12_2008.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Gasoline_with_less_than_10%25_83_MIA_12_2008.jpg/300px-Gasoline_with_less_than_10%25_83_MIA_12_2008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Gasoline_with_less_than_10%25_83_MIA_12_2008.jpg/400px-Gasoline_with_less_than_10%25_83_MIA_12_2008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Typical label at the gas pumps warning drivers of ethanol content up to 10%, used as oxygenate additive instead of <a href="/wiki/MTBE" class="mw-redirect" title="MTBE">MTBE</a>. <a href="/wiki/Miami" title="Miami">Miami</a>, <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>.</figcaption></figure> In 1826 <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morey" title="Samuel Morey">Samuel Morey</a> experimented with an <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal combustion">internal combustion</a> chemical mixture that used ethanol (combined with <a href="/wiki/Turpentine" title="Turpentine">turpentine</a> and ambient air then <a href="/wiki/Vaporized" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaporized">vaporized</a>) as <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuel</a>. At the time, his discovery was overlooked, mostly due to the success of <a href="/wiki/Steam_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam power">steam power</a>. Ethanol fuel received little attention until 1860 when <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Otto" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Otto">Nicholas Otto</a> began experimenting with <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engines</a>. In 1859, <a href="/wiki/Oil" title="Oil">oil</a> was found in <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, which decades later provided a new kind of fuel. Popular fuels in the U.S. before <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> were a purified form of spirits of turpentine called <a href="/wiki/Camphine" title="Camphine">camphene</a>, and a blend of turpentine and alcohol known as burning fluid.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The discovery of a ready supply of oil and Civil War taxation on burning fluid made <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a> a more popular fuel.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1896, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a> designed his first car, the "<a href="/wiki/Ford_Quadricycle" title="Ford Quadricycle">Quadricycle</a>" to run on pure ethanol.<a href="#cite_note-Ethanol-25">[25]</a> In 1908, the revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Ford_Model_T" title="Ford Model T">Ford Model T</a> was capable of running on <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethanol_(fuel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethanol (fuel)">ethanol</a> or a combination.<a href="#cite_note-Ethanol-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Ford continued to advocate for ethanol fuel even during the <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">prohibition</a>, but lower prices caused gasoline to prevail.<a href="#cite_note-Ethanol-25">[25]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:E10_warning_475_DC.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/E10_warning_475_DC.JPG/220px-E10_warning_475_DC.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/E10_warning_475_DC.JPG/330px-E10_warning_475_DC.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/E10_warning_475_DC.JPG/440px-E10_warning_475_DC.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Typical manufacture's warning placed in the fuel filler of U.S. vehicles regarding the capability of using up to E10, and warning against the use of blends between E20 and E85.</figcaption></figure> Gasoline containing up to 10% ethanol began a decades-long growth in the United States in the late 1970s. The demand for ethanol produced from <a href="/wiki/Field_corn" title="Field corn">field corn</a> was spurred by the discovery that <a href="/wiki/Methyl_tert-butyl_ether" title="Methyl tert-butyl ether">methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE)</a> was contaminating <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ethanol-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> MTBE's use as an oxygenate <a href="/wiki/Gasoline_additive" class="mw-redirect" title="Gasoline additive">additive</a> was widespread due to mandates in the <a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(1990)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clean Air Act (1990)">Clean Air Act</a> amendments of 1992 to reduce <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> emissions. MTBE in gasoline had been banned in almost 20 states by 2006. Suppliers were concerned about potential litigation and a 2005 court decision denying legal protection for MTBE.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] MTBE's fall from grace opened a new market for ethanol, its primary substitute.<a href="#cite_note-Ethanol-25">[25]</a> Corn prices at the time were around <a href="/wiki/US$" class="mw-redirect" title="US$">US$</a>2 a <a href="/wiki/Bushel" title="Bushel">bushel</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Farmers saw a new market and increased production. This demand shift took place at a time when <a href="/wiki/Oil_price_increases_since_2003" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil price increases since 2003">oil prices</a> were rising.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The steep growth in twenty-first century ethanol consumption was driven by federal legislation aimed to reduce oil consumption and <a href="/wiki/United_States_energy_independence" title="United States energy independence">enhance energy security</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Energy_Policy_Act_of_2005" title="Energy Policy Act of 2005">Energy Policy Act of 2005</a> required use of 7,500,000,000 US gal (2.8×1010 L) of renewable fuel by 2012, and the <a href="/wiki/Energy_Independence_and_Security_Act_of_2007" title="Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007">Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007</a> raised the standard, to 36,000,000,000 US gal (1.4×1011 L) of annual renewable fuel use by 2022. Of this requirement, 21,000,000,000 US gal (7.9×1010 L) had to be advanced <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuels</a>, defined as renewable fuels that reduce <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> by at least 50%.<a href="#cite_note-EIA2008-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-CBO2010-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-DoEBiomass-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recent_trends">Recent trends</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Recent trends">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:right; float:right; margin-left:10px"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;">U.S. fuel ethanol production and imports (2000–2011)<a href="#cite_note-RFAOutlook2012-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-RFA1B-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Annual_Ethanol_Production-2">[2]</a> (Millions of U.S. liquid gallons) </th></tr> <tr style="background:#cfc;"> <th>Year </th> <th>Production </th> <th>Imports </th> <th>Demand </th></tr> <tr> <td>2000</td> <td>1,630</td> <td>n/a</td> <td>n/a </td></tr> <tr> <td>2001</td> <td>1,770</td> <td>n/a</td> <td>n/a </td></tr> <tr> <td>2002</td> <td>2,130</td> <td>46</td> <td>2,085 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2003</td> <td>2,800</td> <td>61</td> <td>2,900 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2004</td> <td>3,400</td> <td>161</td> <td>3,530 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2005</td> <td>3,904</td> <td>135</td> <td>4,049 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2006</td> <td>4,855</td> <td>653</td> <td>5,377 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2007</td> <td>6,500</td> <td>450</td> <td>6,847 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2008</td> <td>9,000</td> <td>556</td> <td>9,637 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2009</td> <td>10,600</td> <td>193</td> <td>10,940 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2010</td> <td>13,298</td> <td>10</td> <td>13,184 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2011</td> <td>13,929</td> <td>160</td> <td>n/a(1) </td></tr> <tr> <td>2012 </td> <td>13,218 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2013 </td> <td>13,293 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2014 </td> <td>14,313 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2015 </td> <td>14,807 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2016 </td> <td>15,413 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2017 </td> <td>15,936 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2018 </td> <td>16,091 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2019 </td> <td>15,776 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="text-align:left;">Note: Demand figures includes stocks change and small exports in 2005. (1) Exports in 2011 reached a record 1,100 billion gal.<a href="#cite_note-RFAOutlook2012-1">[1]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;"><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethanol_production_and_imports_in_the_US.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Ethanol_production_and_imports_in_the_US.svg/250px-Ethanol_production_and_imports_in_the_US.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Ethanol_production_and_imports_in_the_US.svg/375px-Ethanol_production_and_imports_in_the_US.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Ethanol_production_and_imports_in_the_US.svg/500px-Ethanol_production_and_imports_in_the_US.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="392" data-file-height="322" /></a><figcaption>Graph of monthly production and net imports of fuel ethanol in the U.S. 1993–2012. Data from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/monthly/#renewable">EIA</a></figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> The world's top ethanol fuel producer in 2010 was the United States with 13.2 billion U.S. gallons (49.95 billion liters) representing 57.5% of global production, followed by Brazil with 6.92 billion U.S. gallons (26.19 billion liters), and together both countries accounted for 88% of the world production of 22.95 billion U.S. gallons (86.85 billion liters).<a href="#cite_note-RFAProd2010-3">[3]</a> By December 2010 the U.S. ethanol production industry consisted of 204 plants operating in 29 states,<a href="#cite_note-RFA2011-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-RFA2E-9">[9]</a> and 9 plants under construction or expansion, adding 560 million gallons of new capacity and bringing total U.S. installed capacity to 14.6 billion U.S. gallons (55.25 billion liters).<a href="#cite_note-RFA2E-9">[9]</a> At the end of 2010 over 90 percent of all gasoline sold in the U.S. was blended with ethanol.<a href="#cite_note-RFA2011-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Production">Production</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Production">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maryland_4958_DC_03_2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Maryland_4958_DC_03_2009.jpg/220px-Maryland_4958_DC_03_2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Maryland_4958_DC_03_2009.jpg/330px-Maryland_4958_DC_03_2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Maryland_4958_DC_03_2009.jpg/440px-Maryland_4958_DC_03_2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1636" data-file-height="1091" /></a><figcaption>Most of the ethanol consumed in the US is in the form of low blends with gasoline up to 10%. Shown a fuel pump in <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a> selling mandatory <a href="/wiki/Common_ethanol_fuel_mixtures#E10" title="Common ethanol fuel mixtures">E10</a>.</figcaption></figure> Beginning in late 2008 and early 2009, the industry came under financial stress due to that year's economic crisis. Motorists drove less and gasoline prices dropped sharply, while bank financing shrank.<a href="#cite_note-NYT0209-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-OilShop-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-E2T-35">[35]</a> As a result, some plants operated below capacity, several firms closed plants, others laid off staff, some firms went <a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">bankrupt</a>, plant projects were suspended and market prices declined.<a href="#cite_note-NYT0209-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-OilShop-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-E2T-35">[35]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Energy_Information_Administration" title="Energy Information Administration">Energy Information Administration</a> raised concerns that the industry would not meet the legislated targets.<a href="#cite_note-NYT0209-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> As of 2011, most of the U.S. car fleet was able to run on blends of up to 10% ethanol, and motor vehicle manufacturers produced vehicles designed to run on more concentrated blends. As of 2015, seven states – <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Washington_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington (U.S. state)">Washington</a> – required ethanol to be blended with gasoline in motor fuels.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> These states, particularly Minnesota, had more ethanol usage, and according to a source at Washington University, these states accumulated substantial environmental and economic benefits as a result.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Florida required ethanol blends as of the end of 2010,<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> but has since repealed it. Many cities had separate ethanol requirements due to non-attainment of federal air quality standards.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> In 2007, <a href="/wiki/Portland,_Oregon" title="Portland, Oregon">Portland, Oregon</a>, became the first U.S. city to require all gasoline sold within city limits to contain at least 10% ethanol.<a href="#cite_note-cleanedge.com-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Chicago has proposed the idea of mandating E15 in the city limits, while some area gas stations have already begun offering it.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Expanding ethanol (and <a href="/wiki/Biodiesel" title="Biodiesel">biodiesel</a>) industries provided jobs in plant construction, operations, and maintenance, mostly in rural communities. According to RFA the ethanol industry created almost 154,000 U.S. jobs in 2005, boosting household income by $5.7 billion. It also contributed about $3.5 billion in federal, state and local tax revenues.<a href="#cite_note-images1.americanprogress-45">[45]</a> The return on investment (ROI) to upgrade a service station to sell E15 is quick given today's markets. Given ethanol's discount to gasoline and the current value of RINs, retailers offering mid-level ethanol blends like E15 can quickly recoup their investments in infrastructure. Federal, state and local incentives and grant programs are available in most areas, and would further help reduce the cost of equipment and installation. E15 is a higher octane fuel, it is currently available in 29 states at retail fueling stations. E15 was approved for use in model year 2001 and newer cars, light-duty trucks, medium-duty passenger vehicles (SUVs), and all flex-fuel vehicles (FFVs) by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 2012.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="E85_vehicles">E85 vehicles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: E85 vehicles">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Flexible-fuel_vehicles_in_the_United_States" title="Flexible-fuel vehicles in the United States">Flexible-fuel vehicles in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Three_US_E85_flex_fuel_badges_Ford_GM_Chrysler_copy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Three_US_E85_flex_fuel_badges_Ford_GM_Chrysler_copy.jpg/220px-Three_US_E85_flex_fuel_badges_Ford_GM_Chrysler_copy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Three_US_E85_flex_fuel_badges_Ford_GM_Chrysler_copy.jpg/330px-Three_US_E85_flex_fuel_badges_Ford_GM_Chrysler_copy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Three_US_E85_flex_fuel_badges_Ford_GM_Chrysler_copy.jpg/440px-Three_US_E85_flex_fuel_badges_Ford_GM_Chrysler_copy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1969" data-file-height="1362" /></a><figcaption>Typical labeling used in the US to identifyE85 flexible-fuel vehicles. Top left: a small sticker in the back of the fuel filler door. Bottom left: the bright yellow gas cap used in newer models. E85 Flexfuel badging used in newer models from <a href="/wiki/Chrysler" title="Chrysler">Chrysler</a> (top right), <a href="/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company" title="Ford Motor Company">Ford</a> (middle right) and GM (bottom right).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:E85_fuel_pump_7562_DCA_09_2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/E85_fuel_pump_7562_DCA_09_2009.jpg/220px-E85_fuel_pump_7562_DCA_09_2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/E85_fuel_pump_7562_DCA_09_2009.jpg/330px-E85_fuel_pump_7562_DCA_09_2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/E85_fuel_pump_7562_DCA_09_2009.jpg/440px-E85_fuel_pump_7562_DCA_09_2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>E85 fuel dispenser at a regular gasoline station, <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company" title="Ford Motor Company">Ford</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chrysler" title="Chrysler">Chrysler</a>, and <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">GM</a> are among many automobile companies that sell flexible-fuel vehicles that can run blends ranging from pure gasoline to 85% ethanol (<a href="/wiki/E85" title="E85">E85</a>), and beginning in 2008 almost any type of automobile and <a href="/wiki/Light_duty_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Light duty vehicle">light duty vehicle</a> was available with the flex-fuel option, including <a href="/wiki/Sedan_(car)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedan (car)">sedans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Van" title="Van">vans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sport_utility_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Sport utility vehicle">SUVs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pickup_truck" title="Pickup truck">pickup trucks</a>. By early 2013, about 11 million E85 flex-fuel cars and light trucks were in operation,<a href="#cite_note-FFV11m-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-E15-11">[11]</a> though actual use of E85 fuel was limited, because the ethanol fueling infrastructure was limited.<a href="#cite_note-E85stat-46">[46]</a> As of 2005, 68% of American flex-fuel car owners were not aware they owned an E85 flex.<a href="#cite_note-EERE08-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-SusEthanol-13">[13]</a> Flex and non-flex vehicles looked the same. There was no price difference. American automakers did not label these vehicles.<a href="#cite_note-SusEthanol-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Apollo-47">[47]</a> In contrast, all Brazilian automakers clearly labeled <a href="/wiki/Flexible-fuel_vehicles_in_Brazil" title="Flexible-fuel vehicles in Brazil">FFVs</a> with text that was some variant of the word Flex. Beginning in 2007 many new FFV models in the US featured a yellow gas cap to remind drivers of the E85 capabilities.<a href="#cite_note-NHTSA-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-YellowCap-49">[49]</a> As of 2008, GM badged its vehicles with the text "Flexfuel/E85 Ethanol".<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Nevertheless, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Energy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Energy">U.S. Department of Energy</a> (DOE) estimated that in 2009 only 504,297 flex-fuel vehicles were regularly fueled with E85, and these were primarily fleet-operated vehicles.<a href="#cite_note-USeDataBook-52">[52]</a> As a result, only 712 million gallons were used for E85, representing just 1% of that year's ethanol consumption.<a href="#cite_note-USeDataBook2-53">[53]</a> During the decade following 2000, E85 vehicles became increasingly common in the <a href="/wiki/Midwest" class="mw-redirect" title="Midwest">Midwest</a>, where corn was a major <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">crop</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Fueling infrastructure has been a major restriction hampering E85 sales.<a href="#cite_note-E85stat-46">[46]</a> As of March 2013<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit">[update]</a>, there were 3,028 fueling stations selling E85 in the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-E85prices-54">[54]</a> Most stations were in the <a href="/wiki/Corn_Belt" title="Corn Belt">Corn Belt</a> states. As of 2008 the leading state was Minnesota with 353 stations, followed by <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> with 181, and <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a> with 114. About another 200 stations that dispensed ethanol were restricted to city, state and federal government vehicles.<a href="#cite_note-E85stat-46">[46]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chevrolet_Impala_FlexFuel_34_MIA_12_2008_with_logo.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="E85 flexfuel Chevrolet Impala LT 2009."><img alt="E85 flexfuel Chevrolet Impala LT 2009." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Chevrolet_Impala_FlexFuel_34_MIA_12_2008_with_logo.jpg/120px-Chevrolet_Impala_FlexFuel_34_MIA_12_2008_with_logo.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Chevrolet_Impala_FlexFuel_34_MIA_12_2008_with_logo.jpg/180px-Chevrolet_Impala_FlexFuel_34_MIA_12_2008_with_logo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Chevrolet_Impala_FlexFuel_34_MIA_12_2008_with_logo.jpg/240px-Chevrolet_Impala_FlexFuel_34_MIA_12_2008_with_logo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1181" data-file-height="787" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">E85 <a href="/wiki/Flexfuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Flexfuel">flexfuel</a> <a href="/wiki/Chevrolet_Impala" title="Chevrolet Impala">Chevrolet Impala</a> LT 2009.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chevrolet_HRR_FlexFuel_70_MIA_12_2008_with_logo.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="E85 flexfuel Chevrolet HHR"><img alt="E85 flexfuel Chevrolet HHR" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Chevrolet_HRR_FlexFuel_70_MIA_12_2008_with_logo.jpg/120px-Chevrolet_HRR_FlexFuel_70_MIA_12_2008_with_logo.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Chevrolet_HRR_FlexFuel_70_MIA_12_2008_with_logo.jpg/180px-Chevrolet_HRR_FlexFuel_70_MIA_12_2008_with_logo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Chevrolet_HRR_FlexFuel_70_MIA_12_2008_with_logo.jpg/240px-Chevrolet_HRR_FlexFuel_70_MIA_12_2008_with_logo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1476" data-file-height="984" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">E85 <a href="/wiki/Flexfuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Flexfuel">flexfuel</a> <a href="/wiki/Chevrolet_HHR" title="Chevrolet HHR">Chevrolet HHR</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Van_Ford_E-250_Flex_Fuel_DCA_7547.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="E85 flexfuel Ford E-250."><img alt="E85 flexfuel Ford E-250." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Van_Ford_E-250_Flex_Fuel_DCA_7547.jpg/120px-Van_Ford_E-250_Flex_Fuel_DCA_7547.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Van_Ford_E-250_Flex_Fuel_DCA_7547.jpg/180px-Van_Ford_E-250_Flex_Fuel_DCA_7547.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Van_Ford_E-250_Flex_Fuel_DCA_7547.jpg/240px-Van_Ford_E-250_Flex_Fuel_DCA_7547.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">E85 flexfuel <a href="/wiki/Ford_E-Series" title="Ford E-Series">Ford E-250</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ford_Escape_Flex_7893_VA_11_09_with_badge.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="E85 flexfuel Ford Escape"><img alt="E85 flexfuel Ford Escape" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Ford_Escape_Flex_7893_VA_11_09_with_badge.jpg/120px-Ford_Escape_Flex_7893_VA_11_09_with_badge.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Ford_Escape_Flex_7893_VA_11_09_with_badge.jpg/180px-Ford_Escape_Flex_7893_VA_11_09_with_badge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Ford_Escape_Flex_7893_VA_11_09_with_badge.jpg/240px-Ford_Escape_Flex_7893_VA_11_09_with_badge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">E85 <a href="/wiki/Flexfuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Flexfuel">flexfuel</a> <a href="/wiki/Ford_Escape" title="Ford Escape">Ford Escape</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="E15_blend">E15 blend</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: E15 blend">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:E15_warning_sticker.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/E15_warning_sticker.JPG/220px-E15_warning_sticker.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/E15_warning_sticker.JPG/330px-E15_warning_sticker.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/E15_warning_sticker.JPG/440px-E15_warning_sticker.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1212" data-file-height="1157" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Common_ethanol_fuel_mixtures#E15" title="Common ethanol fuel mixtures">E15</a> warning sticker required to be displayed in all fuel dispensers selling that blend in the U.S.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2012_Camry_fuel_filler_cap_04_2014_141619.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/2012_Camry_fuel_filler_cap_04_2014_141619.jpg/220px-2012_Camry_fuel_filler_cap_04_2014_141619.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/2012_Camry_fuel_filler_cap_04_2014_141619.jpg/330px-2012_Camry_fuel_filler_cap_04_2014_141619.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/2012_Camry_fuel_filler_cap_04_2014_141619.jpg/440px-2012_Camry_fuel_filler_cap_04_2014_141619.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>2012 <a href="/wiki/Toyota_Camry_(XV50)#Camry_Hybrid" title="Toyota Camry (XV50)">Toyota Camry Hybrid</a> fuel filler cap showing a warning regarding the maximum ethanol blend allowed by the carmaker, up to E10 gasoline. The warning label indicates that ethanol blends between E15 to E85 shall not be used in this vehicle.</figcaption></figure> In March 2009 Growth Energy, a lobbying group for the ethanol industry, formally requested the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Environmental Protection Agency">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA) to allow the ethanol content in gasoline to be increased to 15%, from 10%.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> In October 2010, the EPA granted a waiver to allow up to 15% blends to be sold for cars and trucks with a model year of 2007 or later, representing about 15% of vehicles on the roads.<a href="#cite_note-NYT1013-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-USAToday1013-15">[15]</a> In January 2011 the waiver was expanded to authorize use of E15 to include model year 2001 through 2006 passenger vehicles. The EPA also decided not to grant any waiver for E15 use in any motorcycles, heavy-duty vehicles, or non-road engines because current testing data does not support such a waiver. According to the <a href="/wiki/Renewable_Fuels_Association" title="Renewable Fuels Association">Renewable Fuels Association</a> the E15 waivers now cover 62% of vehicles on the road in the country.<a href="#cite_note-NYT012111-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> In December 2010 several groups, including the <a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Automobile_Manufacturers" title="Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers">Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Petroleum_Institute" title="American Petroleum Institute">American Petroleum Institute</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Association_of_International_Automobile_Manufacturers" class="mw-redirect" title="Association of International Automobile Manufacturers">Association of International Automobile Manufacturers</a>, the National Marine Manufacturers Association, the Outdoor Power Equipment Institute, and the <a href="/wiki/Grocery_Manufacturers_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Grocery Manufacturers Association">Grocery Manufacturers Association</a>, filed suit against the EPA.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> In August 2012 the federal appeals court rejected the suit against the EPA ruling that the groups did not have legal standing to challenge EPA's decision to issue the waiver for E15.<a href="#cite_note-DTNews0812-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> In June 2013 the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a> declined to hear an appeal from industry groups opposed to the EPA ruling about E15 and let the 2012 federal appeals court ruling stand.<a href="#cite_note-DT062013-60">[60]</a> According to a survey conducted by the <a href="/wiki/American_Automobile_Association" title="American Automobile Association">American Automobile Association</a> (AAA) in 2012, only about 12 million out of the more than 240 million light-duty vehicles on the U.S. roads in 2012 are approved by manufacturers are fully compliant with E15 gasoline. According with the Association, <a href="/wiki/BMW" title="BMW">BMW</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chrysler" title="Chrysler">Chrysler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nissan" title="Nissan">Nissan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toyota" title="Toyota">Toyota</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Volkswagen" title="Volkswagen">Volkswagen</a> warned that their warranties will not cover E15-related damage.<a href="#cite_note-AAAE15-61">[61]</a> Despite the controversy, in order to adjust to EPA regulations, 2012 and 2013 <a href="/wiki/Model_year" title="Model year">model year</a> vehicles manufactured by <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a> can use fuel containing up to 15 percent ethanol, as indicated in the vehicle owners' manuals. However, the carmaker warned that for model year 2011 or earlier vehicles, they "strongly recommend that GM customers refer to their owners manuals for the proper fuel designation for their vehicles." <a href="/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company" title="Ford Motor Company">Ford Motor Company</a> also is manufacturing all of its 2013 vehicles E15 compatible, including <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_electric" class="mw-redirect" title="Hybrid electric">hybrid electrics</a> and vehicles with <a href="/wiki/Ford_EcoBoost_engine" title="Ford EcoBoost engine">Ecoboost engines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-E15-11">[11]</a> Also <a href="/wiki/Porsche" title="Porsche">Porsches</a> built since 2001 are approved by its manufacturer to use E15.<a href="#cite_note-AAAE15-61">[61]</a> Volkswagen announced that for the 2014 model year, its entire lineup will be E15 capable.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fiat_Chrysler_Automobiles" title="Fiat Chrysler Automobiles">Fiat Chrysler Automobiles</a> announced in August 2015 that all 2016 model year <a href="/wiki/Chrysler_(division)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysler (division)">Chrysler</a>/<a href="/wiki/Fiat_Automobiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiat Automobiles">Fiat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jeep" title="Jeep">Jeep</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dodge" title="Dodge">Dodge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ram_Trucks" title="Ram Trucks">Ram</a> vehicles will be E15 compatible.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Despite EPA's waiver, there is a practical barrier to the commercialization of the higher blend due to the lack of infrastructure, similar to the limitations suffered by sales of <a href="/wiki/E85" title="E85">E85</a>, as most fuel stations do not have enough pumps to offer the new blend, few existing pumps are certified to dispense E15, and there are no dedicated tanks readily available to store E15.<a href="#cite_note-NYT1013-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-USAToday1013-15">[15]</a> In July 2012 a fueling station in <a href="/wiki/Lawrence,_Kansas" title="Lawrence, Kansas">Lawrence, Kansas</a> became the first in the U.S. to sell the E15 blend. The fuel is sold through a blender pump that allows customers to choose between E10, E15, E30 or E85, with the latter blends sold only to <a href="/wiki/Flexible-fuel_vehicle" title="Flexible-fuel vehicle">flexible-fuel vehicles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> This station was followed by a Marathon fueling station in <a href="/wiki/East_Lansing,_Michigan" title="East Lansing, Michigan">East Lansing, Michigan</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] As of June 2013<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit">[update]</a>, there are about 24 fueling stations selling E15 out of 180,000 stations operating across the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-DT062013-60">[60]</a> As of November 2012<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit">[update]</a>, sales of E15 are not authorized in California, and according to the <a href="/wiki/California_Air_Resources_Board" title="California Air Resources Board">California Air Resources Board</a> (CARB), the blend is still awaiting approval, and in a public statement the agency said that "it would take several years to complete the vehicle testing and rule development necessary to introduce a new transportation fuel into California's market."<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legislation_and_regulations">Legislation and regulations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Legislation and regulations">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Trump_in_Iowa_(48051796596).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/President_Trump_in_Iowa_%2848051796596%29.jpg/220px-President_Trump_in_Iowa_%2848051796596%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/President_Trump_in_Iowa_%2848051796596%29.jpg/330px-President_Trump_in_Iowa_%2848051796596%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/President_Trump_in_Iowa_%2848051796596%29.jpg/440px-President_Trump_in_Iowa_%2848051796596%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>US President <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> signs a 2019 executive order permitting the sale of 15% ethanol fuel year-round</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Energy_Independence_and_Security_Act_of_2007" title="Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007">Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007</a>, directed DOE to assess the feasibility of using intermediate <a href="/wiki/Gasohol" class="mw-redirect" title="Gasohol">ethanol blends</a> in the existing vehicle fleet.<a href="#cite_note-NRELE15E20-66">[66]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory" title="National Renewable Energy Laboratory">National Renewable Energy Laboratory</a> (NREL) evaluated the potential impacts on legacy vehicles and other engines.<a href="#cite_note-NRELE15E20-66">[66]</a> In a preliminary report released in October 2008, NREL described the effects of E10, E15 and <a href="/wiki/Common_ethanol_fuel_mixtures#E20,_E25" title="Common ethanol fuel mixtures">E20</a> on tailpipe and evaporative emissions, catalyst and engine durability, vehicle driveability, engine operability, and vehicle and engine materials.<a href="#cite_note-NRELE15E20-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-GreenCarE15-67">[67]</a> This preliminary report found that none of the vehicles displayed a malfunction indicator light; no fuel filter plugging symptoms were observed; no cold start problems were observed at 24 <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">°C</a> (75 <a href="/wiki/Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">°F</a>) and 10 °C (50 °F) under laboratory conditions; and all test vehicles exhibited a loss in fuel economy proportional to ethanol's lower energy density. For example, E20 reduced average fuel economy by 7.7% when compared to gas-only (E0) test vehicles.<a href="#cite_note-NRELE15E20-66">[66]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Obama_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Obama Administration">Obama Administration</a> set the goal of installing 10,000 blender pumps nationwide by 2015. These pumps can dispense multiple blends including E85, E50, E30 and E20 that can be used by E85 vehicles. The <a href="/wiki/US_Department_of_Agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="US Department of Agriculture">US Department of Agriculture</a> (USDA) issued a rule in May 2011 to include flexible fuel pumps in the <a href="/wiki/Rural_Energy_for_America_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Rural Energy for America Program">Rural Energy for America Program</a> (REAP). This ruling provided financial assistance, via grants and loan guarantees, to fuel station owners to install E85 and blender pumps.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> In May 2011 the <a href="/wiki/Open_Fuel_Standard_Act_of_2011" title="Open Fuel Standard Act of 2011">Open Fuel Standard Act</a> (OFS) was introduced to Congress with bipartisan support. The bill required that 50 percent of automobiles made in 2014, 80 percent in 2016, and 95 percent in 2017, be manufactured and warrantied to operate on non-petroleum-based fuels, which included existing technologies such as flex-fuel, <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas_vehicle" title="Natural gas vehicle">natural gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_vehicle" title="Hydrogen vehicle">hydrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biodiesel" title="Biodiesel">biodiesel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plug-in_electric_vehicle" title="Plug-in electric vehicle">plug-in electric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell_vehicle" title="Fuel cell vehicle">fuel cell</a>. Considering the rapid adoption of <a href="/wiki/Flexible-fuel_vehicles_in_Brazil" title="Flexible-fuel vehicles in Brazil">flexible-fuel vehicles in Brazil</a> and the fact that the cost of making flex-fuel vehicles was approximately $100 per car, the bill's primary objective was to promote a massive adoption of flex-fuel vehicles capable of running on ethanol or <a href="/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol">methanol</a> fuel.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> In November 2013, the Environmental Protection Agency opened for public comment its proposal to reduce the amount of ethanol required in the US gasoline supply as mandated by the <a href="/wiki/Energy_Independence_and_Security_Act_of_2007" title="Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007">Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007</a>. The agency cited problems with increasing the blend of ethanol above 10%. This limit, known as the "blend wall", refers to the practical difficulty in incorporating increasing amounts of ethanol into the transportation fuel supply at volumes exceeding those achieved by the sale of nearly all gasoline as E10.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contractual_restrictions">Contractual restrictions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Contractual restrictions">edit</a>]</div> Gasoline distribution contracts in the United States generally have provisions that make offering E15 and E85 difficult, expensive, or even impossible. Such provisions include requirements that no E85 be sold under the gas station canopy, labeling requirements, minimum sales volumes, and exclusivity provisions. Penalties for breach are severe and often allow immediate termination of the agreement, cutting off supplies to retailers. Repayment of franchise royalties and other incentives is often required.<a href="#cite_note-farmer-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Energy_security">Energy security</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Energy security">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethanol_plant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Ethanol_plant.jpg/220px-Ethanol_plant.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Ethanol_plant.jpg/330px-Ethanol_plant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Ethanol_plant.jpg/440px-Ethanol_plant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2485" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption>Ethanol fuel plant in <a href="/wiki/West_Burlington,_Iowa" title="West Burlington, Iowa">West Burlington, Iowa</a>.</figcaption></figure> One rationale for ethanol production in the U.S. is increased <a href="/wiki/Energy_security" title="Energy security">energy security</a>, from shifting supply from oil imports to domestic sources.<a href="#cite_note-CBO2010-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Ethanol production requires significant energy, and current U.S. production derives most of that energy from domestic coal, natural gas and other non-oil sources.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Because in 2006, 66% of U.S. oil consumption was imported, compared to a net surplus of coal and just 16% of natural gas (2006 figures),<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> the displacement of oil-based fuels to ethanol produced a net shift from foreign to domestic U.S. energy sources.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effect_on_gasoline_prices">Effect on gasoline prices</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Effect on gasoline prices">edit</a>]</div> The effect of ethanol use on gasoline prices is the source of conflicting opinion from economic studies, further complicated by the non-market forces of tax credits, met and unmet government quotas, and the dramatic recent increase in domestic oil production.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> According to a 2012 <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> analysis, ethanol, and biofuel in general, does not materially influence the price of gasoline,<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> while a runup in the price of government mandated <a href="/wiki/Renewable_Identification_Number" title="Renewable Identification Number">Renewable Identification Number</a> credits has driven up the price of gasoline.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> These are in contrast to a May 2012, Center for Agricultural and Rural Development study which showed a $0.29 to $1.09 reduction in per gallon gasoline price from ethanol use.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> The U.S. consumed 138.2×10<s style="display:none">^</s>9 US gal (523×10<s style="display:none">^</s>6 m3) of gasoline in 2008, blended with about 9.6×10<s style="display:none">^</s>9 US gal (36×10<s style="display:none">^</s>6 m3) of ethanol, representing a <a href="/wiki/Market_share" title="Market share">market share</a> of almost 7% of supply by volume. Given its lower <a href="/wiki/Energy_content_of_biofuel" title="Energy content of biofuel">energy content</a>, ethanol fuel displaced about 6.4×10<s style="display:none">^</s>9 US gal (24×10<s style="display:none">^</s>6 m3) of gasoline, representing 4.6 percent in <a href="/wiki/Barrel_of_oil_equivalent" title="Barrel of oil equivalent">equivalent energy units</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EIA2008-29">[29]</a> The EPA announced in November 2013, a reduction in mandated U.S. 2014 ethanol production, due to "market conditions".<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tariffs_and_tax_credits">Tariffs and tax credits</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Tariffs and tax credits">edit</a>]</div> Since the 1980s until 2011, domestic ethanol producers were protected by a 54-cent per gallon import <a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">tariff</a>, mainly intended to curb Brazilian <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane_ethanol" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugarcane ethanol">sugarcane ethanol</a> imports. Beginning in 2004 blenders of transportation fuel received a <a href="/wiki/Tax_credit" title="Tax credit">tax credit</a> for each gallon of ethanol they mix with gasoline.<a href="#cite_note-Economist062311-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT061711-86">[86]</a> Historically, the tariff was intended to offset the federal tax credit that applied to ethanol regardless of country of origin.<a href="#cite_note-NYT100406-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tariff54c-88">[88]</a> Several countries in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Basin" title="Caribbean Basin">Caribbean Basin</a> imported and reprocessed Brazilian ethanol, usually converting <a href="/wiki/Hydrous" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrous">hydrated</a> ethanol into <a href="/wiki/Anhydrous" title="Anhydrous">anhydrous</a> ethanol, for re-export to the United States. They avoided the 2.5% duty and the tariff, thanks to the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Basin_Initiative" title="Caribbean Basin Initiative">Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Free_trade_agreement" title="Free trade agreement">free trade agreements</a>. This process was limited to 7% of U.S. ethanol consumption.<a href="#cite_note-CBI-89">[89]</a> As of 2011, blenders received a US$0.45 per gallon tax credit, regardless of feedstock; small producers received an additional US$0.10 on the first 15 million US gallons; and producers of cellulosic ethanol received credits up to US$1.01. Tax credits to promote the production and consumption of <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuels</a> date to the 1970s. For 2011, credits were based on the <a href="/wiki/Energy_Policy_Act_of_2005" title="Energy Policy Act of 2005">Energy Policy Act of 2005</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Food,_Conservation,_and_Energy_Act_of_2008" title="Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008">Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Energy_Improvement_and_Extension_Act_of_2008" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008">Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CBO2010-30">[30]</a> A 2010 study by the <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Budget_Office" title="Congressional Budget Office">Congressional Budget Office</a> (CBO) found that in fiscal year 2009, biofuel tax credits reduced federal revenues by around US$6 billion, of which corn and cellulosic ethanol accounted for US$5.16 billion and US$50 million, respectively.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 2010, CBO estimated that taxpayer costs to reduce gasoline consumption by one gallon were $1.78 for corn ethanol and $3.00 for cellulosic ethanol. In a similar way, and without considering potential indirect land use effects, the costs to taxpayers of reducing greenhouse gas emissions through tax credits were about $750 per metric ton of <a href="/wiki/CO2-equivalent" class="mw-redirect" title="CO2-equivalent">CO2-equivalent</a> for ethanol and around $275 per metric ton for cellulosic ethanol.<a href="#cite_note-CBO2010-30">[30]</a> On June 16, 2011, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Congress">U.S. Congress</a> approved an amendment to an economic development bill to repeal both the tax credit and the tariff, but this bill did not move forward.<a href="#cite_note-Economist062311-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT061711-86">[86]</a> Nevertheless, the U.S. Congress did not extend the tariff and the tax credit, allowing both to end on December 31, 2011.<a href="#cite_note-USTariff-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Since 1980 the ethanol industry was awarded an estimated US$45 billion in subsidies.<a href="#cite_note-USTariff-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Feedstocks">Feedstocks</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Feedstocks">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Corn">Corn</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Corn">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Corn_ethanol" title="Corn ethanol">Corn ethanol</a></div> Corn is the main feedstock used for producing ethanol fuel in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Ethanol-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-RFA2010-92">[92]</a> Most of the controversies surrounding U.S. ethanol fuel production and use is related to corn ethanol's <a href="/wiki/Net_energy_gain" title="Net energy gain">energy balance</a> and its <a href="#Environmental_and_social_impact">social and environmental impacts</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cellulose">Cellulose</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Cellulose">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cellulosic_ethanol" title="Cellulosic ethanol">Cellulosic ethanol</a></div> Cellulosic sources have the potential to produce a renewable, cleaner-burning, and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_offset" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon offset">carbon-neutral</a> alternative to gasoline.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In his <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union_Address" class="mw-redirect" title="State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address</a> on January 31, 2006, President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> stated, "We'll also fund additional research in cutting-edge methods of producing ethanol, not just from corn, but from wood chips and stalks or <a href="/wiki/Switchgrass" class="mw-redirect" title="Switchgrass">switchgrass</a>. Our goal is to make this new kind of ethanol practical and competitive within six years."[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] On July 7, 2006, DOE announced a new research agenda for cellulosic ethanol. The 200-page <a href="/wiki/Technology_roadmap" title="Technology roadmap">scientific roadmap</a> cited recent advances in <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a> that could aid use of cellulosic sources. The report outlined a detailed research plan for additional technologies to improve production efficiency. The roadmap acknowledged the need for substantial <a href="/wiki/Subsidy" title="Subsidy">federal loan guarantees</a> for <a href="/wiki/Biorefinery" title="Biorefinery">biorefineries</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The <a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_budget,_2007" class="mw-redirect" title="United States federal budget, 2007">2007 federal budget</a> earmarked $150 million for the research effort – more than doubling the 2006 budget. DOE invested in <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymatic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermal_depolymerization" title="Thermal depolymerization">thermochemical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">acid hydrolysis</a>, hybrid hydrolysis/enzymatic, and other research approaches targeting more efficient and lower–cost conversion of cellulose to ethanol.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The first materials considered for cellulosic biofuel included plant matter from agricultural waste, yard waste, sawdust and paper. Professors R. Malcolm Brown Jr. and David Nobles, Jr. of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin" title="University of Texas at Austin">University of Texas at Austin</a> developed <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> that had the potential to produce cellulose, <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a>, the latter two easily converted into ethanol. This offers the potential to create ethanol without plant matter.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sugar">Sugar</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Sugar">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 10px"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="6" style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Flag_of_the_United_States_%2823px%29.png/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%2823px%29.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Flag_of_the_United_States_%2823px%29.png/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%2823px%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Flag_of_the_United_States_%2823px%29.png/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%2823px%29.png 2x" data-file-width="69" data-file-height="39" /> <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> fuel ethanol imports by country (2002–2007)<a href="#cite_note-RFA1E-93">[93]</a> (Millions of U.S. liquid gallons) </th></tr> <tr> <th>Country </th> <th>2007 </th> <th>2006 </th> <th>2005 </th> <th>2004 </th> <th>2003 </th></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/33px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/43px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a></td> <td>188.8</td> <td>433.7</td> <td>31.2</td> <td>90.3</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_Jamaica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Jamaica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_Jamaica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Jamaica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_Jamaica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Jamaica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a></td> <td>75.2</td> <td>66.8</td> <td>36.3</td> <td>36.6</td> <td>39.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg/23px-Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg/35px-Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg/46px-Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1005" data-file-height="567" /> <a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a></td> <td>73.3</td> <td>38.5</td> <td>23.7</td> <td>5.7</td> <td>6.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Flag_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago.svg/23px-Flag_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Flag_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago.svg/35px-Flag_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Flag_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago.svg/46px-Flag_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /> <a href="/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></td> <td>42.7</td> <td>24.8</td> <td>10.0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></td> <td>39.3</td> <td>35.9</td> <td>33.4</td> <td>25.4</td> <td>14.7 </td></tr></tbody></table> Producing ethanol from <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a> is simpler than converting corn into ethanol. Converting sugar requires only a <a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeast</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fermentation" title="Ethanol fermentation">fermentation</a> process. Converting corn requires additional cooking and the application of <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a>. The energy requirement for sugar conversion is about half that for corn.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Sugarcane produces more than enough energy to do the conversion with energy left over. A 2006 <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Agriculture">U.S. Department of Agriculture</a> report found that at market prices for ethanol, converting sugarcane, <a href="/wiki/Sugar_beet" title="Sugar beet">sugar beets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molasses" title="Molasses">molasses</a> to ethanol would be profitable.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> As of 2008 researchers were attempting to breed new varieties adapted to U.S. soil and weather conditions, as well as to take advantage of <a href="/wiki/Cellulosic_ethanol" title="Cellulosic ethanol">cellulosic ethanol</a> technologies to also convert sugarcane <a href="/wiki/Bagasse" title="Bagasse">bagasse</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EthaPro09-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-ARS08-96">[96]</a> U.S. sugarcane production occurs in <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>. The first three plants to produce sugarcane-based ethanol went online in Louisiana in mid-2009. Sugar mills in <a href="/wiki/Lacassine,_Louisiana" title="Lacassine, Louisiana">Lacassine</a>, <a href="/wiki/St._James_Parish,_Louisiana" title="St. James Parish, Louisiana">St. James</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bunkie,_Louisiana" title="Bunkie, Louisiana">Bunkie</a> were converted to sugarcane ethanol production using <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombian</a> technology to enable profitable ethanol production. These three plants planned to produce 100×10<s style="display:none">^</s>6 US gal (380×10<s style="display:none">^</s>3 m3) of ethanol per year within five years.<a href="#cite_note-ARS08-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> By 2009 two other sugarcane ethanol production projects were being developed in <a href="/wiki/Kauai" title="Kauai">Kauai</a>, Hawaii and <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Valley" title="Imperial Valley">Imperial Valley</a>, California. The Hawaiian plant was projected to have a capacity of between 12–15 million US gallons (45×10<s style="display:none">^</s>3–57×10<s style="display:none">^</s>3 m3) a year and to supply local markets only, as shipping costs made competing in the <a href="/wiki/Continental_US" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental US">continental US</a> impractical. This plant went online in 2010. The California plant was expected to produce 60×10<s style="display:none">^</s>6 US gal (230×10<s style="display:none">^</s>3 m3) a year in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-EthaPro09-95">[95]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bushlulapetrobras09032007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Bushlulapetrobras09032007.jpg/200px-Bushlulapetrobras09032007.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Bushlulapetrobras09032007.jpg/300px-Bushlulapetrobras09032007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Bushlulapetrobras09032007.jpg/400px-Bushlulapetrobras09032007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3506" data-file-height="2337" /></a><figcaption>Presidents George W. Bush and <a href="/wiki/Luiz_In%C3%A1cio_Lula_da_Silva" title="Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva">Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva</a> during Bush's visit to Brazil, March 2007.</figcaption></figure> In March 2007, "ethanol diplomacy" was the focus of President George W. Bush's Latin American tour, in which he and Brazil's president, <a href="/wiki/Luiz_In%C3%A1cio_Lula_da_Silva" title="Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva">Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva</a>, promoted the production and use of sugarcane ethanol throughout the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Basin" title="Caribbean Basin">Caribbean Basin</a>. The two countries agreed to share technology and set international biofuel standards.<a href="#cite_note-WasPos1-99">[99]</a> Brazilian sugarcane technology transfer was intended to permit various <a href="/wiki/Central_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Central American">Central American</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a>, <a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a>, several <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> countries, and various <a href="/wiki/Andean_Community_of_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Andean Community of Nations">Andean Countries</a> tariff-free trade with the U.S., thanks to existing trade agreements. The expectation was that such countries would export to the United States in the short-term using Brazilian technology.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> In 2007, combined exports from <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>, El Salvador, <a href="/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a> and Costa Rica to the U.S. reached a total of 230.5×10<s style="display:none">^</s>6 US gal (873×10<s style="display:none">^</s>3 m3) of sugarcane ethanol, representing 54.1% of imports. <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> began exporting ethanol to the U.S. in 2004 and exported 188.8×10<s style="display:none">^</s>6 US gal (715×10<s style="display:none">^</s>3 m3) representing 44.3% of U.S. ethanol imports in 2007. The remaining imports that year came from <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RFA1E-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_feedstocks">Other feedstocks</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Other feedstocks">edit</a>]</div> Cheese <a href="/wiki/Whey" title="Whey">whey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">potato</a> waste, beverage waste, and <a href="/wiki/Brewery" title="Brewery">brewery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a> waste have been used as feedstocks for ethanol fuel, but at a far smaller scale than corn and sugarcane ethanol, as plants using these feedstocks have the capacity to produce only 3 to 5 million US gallons (11×10<s style="display:none">^</s>3 to 19×10<s style="display:none">^</s>3 m3) per year.<a href="#cite_note-RFA2010-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison_with_Brazilian_ethanol">Comparison with Brazilian ethanol</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Comparison with Brazilian ethanol">edit</a>]</div> Sugarcane ethanol has an energy balance seven times greater than corn ethanol.<a href="#cite_note-Wilson-101">[101]</a> As of 2007, Brazilian distiller production costs were 22 cents per liter, compared with 30 cents per liter for corn-based ethanol.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Corn-derived ethanol costs 30% more because the corn starch must first be converted to sugar before distillation into <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">alcohol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NYT100406-87">[87]</a> However, corn-derived ethanol offers the ability to return 1/3 of the feedstock to the market as a replacement for the corn used in the form of <a href="/wiki/Distillers_grains" title="Distillers grains">Distillers Dried Grain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ethanol-25">[25]</a> Sugarcane ethanol production is seasonal: unlike corn, sugarcane must be processed into ethanol almost immediately after harvest.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#abcdef;">Comparison of key characteristics between the ethanol industries in the United States and Brazil </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <td style="background:#abcdef;">Characteristic</td> <td style="background:#abcdef;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/33px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/43px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a></td> <td style="background:#abcdef;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">U.S.</a></td> <td style="background:#abcdef;">Units/comments </td></tr> <tr> <td>Main feedstock</td> <td align="center">Sugar cane</td> <td align="center">Corn</td> <td>Main <a href="/wiki/Cash_crop" title="Cash crop">cash crop</a> for ethanol production, the US has less than 2% from other crops. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Total ethanol fuel production (2011)<a href="#cite_note-RFAOutlook2012-1">[1]</a></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">5,573</div></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">13,900</div></td> <td>Million U.S. liquid gallons </td></tr> <tr> <td>Total arable land<a href="#cite_note-Veja_30_04-104">[104]</a></td> <td align="center">355</td> <td align="center">270</td> <td>Million hectares. Only contiguous U.S., excludes Alaska. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Total area used for ethanol crop (2006)<a href="#cite_note-Ethanol-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Veja_30_04-104">[104]</a></td> <td align="center">3.6 (1%)</td> <td align="center">10 (3.7%)</td> <td>Million hectares (% total arable) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Productivity<a href="#cite_note-Ethanol-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-Veja_30_04-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-Epoca_16_06-105">[105]</a></td> <td align="center">6,800–8,000</td> <td align="center">3,800–4,000</td> <td>Ethanol yield (liter/hectare). Brazil is 727 to 870 gal/acre (2006), US is 321 to 424 gal/acre (2003–05) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Energy balance (input energy productivity)<a href="#cite_note-Ethanol-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT100406-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-MLA_2004-106">[106]</a></td> <td align="center">8.3 to 10.2</td> <td align="center">1.3 to 1.6</td> <td>Ratio of the energy obtained from ethanol/energy expended in its production </td></tr> <tr> <td>Estimated greenhouse gas emission reduction<a href="#cite_note-WorldBank-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Science08-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ethanol-25">[25]</a></td> <td align="center">86–90%(1)</td> <td align="center">10–30%(1)</td> <td> % GHGs avoided by using ethanol instead of gasoline, using existing crop land, without <a href="/wiki/ILUC" class="mw-redirect" title="ILUC">ILUC</a> effects. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">EPA</a>'s estimated 2022 GHG reduction for <a href="/wiki/Renewable_Fuel_Standard" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable Fuel Standard">RFS2</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EPAfinal2010-107">[107]</a></td> <td align="center">61%(2)</td> <td align="center">21%</td> <td>Average % GHGs change as compared to gasoline and considering direct and indirect land use change effects. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/California_Air_Resources_Board" title="California Air Resources Board">CARB</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Life-cycle_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Life-cycle analysis">full life-cycle</a> carbon intensity<a href="#cite_note-ARBproposal-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-CARBruleB-108">[108]</a></td> <td align="center">73.40</td> <td align="center">105.10(3)</td> <td>Grams of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon dioxide equivalent">CO2 equivalent</a> released per <a href="/wiki/Megajoule" class="mw-redirect" title="Megajoule">MJ</a> of energy produced, includes <a href="/wiki/Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels" title="Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels">indirect land use changes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Science08-22">[22]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Estimated payback time for <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emission" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gas emission">greenhouse gas emission</a><a href="#cite_note-Oxfam-20">[20]</a></td> <td align="center">17 years(4)</td> <td align="center">93 years(4)</td> <td>Brazilian <a href="/wiki/Cerrado" title="Cerrado">cerrado</a> for sugar cane and US <a href="/wiki/Grassland" title="Grassland">grassland</a> for corn. Land use change scenarios by Fargione et al.<a href="#cite_note-Fargione08-21">[21]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Flexible-fuel vehicles produced/sold (includes autos, light trucks and motorcycles)<a href="#cite_note-FFV10mi-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-ANFAVEA2010-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-ANFAVEA2011-111">[111]</a></td> <td align="center">16.3 million</td> <td align="center">10 million</td> <td> All fleets as of December 2011. The Brazilian fleet includes 1.5 million flex fuel motorcycles.<a href="#cite_note-MotoFlex09-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-MotoFlex10-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-MotoFlex11-114">[114]</a> <a href="/wiki/USDOE" class="mw-redirect" title="USDOE">USDOE</a> estimates that in 2009 only 504,297 flex-fuel vehicles were regularly fueled with E85 in the US.<a href="#cite_note-USeDataBook-52">[52]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ethanol fueling stations in the country</td> <td align="center">35,017 (100%)</td> <td align="center">2,749 (1.6%)</td> <td>As % of total gas stations in the country. Brazil by December 2007,<a href="#cite_note-ANP08stats-115">[115]</a> U.S. by May 2011.<a href="#cite_note-E85prices-54">[54]</a> (170,000 total.<a href="#cite_note-Apollo-47">[47]</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ethanol's share within the gasoline market<a href="#cite_note-USDA0410-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-ANP07_2008-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-ANP02_2008-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brazil48_20-118">[118]</a></td> <td align="center">50%(5)</td> <td align="center">10%</td> <td>As % of total consumption on a volumetric basis. Brazil as of April 2008. U.S. as of December 2010. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cost of production (USD/US gallon)<a href="#cite_note-Wilson-101">[101]</a></td> <td align="center">0.83</td> <td align="center">1.14</td> <td>2006/2007 for Brazil (22¢/liter), 2004 for U.S. (35¢/liter) </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="text-align:left;">Notes: (1) Assuming no land use change.<a href="#cite_note-Science08-22">[22]</a> (2) Estimate is for U.S. consumption and sugarcane ethanol is imported from Brazil. Emissions from sea transport are included. Both estimates include land transport within the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-EPAfinal2010-107">[107]</a> (3) <a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_fuel_standard#California_Low-Carbon_Fuel_Standard" title="Low-carbon fuel standard">CARB</a> estimate for Midwest corn ethanol. <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>'s gasoline carbon intensity is 95.86 blended with 10% ethanol.<a href="#cite_note-ARBproposal-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-CARBruleB-108">[108]</a> (4) Assuming direct land use change.<a href="#cite_note-Fargione08-21">[21]</a> (5) If diesel-powered vehicles are included and due to ethanol's lower energy content by volume, bioethanol represented 16.9% of the road sector energy consumption in 2007.<a href="#cite_note-BEN2008-119">[119]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_and_social_impact">Environmental and social impact</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Environmental and social impact">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environmental_effects">Environmental effects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Environmental effects">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Issues_relating_to_biofuels" title="Issues relating to biofuels">Issues relating to biofuels</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Energy_balance_and_carbon_intensity">Energy balance and carbon intensity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Energy balance and carbon intensity">edit</a>]</div> Until 2008, several full life cycle ("Well to Wheels") studies had found that corn ethanol reduces greenhouse gas emissions as compared to gasoline. In 2007 a team led by Farrel from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a> evaluated six previous studies and concluded corn ethanol reduces <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> by only 13 percent.<a href="#cite_note-Farrel2006-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-TwoBillion-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wang205ppt-122">[122]</a> Another figure is 20 to 30 percent, and an 85 to 85 percent reduction for cellulosic ethanol.<a href="#cite_note-TwoBillion-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-USEthanol-123">[123]</a> Both figures were estimated by Wang from <a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a>, based on a comprehensive review of 22 studies conducted between 1979 and 2005, and simulations with Argonne's <a href="/wiki/GREET_Model" title="GREET Model">GREET model</a>. All of these studies included direct <a href="/wiki/Land_use_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Land use change">land use changes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wang205ppt-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wang2005-124">[124]</a> However, further research examining the actual effects of the <a href="/wiki/Renewable_Fuel_Standard_(United_States)" title="Renewable Fuel Standard (United States)">Renewable Fuel Standard</a> from 2008 to 2016 has concluded that corn ethanol produces more carbon emissions per unit of energy – likely more than 24% more – than gasoline, when factoring in fertilizer use and land use change.<a href="#cite_note-:0-125">[125]</a> The reduction estimates on carbon intensity for a given biofuel depend on the assumptions regarding several variables, including crop productivity, agricultural practices, and distillery power source and energy efficiency. None of these earlier studies considered the effects of indirect <a href="/wiki/Land-use_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Land-use change">land-use changes</a>, and though their impact was recognized, its estimation was considered too complex and more difficult to model than direct land use changes.<a href="#cite_note-TwoBillion-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-WangLetScie-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Effects_of_land_use_change">Effects of land use change</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Effects of land use change">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels" title="Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels">Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels</a></div> <table class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 10px"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="5" style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;">Summary of Searchinger et al. (2008) comparison of corn ethanol and gasoline <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">GHG</a> emissions with and without land use change (CO2 release rate (g/MJ))<a href="#cite_note-Science08-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-SearchingerSM-127">[127]</a> </th></tr> <tr style="background:#cfc;"> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Fuel type (U.S.)</div></td> <td style="background:#cfc;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Carbon intensity</div></td> <td style="background:#cfc;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Reduction GHG</div></td> <td style="background:#cfc;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Carbon intensity + <a href="/wiki/ILUC" class="mw-redirect" title="ILUC">ILUC</a></div></td> <td style="background:#cfc;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Reduction GHG</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Gasoline</td> <td style="background:#ffc;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">92</div></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">-</div></td> <td style="background:#ffc;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">92</div></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">-</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Corn ethanol</td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">74</div></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">-20%</div></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">177</div></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">+93%</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cellulosic ethanol</td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">28</div></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">-70%</div></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">138</div></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">+50%</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="text-align:left;">Notes: Calculated using default assumptions for 2015 scenario for ethanol in <a href="/wiki/Common_ethanol_fuel_mixtures#E85" title="Common ethanol fuel mixtures">E85</a>. Gasoline is a combination of conventional and <a href="/wiki/Reformulated_gasoline" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformulated gasoline">reformulated gasoline</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SearchingerSM-127">[127]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> Two 2008 studies, both published in the same issue of <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Scienceexpress</a>, questioned the previous assessments.<a href="#cite_note-Fargione08-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Science08-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Times08-128">[128]</a> A team led by Searchinger from <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> concluded that once <a href="/wiki/ILUC#Studies_and_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="ILUC">direct and indirect effect of land use changes</a> (ILUC) are considered, both corn and cellulosic ethanol increased carbon emissions as compared to gasoline by 93 and 50 percent respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Science08-22">[22]</a> The study limited the analysis to a 30-year time horizon, assuming that land conversion emitted 25 percent of the carbon stored in soils and all carbon in plants cleared for cultivation. Brazil, China and <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> were considered among the overseas locations where land use change would occur as a result of diverting U.S. corn cropland, and it was assumed that new cropland in each of these regions correspond to different types of <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Savanna" title="Savanna">savanna</a> or <a href="/wiki/Grassland" title="Grassland">grassland</a> based on the historical proportion of each natural land converted to cultivation in these countries during the 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-Science08-22">[22]</a> A team led by Fargione from <a href="/wiki/The_Nature_Conservancy" title="The Nature Conservancy">The Nature Conservancy</a> found that clearing natural lands for use as agricultural land to produce biofuel feedstock creates a carbon debt. Therefore, this carbon debt applies to both direct and indirect land use changes. The study examined six scenarios of wilderness conversion, Brazilian <a href="/wiki/Amazon_rainforest" title="Amazon rainforest">Amazon</a> to <a href="/wiki/Soybean" title="Soybean">soybean</a> biodiesel, Brazilian <a href="/wiki/Cerrado" title="Cerrado">Cerrado</a> to soybean biodiesel, Brazilian Cerrado to sugarcane ethanol, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysian</a> lowland <a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest" title="Tropical rainforest">tropical rainforest</a> to <a href="/wiki/Oil_palm" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil palm">palm</a> biodiesel, Indonesian or Malaysian <a href="/wiki/Peatland" title="Peatland">peatland</a> tropical rainforest to <a href="/wiki/Oil_palm" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil palm">oil palm</a> forest, and U.S. Central grassland to corn ethanol.<a href="#cite_note-Fargione08-21">[21]</a> Growing corn to fuel internal combustion vehicles is a highly inefficient use of land. A <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_station" title="Photovoltaic power station">solar farm</a> generating electricity to power an electric vehicle would power around 85 times as much distance as corn ethanol grown on the same area.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Low-carbon_fuel_standards">Low-carbon fuel standards</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Low-carbon fuel standards">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_fuel_standard" title="Low-carbon fuel standard">Low-carbon fuel standard</a></div> On April 23, 2009, the <a href="/wiki/California_Air_Resources_Board" title="California Air Resources Board">California Air Resources Board</a> approved specific rules and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_intensity" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon intensity">carbon intensity</a> <a href="/wiki/Reference_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Reference value">reference values</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_fuel_standard#California_Low-Carbon_Fuel_Standard" title="Low-carbon fuel standard">California Low-Carbon Fuel Standard</a> (LCFS) that was to go into effect on January 1, 2011.<a href="#cite_note-SFG042409-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT042409-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-UNICA01-132">[132]</a> The consultation process produced controversy regarding the inclusion and modeling of indirect land use change effects.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-GCC08-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> After the CARB's ruling, among other criticisms, representatives of the ethanol industry complained that the standard overstated the negative environmental effects of corn ethanol, and also criticized the inclusion of indirect effects of land-use changes as an unfair penalty to home-made corn ethanol because <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> in the developing world had been tied to US ethanol production.<a href="#cite_note-NYT042409-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-SciAm-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-SFC042209-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT042409_2-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-BDigest-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-GreenM-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-SACBee-142">[142]</a> The emissions standard for 2011 for LCFS meant that Midwest corn ethanol would not meet the California standard unless current carbon intensity is reduced.<a href="#cite_note-SFG042409-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-BDigest-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-SACBee-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-CNN0409-143">[143]</a> A similar controversy arose after the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published on May 5, 2009, its notice of proposed rulemaking for the new <a href="/wiki/Renewable_Fuel_Standard" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable Fuel Standard">Renewable Fuel Standard</a> (RFS).<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-LAT0609-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-Guardian0609-146">[146]</a> EPA's proposal included the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">carbon footprint</a> from indirect land-use changes.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> On the same day, President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> signed a <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Directive" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidential Directive">Presidential Directive</a> with the aim to advance biofuel research and commercialization. The Directive asked a new Biofuels Interagency Working Group comprising the Department of Agriculture, EPA, and DOE,<a href="#cite_note-WH0509-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT0509-150">[150]</a> to develop a plan to increase flexible fuel vehicle use, assist in retail marketing and to coordinate infrastructure policies. The group also was tasked to develop policy ideas for increasing investment in next-generation fuels, and for reducing biofuels' environmental footprint.<a href="#cite_note-WH0509-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT0509-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sciam0509-151">[151]</a> In December 2009 two lobbying groups, the <a href="/wiki/Renewable_Fuels_Association" title="Renewable Fuels Association">Renewable Fuels Association</a> (RFA) and Growth Energy, filed a lawsuit challenging LCFS's constitutionality. The two organizations argued that LCFS violates both the <a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy Clause</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/US_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="US Constitution">US Constitution</a>, and "jeopardizes the nationwide market for ethanol."<a href="#cite_note-WSJ1209-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-GCC1209-153">[153]</a> In a press release the associations announced that "If the United States is going to have a low carbon fuel standard, it must be based on sound science and it must be consistent with the U.S. Constitution".<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> On February 3, 2010, EPA finalized the Renewable Fuel Standard Program (RFS2) for 2010 and beyond.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> EPA incorporated direct emissions and significant indirect emissions such as emissions from land use changes along with comments and data from new studies.<a href="#cite_note-EPA2010-156">[156]</a> Adopting a 30-year time horizon and a 0% discount rate<a href="#cite_note-EPAfinal2010-107">[107]</a> EPA declared that ethanol produced from corn starch at a new (or expanded capacity from an existing) natural gas-fired facility using approved technologies would be considered to comply with the 20% GHG emission reduction threshold.<a href="#cite_note-EPA2010-156">[156]</a> Given average production conditions it expected for 2022, EPA estimated that corn ethanol would reduce GHGs an average of 21% compared to the 2005 gasoline baseline. A 95% confidence interval spans a 7-32% range reflecting uncertainty in the land use change assumptions.<a href="#cite_note-EPAfinal2010-107">[107]</a> The following table summarizes the mean GHG emissions for ethanol using different feedstocks estimated by EPA modelling and the range of variations considering that the main source of uncertainty in the life cycle analysis is the GHG emissions related to international land use change.<a href="#cite_note-EPAFinal2010-157">[157]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Life cycle year 2022 <a href="/wiki/GHG_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="GHG emissions">GHG emissions</a> reduction results for RFS2 final rule<a href="#cite_note-EPAFinal2010-157">[157]</a> (includes direct and indirect land use change effects and a 30-year payback <a href="/wiki/Time_horizon" title="Time horizon">period</a> at a 0% <a href="/wiki/Discounted_cash_flow" title="Discounted cash flow">discount rate</a>) </th></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#cfc;">Renewable fuel pathway (for U.S. consumption)</th> <th style="background:#cfc;">Mean GHG emission reduction(1)</th> <th style="background:#cfc;">GHG emission reduction 95% confidence interval(2)</th> <th style="background:#cfc;">Assumptions/comments </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Corn_ethanol" title="Corn ethanol">Corn ethanol</a></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">21%</div></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">7–32%</div></td> <td>New or expanded <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> fired dry mill plant, 37% wet and 63% dry <a href="/wiki/Distillers_grains" title="Distillers grains">DGS</a> it produces, and employing corn oil fractionation technology. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Corn <a href="/wiki/Biobutanol" class="mw-redirect" title="Biobutanol">biobutanol</a></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">31%</div></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">20–40%</div></td> <td>Natural gas fired dry mill plant, 37% wet and 63% dry DGS it produces, and employing corn oil fractionation technology. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cellulosic ethanol from switchgrass</td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">110%</div></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">102–117%</div></td> <td>Ethanol produced using the biochemical process. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cellulosic ethanol from <a href="/wiki/Corn_stover" title="Corn stover">corn stover</a></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">129%</div></td> <td><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">No <a href="/wiki/ILUC" class="mw-redirect" title="ILUC">ILUC</a></div></td> <td>Ethanol produced using the biochemical process. Ethanol produced from agricultural residues does not have any indirect land use emissions. </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4">Notes: (1) Percent reduction in lifecycle GHG emissions compared to the average lifecycle GHG for gasoline or diesel sold or distributed as transportation fuel in 2005. (2) Confidence range accounts for uncertainty in the types of land use change assumptions and the magnitude of resulting GHG emissions. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Water_footprint">Water footprint</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Water footprint">edit</a>]</div> Water-related concerns relate to water supply and quality, and include availability and potential overuse, pollution, and possible contamination by <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a>. Several studies concluded that increased ethanol production was likely to result in a substantial increase in water pollution by fertilizers and pesticides, with the potential to exacerbate <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">hypoxia</a>, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay" title="Chesapeake Bay">Chesapeake Bay</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wfootprint2010-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRCWater-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wfootprint2009-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-SFGate070610-161">[161]</a> Growing feedstocks consumes most of the water associated with ethanol production. Corn consumes from 500–2,000 litres (110–440 imp gal; 130–530 US gal) of water per liter of ethanol, mostly for <a href="/wiki/Evapotranspiration" title="Evapotranspiration">evapotranspiration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wfootprint2010-158">[158]</a> In general terms, both corn and switchgrass require less irrigation than other fuel crops. Corn is grown mainly in regions with adequate rainfall. However, corn usually needs to be irrigated in the drier climates of <a href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</a> and eastern <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a>. Further, corn production for ethanol is increasingly taking place in areas requiring irrigation.<a href="#cite_note-Wfootprint2010-158">[158]</a> A 2008 study by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Research_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Research Council">National Research Council</a> concluded that "in the longer term, the likely expansion of cellulosic biofuel production has the potential to further increase the demand for water resources in many parts of the United States. Biofuels expansion beyond current irrigated agriculture, especially in dry western areas, has the potential to greatly increase pressure on water resources in some areas."<a href="#cite_note-NRCWater-159">[159]</a> A 2009 study estimated that irrigated corn ethanol implied water consumption at between 50 US gal/mi (120 L/km) and 100 US gal/mi (240 L/km) for U.S. vehicles. This figure increased to 90 US gal/mi (210 L/km) for <a href="/wiki/Sorghum" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a> ethanol from Nebraska, and 115 US gal/mi (270 L/km) for Texas sorghum. By contrast, an average U.S. car effectively consumes between 0.2 US gal/mi (0.47 L/km) to 0.5 US gal/mi (1.2 L/km) running on gasoline, including extraction and refining.<a href="#cite_note-Wfootprint2009-160">[160]</a> In 2010 RFA argued that more efficient water technologies and pre-treated water could reduce consumption.<a href="#cite_note-RFA2010-92">[92]</a> It further claimed that <a href="/wiki/Non-conventional_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-conventional oil">non-conventional oil</a> "sources, such as <a href="/wiki/Tar_sands" class="mw-redirect" title="Tar sands">tar sands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">oil shale</a>, require far more water than conventional petroleum extraction and refining."<a href="#cite_note-RFA2010-92">[92]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dead_Zone_NASA_NOAA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Dead_Zone_NASA_NOAA.jpg/220px-Dead_Zone_NASA_NOAA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Dead_Zone_NASA_NOAA.jpg/330px-Dead_Zone_NASA_NOAA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Dead_Zone_NASA_NOAA.jpg/440px-Dead_Zone_NASA_NOAA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1056" data-file-height="816" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)" title="Dead zone (ecology)">Dead zone</a> in the Gulf of Mexico.</figcaption></figure> U.S. standard agricultural practices for most crops employ fertilizers that provide <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> along with <a href="/wiki/Herbicide" title="Herbicide">herbicides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungicide" title="Fungicide">fungicides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insecticide" title="Insecticide">insecticides</a>, and other pesticides.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Some part of these chemicals leaves the field. Nitrogen in forms such as <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a> (NO3) is highly soluble, and along with some pesticides infiltrates downwards toward the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a>, where it can migrate to water wells, rivers and streams. A 2008 National Research Council study found that regionally the highest stream concentrations occur where the rates of application were highest, and that these rates were highest in the <a href="/wiki/Corn_Belt" title="Corn Belt">Corn Belt</a>. These flows mainly stem from corn, which as of 2010 was the major source of total nitrogen loading to the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NRCWater-159">[159]</a> Several studies found that corn ethanol production contributed to the worsening of the <a href="/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)#Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Dead zone (ecology)">Gulf of Mexico dead zone</a>. The nitrogen <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/leach" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:leach">leached</a> into the Mississippi River and out into the Gulf, where it fed giant <a href="/wiki/Algae_bloom" class="mw-redirect" title="Algae bloom">algae blooms</a>. As the <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> died, it settled to the ocean floor and decayed, consuming oxygen and suffocating marine life, causing <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">hypoxia</a>. This oxygen depletion killed <a href="/wiki/Shrimp" title="Shrimp">shrimp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crab" title="Crab">crabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Worm" title="Worm">worms</a> and anything else that could not escape, and affected important <a href="/wiki/Shrimp_fishery" title="Shrimp fishery">shrimp fishing grounds</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wfootprint2010-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRCWater-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-SFGate070610-161">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_implications">Social implications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Social implications">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Effect_on_food_prices">Effect on food prices</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Effect on food prices">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Food_vs_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Food vs fuel">Food vs fuel</a></div> Some <a href="/wiki/Environmentalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmentalists">environmentalists</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/George_Monbiot" title="George Monbiot">George Monbiot</a>, expressed fears that the marketplace would convert crops to fuel for the rich, while the poor starved and biofuels caused environmental problems.<a href="#cite_note-Times08-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-Monbiot-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Food_vs_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Food vs fuel">food vs fuel</a> debate grew in 2008 as a result of the <a href="/wiki/International_community" title="International community">international community</a>'s concerns regarding the <a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_world_food_price_crisis" title="2007–2008 world food price crisis">steep increase in food prices</a>. In April 2008, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Ziegler" title="Jean Ziegler">Jean Ziegler</a>, back then <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Special_Rapporteur" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Special Rapporteur">United Nations Special Rapporteur</a> on the Right to Food, repeated his claim that biofuels were a "crime against humanity",<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-BBC_Brasilia-167">[167]</a> echoing his October 2007 call for a 5-year ban for the conversion of land for the production of biofuels.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> Also in April 2008, <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> President <a href="/wiki/Robert_Zoellick" title="Robert Zoellick">Robert Zoellick</a> stated that "While many worry about filling their gas tanks, many others around the world are struggling to fill their stomachs. And it's getting more and more difficult every day."<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Combine-harvesting-corn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Combine-harvesting-corn.jpg/220px-Combine-harvesting-corn.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Combine-harvesting-corn.jpg/330px-Combine-harvesting-corn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Combine-harvesting-corn.jpg/440px-Combine-harvesting-corn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="434" /></a><figcaption>Corn is the main feedstock for the production of ethanol fuel in the U.S.</figcaption></figure> A July 2008 World Bank report<a href="#cite_note-WorldBank0708-173">[173]</a> found that from June 2002 to June 2008 "biofuels and the related consequences of low grain stocks, large land use shifts, speculative activity and export bans" accounted for 70–75% of total price rises. The study found that higher oil prices and a weak dollar explain 25–30% of total price rise. The study said that "large increases in biofuels production in the United States and Europe are the main reason behind the steep rise in global food prices."<a href="#cite_note-Veja2807-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reuters-175">[175]</a> The report argued that increased production of biofuels in these developed regions was supported by subsidies and tariffs, and claimed that without such policies, food price increases worldwide would have been smaller. It also concluded that Brazil's sugarcane ethanol had not raised sugar prices significantly, and recommended that both the U.S. and E.U. remove tariffs, including on many African countries.<a href="#cite_note-WorldBank0708-173">[173]</a> An RFA rebuttal said that the World Bank analysis was highly subjective and that the author considered only "the impact of global <a href="/wiki/Food_prices" title="Food prices">food prices</a> from the weak dollar and the direct and indirect effect of high petroleum prices and attribute[d] everything else to biofuels."<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> A 2010 World Bank study concluded that its previous study may have overestimated the impact, as "the effect of biofuels on food prices has not been as large as originally thought, but that the use of commodities by financial investors (the so-called 'financialization of commodities') may have been partly responsible for the 2007/08 spike."<a href="#cite_note-WorldBank0710-177">[177]</a> A July 2008 <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> economic assessment<a href="#cite_note-OECD0708-178">[178]</a> agreed about the negative effects of subsidies and trade restrictions, but found that the impact of biofuels on food prices was much smaller. The OECD study found that existing biofuel support policies would reduce greenhouse gas emissions by no more than 0.8 percent by 2015. It called for more open markets in biofuels and feedstocks to improve efficiency and lower costs. The OECD study concluded that "current biofuel support measures alone are estimated to increase average wheat prices by about 5 percent, maize by around 7 percent and vegetable oil by about 19 percent over the next 10 years."<a href="#cite_note-OECDweb08-179">[179]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/2008_financial_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="2008 financial crisis">2008 financial crisis</a> corn prices, fell 50% from their July 2008 high by October 2008, in tandem with other <a href="/wiki/Commodities" class="mw-redirect" title="Commodities">commodities</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Oil" title="Oil">oil</a>, while corn ethanol production continued unabated. "Analysts, including some in the ethanol sector, say ethanol demand adds about 75 cents to $1.00 per bushel to the price of corn, as a rule of thumb. Other analysts say it adds around 20 percent, or just under 80 cents per bushel at current prices. Those estimates hint that $4 per bushel corn might be priced at only $3 without demand for ethanol fuel."<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> Reviewing eight years of actual implementation of the Renewable Fuel Standard, researchers from the University of Wisconsin found the standard increased corn prices by 30% and prices of other crops by 20%.<a href="#cite_note-:0-125">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_energy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/29px-Crystal_energy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="29" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/44px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/59px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="124" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Energy" title="Portal:Energy">Energy portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2007_U.S._Farm_Bill" class="mw-redirect" title="2007 U.S. Farm Bill">2007 U.S. Farm Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_world_food_price_crisis" title="2007–2008 world food price crisis">2007–2008 world food price crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butanol_fuel" title="Butanol fuel">Butanol fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_ethanol_fuel_mixtures" title="Common ethanol fuel mixtures">Common ethanol fuel mixtures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E85_in_the_United_States" title="E85 in the United States">E85 in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel_by_country" title="Ethanol fuel by country">Ethanol fuel by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethanol fuel in Australia">Ethanol fuel in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel_in_Brazil" title="Ethanol fuel in Brazil">Ethanol fuel in Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel_in_Hawaii" title="Ethanol fuel in Hawaii">Ethanol fuel in Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel_in_the_Philippines" title="Ethanol fuel in the Philippines">Ethanol fuel in the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel_in_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethanol fuel in Sweden">Ethanol fuel in Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels" title="Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels">Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issues_relating_to_biofuels" title="Issues relating to biofuels">Issues relating to biofuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_topics_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="List of renewable energy topics by country">List of renewable energy topics by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_fuel_standard" title="Low-carbon fuel standard">Low-carbon fuel standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_States" title="Renewable energy in the United States">Renewable energy in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Fuel_Standard" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable Fuel Standard">Renewable Fuel Standard</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Duffield, James A., Irene M. Xiarchos, and Steve A. Halbrook, "Ethanol Policy: Past, Present, and Future", South Dakota Law Review. 53 (no. 3, 2008), 425–53.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-RFAOutlook2012-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RFAOutlook2012_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RFAOutlook2012_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RFAOutlook2012_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RFAOutlook2012_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RFAOutlook2012_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RFAOutlook2012_1-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RFAOutlook2012_1-6">g</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRenewable_Fuels_Association2012" class="citation web cs1">Renewable Fuels Association (March 6, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120514044111/http://ethanolrfa.3cdn.net/d4ad995ffb7ae8fbfe_1vm62ypzd.pdf">"Acelerating Industry Innovation - 2012 Ethanol Industry Outlook"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Renewable_Fuels_Association" title="Renewable Fuels Association">Renewable Fuels Association</a>. 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Retrieved May 6, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Acelerating+Industry+Innovation+-+2012+Ethanol+Industry+Outlook&rft.pub=Renewable+Fuels+Association&rft.date=2012-03-06&rft.au=Renewable+Fuels+Association&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fethanolrfa.3cdn.net%2Fd4ad995ffb7ae8fbfe_1vm62ypzd.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> See pp. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-Annual_Ethanol_Production-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Annual_Ethanol_Production_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Annual_Ethanol_Production_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200809114211/https://ethanolrfa.org/statistics/annual-ethanol-production/">"Annual Ethanol Production"</a>. Renewable Fuels Association. 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Retrieved December 21, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chicago+Tribune&rft.atitle=Ald.+Ed+Burke+on+E15+gasoline+proposal&rft.date=2014-12-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chicagotribune.com%2Fnews%2F82227312-132.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-images1.americanprogress-45"><a href="#cite_ref-images1.americanprogress_45-0">^</a> Worldwatch Institute and Center for American Progress (2006).<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://images1.americanprogress.org/il80web20037/americanenergynow/AmericanEnergy.pdf">American Energy: The Renewable Path to Energy Security</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160603103041/http://images1.americanprogress.org/il80web20037/americanenergynow/AmericanEnergy.pdf">Archived</a> June 3, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-E85stat-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-E85stat_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-E85stat_46-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-E85stat_46-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Ethanol_Vehicle_Coalition2008" class="citation web cs1">National Ethanol Vehicle Coalition (August 8, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081010013636/http://www.e85fuel.com/news/080808fyi.htm">"New E85 Stations"</a>. 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Retrieved August 19, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+E85+Stations&rft.pub=NEVC+FYI+Newsletter+%28Vol+14+no.+13%29&rft.date=2008-08-08&rft.au=National+Ethanol+Vehicle+Coalition&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.e85fuel.com%2Fnews%2F080808fyi.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> For a complete and updated listing, go to www.e85refueling.com </li> <li id="cite_note-Apollo-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Apollo_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Apollo_47-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInslee,_JayBracken_Hendricks2007" class="citation book cs1">Inslee, Jay; Bracken Hendricks (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/apollosfireignit00insl">Apollo's Fire</a>. 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Retrieved May 3, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Veja&rft.atitle=Ele+%C3%A9+o+falso+vil%C3%A3o&rft.date=2008-04-27&rft.au=Julia+Duailibi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fveja.abril.com.br%2F300408%2Fp_058.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Epoca_16_06-105"><a href="#cite_ref-Epoca_16_06_105-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaria_Helena_Tachinardi2008" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Maria Helena Tachinardi (June 13, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080707090818/http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/0%2C%2CEMI5865-15273.html">"Por que a cana é melhor que o milho"</a>. <a href="/wiki/%C3%89poca_(Brazilian_magazine)" title="Época (Brazilian magazine)">Época</a> (in Portuguese). 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Retrieved May 9, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Assessment+of+greenhouse+gas+emissions+in+the+production+and+use+of+fuel+ethanol+in+Brazil&rft.pub=Secretariat+of+the+Environment%2C+Government+of+the+State+of+S%C3%A3o+Paulo&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Macedo+Isaias%2C+M.+Lima+Verde+Leal+and+J.+Azevedo+Ramos+da+Silva&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eners.ch%2Fplateforme%2Fmedias%2Fmacedo_2004.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EPAfinal2010-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EPAfinal2010_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPAfinal2010_107-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPAfinal2010_107-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EPAfinal2010_107-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110202202402/http://www.epa.gov/otaq/renewablefuels/420r10006.pdf">"Renewable Fuel Standard Program (RFS2) Regulatory Impact Analysis"</a> (PDF). 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Retrieved January 22, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An%C3%BAario+da+Industria+Automobilistica+Brasileira+2011%3A+Tabela+2.3+Produ%C3%A7%C3%A3o+por+combust%C3%ADvel+-+1957%2F2010&rft.pub=ANFAVEA+-+Associa%C3%A7%C3%A3o+Nacional+dos+Fabricantes+de+Ve%C3%ADculos+Automotores+%28Brasil%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.virapagina.com.br%2Fanfavea2011%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> pp. 62-63. </li> <li id="cite_note-ANFAVEA2011-111"><a href="#cite_ref-ANFAVEA2011_111-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRenavam/Denatran2012" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Renavam/Denatran (January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120131115223/http://www.anfavea.com.br/cartas/Carta308.pdf">"Licenciamento total de automóveis e comerciais leves por combustível"</a> [Total automobiles and light-trucks registered by fuel] (PDF) (in Portuguese). 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Retrieved February 10, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Motos+flex+foram+as+mais+vendidas+em+2009+na+categoria+150cc&rft.pub=UNICA&rft.date=2010-01-27&rft.au=Abraciclo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Funica.com.br%2Fnoticias%2Fshow.asp%3FnwsCode%3D4771CECF-FDB8-43B5-9CF9-E342B99F5C23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MotoFlex10-113"><a href="#cite_ref-MotoFlex10_113-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abraciclo.com.br/images/stories/dados_setor/motocicletas/producao/2010%20produo-dezcorreto.pdf">"Produção Motocicletas 2010"</a> (PDF) (in Portuguese). ABRACICLO. 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Retrieved January 21, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Produ%C3%A7%C3%A3o+Motocicletas+2011&rft.pub=ABRACICLO&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abraciclo.com.br%2Fimages%2Fstories%2Fdados_setor%2Fmotocicletas%2Fproducao%2F2011%2520produo-dezembro.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ANP08stats-115"><a href="#cite_ref-ANP08stats_115-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091003154045/http://www.anp.gov.br/doc/conheca/anuario_anp_2008.pdf">"Anuário Estatístico Brasileiro do Petróleo, Gás Natural e Biocombustíveis 2008"</a> (PDF) (in Portuguese). Agência Nacional do Petróleo, Gás Natural e Biocombustíveis. 2008. 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Retrieved July 10, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Anu%C3%A1rio+Estat%C3%ADstico+Brasileiro+do+Petr%C3%B3leo%2C+G%C3%A1s+Natural+e+Biocombust%C3%ADveis+2008&rft.pub=Ag%C3%AAncia+Nacional+do+Petr%C3%B3leo%2C+G%C3%A1s+Natural+e+Biocombust%C3%ADveis&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.anp.gov.br%2Fdoc%2Fconheca%2Fanuario_anp_2008.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> See Table 3.17, pp. 138. </li> <li id="cite_note-ANP07_2008-116"><a href="#cite_ref-ANP07_2008_116-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgência_Brasil2008" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Agência Brasil (July 15, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081226014527/http://br.invertia.com/noticias/noticia.aspx?idNoticia=200807152306_ABR_77211977">"ANP: consumo de álcool combustível é 50% maior em 2007"</a> (in Portuguese). 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Agropecuária Brasil. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.agropecuariabrasil.com.br/anp-estima-que-consumo-de-alcool-supere-gasolina/">the original</a> on June 1, 2008. Retrieved August 9, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ANP+estima+que+consumo+de+%C3%A1lcool+supere+gasolina&rft.pub=Agropecu%C3%A1ria+Brasil&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Gazeta+Mercantil&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.agropecuariabrasil.com.br%2Fanp-estima-que-consumo-de-alcool-supere-gasolina%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brazil48_20-118"><a href="#cite_ref-Brazil48_20_118-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD._Sean_Shurtleff2008" class="citation news cs1">D. Sean Shurtleff (May 7, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080510071440/http://www.washingtontimes.com/article/20080507/COMMENTARY/381443705/1012/commentary">"Brazil's energy plan examined"</a>. The Washington Times. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/article/20080507/COMMENTARY/381443705/1012/commentary">the original</a> on May 10, 2008. Retrieved May 10, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Times&rft.atitle=Brazil%27s+energy+plan+examined&rft.date=2008-05-07&rft.au=D.+Sean+Shurtleff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtontimes.com%2Farticle%2F20080507%2FCOMMENTARY%2F381443705%2F1012%2Fcommentary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BEN2008-119"><a href="#cite_ref-BEN2008_119-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmpresa_de_Pesquisa_Energética2008" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Empresa de Pesquisa Energética (November 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090319212002/https://www.mme.gov.br/site/menu/select_main_menu_item.do?channelId=1432">"Balanço Energético Nacional 2008: Ano base 2007"</a> (in Portuguese). Ministério de Minas e Energia do Brasil. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mme.gov.br/site/menu/select_main_menu_item.do?channelId=1432&pageId=17726">the original</a> (PDF (link to download)) on March 19, 2009. Retrieved February 22, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Balan%C3%A7o+Energ%C3%A9tico+Nacional+2008%3A+Ano+base+2007&rft.pub=Minist%C3%A9rio+de+Minas+e+Energia+do+Brasil&rft.date=2008-11&rft.au=Empresa+de+Pesquisa+Energ%C3%A9tica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mme.gov.br%2Fsite%2Fmenu%2Fselect_main_menu_item.do%3FchannelId%3D1432%26pageId%3D17726&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> Tables 3.6a and 3.6b. Data expressed in energy equivalent (<a href="/wiki/Tonne_of_oil_equivalent" title="Tonne of oil equivalent">toe</a>). Report is based in 2007 data. </li> <li id="cite_note-Farrel2006-120"><a href="#cite_ref-Farrel2006_120-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarrelPlevinTurnerJones2006" class="citation journal cs1">Farrel; Plevin, RJ; Turner, BT; Jones, AD; O'Hare, M; Kammen, DM; et al. (January 27, 2006). "Ethanol Can Contribute to Energy and Environmental Goals". Science. 311 (5760): 506–508. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Sci...311..506F">2006Sci...311..506F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1121416">10.1126/science.1121416</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16439656">16439656</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16061891">16061891</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Ethanol+Can+Contribute+to+Energy+and+Environmental+Goals&rft.volume=311&rft.issue=5760&rft.pages=506-508&rft.date=2006-01-27&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1121416&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16061891%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16439656&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Sci...311..506F&rft.au=Farrel&rft.au=Plevin%2C+RJ&rft.au=Turner%2C+BT&rft.au=Jones%2C+AD&rft.au=O%27Hare%2C+M&rft.au=Kammen%2C+DM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TwoBillion-121">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TwoBillion_121-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TwoBillion_121-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TwoBillion_121-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSperling,_DanielDeborah_Gordon2009" class="citation book cs1">Sperling, Daniel; Deborah Gordon (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/twobillioncarsdr00sper_0/page/98">Two billion cars: driving toward sustainability</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, New York. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/twobillioncarsdr00sper_0/page/98">98–99</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-537664-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-537664-7"><bdi>978-0-19-537664-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Two+billion+cars%3A+driving+toward+sustainability&rft.pages=98-99&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+New+York&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-537664-7&rft.au=Sperling%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Deborah+Gordon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftwobillioncarsdr00sper_0%2Fpage%2F98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> For more detail see also the Notes 27 and 28 for Chapter 4, pp. 272. </li> <li id="cite_note-Wang205ppt-122">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wang205ppt_122-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wang205ppt_122-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Wang" class="citation web cs1">Michael Wang. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130216035905/http://www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/TA/354.pdf">"Updated Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emission Results of Fuel Ethanol"</a> (PDF). Center for Transportation Research, Argonne National Laboratory. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/TA/354.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on February 16, 2013. Retrieved June 7, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Updated+Energy+and+Greenhouse+Gas+Emission+Results+of+Fuel+Ethanol&rft.pub=Center+for+Transportation+Research%2C+Argonne+National+Laboratory&rft.au=Michael+Wang&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.transportation.anl.gov%2Fpdfs%2FTA%2F354.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> This is a public presentation of Michael Wang 2005 paper summarizing the results of the ANL study. </li> <li id="cite_note-USEthanol-123"><a href="#cite_ref-USEthanol_123-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoettemoeller,_JeffreyAdrian_Goettemoeller2007" class="citation book cs1">Goettemoeller, Jeffrey; Adrian Goettemoeller (2007). Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence. Prairie Oak Publishing, Maryville, Missouri. pp. 40–41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9786293-0-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9786293-0-4"><bdi>978-0-9786293-0-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sustainable+Ethanol%3A+Biofuels%2C+Biorefineries%2C+Cellulosic+Biomass%2C+Flex-Fuel+Vehicles%2C+and+Sustainable+Farming+for+Energy+Independence&rft.pages=40-41&rft.pub=Prairie+Oak+Publishing%2C+Maryville%2C+Missouri&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-9786293-0-4&rft.au=Goettemoeller%2C+Jeffrey&rft.au=Adrian+Goettemoeller&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wang2005-124"><a href="#cite_ref-Wang2005_124-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Wang" class="citation web cs1">Michael Wang. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130215202548/http://www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/TA/375.pdf">"Updated Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emission Results of Fuel Ethanol"</a> (PDF). Center for Transportation Research, Argonne National Laboratory. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/TA/375.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on February 15, 2013. Retrieved June 7, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Updated+Energy+and+Greenhouse+Gas+Emission+Results+of+Fuel+Ethanol&rft.pub=Center+for+Transportation+Research%2C+Argonne+National+Laboratory&rft.au=Michael+Wang&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.transportation.anl.gov%2Fpdfs%2FTA%2F375.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> Presented at the 15th <a href="/wiki/International_Symposium_on_Alcohol_Fuels" title="International Symposium on Alcohol Fuels">International Symposium on Alcohol Fuels</a>, San Diego, California. </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-125">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_125-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_125-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarkHendricks2022" class="citation journal cs1">Lark, Nathan; Hendricks (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8892349">"Environmental outcomes of the US Renewable Fuel Standard"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 119 (9). <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022PNAS..11901084L">2022PNAS..11901084L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.2101084119">10.1073/pnas.2101084119</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8892349">8892349</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35165202">35165202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Environmental+outcomes+of+the+US+Renewable+Fuel+Standard&rft.volume=119&rft.issue=9&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8892349%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35165202&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.2101084119&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022PNAS..11901084L&rft.aulast=Lark&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rft.au=Hendricks&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8892349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WangLetScie-126"><a href="#cite_ref-WangLetScie_126-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_WangZia_Haq2008" class="citation web cs1">Michael Wang; Zia Haq (March 14, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130215164552/http://www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/letter_to_science_anldoe_03_14_08.pdf">"Letter to Science about Searchinger et al. article"</a> (PDF). Argonne National Laboratory. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/letter_to_science_anldoe_03_14_08.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on February 15, 2013. Retrieved June 7, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+to+Science+about+Searchinger+et+al.+article&rft.pub=Argonne+National+Laboratory&rft.date=2008-03-14&rft.au=Michael+Wang&rft.au=Zia+Haq&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.transportation.anl.gov%2Fpdfs%2Fletter_to_science_anldoe_03_14_08.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> The published version on Science Letters is included in Searchinger E-Letter responses August 12, 2008. </li> <li id="cite_note-SearchingerSM-127">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SearchingerSM_127-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SearchingerSM_127-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSearchinger2008" class="citation web cs1">Searchinger; et al. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111010140245/http://www.princeton.edu/~tsearchi/writings/SupportingMaterials.pdf">"Supporting Materials for Use of U.S. Croplands for Biofuels Increases Greenhouse Gases Through Emissions from Land Use Change"</a> (PDF). Princeton University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.princeton.edu/~tsearchi/writings/SupportingMaterials.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on October 10, 2011. Retrieved June 11, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Supporting+Materials+for+Use+of+U.S.+Croplands+for+Biofuels+Increases+Greenhouse+Gases+Through+Emissions+from+Land+Use+Change&rft.pub=Princeton+University&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Searchinger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.princeton.edu%2F~tsearchi%2Fwritings%2FSupportingMaterials.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> Data taken from Table 1B, pp. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-Times08-128">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Times08_128-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Times08_128-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Grunwald2008" class="citation magazine cs1">Michael Grunwald (March 27, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080330141602/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1725975,00.html">"The Clean Energy Scam"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1725975,00.html">the original</a> on March 30, 2008. Retrieved December 4, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=The+Clean+Energy+Scam&rft.date=2008-03-27&rft.au=Michael+Grunwald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C1725975%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cleanwisconsin.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Corn-Ethanol-Vs.-Solar-Analysis-V3-9-compressed.pdf">"Corn Ethanol vs. Solar: Land Use Comparison"</a> (PDF). Clean Wisconsin. January 19, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Clean+Wisconsin&rft.atitle=Corn+Ethanol+vs.+Solar%3A+Land+Use+Comparison&rft.date=2023-01-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cleanwisconsin.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2023%2F01%2FCorn-Ethanol-Vs.-Solar-Analysis-V3-9-compressed.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SFG042409-130">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SFG042409_130-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SFG042409_130-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWyatt_Buchanan2009" class="citation news cs1">Wyatt Buchanan (April 24, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/04/23/BABA1782HB.DTL&type=green&tsp=1">"Air Resources Board moves to cut carbon use"</a>. San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved April 25, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=San+Francisco+Chronicle&rft.atitle=Air+Resources+Board+moves+to+cut+carbon+use&rft.date=2009-04-24&rft.au=Wyatt+Buchanan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfgate.com%2Fcgi-bin%2Farticle.cgi%3Ff%3D%2Fc%2Fa%2F2009%2F04%2F23%2FBABA1782HB.DTL%26type%3Dgreen%26tsp%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT042409-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NYT042409_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYT042409_131-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nytimes.com/aponline/2009/04/24/us/AP-US-Low-Carbon-Fuel.html">"Calif. Approves Nation's 1st Low-Carbon Fuel Rule"</a>. The New York Times. Associated Press. April 24, 2009. 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Retrieved November 26, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters+UK&rft.atitle=Ethanol+no+longer+seen+as+big+driver+of+food+price&rft.date=2008-10-23&rft.au=Sam+Nelson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuk.reuters.com%2Farticle%2FoilRpt%2FidUKN2338007820081023&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthanol+fuel+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="U.S._government">U.S. government</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: U.S. government">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150518102307/http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/err-economic-research-report/err102.aspx">Effects of Increased Biofuels on the U.S. Economy in 2022</a>, U.S. Department of Agriculture, October 2010.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/data/fuels.html">U.S. Ethanol Fuel: Data, Analysis and Trends</a>, U.S. Department of Energy</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbo.gov/ftpdocs/114xx/doc11477/07-14-Biofuels.pdf">Using Biofuel Tax Credits to Achieve Energy and Environmental Policy Goals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Budget_Office" title="Congressional Budget Office">Congressional Budget Office</a>, July 2010.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_organizations">International organizations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: International organizations">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091122133933/http://www.unep.fr/scp/rpanel/pdf/Assessing_Biofuels_Full_Report.pdf">Towards Sustainable Production and Use of Resources: Assessing Biofuels</a> by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">United Nations Environment Programme</a>, October 2009.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080516004927/http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/EXTWDRS/EXTWDR2008/0%2C%2CcontentMDK%3A21501336~pagePK%3A64167689~piPK%3A64167673~theSitePK%3A2795143%2C00.html">World Bank, Biofuels: The Promise and the Risks. World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_sources">Other sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethanol_fuel_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Other sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ethanolrfa.org">Renewable Fuels Association web site</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050519140943/http://petroleum.berkeley.edu/papers/patzek/CRPS416-Patzek-Web.pdf">Thermodynamics of the Corn-Ethanol biofuel cycle, T.Patzek</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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