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class="noprint"></div> <div id="content" class="mw-body" role="main"> <a id="top"></a> <div id="siteNotice"></div> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Stealth technology</h1> <div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content"> <div id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> <div id="contentSub"></div> <div id="jump-to-nav" class="mw-jump"> Jump to: <a href="#mw-head">navigation</a>, <a href="#p-search">search</a> </div> <div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:212px;"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:F-117_Nighthawk_flight.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150319103626im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/F-117_Nighthawk_flight.jpg/210px-F-117_Nighthawk_flight.jpg" width="210" height="309" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150319103626im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/F-117_Nighthawk_flight.jpg/315px-F-117_Nighthawk_flight.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150319103626im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/F-117_Nighthawk_flight.jpg/420px-F-117_Nighthawk_flight.jpg 2x" data-file-width="442" data-file-height="650"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:F-117_Nighthawk_flight.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-117" title="F-117" class="mw-redirect">F-117</a> stealth attack plane</div> </div> </div> Stealth technology also termed LO technology (low observable technology) is a sub-discipline of military tactics and passive <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_countermeasure" title="Electronic countermeasure">electronic countermeasures</a>,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> which cover a range of <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">techniques</a> used with personnel, <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stealth_aircraft" title="Stealth aircraft">aircraft</a>, <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stealth_ship" title="Stealth ship">ships</a>, <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarines</a>, <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missile" title="Missile">missiles</a> and <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a> to make them less visible (ideally <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisible" title="Invisible" class="mw-redirect">invisible</a>) to <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermographic_camera" title="Thermographic camera">infrared</a>,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">sonar</a> and other detection methods. It corresponds to <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_camouflage" title="Military camouflage">military camouflage</a> for these parts of the electromagnetic spectrum (<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-spectral_camouflage" title="Multi-spectral camouflage">Multi-spectral camouflage</a>). Development in the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> occurred in 1958,<a href="#cite_note-national-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-learnt-4">[4]</a> where earlier attempts in preventing radar tracking of its <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_U-2" title="Lockheed U-2">U-2</a> spy planes during the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> by the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> had been unsuccessful.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Designers turned to develop a particular shape for planes that tended to reduce detection, by redirecting <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic waves</a> from radars.<a href="#cite_note-b2-6">[6]</a> <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar-absorbent_material" title="Radar-absorbent material">Radar-absorbent material</a> was also tested and made to reduce or block radar signals that reflect off from the surface of planes. Such changes to shape and surface composition form stealth technology as currently used on the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_B-2_Spirit" title="Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit">Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit</a> "Stealth Bomber".<a href="#cite_note-learnt-4">[4]</a> The concept of stealth is to operate or hide without giving enemy forces any indications as to the presence of friendly forces. This concept was first explored through camouflage by blending into the background visual clutter. As the potency of detection and interception technologies (<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infra-red_search_and_track" title="Infra-red search and track">Infra-red search and track</a>, <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile" title="Surface-to-air missile">surface-to-air missiles</a> etc.) have increased over time, so too has the extent to which the design and operation of military personnel and vehicles have been affected in response. Some military uniforms are treated with chemicals to reduce their <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> signature. A modern "stealth" vehicle is designed from the outset to have a chosen <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_signature" title="Spectral signature">spectral signature</a>. The degree of stealth embodied in a particular design is chosen according to the predicted threat capabilities. <div id="toc" class="toc"> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History">1 History</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Principles">2 Principles</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Radar_cross-section_.28RCS.29_reductions">3 Radar cross-section (RCS) reductions</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Vehicle_shape">3.1 Vehicle shape</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Aircraft">3.1.1 Aircraft</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Ships">3.1.2 Ships</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Materials">3.2 Materials</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Non-metallic_airframe">3.2.1 Non-metallic airframe</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Radar-absorbing_material">3.2.2 Radar-absorbing material</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Radar_stealth_countermeasures_and_limits">3.3 Radar stealth countermeasures and limits</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Low-frequency_radar">3.3.1 Low-frequency radar</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Multiple_emitters">3.3.2 Multiple emitters</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Moore.27s_law">3.3.3 Moore's law</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#Ship.27s_wakes_and_spray">3.3.4 Ship's wakes and spray</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#Schlieren_Signature">3.3.5 Schlieren Signature</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#Quantum_interference">3.3.6 Quantum interference</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Acoustics">4 Acoustics</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Visibility">5 Visibility</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Infrared">6 Infrared</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Reducing_radio_frequency_.28RF.29_emissions">7 Reducing radio frequency (RF) emissions</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Measuring">8 Measuring</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Tactics">9 Tactics</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Research">10 Research</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#List_of_stealth_aircraft">11 List of stealth aircraft</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#List_of_stealth_ships">12 List of stealth ships</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Fully_stealth_types">12.1 Fully stealth types</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Reduced_RCS_types">12.2 Reduced RCS types</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#See_also">13 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#References">14 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Bibliography">14.1 Bibliography</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Notes">14.2 Notes</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#External_links">15 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> <h2>History[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</h2> The concept of camouflage is known to predate warfare itself. Hunters have been using vegetation to conceal themselves perhaps as long as people have been hunting. In England, irregular units of gamekeepers in the 17th century were the first to adopt drab colours (common in 16th century Irish units) as a form of <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">camouflage</a>, following examples from the continent. During <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_1" title="World War 1" class="mw-redirect">World War 1</a>, the Germans experimented with the use of Cellon (<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose_acetate" title="Cellulose acetate">Cellulose acetate</a>), a transparent covering material, in an attempt to reduce the visibility of military aircraft. Single examples of the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fokker_E.III" title="Fokker E.III">Fokker E.III</a> Eindecker fighter monoplane, the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albatros_C.I" title="Albatros C.I">Albatros C.I</a> two-seat observation biplane, and the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linke-Hofmann_R.I" title="Linke-Hofmann R.I">Linke-Hofmann R.I</a> prototype heavy bomber were covered with Cellon. In fact, sunlight glinting from the material made the aircraft even more visible. Celon was also found to be quickly degraded both by sunlight and in-flight temperature changes so the attempt to make transparent aircraft was not proceeded with.<a href="#cite_note-Haddow-7">[7]</a> In 1916, the British modified a small <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_class_airship" title="SS class airship">SS class airship</a> for the purpose of night-time reconnaissance over German lines on the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a>. Fitted with a silenced engine and a black gas bag, the craft was both invisible and inaudible from the ground but several night-time flights over German-held territory produced little useful intelligence and the idea was dropped.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffused_lighting_camouflage" title="Diffused lighting camouflage">Diffused lighting camouflage</a>, a shipborne form of <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-illumination" title="Counter-illumination">counter-illumination</a> camouflage, was trialled by the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Navy" title="Royal Canadian Navy">Royal Canadian Navy</a> from 1941 to 1943. The concept was followed up, but for aircraft, by the Americans and the British: in 1945 a <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman_Avenger" title="Grumman Avenger" class="mw-redirect">Grumman Avenger</a> with <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yehudi_lights" title="Yehudi lights">Yehudi lights</a>, reached 3,000 yards (2,700 m) from a <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship" title="Ship">ship</a> before being sighted. This ability was rendered obsolete by <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NavalMuseumQuebec-9">[9]</a> The U-boat <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-480" title="German submarine U-480">U-480</a> may have been the first stealth submarine. It featured an <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anechoic_tile" title="Anechoic tile">anechoic tile rubber coating</a>, one layer of which contained circular air pockets to defeat <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASDIC" title="ASDIC" class="mw-redirect">ASDIC</a> sonar.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Radar absorbent rubber/semiconductor composite paints and materials (codenames: "Sumpf", "Schornsteinfeger") were used by the Kriegsmarine on submarines in World War II. Tests showed they were effective in reducing radar signatures at both short (centimetres) and long (1.5 metre) wavelengths.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> One of the earliest stealth aircraft was the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horten_Ho_229" title="Horten Ho 229">Horten Ho 229</a> flying wing. It included carbon powder in the glue to absorb radio waves. Some prototypes were built, but it was never used in action.<a href="#cite_note-Myhra-p-11-12">[12]</a> In 1960, the first stealth technology development program was initiated by USAF, by reducing the radar-cross-section of a <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryan_Firebee" title="Ryan Firebee">Ryan Q-2C Firebee</a> drone. This was achieved through specially designed screens over the air intake, <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar-absorbent_material" title="Radar-absorbent material">radar-absorbent material</a> on the fuselage and a special radar-absorbing paint.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> In 1958, the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIA" title="CIA" class="mw-redirect">CIA</a> requested funding for a reconnaissance aircraft to replace the existing <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_U-2" title="Lockheed U-2">U-2</a> spy planes,<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> and <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_Corporation" title="Lockheed Corporation">Lockheed</a> secured contractual rights to produce it.<a href="#cite_note-national-3">[3]</a> <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarence_Johnson" title="Clarence Johnson" class="mw-redirect">"Kelly" Johnson</a> and his team at Lockheed's <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skunk_Works" title="Skunk Works">Skunk Works</a> were assigned to produce the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_A-12" title="Lockheed A-12">A-12</a> (or OXCART), the first of the previously <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classified_information#Top_Secret_.28TS.29" title="Classified information">top secret</a> Blackbird series, which operated at high altitude of 70,000 to 80,000 ft and speed of <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mach_number" title="Mach number">Mach</a> 3.2 to avoid radar detection. Radar absorbent material was used on U-2 spy planes, and various plane shapes designed to reduce radar detection were developed in earlier prototypes, named A1 to A11.<a href="#cite_note-learnt-4">[4]</a> In 1964, an optimal plane shape taking into account compactness was developed for another "Blackbird", the Lockheed <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SR-71_Blackbird" title="SR-71 Blackbird" class="mw-redirect">SR-71</a>. This aircraft surpassed prior models in both altitude (90,000 ft) and speed (<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mach_number" title="Mach number">Mach</a> 3.3).<a href="#cite_note-learnt-4">[4]</a> The SR-71 included a number of stealthy features, notably its canted vertical stabilizers, the use of composite materials in key locations, and the overall finish in radar absorbing paint.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> During the 1970s the U.S. Department of Defence launched project <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_Have_Blue" title="Lockheed Have Blue">Lockheed Have Blue</a>, with the aim of developing a stealth fighter. There was fierce bidding between Lockheed and <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_Corporation" title="Northrop Corporation">Northrop</a> to secure the multi-billion dollar contract. Lockheed incorporated into its bid a text written by the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a>/<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russian</a> physicist <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyotr_Ufimtsev" title="Pyotr Ufimtsev" class="mw-redirect">Pyotr Ufimtsev</a> from 1962, titled Method of Edge Waves in the Physical Theory of Diffraction, Soviet Radio, Moscow, 1962. In 1971 this book was translated into English with the same title by U.S. Air Force, Foreign Technology Division.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The theory played a critical role in the design of American stealth-aircraft F-117 and B-2.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Equations outlined in the paper quantified how a plane's shape would affect its detectability by radar, its <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_cross-section" title="Radar cross-section">radar cross-section (RCS)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> This was applied by Lockheed in computer simulation to design a novel shape they called the "Hopeless Diamond", a wordplay on the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope_Diamond" title="Hope Diamond">Hope Diamond</a>, securing contractual rights to produce the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-117_Nighthawk" title="F-117 Nighthawk" class="mw-redirect">F-117 Nighthawk</a> starting in 1975. In 1977 Lockheed produced two 60% scale models under the Have Blue contract. The Have Blue program was a stealth technology demonstrator that lasted from 1976 to 1979. The success of Have Blue led the Air Force to create the Senior Trend<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> program which developed the F-117. <h2>Principles[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Principles">edit</a>]</h2> <table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"> <tr> <td class="mbox-image"> <div style="width:52px"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150319103626im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" width="50" height="39" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150319103626im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150319103626im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="262" data-file-height="204"/></a></div> </td> <td class="mbox-text">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing/1" title="Help:Introduction to referencing/1">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2009)</td> </tr> </table> Stealth technology (or LO for "low observability") is not a single technology. It is a combination of technologies that attempt to greatly reduce the distances at which a person or vehicle can be detected; in particular <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_cross_section#Reduction" title="Radar cross section" class="mw-redirect">radar cross section reductions</a>, but also <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustic_signature" title="Acoustic signature">acoustic</a>, <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_seeking" title="Heat seeking" class="mw-redirect">thermal</a>, and other aspects: <h2>Radar cross-section (RCS) reductions[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Radar cross-section (RCS) reductions">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_cross-section" title="Radar cross-section">Radar cross-section</a></div> Almost since the invention of <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, various methods have been tried to minimize detection. Rapid development of radar during WWII led to equally rapid development of <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_electronic_warfare_equipment" title="List of World War II electronic warfare equipment">numerous counter radar measures</a> during the period; a notable example of this was the use of <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaff_(radar_countermeasure)" title="Chaff (radar countermeasure)" class="mw-redirect">chaff</a>. Modern methods include <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_jamming_and_deception" title="Radar jamming and deception">Radar jamming and deception</a>. The term "stealth" in reference to reduced radar signature aircraft became popular during the late eighties when the Lockheed Martin <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-117_Nighthawk" title="F-117 Nighthawk" class="mw-redirect">F-117 stealth fighter</a> became widely known. The first large scale (and public) use of the F-117 was during the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> in 1991. However, F-117A stealth fighters were used for the first time in combat during <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Just_Cause" title="Operation Just Cause" class="mw-redirect">Operation Just Cause</a>, the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">United States invasion of Panama</a> in 1989.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Increased awareness of stealth vehicles and the technologies behind them is prompting the development of means to detect stealth vehicles, such as <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_radar" title="Passive radar">passive radar</a> arrays and <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-frequency_radar" title="Low-frequency radar">low-frequency radars</a>. Many countries nevertheless continue to develop low-RCS vehicles because they offer advantages in detection range reduction and amplify the effectiveness of on-board systems against <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_radar_homing" title="Active radar homing">active radar homing</a> threats.[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <h3>Vehicle shape[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vehicle shape">edit</a>]</h3> <h4>Aircraft[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Aircraft">edit</a>]</h4> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_design_process" title="Aircraft design process">Aircraft design process</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JSF_F35_P1230144.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150319103626im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/JSF_F35_P1230144.jpg/220px-JSF_F35_P1230144.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150319103626im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/JSF_F35_P1230144.jpg/330px-JSF_F35_P1230144.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150319103626im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/JSF_F35_P1230144.jpg/440px-JSF_F35_P1230144.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JSF_F35_P1230144.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> The <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-35_Lightning_II" title="F-35 Lightning II" class="mw-redirect">F-35 Lightning II</a> offers better stealthy features (such as this landing gear door) than prior American multi-role fighters, such as the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-16_Fighting_Falcon" title="F-16 Fighting Falcon" class="mw-redirect">F-16 Fighting Falcon</a></div> </div> </div> The possibility of designing aircraft in such a manner as to reduce their radar cross-section was recognized in the late 1930s, when the first radar tracking systems were employed, and it has been known since at least the 1960s that aircraft shape makes a significant difference in detectability. The <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_Vulcan" title="Avro Vulcan">Avro Vulcan</a>, a British <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">bomber</a> of the 1960s, had a remarkably small appearance on radar despite its large size, and occasionally disappeared from radar screens entirely. It is now known that it had a fortuitously stealthy shape apart from the vertical element of the tail. Despite being designed before a low <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_cross-section" title="Radar cross-section">radar cross-section</a> (RCS) and other stealth factors were ever a consideration,<a href="#cite_note-newscientist82-24">[24]</a> a Royal Aircraft Establishment technical note of 1957 stated that of all the aircraft so far studied, the Vulcan due to its shape appeared by far the simplest radar echoing object: only one or two components contributing significantly to the echo at any aspect, compared with three or more on most other types.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> While writing about radar systems, authors Simon Kingsley and Shaun Quegan singled out the Vulcan's shape as acting to reduce the RCS.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> In contrast, the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupolev_Tu-95" title="Tupolev Tu-95">Tupolev 95</a> Russian long range bomber (<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO_reporting_name" title="NATO reporting name">NATO reporting name</a> 'Bear') appeared especially well on radar. It is now known that <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller_(aircraft)" title="Propeller (aircraft)" class="mw-redirect">propellers</a> and jet turbine blades produce a bright radar image[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]; the Bear had four pairs of large (5.6 meter diameter) <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contra-rotating_propellers" title="Contra-rotating propellers">contra-rotating propellers</a>. Another important factor is internal construction. Some stealth aircraft have skin that is radar transparent or absorbing, behind which are structures termed <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re-entrant_polygon" title="Re-entrant polygon" class="mw-redirect">re-entrant triangles</a>. Radar waves penetrating the skin get trapped in these structures, reflecting off the internal faces and losing energy. This method was first used on the Blackbird series (<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_A-12" title="Lockheed A-12">A-12</a> / <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_YF-12A" title="Lockheed YF-12A" class="mw-redirect">YF-12A</a> / <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_SR-71_Blackbird" title="Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird">Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird</a>). The most efficient way to reflect radar waves back to the emitting radar is with orthogonal metal plates, forming a <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corner_reflector" title="Corner reflector">corner reflector</a> consisting of either a dihedral (two plates) or a trihedral (three orthogonal plates). This configuration occurs in the tail of a conventional aircraft, where the vertical and horizontal components of the tail are set at right angles. Stealth aircraft such as the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-117" title="F-117" class="mw-redirect">F-117</a> use a different arrangement, tilting the tail surfaces to reduce corner reflections formed between them. A more radical method is to eliminate the tail completely, as in the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-2_Spirit" title="B-2 Spirit" class="mw-redirect">B-2 Spirit</a>. The B-2's clean, low-drag <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_wing" title="Flying wing">flying wing</a> configuration not only gives it exceptional range but is also beneficial to reducing its radar profile.<a href="#cite_note-croddy_341-2-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The flying wing design most closely resembles a so-called infinite flat plate (as vertical control surfaces dramatically increase RCS), the perfect stealth shape, as it would have no angles to reflect back radar waves.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> In addition to altering the tail, stealth design must bury the engines within the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">wing</a> or <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuselage" title="Fuselage">fuselage</a>, or in some cases where stealth is applied to an extant aircraft, install baffles in the air intakes, so that the compressor blades are not visible to radar. A stealthy shape must be devoid of complex bumps or protrusions of any kind; meaning that weapons, fuel tanks, and other stores must not be carried externally. Any stealthy vehicle becomes un-stealthy when a door or hatch opens. <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planform" title="Planform">Planform</a> alignment is also often used in stealth designs. Planform alignment involves using a small number of surface orientations in the shape of the structure. For example, on the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-22A_Raptor" title="F-22A Raptor" class="mw-redirect">F-22A Raptor</a>, the leading edges of the wing and the tail surfaces are set at the same angle. Careful inspection shows that many small structures, such as the air intake bypass doors and the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_refueling" title="Air refueling" class="mw-redirect">air refueling</a> aperture, also use the same angles. The effect of planform alignment is to return a radar signal in a very specific direction away from the radar emitter rather than returning a <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflection" title="Diffuse reflection">diffuse signal</a> detectable at many angles. Stealth <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airframe" title="Airframe">airframes</a> sometimes display distinctive serrations on some exposed edges, such as the engine ports. The <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YF-23_Black_Widow_II" title="YF-23 Black Widow II" class="mw-redirect">YF-23</a> has such serrations on the exhaust ports. This is another example in the use of re-entrant triangles and planform alignment, this time on the external airframe. Shaping requirements have strong negative influence on the aircraft's aerodynamic properties. The <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-117" title="F-117" class="mw-redirect">F-117</a> has poor aerodynamics, is <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relaxed_stability" title="Relaxed stability">inherently unstable</a>, and cannot be flown without a <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_flight_control_system#Fly-by-wire_control_systems" title="Aircraft flight control system">fly-by-wire control system</a>. <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:K32_HMS_Helsingborg_Anchored-of-Gotska-Sandoen_cropped.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150319103626im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/K32_HMS_Helsingborg_Anchored-of-Gotska-Sandoen_cropped.jpg/220px-K32_HMS_Helsingborg_Anchored-of-Gotska-Sandoen_cropped.jpg" width="220" height="139" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150319103626im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/K32_HMS_Helsingborg_Anchored-of-Gotska-Sandoen_cropped.jpg/330px-K32_HMS_Helsingborg_Anchored-of-Gotska-Sandoen_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150319103626im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/K32_HMS_Helsingborg_Anchored-of-Gotska-Sandoen_cropped.jpg/440px-K32_HMS_Helsingborg_Anchored-of-Gotska-Sandoen_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="798" data-file-height="504"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:K32_HMS_Helsingborg_Anchored-of-Gotska-Sandoen_cropped.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> K32 HMS Helsingborg, a stealth ship</div> </div> </div> <h4>Ships[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ships">edit</a>]</h4> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_architecture" title="Naval architecture">Naval architecture</a></div> Ships have also adopted similar methods. The <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skjold-class_corvette" title="Skjold-class corvette">Skjold-class corvette</a> was the first <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stealth_ship" title="Stealth ship">stealth ship</a> to enter service, though the earlier <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arleigh_Burke-class_destroyer" title="Arleigh Burke-class destroyer">Arleigh Burke-class destroyer</a> incorporated some signature-reduction features.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Other examples are the French <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Fayette-class_frigate" title="La Fayette-class frigate">La Fayette-class frigate</a>, the German <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sachsen-class_frigate" title="Sachsen-class frigate">Sachsen-class frigates</a>, the Swedish <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visby-class_corvette" title="Visby-class corvette">Visby-class corvette</a>, the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_San_Antonio_(LPD-17)" title="USS San Antonio (LPD-17)">USS San Antonio</a> <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibious_transport_dock" title="Amphibious transport dock">amphibious transport dock</a>, and most modern <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warship" title="Warship">warship</a> designs. Similarly, coating the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockpit_(aviation)" title="Cockpit (aviation)" class="mw-redirect">cockpit</a> canopy with a <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin_film" title="Thin film">thin film</a> <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent_conductor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transparent conductor (page does not exist)">transparent conductor</a> (<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_vapor_deposition" title="Physical vapor deposition">vapor-deposited</a> <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> or <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indium_tin_oxide" title="Indium tin oxide">indium tin oxide</a>) helps to reduce the aircraft's radar profile, because radar waves would normally enter the cockpit, reflect off objects (the inside of a cockpit has a complex shape, with a pilot helmet alone forming a sizeable return), and possibly return to the radar, but the conductive coating creates a controlled shape that deflects the incoming radar waves away from the radar. The coating is thin enough that it has no adverse effect on pilot vision. <h3>Materials[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Materials">edit</a>]</h3> <h4>Non-metallic airframe[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Non-metallic airframe">edit</a>]</h4> <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric" title="Dielectric">Dielectric</a> <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">composites</a> are more transparent to radar, whereas electrically conductive materials such as <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metals</a> and <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fiber" title="Carbon fiber" class="mw-redirect">carbon fibers</a> reflect electromagnetic energy incident on the material's surface. Composites may also contain <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrite_(magnet)" title="Ferrite (magnet)">ferrites</a> to optimize the dielectric and magnetic properties of a material for its application. <h4>Radar-absorbing material[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Radar-absorbing material">edit</a>]</h4> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar-absorbent_material" title="Radar-absorbent material">Radar-absorbent material</a></div> <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar-absorbent_material" title="Radar-absorbent material">Radar-absorbent material</a> (RAM), often as paints, are used especially on the edges of metal surfaces. While the material and thickness of RAM coatings can vary, the way they work is the same: absorb radiated energy from a ground or air based radar station into the coating and convert it to heat rather than reflect it back.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Current technologies include dielectric composites and metal fibers containing ferrite isotopes. Paint comprises of depositing pyramid like colonies on the reflecting superficies with the gaps filled with ferrite-based RAM. The pyramidal structure deflects the incident radar energy in the maze of RAM. A commonly used material is known as „Iron Ball Paint‟. <a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>Iron ball paint contains microscopic iron spheres that resonate in tune with incoming radio waves and dissipate the majority of their energy as heat, leaving little to bounce back to detectors. FSS are planar periodic structures that behave like filters to electromagnetic energy. The considered frequency selective surfaces are composed of conducting patch elements pasted on the ferrite layer. FSS are used for filtration and microwave absorption. <h3>Radar stealth countermeasures and limits[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Radar stealth countermeasures and limits">edit</a>]</h3> <h4>Low-frequency radar[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Low-frequency radar">edit</a>]</h4> Shaping offers far fewer stealth advantages against <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-frequency_radar" title="Low-frequency radar">low-frequency radar</a>. If the radar <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> is roughly twice the size of the target, a half-wave <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonance" title="Resonance">resonance</a> effect can still generate a significant return. However, low-frequency radar is limited by lack of available frequencies-many are heavily used by other systems, by lack of accuracy of the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction-limited_system" title="Diffraction-limited system">diffraction-limited systems</a> given their long wavelengths, and by the radar's size, making it difficult to transport. A long-wave radar may detect a target and roughly locate it, but not provide enough information to identify it, target it with weapons, or even to guide a fighter to it.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Noise poses another problem, but that can be efficiently addressed using modern computer technology; Chinese "Nantsin" radar and many older Soviet-made long-range radars were modified this way. <h4>Multiple emitters[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Multiple emitters">edit</a>]</h4> Much of the stealth comesions in directions different than a direct return. Thus, detection can be better achieved if emitters are separate from receivers. One emitter separate from one receiver is termed <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bistatic_radar" title="Bistatic radar">bistatic radar</a>; one or more emitters separate from more than one receiver is termed <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multistatic_radar" title="Multistatic radar">multistatic radar</a>. Proposals exist to use reflections from emitters such as civilian radio <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">transmitters</a>, including <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_site" title="Cell site">cellular telephone radio towers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <h4>Moore's law[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Moore's law">edit</a>]</h4> By <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a> the processing power behind radar systems is rising over time. This will erode the ability of physical stealth to hide vehicles.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> <h4>Ship's wakes and spray[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ship's wakes and spray">edit</a>]</h4> Synthetic Aperture sidescan radars can be used to detect the location and heading of ships from their wake patterns.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> These may be detectable from orbit. When a ship moves through a seaway it throws up a cloud of spray which can be detected by radar. <h4>Schlieren Signature[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Schlieren Signature">edit</a>]</h4> Anything that disturbs the atmosphere may be detected (<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlieren_photography" title="Schlieren photography">Schlieren photography</a>) because of the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlieren_effect" title="Schlieren effect" class="mw-redirect">Schlieren effect</a> caused by that <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_seeing" title="Astronomical seeing">atmospheric disturbance</a>. This type of <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement_and_signature_intelligence" title="Measurement and signature intelligence">Measurement and signature intelligence</a> detection falls under the category of <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electro-optical_MASINT#Schlieren_Photography" title="Electro-optical MASINT">Electro-optical MASINT</a>. <h4>Quantum interference[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Quantum interference">edit</a>]</h4> Principles from quantum interference have been proposed for the detection of stealth aircraft.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> The overall approach relies upon devising a gravimetric radar system for detecting moving massive objects based on the time variation that these objects produce in the local gravitational field measured by several detectors. <h2>Acoustics[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Acoustics">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="hatnote boilerplate seealso">See also: <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustic_signature" title="Acoustic signature">Acoustic signature</a>, <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_noise" title="Aircraft noise">Aircraft noise</a> and <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopter_noise_reduction" title="Helicopter noise reduction">Helicopter noise reduction</a></div> Acoustic stealth plays a primary role in <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarine</a> stealth as well as for ground vehicles. Submarines use extensive rubber mountings to isolate and avoid mechanical noises that could reveal locations to underwater <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_sonar" title="Passive sonar" class="mw-redirect">passive sonar</a> arrays. Early stealth <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveillance_aircraft" title="Surveillance aircraft">observation aircraft</a> used slow-turning <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller_(aircraft)" title="Propeller (aircraft)" class="mw-redirect">propellers</a> to avoid being heard by enemy troops below. Stealth aircraft that stay <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsonic_flight" title="Subsonic flight" class="mw-redirect">subsonic</a> can avoid being tracked by <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_boom" title="Sonic boom">sonic boom</a>. The presence of supersonic and jet-powered stealth aircraft such as the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SR-71_Blackbird" title="SR-71 Blackbird" class="mw-redirect">SR-71 Blackbird</a> indicates that <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustic_signature" title="Acoustic signature">acoustic signature</a> is not always a major driver in aircraft design, although the Blackbird relied more on its extremely high speed and altitude. One possible technique for reducing helicopter rotor noise is 'modulated blade spacing'.<a href="#cite_note-Global_mod_blade-42">[42]</a> Standard rotor blades are evenly spaced, and produce greater noise at a particular frequency and its <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonics" title="Harmonics" class="mw-redirect">harmonics</a>. Using varying degrees of spacing between the blades spreads the noise or acoustic signature of the rotor over a greater range of frequencies.<a href="#cite_note-NASA_mod_blade-43">[43]</a> <h2>Visibility[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Visibility">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_camouflage" title="Military camouflage">Military camouflage</a>, <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_camouflage" title="Active camouflage">Active camouflage</a>, <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_camouflage" title="Aircraft camouflage">Aircraft camouflage</a> and <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_camouflage" title="Ship camouflage">Ship camouflage</a></div> The simplest technology is visual <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">camouflage</a>; the use of paint or other materials to color and break up the lines of the vehicle or person. Most stealth aircraft use <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matte_paint" title="Matte paint" class="mw-redirect">matte paint</a> and dark colors, and operate only at night. Lately, interest in daylight Stealth (especially by the USAF) has emphasized the use of gray paint in <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dazzle_camouflage" title="Dazzle camouflage">disruptive schemes</a>, and it is assumed that <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yehudi_lights" title="Yehudi lights">Yehudi lights</a> could be used in the future to mask shadows in the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airframe" title="Airframe">airframe</a> (in daylight, against the clear background of the sky, dark tones are easier to detect than light ones) or as a sort of active camouflage. The original B-2 design had wing tanks for a <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contrail" title="Contrail">contrail</a>-inhibiting chemical, alleged by some to be chlorofluorosulfonic acid,<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> but this was replaced in the final design with a contrail sensor that alerts the pilot when he should change altitude<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> and mission planning also considers altitudes where the probability of their formation is minimized. In space, mirrored surfaces can be employed to reflect views of empty space toward known or suspected observers; this approach is compatible with several radar stealth schemes. Careful control of the orientation of the satellite relative to the observers is essential, and mistakes can lead to detectability enhancement rather than the desired reduction. <h2>Infrared[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Infrared">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_signature" title="Infrared signature">infrared signature</a></div> <div class="hatnote boilerplate seealso">See also: <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_countermeasure" title="Infrared countermeasure">Infrared countermeasure</a></div> An exhaust plume contributes a significant infrared signature. One means to reduce IR signature is to have a non-circular <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_system" title="Exhaust system">tail pipe</a> (a slit shape) to minimize the exhaust cross-sectional volume and maximize the mixing of hot exhaust with cool ambient air (see Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk). Often, cool air is deliberately injected into the exhaust flow to boost this process (see <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryan_AQM-91_Firefly" title="Ryan AQM-91 Firefly">Ryan AQM-91 Firefly</a> and <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_B-2_Spirit" title="Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit">Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit</a>). According to the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan%E2%80%93Boltzmann_law" title="Stefan–Boltzmann law">Stefan–Boltzmann law</a>, this results in less energy (<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">Thermal radiation</a> in infrared spectrum) being released and thus reduces the heat signature. Sometimes, the jet exhaust is vented above the wing surface to shield it from observers below, as in the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_F-117_Nighthawk" title="Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk">Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk</a>, and the unstealthy <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairchild_Republic_A-10_Thunderbolt_II" title="Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II">Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II</a>. To achieve <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_stealth" title="Infrared stealth" class="mw-redirect">infrared stealth</a>, the exhaust gas is cooled to the temperatures where the brightest wavelengths it <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wien%27s_displacement_law" title="Wien's displacement law">radiates</a> are <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_window" title="Infrared window">absorbed by atmospheric carbon dioxide and water vapor</a>, dramatically reducing the infrared visibility of the exhaust plume.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Another way to reduce the exhaust temperature is to circulate <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coolant" title="Coolant">coolant</a> fluids such as fuel inside the exhaust pipe, where the fuel tanks serve as <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_sink" title="Heat sink">heat sinks</a> cooled by the flow of air along the wings.[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Ground combat includes the use of both active and passive infrared sensors and so the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USMC" title="USMC" class="mw-redirect">USMC</a> ground combat uniform requirements document specifies infrared reflective quality standards.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <h2>Reducing radio frequency (RF) emissions[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Reducing radio frequency (RF) emissions">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="hatnote boilerplate seealso">See also: <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio wave</a></div> In addition to reducing infrared and acoustic emissions, a stealth vehicle must avoid radiating any other detectable energy, such as from onboard radars, communications systems, or <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TEMPEST" title="TEMPEST" class="mw-redirect">RF leakage</a> from electronics enclosures. The <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-117" title="F-117" class="mw-redirect">F-117</a> uses <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermographic_camera" title="Thermographic camera">passive infrared</a> and <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_light_level_television" title="Low light level television">low light level television</a> sensor systems to aim its weapons and the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-22_Raptor" title="F-22 Raptor" class="mw-redirect">F-22 Raptor</a> has an advanced <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_probability_of_intercept" title="Low probability of intercept" class="mw-redirect">LPI radar</a> which can illuminate enemy aircraft without triggering a <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_warning_receiver" title="Radar warning receiver">radar warning receiver</a> response. <h2>Measuring[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Measuring">edit</a>]</h2> The size of a target's image on radar is measured by the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_cross_section" title="Radar cross section" class="mw-redirect">radar cross section</a> or RCS, often represented by the symbol <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3" title="Σ" class="mw-redirect">σ</a> and expressed in square meters. This does not equal geometric area. A perfectly conducting sphere of projected cross sectional area 1 m2 (i.e. a diameter of 1.13 m) will have an RCS of 1 m2. Note that for radar wavelengths much less than the diameter of the sphere, RCS is independent of frequency. Conversely, a square flat plate of area 1 m2 will have an RCS of σ = 4π A2 / λ2 (where A=area, λ=wavelength), or 13,982 m2 at 10 GHz if the radar is perpendicular to the flat surface.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> At off-normal <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incident_angle" title="Incident angle" class="mw-redirect">incident angles</a>, energy is reflected away from the receiver, reducing the RCS. Modern stealth aircraft are said to have an RCS comparable with small birds or large insects,<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> though this varies widely depending on aircraft and radar. If the RCS was directly related to the target's cross-sectional area, the only way to reduce it would be to make the physical profile smaller. Rather, by reflecting much of the radiation away or by absorbing it, the target achieves a smaller radar cross section.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <h2>Tactics[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Tactics">edit</a>]</h2> Stealthy strike aircraft such as the <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_F-117_Nighthawk" title="Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk">Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk</a>, designed by the famous <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skunk_Works" title="Skunk Works">Skunk Works</a>, are usually used against heavily defended enemy sites such as <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">Command and control</a> centers or <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile" title="Surface-to-air missile">surface-to-air missile</a> (SAM) batteries. Enemy radar will cover the airspace around these sites with overlapping coverage, making undetected entry by conventional aircraft nearly impossible. Stealthy aircraft can also be detected, but only at short ranges around the radars; for a stealthy aircraft there are substantial gaps in the radar coverage. Thus a stealthy aircraft flying an appropriate route can remain undetected by radar. Many ground-based radars exploit <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_radar" title="Doppler radar">Doppler</a> filter to <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clutter_(radar)" title="Clutter (radar)">improve sensitivity</a> to objects having a <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radial_velocity" title="Radial velocity">radial velocity</a> component with respect to the radar. Mission planners use their knowledge of enemy radar locations and the RCS pattern of the aircraft to design a flight path that minimizes radial speed while presenting the lowest-RCS aspects of the aircraft to the threat radar. To be able to fly these "safe" routes, it is necessary to understand an enemy's radar coverage (see <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_intelligence" title="Electronic intelligence" class="mw-redirect">electronic intelligence</a>). Airborne or mobile radar systems such as <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airborne_early_warning_and_control" title="Airborne early warning and control">AWACS</a> can complicate tactical strategy for stealth operation. <h2>Research[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Research">edit</a>]</h2> <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_index_metamaterials" title="Negative index metamaterials">Negative index metamaterials</a> are artificial structures for which refractive index has a negative value for some frequency range, such as in microwave, infrared, or possibly optical.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> These offer another way to reduce detectability, and may provide electromagnetic near-invisibility in designed wavelengths. <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_stealth" title="Plasma stealth">Plasma stealth</a> is a phenomenon proposed to use ionized gas (<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a>) to reduce RCS of vehicles. Interactions between <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a> and ionized gas have been studied extensively for many purposes, including concealing vehicles from radar. Various methods might form a layer or cloud of plasma around a vehicle to deflect or absorb radar, from simpler electrostatic to <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_frequency" title="Radio frequency">RF</a> more complex laser discharges, but these may be difficult in practice.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Several technology research and development efforts exist to integrate the functions of <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_flight_control_system" title="Aircraft flight control system">aircraft flight control systems</a> such as <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aileron" title="Aileron">ailerons</a>, <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevator_(aircraft)" title="Elevator (aircraft)" class="mw-redirect">elevators</a>, <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevon" title="Elevon">elevons</a>, <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flap_(aircraft)" title="Flap (aircraft)" class="mw-redirect">flaps</a>, and <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flaperon" title="Flaperon">flaperons</a> into wings to perform the aerodynamic purpose with the advantages of lower RCS for stealth via simpler geometries and lower complexity (mechanically simpler, fewer or no moving parts or surfaces, less maintenance), and lower mass, cost (up to 50% less), drag (up to 15% less during use) and, <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertia" title="Inertia">inertia</a> (for faster, stronger control response to change vehicle orientation to reduce detection). Two promising approaches are flexible wings, and fluidics. In flexible wings, much or all of a wing surface can change shape in flight to deflect air flow. <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_compliant_wing" title="Adaptive compliant wing">Adaptive compliant wings</a> are a military and commercial effort.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> The <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-53_Active_Aeroelastic_Wing" title="X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing" class="mw-redirect">X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing</a> was a US Air Force, <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing" title="Boeing">Boeing</a>, and <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> effort. In <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluidics" title="Fluidics">fluidics</a>, fluid injection is being researched for use in <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a> to control direction, in two ways: circulation control and thrust vectoring. In both, larger more complex mechanical parts are replaced by smaller, simpler fluidic systems, in which larger forces in fluids are diverted by smaller jets or flows of fluid intermittently, to change the direction of vehicles. In circulation control, near the trailing edges of wings, aircraft flight control systems are replaced by slots which emit fluid flows.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> In <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrust_vectoring" title="Thrust vectoring">thrust vectoring</a>, in <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet engine</a> nozzles, swiveling parts are replaced by slots which inject fluid flows into jets to divert thrust.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Tests show that air forced into a jet engine exhaust stream can deflect thrust up to 15 degrees. The U.S. FAA has conducted a study about civilizing 3D military thrust vectoring to help jetliners avoid crashes. According to this study, 65% of all air crashes can be prevented by deploying thrust vectoring means.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <h2>List of stealth aircraft[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: List of stealth aircraft">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stealth_aircraft" title="List of stealth aircraft" class="mw-redirect">List of stealth aircraft</a></div> <h2>List of stealth ships[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: List of stealth ships">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stealth_ship" title="Stealth ship">Stealth ship</a></div> <h3>Fully stealth types[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Fully stealth types">edit</a>]</h3> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braunschweig-class_corvette" title="Braunschweig-class corvette">Braunschweig class corvette</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Zeven_Provinci%C3%ABn-class_frigate" title="De Zeven Provinciën-class frigate">De Zeven Provinciën class frigate</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_Dutch_Navy_offshore_patrol_vessels" title="Future Dutch Navy offshore patrol vessels" class="mw-redirect">Future Dutch Navy offshore patrol vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam-class_amphibious_transport_dock" title="Rotterdam-class amphibious transport dock">Rotterdam-class amphibious transport dock</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F125-class_frigate" title="F125-class frigate">F125-class frigate</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_45_destroyer" title="Type 45 destroyer">Type 45 destroyer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formidable-class_frigate" title="Formidable-class frigate">Formidable class frigate</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamina-class_missile_boat" title="Hamina-class missile boat">Hamina class missile boat</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolkata-class_destroyer" title="Kolkata-class destroyer">Kolkata Class Destroyer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kedah-class_offshore_patrol_vessel" title="Kedah-class offshore patrol vessel">Kedah class New Generation Patrol Vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Fayette-class_frigate" title="La Fayette-class frigate">La Fayette class frigate</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Littoral_combat_ship" title="Littoral combat ship">Littoral combat ship</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_17A-class_frigate" title="Project 17A-class frigate">Project 17A-class frigate</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sachsen-class_frigate" title="Sachsen-class frigate">Sachsen class frigate</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_Shadow_(IX-529)" title="Sea Shadow (IX-529)">Sea Shadow (IX-529)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shivalik-class_frigate" title="Shivalik-class frigate">Shivalik class frigate</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigma-class_corvette" title="Sigma-class corvette">Sigma class corvette</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skjold-class_patrol_boat" title="Skjold-class patrol boat" class="mw-redirect">Skjold class patrol boat</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visby-class_corvette" title="Visby-class corvette">Visby class corvette</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_052C_destroyer" title="Type 052C destroyer">Type 052C destroyer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_052D_destroyer" title="Type 052D destroyer">Type 052D destroyer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_055_destroyer" title="Type 055 destroyer">Type 055 destroyer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_054A_frigate" title="Type 054A frigate">Type 054A frigate</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zumwalt-class_destroyer" title="Zumwalt-class destroyer">Zumwalt class destroyer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houbei-class_missile_boat" title="Houbei-class missile boat" class="mw-redirect">Houbei-class missile boat</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgem" title="Milgem" class="mw-redirect">Milgems</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatarstan/Gepard-class_frigate" title="Tatarstan/Gepard-class frigate" class="mw-redirect">Tatarstan/Gepard-class frigate</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buyan-class_corvette" title="Buyan-class corvette">Project 21630 Buyan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steregushchiy-class_corvette&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Steregushchiy-class corvette (page does not exist)">Project 20380 Steregushchiy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiral_Grigorovich-class_frigate" title="Admiral Grigorovich-class frigate">Admiral Grigorovich-class frigate</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Admiral_Sergei_Gorshkov-class_frigate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Admiral Sergei Gorshkov-class frigate (page does not exist)">Gorshkov class frigate</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamorta-class_corvette" title="Kamorta-class corvette">Kamorta class corvette</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_21956" title="Project 21956" class="mw-redirect">Project 21956 destroyer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FREMM_multipurpose_frigate" title="FREMM multipurpose frigate">FREMM multipurpose frigate</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizon-class_frigate" title="Horizon-class frigate">Horizon-class frigate</a></li> </ul> <h3>Reduced RCS types[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Reduced RCS types">edit</a>]</h3> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_R._Ford-class_aircraft_carrier" title="Gerald R. Ford-class aircraft carrier">Gerald R. Ford class aircraft carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arleigh_Burke-class_destroyer" title="Arleigh Burke-class destroyer">Arleigh Burke class destroyer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Antonio-class_amphibious_transport_dock" title="San Antonio-class amphibious transport dock">San Antonio class amphibious transport dock</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atago-class_destroyer" title="Atago-class destroyer">Atago class destroyer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejong_the_Great-class_destroyer" title="Sejong the Great-class destroyer">Sejong the Great destroyer</a> (KDX-III)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chungmugong_Yi_Sun-shin-class_destroyer" title="Chungmugong Yi Sun-shin-class destroyer" class="mw-redirect">Chungmugong Yi Sun-shin destroyer</a> (KDX-II)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gumdoksuri-class_patrol_vessel" title="Gumdoksuri-class patrol vessel">Gumdoksuri class patrol vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neustrashimyy-class_frigate" title="Neustrashimyy-class frigate">Neustrashimyy-class frigate</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talwar-class_frigate" title="Talwar-class frigate">Talwar-class frigate</a></li> </ul> <h2>See also[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</h2> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyotr_Ufimtsev" title="Pyotr Ufimtsev" class="mw-redirect">Pyotr Ufimtsev</a> <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a>/<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russian</a> physicist who created much of the original theory behind radar stealth</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">Radar</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horten_brothers" title="Horten brothers">Horten brothers</a> German engineers whose planes were the models for the stealth bombers.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-spectral_camouflage" title="Multi-spectral camouflage">Multi-spectral camouflage</a></li> </ul> <h2>References[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</h2> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 33em; -webkit-column-width: 33em; column-width: 33em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Rao G.A., Mahulikar S.P. (2002). "Integrated review of stealth technology and its role in airpower". Aeronautical Journal 106 (1066): 629–641.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.atitle=Integrated+review+of+stealth+technology+and+its+role+in+airpower&rft.aulast=Rao+G.A.%2C+Mahulikar+S.P.&rft.au=Rao+G.A.%2C+Mahulikar+S.P.&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1066&rft.jtitle=Aeronautical+Journal&rft.pages=629-641&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=106" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Mahulikar S.P., Sonawane H.R., Rao G.A. (2007). "Infrared signature studies of aerospace vehicles". Progress in Aerospace Sciences 43 (7-8): 218–245. <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PrAeS..43..218M">2007PrAeS..43..218M</a>. <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.paerosci.2007.06.002">10.1016/j.paerosci.2007.06.002</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.atitle=Infrared+signature+studies+of+aerospace+vehicles&rft.aulast=Mahulikar+S.P.%2C+Sonawane+H.R.%2C+Rao+G.A.&rft.au=Mahulikar+S.P.%2C+Sonawane+H.R.%2C+Rao+G.A.&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007PrAeS..43..218M&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.paerosci.2007.06.002&rft.issue=7-8&rft.jtitle=Progress+in+Aerospace+Sciences&rft.pages=218-245&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=43" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-national-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-national_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-national_3-1">b</a> Richelson, J.T. (10 September 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB54/">"Science, Technology and the CIA"</a>. The National Security Archive. The George Washington University. Retrieved 6 October 2009.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.atitle=Science%2C+Technology+and+the+CIA&rft.aulast=Richelson%2C+J.T.&rft.au=Richelson%2C+J.T.&rft.date=10+September+2001&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gwu.edu%2F~nsarchiv%2FNSAEBB%2FNSAEBB54%2F&rft.jtitle=The+National+Security+Archive&rft.pub=The+George+Washington+University&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-learnt-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-learnt_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-learnt_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-learnt_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-learnt_4-3">d</a> Merlin, P.W. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.scribd.com/doc/20131420/NASA-SR71-Blackbird-Challenges-and-Lessons-Learned-2009">Design and Development of the Blackbird: Challenges and Lessons Learned</a>" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://pdf.aiaa.org/preview/CDReadyMASM09_1811/PV2009_1522.pdf">American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics</a> 47th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting Including The New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition 5–8 January 2009, Orlando, Florida. Accessed 2009-10-06.</li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Cadirci, S. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://edocs.nps.edu/npspubs/scholarly/theses/2009/Mar/09Mar_Cadirci.pdf">RF Stealth (or Low Observable) and Counter- RF Stealth Technologies: Implications of Counter- RF Stealth Solutions for Turkish Air Force</a>." Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey California, Ph.D. Thesis. March 2009. Accessed 6 October 2009.</li> <li id="cite_note-b2-6"><a href="#cite_ref-b2_6-0">^</a> Yue, T. (30 November 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://tech.mit.edu/V121/N63/Stealth.63f.html">"Detection of the B-2 Stealth Bomber and a Brief History on "Stealth""</a>. The Tech - Online Edition. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 5 October 2009.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.atitle=Detection+of+the+B-2+Stealth+Bomber+and+a+Brief+History+on+%22Stealth%22&rft.aulast=Yue%2C+T.&rft.au=Yue%2C+T.&rft.date=30+November+2001&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftech.mit.edu%2FV121%2FN63%2FStealth.63f.html&rft.jtitle=The+Tech+-+Online+Edition&rft.pub=Massachusetts+Institute+of+Technology&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haddow-7"><a href="#cite_ref-Haddow_7-0">^</a> Haddow, G.W.; Peter M. Grosz (1988). The German Giants - The German R-Planes 1914-1918 (3rd ed.). London: Putnam. <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85177-812-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-85177-812-7">0-85177-812-7</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.aufirst=G.W.&rft.au=Haddow%2C+G.W.&rft.aulast=Haddow&rft.au=Peter+M.+Grosz&rft.btitle=The+German+Giants+-+The+German+R-Planes+1914-1918&rft.date=1988&rft.edition=3rd&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-85177-812-7&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Putnam&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Abbott, Patrick (1989). The British Airship at War, 1914-1918. Terence Dalton. pp. 31–33. <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0861380738" title="Special:BookSources/0861380738">0861380738</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.au=Abbott%2C+Patrick&rft.aulast=Abbott%2C+Patrick&rft.btitle=The+British+Airship+at+War%2C+1914-1918&rft.date=1989&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0861380738&rft.pages=31-33&rft.pub=Terence+Dalton&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NavalMuseumQuebec-9"><a href="#cite_ref-NavalMuseumQuebec_9-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.navy.forces.gc.ca/navres/10/10-n_eng.asp?category=183&title=1587">"Naval Museum of Quebec"</a>. Diffused Lighting and its use in the Chaleur Bay. Royal Canadian Navy. Retrieved 18 September 2012.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.atitle=Naval+Museum+of+Quebec&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.navy.forces.gc.ca%2Fnavres%2F10%2F10-n_eng.asp%3Fcategory%3D183%26title%3D1587&rft.jtitle=Diffused+Lighting+and+its+use+in+the+Chaleur+Bay&rft.pub=Royal+Canadian+Navy&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.uboataces.com/sonar-coating.shtml">German U-Boat: Anti Sonar Coating</a>. Retrieved 18 September 2012.</li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Hepcke, Gerhard ((web page dated 2007)). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.radarworld.org/radarwar.pdf">"The Radar War, 1930-1945"</a> (PDF). English translation by Hannah Liebmann. Radar World. p. 45. Retrieved 19 September 2012.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.au=Hepcke%2C+Gerhard&rft.aulast=Hepcke%2C+Gerhard&rft.btitle=The+Radar+War%2C+1930-1945&rft.date=%28web+page+dated+2007%29&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.radarworld.org%2Fradarwar.pdf&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Radar+World&rft.series=English+translation+by+Hannah+Liebmann&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  Check date values in: <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|date=</code> (<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li id="cite_note-Myhra-p-11-12"><a href="#cite_ref-Myhra-p-11_12-0">^</a> Myhra 2009, p. 11.</li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/spiesfly/uavs_09.html">"1960s AQM-34 Ryan Firebee (USA)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.pbs.org/">http://www.pbs.org/</a>. Retrieved 14 January 2015.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.atitle=1960s+AQM-34+Ryan+Firebee+%28USA%29&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Fnova%2Fspiesfly%2Fuavs_09.html&rft.jtitle=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Poteat, Gene (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB54/st08.pdf">"Stealth, Countermeasures, and ELINT, 1960-1975"</a>. Studies in Intelligence 48 (1): 51–59.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.atitle=Stealth%2C+Countermeasures%2C+and+ELINT%2C+1960-1975&rft.aufirst=Gene&rft.aulast=Poteat&rft.au=Poteat%2C+Gene&rft.date=1998&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gwu.edu%2F~nsarchiv%2FNSAEBB%2FNSAEBB54%2Fst08.pdf&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Intelligence&rft.pages=51-59&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=48" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.nasm.si.edu/collections/artifact.cfm?id=A19920072000">"Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird."</a></li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> National Air Intelligence Center, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, 1971. Technical Report AD 733203, Defense Technical Information Center of USA, Cameron Station, Alexandria, VA, 22304-6145, USA</li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Browne, M.W. "Two rival designers led the way to stealthy warplanes", New York Times, Sci. Times Sec., May 14, 1991.</li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Browne, M.W. "Lockheed credits Soviet theory in design of F-117", Aviation Week Space Technology p. 27, December 1991.</li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Rich, Ben and L. Janos, Skunk Works, Little Brown, Boston, 1994.</li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Knott, E.F; Shaeffer, J.F. & Tuley, M.T. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://books.google.com/?id=0WuGjb8sqCUC&pg=PA210&dq=ufimtsev+finite+equation#v=onepage&q=">Radar cross section - Second Edition</a>. Raleigh, North Carolina: SciTech Publishing. pp. 209–214. <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-891121-25-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-891121-25-1">1-891121-25-1</a>. Retrieved 7 October 2009.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.aufirst=E.F&rft.au=Knott%2C+E.F&rft.aulast=Knott&rft.btitle=Radar+cross+section+-+Second+Edition&rft.date=2004&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D0WuGjb8sqCUC%26pg%3DPA210%26dq%3Dufimtsev%2Bfinite%2Bequation%23v%3Donepage%26q%3D&rft.isbn=1-891121-25-1&rft.pages=209-214&rft.place=Raleigh%2C+North+Carolina&rft.pub=SciTech+Publishing&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  Cite uses deprecated parameter <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|coauthors=</code> (<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#deprecated_params" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.f-117a.com/Senior.html">F-117A Senior Trend</a></li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.vectorsite.net/avf117_1.html#m3">"Senior Trend"</a>. Vectorsite.net, 1 April 2008.</li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Crocker, H. W. III (2006). Don't Tread on Me. New York: Crown Forum. p. 382. <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-5363-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-5363-6">978-1-4000-5363-6</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.au=Crocker%2C+H.+W.+III&rft.aufirst=H.+W.+III&rft.aulast=Crocker&rft.btitle=Don%27t+Tread+on+Me&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-5363-6&rft.pages=382&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Crown+Forum&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-newscientist82-24"><a href="#cite_ref-newscientist82_24-0">^</a> Sweetman, Bill. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://books.google.com/?id=HVJyHCXAOtsC&pg=PA566&dq=Vulcan+Bomber&cd=11#v=onepage&q=Vulcan%20Bomber">"The Bomber that radar cannot see."</a> New Scientist, 4 March 1982.</li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Dawson 1957, p. 3.</li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Seddon and Goldsmith 1999, p. 343.</li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Writing for the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, J. Seddon and E. L. Goldsmith noted that "Due to its all-wing shape, small vertical fin, and buried engines, at some angles [The Avro Vulcan] was nearly invisible to radar".<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Kingsley and Quegan 1999, p. 293.</li> <li id="cite_note-croddy_341-2-29"><a href="#cite_ref-croddy_341-2_29-0">^</a> Croddy and Wirtz 2005, pp. 341–342.</li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Siuru 1993, pp. 114–115.</li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.northropgrumman.com/Capabilities/B2SpiritBomber/Documents/pageDocuments/B-2-Spirit-of-Innovation.pdf">"B-2: The Spirit of Innovation"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.northropgrumman.com/">http://www.northropgrumman.com/</a>. northropgrumman. Retrieved 2015-02-04.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.atitle=B-2%3A+The+Spirit+of+Innovation&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.northropgrumman.com%2FCapabilities%2FB2SpiritBomber%2FDocuments%2FpageDocuments%2FB-2-Spirit-of-Innovation.pdf&rft.jtitle=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.northropgrumman.com%2F&rft.pub=northropgrumman&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/https://web.archive.org/web/20131224113129/http://www.fas.org/programs/ssp/man/uswpns/navy/surfacewarfare/ddg51_arleighburke.html">"DDG-51 Arleigh Burke-class"</a>. FAS website. Federation of American Scientists. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.fas.org/programs/ssp/man/uswpns/navy/surfacewarfare/ddg51_arleighburke.html">the original</a> on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 2 February 2011.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.atitle=DDG-51+Arleigh+Burke-class&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fas.org%2Fprograms%2Fssp%2Fman%2Fuswpns%2Fnavy%2Fsurfacewarfare%2Fddg51_arleighburke.html&rft.jtitle=FAS+website&rft.pub=Federation+of+American+Scientists&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Benson, Robert (November 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ship/docs/ArleighB.htm">"The Arleigh Burke: Linchpin of the Navy"</a>. Asia-Pacific Defense Forum. Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved 2 February 2011.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.atitle=The+Arleigh+Burke%3A+Linchpin+of+the+Navy&rft.au=Benson%2C+Robert&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.aulast=Benson&rft.date=November+1998&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fas.org%2Fman%2Fdod-101%2Fsys%2Fship%2Fdocs%2FArleighB.htm&rft.jtitle=Asia-Pacific+Defense+Forum&rft.pub=Federation+of+American+Scientists&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.researchinventy.com/papers/v3i12/D0312015019.pdf">http://www.researchinventy.com/papers/v3i12/D0312015019.pdf</a></li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.livescience.com/32943-how-stealth-planes-evade-enemy.html">http://www.livescience.com/32943-how-stealth-planes-evade-enemy.html</a></li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.defense.gov/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=597">Maj. Gen. Carlsons briefing on Stealth Fighters, Tuesday, April 20, 1999</a></li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://tech.mit.edu/V121/N63/Stealth.63f.html">MIT's "The Tech - online edition"</a> article Detection of the B-2 Stealth Bomber and a Brief History on "Stealth" by Tao Yue published November 30, 2001 in (Volume 121, Issue 63)</li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id=news/FIGHT030409.xml&headline=Global%20Opposition%20Movement%20Challenges%20JSF&channel=defense">Global Opposition Movement Challenges JSF</a></li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://books.google.com/books?id=4S3h8j_NEmkC&pg=PR10&lpg=PR10">The Naval Institute guide to world naval weapon systems By Norman Friedman, Introduction page x</a></li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.fluid.34.090101.190252?journalCode=fluid">http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.fluid.34.090101.190252?journalCode=fluid</a></li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Emmanuel David Tannenbaum (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://arxiv.org/pdf/1208.2377.pdf">"Gravimetric Radar:Gravity-Based Detection of a Point-Mass Moving in a Static Background"</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.au=Emmanuel+David+Tannenbaum&rft.aulast=Emmanuel+David+Tannenbaum&rft.btitle=Gravimetric+Radar%3AGravity-Based+Detection+of+a+Point-Mass+Moving+in+a+Static+Background&rft.date=2012&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farxiv.org%2Fpdf%2F1208.2377.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Global_mod_blade-42"><a href="#cite_ref-Global_mod_blade_42-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/mh-x.htm">"Stealth Helicopter: MH-X Advanced Special Operations Helicopter"</a>. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 28 April 2012.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.btitle=Stealth+Helicopter%3A+MH-X+Advanced+Special+Operations+Helicopter&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.globalsecurity.org%2Fmilitary%2Fsystems%2Faircraft%2Fmh-x.htm&rft.pub=GlobalSecurity.org&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NASA_mod_blade-43"><a href="#cite_ref-NASA_mod_blade_43-0">^</a> Edwards, Bryan (May 2002). "Psychoacoustic Testing of Modulated Blade Spacing for Main Rotors - NASA/CR-2002-211651". 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A.; Smith D.R; Shultz S. (2001). "Experimental Verification of a Negative Index of Refraction". <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a> 292 (5514): 77–79. <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Sci...292...77S">2001Sci...292...77S</a>. <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1058847">10.1126/science.1058847</a>. <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier" class="mw-redirect">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11292865">11292865</a>.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.atitle=Experimental+Verification+of+a+Negative+Index+of+Refraction&rft.aufirst=R.+A.&rft.aulast=Shelby&rft.au=Shelby%2C+R.+A.&rft.au=Shultz+S.&rft.au=Smith+D.R&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001Sci...292...77S&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1058847&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11292865&rft.issue=5514&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.pages=77-79&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=292" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> I.V. 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Metro.co.uk (London: Associated Newspapers Limited). 28 September 2010.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.atitle=Demon+UAV+jets+into+history+by+flying+without+flaps&rft.date=28+September+2010&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.metro.co.uk%2Fnews%2F842292-plane-jets-into-history-by-flying-without-flaps&rft.jtitle=Metro.co.uk&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Associated+Newspapers+Limited&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> P. J. Yagle, D. N. Miller, K. B. Ginn, J. W. Hamstra (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=JETPEZ000123000003000502000001">"Demonstration of Fluidic Throat Skewing for Thrust Vectoring in Structurally Fixed Nozzles"</a>. 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Benjamin Gal-Or, Grant-Award No: 94-G-24, CFDA, No. 20.108, Dec. 26, 1994</li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> "Vectored Propulsion, Supermanoeuvreability, and Robot Aircraft", by Benjamin Gal-Or, Springer Verlag, 1990, <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0387971610" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-387-97161-0</a>, 3-540-97161-0.</li> </ol> </div> 34. "Multiaxis Thrust Vectoring Flight Control Vs Catastrophic Failure Prevention", Reports to U.S. Dept. of Transportation/FAA, Technical Center, ACD-210, FAA X88/0/6FA/921000/4104/T1706D, FAA Res. Benjamin Gal-Or, Grant-Award No: 94-G-24, CFDA, No. 20.108, Dec. 26, 1994. <h3>Bibliography[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</h3> <div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul> <li>Dawson, T.W.G., G.F. Kitchen and G.B. Glider. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATLN=6&CATID=4943225&SearchInit=4&SearchType=6&CATREF=AVIA+6%2F20895">Measurements of the Radar Echoing Area of the Vulcan by the Optical Simulation Method.</a> Farnborough, Hants, UK: Royal Aircraft Establishment, September 1957 National Archive Catalogue file, AVIA 6/20895</li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyotr_Ufimtsev" title="Pyotr Ufimtsev" class="mw-redirect">Ufimtsev, Pyotr Ya.</a>, "Method of edge waves in the physical theory of diffraction," Moscow, Russia: Izd-vo. Sov. Radio [Soviet Radio Publishing], 1962, pages 1–243.</li> <li>Doucet, Arnaud; Freitas, Nando de; Gordon, Neil (2001) [2001]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.springer.com/statistics/book/978-0-387-95146-1">Sequential Monte Carlo Methods in Practice</a>. Statistics for Engineering and Information Science (1st ed.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95146-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95146-1">978-0-387-95146-1</a>. Retrieved 2009-03-11.<span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStealth+technology&rft.au=Doucet%2C+Arnaud&rft.aufirst=Arnaud&rft.au=Freitas%2C+Nando+de&rft.au=Gordon%2C+Neil&rft.aulast=Doucet&rft.btitle=Sequential+Monte+Carlo+Methods+in+Practice&rft.date=2001&rft.edition=1st&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.springer.com%2Fstatistics%2Fbook%2F978-0-387-95146-1&rft.isbn=978-0-387-95146-1&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.series=Statistics+for+Engineering+and+Information+Science&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.northropgrumman.com/analysis-center/paper/assets/analogues_stealth.pdf">Analogues of Stealth - Northrop Grumman</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://tech.mit.edu/V121/N63/Stealth.63f.html">Countering stealth</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.aeronautics.ru/f117a.htm">How "stealth" is achieved on F-117A</a></li> <li>United States Patent No.6,297,762. October 2, 2001. Electronic countermeasures system (Apparatus for detecting the difference in phase between received signals at two spaced antennas and for then retransmitting equal amplitude antiphase signals from the two spaced antennas is disclosed.)</li> <li>"Multiaxis Thrust Vectoring Flight Control Vs Catastrophic Failure Prevention", Reports to U.S. Dept. of Transportation/FAA, Technical Center, ACD-210, FAA X88/0/6FA/921000/4104/T1706D, FAA Res. Benjamin Gal-Or, Grant-Award No: 94-G-24, CFDA, No. 20.108, Dec. 26, 1994; "Vectored Propulsion, Supermanoeuvreability, and Robot Aircraft", by Benjamin Gal-Or, Springer Verlag, 1990, <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0387971610" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-387-97161-0</a>, 3-540-97161-0.</li> <li>Suhler, Paul A. From Rainbow to Gusto: Stealth and the Design of the Lockheed Blackbird, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009. <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/160086712X" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 1-60086-712-X</a>.</li> </ul> </div> <h3>Notes[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</h3> <table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"> <tr> <td class="mbox-image"> <div style="width:52px"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150319103626im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" width="50" height="39" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150319103626im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150319103626im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="262" data-file-height="204"/></a></div> </td> <td class="mbox-text">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing/1" title="Help:Introduction to referencing/1">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2008)</td> </tr> </table> <h2>External links[<a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stealth_technology&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</h2> <table class="mbox-small plainlinks" style="border:1px solid #aaa;background-color:#f9f9f9"> <tr> <td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150319103626im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="30" height="40" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150319103626im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150319103626im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"/></td> <td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a 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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.ausairpower.net/air-superiority-2.html">The Paradigm Shift in Air Superiority (Stealth)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Evolution_of_Technology/Stealth_tech/Tech18.htm">Stealth Technology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=597">USAF Stealth Fighters briefing</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://care.eng.uci.edu/ufimtsev.htm">Pyotr Ufimstev biography</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://tardis-db.co.uk/2008/02/stealth-technology-and-plasma-antenna.html">Advancement of Plasma antennas in stealth</a></li> </ul> <table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td style="padding:2px"> <table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Technology" title="Template:Technology">v</a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Technology" title="Template talk:Technology">t</a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Technology&action=edit">e</a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"> <div> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_technology" title="Outline of technology">Outline of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science" title="Outline of applied science">Outline of applied science</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Fields</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_engineering" title="Agricultural engineering">Agricultural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">Aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisheries_science" title="Fisheries science">Fisheries science</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Food chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Food engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Food microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_technology" title="Food technology">Food technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_use_restriction_technology" title="Genetic use restriction technology">GURT</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICT_in_agriculture" title="ICT in agriculture">ICT</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrition" title="Nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_technology" title="Biomedical technology">Biomedical</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomechatronics" title="Biomechatronics">Biomechatronics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheminformatics" title="Cheminformatics">Cheminformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_science" title="Healthcare science" class="mw-redirect">Healthcare science</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_research" title="Medical research">Medical research</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_technology" title="Medical technology" class="mw-redirect">Medical technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproductive_technology" title="Reproductive technology">Reproductive technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">Tissue engineering</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Buildings</a> and <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustical_engineering" title="Acoustical engineering">Acoustical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">Architectural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_services_engineering" title="Building services engineering">Building services engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_engineering" title="Construction engineering">Construction engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_technology" title="Domestic technology">Domestic technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facade_engineering" title="Facade engineering">Facade engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_protection_engineering" title="Fire protection engineering">Fire protection engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">Safety engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitary_engineering" title="Sanitary engineering">Sanitary engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Educational</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_software" title="Educational software">Educational software</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_technologies_in_education" title="Digital technologies in education" class="mw-redirect">Digital technologies in education</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_and_communication_technologies_in_education" title="Information and communication technologies in education" class="mw-redirect">ICT in education</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_technology_on_the_educational_system" title="Impact of technology on the educational system" class="mw-redirect">Impact</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimedia_learning" title="Multimedia learning" class="mw-redirect">Multimedia learning</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_campus" title="Virtual campus">Virtual campus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_education" title="Virtual education" class="mw-redirect">Virtual education</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_technology" title="Energy technology">Energy</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Nuclear engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_engineering" title="Petroleum engineering">Petroleum engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_energy_technology" title="Soft energy technology">Soft energy technology</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_technology" title="Environmental technology">Environmental</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_technology" title="Clean technology">Clean technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_coal_technology" title="Clean coal technology">Clean coal technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_design" title="Ecological design">Ecological design</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotechnology" title="Ecotechnology">Ecotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering_science" title="Environmental engineering science">Environmental engineering science</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_building" title="Green building">Green building</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_nanotechnology" title="Green nanotechnology">Green nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_engineering" title="Landscape engineering">Landscape engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_design" title="Sustainable design">Sustainable design</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_engineering" title="Sustainable engineering">Sustainable engineering</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_technology" title="Industrial technology">Industrial</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_informatics" title="Business informatics">Business informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_management" title="Engineering management">Engineering management</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_engineering" title="Enterprise engineering">Enterprise engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_finance" title="Computational finance">Financial engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_biotechnology" title="Industrial biotechnology" class="mw-redirect">Industrial biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">Mining engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Productivity_improving_technologies_(historical)" title="Productivity improving technologies (historical)">Productivity improving technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">Research and development</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribology" title="Tribology">Tribology</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_and_communications_technology" title="Information and communications technology">IT and communications</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_engineering" title="Broadcast engineering">Broadcast engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_technology" title="Financial technology">Financial technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">Information technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_technology" title="Music technology">Music technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology_engineering" title="Ontology engineering">Ontology engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RF_engineering" title="RF engineering" class="mw-redirect">RF engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_engineering" title="Telecommunications engineering">Telecommunications engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_technology" title="Visual technology">Visual technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_engineering" title="Web engineering">Web engineering</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Military</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_engineering_maintenance" title="Army engineering maintenance">Army engineering maintenance</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_warfare" title="Electronic warfare">Electronic warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_communications" title="Military communications">Military communications</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Military engineering</a></li> <li>Stealth technology</li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport" title="Transport">Transport</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_engineering" title="Automotive engineering">Automotive engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_architecture" title="Naval architecture">Naval architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_technology" title="Space technology" class="mw-redirect">Space technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_engineering_(transportation)" title="Traffic engineering (transportation)">Traffic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_engineering" title="Transport engineering" class="mw-redirect">Transport engineering</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Other <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied sciences</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryogenics" title="Cryogenics">Cryogenics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electro-optics" title="Electro-optics">Electro-optics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">Electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_geology" title="Engineering geology">Engineering geology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Engineering physics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulics" title="Hydraulics">Hydraulics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfabrication" title="Microfabrication">Microfabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoengineering" title="Nanoengineering">Nanoengineering</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Other <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> <a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_branches" title="List of engineering branches">fields</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_engineering" title="Audio engineering" class="mw-redirect">Audio</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_engineering" title="Biochemical engineering">Biochemical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer_engineering" title="Polymer engineering">Polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">Electrical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">Electronic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment_technology" title="Entertainment technology">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering" title="Hydraulic engineering">Hydraulic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechatronics" title="Mechatronics">Mechatronics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_engineering" title="Optical engineering">Optical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_engineering" title="Protein engineering">Protein</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_technology" title="Quantum technology">Quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">Robotics</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animatronics" title="Animatronics">Animatronics</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Systems</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Components</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">Invention</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Timeline</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skill" title="Skill">Skill</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craft" title="Craft">Craft</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tool" title="Tool">Tool</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadget" title="Gadget">Gadget</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Scales</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femtotechnology" title="Femtotechnology">Femtotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picotechnology" title="Picotechnology">Picotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microtechnology" title="Microtechnology">Microtechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro-engineering" title="Macro-engineering">Macro-engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megascale_engineering" title="Megascale engineering">Megascale engineering</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Prehistoric technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_technology" title="Ancient technology">Ancient technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Medieval technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Renaissance technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_Age" title="Jet Age">Jet Age</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Revolution" title="Digital Revolution">Digital Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology" title="Theories of technology">Theories</a> and concepts</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appropriate_technology" title="Appropriate technology">Appropriate technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critique_of_technology" title="Critique of technology">Critique of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">Disruptive innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-use_technology" title="Dual-use technology">Dual-use technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephemeralization" title="Ephemeralization">Ephemeralization</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Ethics of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_tech" title="High tech">High tech</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hype_cycle" title="Hype cycle">Hype cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-technology" title="Low-technology" class="mw-redirect">Low-technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mature_technology" title="Mature technology">Mature technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy_of_Technology" title="Strategy of Technology">Strategy of Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technicism" title="Technicism">Technicism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techno-progressivism" title="Techno-progressivism">Techno-progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocapitalism" title="Technocapitalism">Technocapitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocentrism" title="Technocentrism">Technocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocriticism" title="Technocriticism">Technocriticism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoetic" title="Technoetic">Technoetic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoethics" title="Technoethics">Technoethics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technogaianism" title="Technogaianism">Technogaianism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_alliance" title="Technological alliance">Technological alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_apartheid" title="Technological apartheid">Technological apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">Technological change</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">Technological convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">Technological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_escalation" title="Technological escalation">Technological escalation</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_evolution" title="Technological evolution">Technological evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_fix" title="Technological fix">Technological fix</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">Technological innovation system</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_momentum" title="Technological momentum">Technological momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_nationalism" title="Technological nationalism">Technological nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_paradigm" title="Technological paradigm">Technological paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_rationality" title="Technological rationality">Technological rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_revival" title="Technological revival">Technological revival</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">Technological revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_self-efficacy" title="Technological self-efficacy">Technological self-efficacy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singularitarianism" title="Singularitarianism">Singularitarianism</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_somnambulism" title="Technological somnambulism">Technological somnambulism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_transitions" title="Technological transitions">Technological transitions</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">Technological unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_utopianism" title="Technological utopianism">Technological utopianism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_lifecycle" title="Technology lifecycle" class="mw-redirect">Technology lifecycle</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_acceptance_model" title="Technology acceptance model">Technology acceptance model</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_adoption_lifecycle" title="Technology adoption lifecycle">Technology adoption lifecycle</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technomancy" title="Technomancy">Technomancy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technorealism" title="Technorealism">Technorealism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoromanticism" title="Technoromanticism">Technoromanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscience" title="Technoscience">Technoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Other</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">Emerging technologies</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_emerging_technologies" title="List of emerging technologies">List</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictional_technology" title="Fictional technology">Fictional technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technopaganism" title="Technopaganism">Technopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:High-technology_business_districts" title="Category:High-technology business districts">High-technology business districts</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kardashev_scale" title="Kardashev scale">Kardashev scale</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_technologies" title="List of technologies">List of technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_technology" title="Platform technology">Platform technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology_and_society" title="Science, technology and society">Science, technology and society</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_dynamics" title="Technology dynamics">Technology dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_by_country" title="Category:Science and technology by country">Science and technology by country</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEM_fields" title="STEM fields">STEM fields</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-STEM" title="Pre-STEM">Pre-STEM</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">women</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEAM_fields" title="STEAM fields">STEAM fields</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_alignment" title="Technology alignment">Technology alignment</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_assessment" title="Technology assessment">Technology assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_brokering" title="Technology brokering" class="mw-redirect">Technology brokering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Technology_companies" title="Category:Technology companies">Technology companies</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_demonstration" title="Technology demonstration">Technology demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_education" title="Technology education">Technology education</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Technical_universities_and_colleges" title="Category:Technical universities and colleges">Technical universities and colleges</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_evangelist" title="Technology evangelist">Technology evangelist</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_fusion" title="Technology fusion">Technology fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_governance" title="Technology governance">Technology governance</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_integration" title="Technology integration">Technology integration</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_journalism" title="Technology journalism">Technology journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_management" title="Technology management">Technology management</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_museum" title="Technology museum">Technology museum</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_policy" title="Technology policy">Technology policy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_shock" title="Technology shock">Technology shock</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_strategy" title="Technology strategy">Technology strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_and_society" title="Technology and society">Technology and society</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">Technology transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technophilia" title="Technophilia">Technophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technophobia" title="Technophobia">Technophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoself" title="Technoself">Technoself</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technosexual" title="Technosexual">Technosexual</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technosignature" title="Technosignature">Technosignature</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technostress" title="Technostress">Technostress</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150319103626/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terotechnology" title="Terotechnology">Terotechnology</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"> <div> <ul> <li><img alt="Wikipedia book" 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