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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.1 Ancient history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sasanian_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sasanian_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.2 Sasanian Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sasanian_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_and_Byzantine_Empires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_and_Byzantine_Empires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.3 Roman and Byzantine Empires </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_and_Byzantine_Empires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.4 Western Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Backgammon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Backgammon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Backgammon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Backgammon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_backgammon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_backgammon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.1 Early backgammon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_backgammon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_backgammon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_backgammon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.2 Modern backgammon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_backgammon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Software" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Software"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.3 Software </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Software-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rules" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rules"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Rules </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rules-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Rules subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Rules-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Board" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Board"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Board </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Board-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Setup" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Setup"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Setup </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Setup-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bearing_off" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bearing_off"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Bearing off </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bearing_off-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Doubling_cube" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Doubling_cube"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Doubling cube </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Doubling_cube-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_games" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_games"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Related games </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_games-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strategy_and_tactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategy_and_tactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Strategy and tactics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Strategy_and_tactics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Strategy and tactics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Strategy_and_tactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cube_handling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cube_handling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Cube handling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cube_handling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Equity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Equity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cheating" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cheating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Cheating </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cheating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_and_competitive_play" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_and_competitive_play"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Social and competitive play </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Social_and_competitive_play-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Social and competitive play subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Social_and_competitive_play-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Legality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Legality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Club_and_tournament_play" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Club_and_tournament_play"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Club and tournament play </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Club_and_tournament_play-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_competition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_competition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 International competition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_competition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gambling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gambling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Gambling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gambling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mediterranean_and_West_Asian_cultural_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mediterranean_and_West_Asian_cultural_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Mediterranean and West Asian cultural significance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mediterranean_and_West_Asian_cultural_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Studies_and_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Studies_and_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Studies and analysis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Studies_and_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Backgammon</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 91 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-91" aria-hidden="true" > 91 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakspel" title="Bakspel – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Bakspel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9" title="لعبة الطاولة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لعبة الطاولة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C9%99rd" title="Nərd – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nərd" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="نرد – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="نرد" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A8" title="ব্যাকগ্যামন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ব্যাকগ্যামন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%A0%D1%8B%D2%AB%D2%A1%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Ҡыҫҡа нарды – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ҡыҫҡа нарды" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Кароткія нарды – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Кароткія нарды" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Кароткія нарды – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Кароткія нарды" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0_(%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0)" title="Табла (игра) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Табла (игра)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tavla" title="Tavla – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Tavla" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrhc%C3%A1by" title="Vrhcáby – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vrhcáby" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bac-gamon" title="Bac-gamon – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Bac-gamon" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triktrak" title="Triktrak – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Triktrak" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%AC%CE%B2%CE%BB%CE%B9" title="Τάβλι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τάβλι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triktrako" title="Triktrako – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Triktrako" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%AA%D9%87_%D9%86%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="تخته نرد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تخته نرد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%B1%EA%B0%9C%EB%A8%BC" title="백개먼 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="백개먼" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%AB" title="Նարդի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նարդի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triktrako" title="Triktrako – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Triktrako" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kotra" title="Kotra – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kotra" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A9_%D7%91%D7%A9" title="שש בש – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שש בש" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93%E1%83%98" title="ნარდი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნარდი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Нарды – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Нарды" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tables" title="Tables – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Tables" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerd" title="Nerd – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Nerd" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerdiludium" title="Nerdiludium – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Nerdiludium" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nardi" title="Nardi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Nardi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nardai" title="Nardai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Nardai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triktraksjp%C3%A8l" title="Triktraksjpèl – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Triktraksjpèl" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trictrac" title="Trictrac – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Trictrac" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ost%C3%A1bla" title="Ostábla – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ostábla" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0_(%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0)" title="Табла (игра) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Табла (игра)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BA" title="ബാക് ഗാമോൺ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബാക് ഗാമോൺ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%90%E3%83%83%E3%82%AF%E3%82%AE%E3%83%A3%E3%83%A2%E3%83%B3" title="バックギャモン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="バックギャモン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%88" title="Йоца нардаш – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Йоца нардаш" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trikktrakk" title="Trikktrakk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Trikktrakk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%A8" title="ਬੈਕਗੈਮਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬੈਕਗੈਮਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%DA%A9%DA%AF%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%86" title="بیکگیمن – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بیکگیمن" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryktrak" title="Tryktrak – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Tryktrak" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gam%C3%A3o" title="Gamão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Gamão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table" title="Table – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Table" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Короткие нарды – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Короткие нарды" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tavlla" title="Tavlla – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Tavlla" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%95%D8%AE%D8%AA%DB%95%D9%86%DB%95%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="تەختەنەرد – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تەختەنەرد" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Тавла – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Тавла" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tavla" title="Tavla – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Tavla" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakgamon" title="Bakgamon – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Bakgamon" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="பாக்கமன் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பாக்கமன்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99" title="แบ็กแกมมอน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แบ็กแกมมอน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tavla" title="Tavla – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tavla" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Короткі нарди – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Короткі нарди" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%AA%DB%81_%D9%86%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="تختہ نرد – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تختہ نرد" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BCh%C3%BCdad_nardad" title="Lühüdad nardad – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Lühüdad nardad" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Backgammon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%8C%E9%99%86%E6%A3%8B" title="双陆棋 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="双陆棋" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A7-%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A7" title="טריק-טראק – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="טריק-טראק" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%BE%E5%AE%B6%E6%A8%82%E6%A3%8B" title="百家樂棋 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="百家樂棋" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nard%C4%81" title="Nardā – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Nardā" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%99%E9%99%B8%E6%A3%8B" title="雙陸棋 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="雙陸棋" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11411#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Backgammon" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/20px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/30px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/40px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Board and dice game for two players</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Backgammon_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Backgammon (disambiguation)">Backgammon (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Backgammon</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Backgammon_lg.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Backgammon_lg.png/220px-Backgammon_lg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Backgammon_lg.png/330px-Backgammon_lg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Backgammon_lg.png/440px-Backgammon_lg.png 2x" data-file-width="1428" data-file-height="930" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">A backgammon set</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Years active</th><td class="infobox-data">1646 to present<a href="#cite_note-Fiske-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Genres</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r979066050">.mw-parser-output ul.cslist,.mw-parser-output ul.sslist{margin:0;padding:0;display:inline-block;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output ul.cslist-embedded{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .cslist li,.mw-parser-output .sslist li{margin:0;padding:0 0.25em 0 0;display:inline-block}.mw-parser-output .cslist li:after{content:", "}.mw-parser-output .sslist li:after{content:"; "}.mw-parser-output .cslist li:last-child:after,.mw-parser-output .sslist li:last-child:after{content:none}</style><ul class="cslist"><li><a href="/wiki/Board_game" title="Board game">Board game</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tables_game" title="Tables game">tables game</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Race_game" title="Race game">race game</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Dice_game" class="mw-redirect" title="Dice game">dice game</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Players</th><td class="infobox-data">2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Movement</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Contrary_(tables_game)" class="mw-redirect" title="Contrary (tables game)">Contrary</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Setup time</th><td class="infobox-data">10–30 seconds</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Playing time</th><td class="infobox-data">5–60 minutes</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Chance</th><td class="infobox-data">Medium (<a href="/wiki/Dice" title="Dice">dice</a> rolling)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Age range</th><td class="infobox-data">5+</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Skills</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r979066050"><ul class="cslist"><li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_game" title="Strategy game">Strategy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tactic_(method)" title="Tactic (method)">tactics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Counting" title="Counting">counting</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Related games</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Irish_(game)" title="Irish (game)">Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nard_(game)" title="Nard (game)">Nard</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below">Origin: 17th-century England Descended from: <a href="/wiki/Irish_(game)" title="Irish (game)">Irish</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Backgammon is a two-player <a href="/wiki/Board_game" title="Board game">board game</a> played with counters and dice on <a href="/wiki/Tables_board" class="mw-redirect" title="Tables board">tables boards</a>. It is the most widespread Western member of the large family of <a href="/wiki/Tables_game" title="Tables game">tables games</a>, whose ancestors date back at least 1600 years. The earliest record of backgammon itself dates to 17th-century <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, being descended from the 16th-century <a href="/wiki/Irish_(game)" title="Irish (game)">game of Irish</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cram-2">[2]</a> Backgammon is a two-player game of <a href="/wiki/Contrary_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Contrary movement">contrary movement</a> in which each player has fifteen <a href="/wiki/Piece_(tables_game)" class="mw-redirect" title="Piece (tables game)">pieces</a> known traditionally as men (short for 'tablemen'), but increasingly known as 'checkers' in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> in recent decades, analogous to the other board game of <a href="/wiki/Checkers" title="Checkers">checkers</a>. The backgammon table pieces move along twenty-four '<a href="/wiki/Point_(tables_game)" class="mw-redirect" title="Point (tables game)">points</a>' according to the roll of two <a href="/wiki/Dice" title="Dice">dice</a>. The objective of the game is to move the fifteen pieces around the board and be first to <a href="/wiki/Bear_off" class="mw-redirect" title="Bear off">bear off</a>, i.e., remove them from the board. The achievement of this while the opponent is still a long way behind results in a triple win known as a backgammon, hence the name of the game. Backgammon involves a combination of strategy and luck from rolling dice. While the dice may determine the outcome of a single game, the better player will accumulate the better record over a series of many games. With each roll of the dice, players must choose from numerous options for moving their pieces and anticipate possible counter-moves by the opponent. The optional use of a doubling cube allows players to raise the stakes during the game. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> The earliest specific reference to backgammon was in a letter dated 1635, when it was emerging as a variant of the popular medieval Anglo-Scottish game of <a href="/wiki/Irish_(game)" title="Irish (game)">Irish</a>; the latter was described as a better game.<a href="#cite_note-Howell_1635,_Vol._2,_No._68-3">[3]</a> By the 19th century, however, backgammon had spread to Europe, where it rapidly superseded other tables games like <a href="/wiki/Trictrac" title="Trictrac">Trictrac</a> in popularity, and also to America, where the doubling cube was introduced. In other parts of the world, different tables games such as <a href="/wiki/Nard_(game)" title="Nard (game)">Nard</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nardy" class="mw-redirect" title="Nardy">Nardy</a> are better known. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tables_games">Tables games</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Tables games">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tables_game" title="Tables game">Tables game</a></div> Backgammon is a recent member of the large family of tables games that date back to ancient times. Its equipment is similar or identical to earlier tables games that have been depicted for centuries in art, leading to the mistaken belief that backgammon itself is much older. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ancient_history">Ancient history</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient history">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_Royal_Game_of_Ur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/British_Museum_Royal_Game_of_Ur.jpg/220px-British_Museum_Royal_Game_of_Ur.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/British_Museum_Royal_Game_of_Ur.jpg/330px-British_Museum_Royal_Game_of_Ur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/British_Museum_Royal_Game_of_Ur.jpg/440px-British_Museum_Royal_Game_of_Ur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2716" data-file-height="2164" /></a><figcaption>One of the <a href="/wiki/Gameboard" class="mw-redirect" title="Gameboard">gameboards</a> found by <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Woolley" title="Leonard Woolley">Sir Leonard Woolley</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Cemetery_at_Ur" title="Royal Cemetery at Ur">Royal Cemetery at Ur</a>. <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></figcaption></figure> The history of board games can be traced back nearly 5,000 years to archaeological discoveries of the <a href="/wiki/Jiroft_culture" title="Jiroft culture">Jiroft culture</a>, located in present-day <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, the world's oldest game set having been discovered in the region with equipment comprising a <a href="/wiki/Dumbbell" title="Dumbbell">dumbbell</a>-shaped board, counters and dice. Although its precise rules are unknown, it has been termed the <a href="/wiki/Game_of_20_Squares" class="mw-redirect" title="Game of 20 Squares">Game of 20 Squares</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irving_Finkel" title="Irving Finkel">Irving Finkel</a> has suggested a possible reconstruction. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Game_of_Ur" title="Royal Game of Ur">Royal Game of Ur</a> from 2600 BC may also be an ancestor or intermediate of modern-day table games like backgammon and is the oldest game for which rules have been handed down. It used tetrahedral dice. Various other board games spanning the 10th to 7th centuries BC have been found throughout modern day Iraq, Syria, Egypt and western Iran.<a href="#cite_note-Iranica_board_game-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sasanian_Empire">Sasanian Empire</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sasanian Empire">edit</a>]</div> The Persian tables game of nard or nardšir emerged somewhere between the 3rd and 6th century AD, one text (Kār-nāmag ī Ardaxšēr ī Pāpakān) linking it with <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a> (r. 224–41), founder of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_dynasty" title="Sasanian dynasty">Sasanian dynasty</a>, whereas another (Wičārišn ī čatrang ud nihišn ī nēw-ardaxšēr) attributes it to <a href="/wiki/Bozorgmehr_Bokhtagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bozorgmehr Bokhtagan">Bozorgmehr Bokhtagan</a>, the vizier of <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a> (r. 531–79), who is credited with the invention of the game.<a href="#cite_note-Iranica_board_game-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roman_and_Byzantine_Empires">Roman and Byzantine Empires</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Roman and Byzantine Empires">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Game_of_12_Lines_Board_-_Aphrodisias.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Roman_Game_of_12_Lines_Board_-_Aphrodisias.jpg/240px-Roman_Game_of_12_Lines_Board_-_Aphrodisias.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Roman_Game_of_12_Lines_Board_-_Aphrodisias.jpg/360px-Roman_Game_of_12_Lines_Board_-_Aphrodisias.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Roman_Game_of_12_Lines_Board_-_Aphrodisias.jpg/480px-Roman_Game_of_12_Lines_Board_-_Aphrodisias.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4447" data-file-height="2965" /></a><figcaption>Roman <a href="/wiki/Ludus_duodecim_scriptorum" title="Ludus duodecim scriptorum">Ludus duodecim scriptorum</a> board from the 2nd century, Aphrodisias</figcaption></figure> The earliest identifiable tables game, <a href="/wiki/Tabula_(game)" title="Tabula (game)">Tabula</a>, meaning 'table' or 'board', is described in an <a href="/wiki/Epigram" title="Epigram">epigram</a> of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> <a href="/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)" title="Zeno (emperor)">Emperor Zeno</a> (AD 476–491).<a href="#cite_note-austin-zeno-8">[8]</a> The overall aim was to be first to bear one's pieces off; the board had the typical tables layout, with 24 points, 12 on each side; and there were 15 counters per player. However, unlike modern Western backgammon, there were three cubical dice not two, no <a href="/wiki/Bar_(tables_game)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bar (tables game)">bar</a> nor <a href="/wiki/Doubling_die" class="mw-redirect" title="Doubling die">doubling die</a>, and all counters started off the board.<a href="#cite_note-austin-zeno-8">[8]</a> Modern backgammon follows the same rules as tabula for hitting a blot and for bearing off; and the rules for re-entering pieces in backgammon are the same as those for initially entering pieces in tabula.<a href="#cite_note-bell-9">[9]</a> The name Tavli (τάβλι) is still used in Greece for various tables games, which are frequently played in town <a href="/wiki/Plateia" title="Plateia">plateias</a> and cafes.<a href="#cite_note-koukoules-10">[10]</a> The τάβλι of Emperor Zeno's time is believed to be a direct descendant of the earlier Roman <a href="/wiki/Ludus_duodecim_scriptorum" title="Ludus duodecim scriptorum">Ludus duodecim scriptorum</a> ('Game of twelve lines') with the board's middle row of points removed, and only the two outer rows remaining.<a href="#cite_note-austin-roman2-11">[11]</a> Ludus duodecim scriptorum used a board with three rows of 12 points each, with the 15 pieces being moved in opposing directions by the two players across three rows according to the roll of the three cubical dice.<a href="#cite_note-austin-zeno-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-austin-roman2-11">[11]</a> Little specific text about the gameplay of Ludus duodecim scriptorum has survived;<a href="#cite_note-austin-roman1-12">[12]</a> it may have been related to the older <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> dice game Kubeia. The earliest known mention of the game is in <a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ars_Amatoria" title="Ars Amatoria">Ars Amatoria</a> ('The Art of Love'), written between 1 BC and 8 AD. In Roman times, this game was also known as alea.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Western_Europe">Western Europe</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Western Europe">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Codex_Manesse_262v_Herr_Goeli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Codex_Manesse_262v_Herr_Goeli.jpg/130px-Codex_Manesse_262v_Herr_Goeli.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Codex_Manesse_262v_Herr_Goeli.jpg/195px-Codex_Manesse_262v_Herr_Goeli.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Codex_Manesse_262v_Herr_Goeli.jpg/260px-Codex_Manesse_262v_Herr_Goeli.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1462" /></a><figcaption>The poet <a href="/wiki/Herr_Goeli" title="Herr Goeli">Herr Goeli</a> playing, <a href="/wiki/Codex_Manesse" title="Codex Manesse">Codex Manesse</a>, 14th C.</figcaption></figure> Tables games first appeared in France during the 11th century and became a favourite pastime of gamblers. In 1254, <a href="/wiki/Louis_IX_of_France" title="Louis IX of France">Louis IX</a> issued a decree prohibiting his court officials and subjects from playing.<a href="#cite_note-murray-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-lillich-16">[16]</a> They were played in Germany in the 12th century, and had reached <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> by the 13th century. In <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_X" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfonso X">Alfonso X</a> manuscript <a href="/wiki/Libro_de_los_juegos" title="Libro de los juegos">Libro de los juegos</a>, completed in 1283, describes rules for a number of dice and table games in addition to its discussion of chess.<a href="#cite_note-wollesen-17">[17]</a> By the 17th century, games at tables had spread to <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>. A wooden board and counters were recovered from the wreck of the <a href="/wiki/Regalskeppet_Vasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Regalskeppet Vasa">Vasa</a> among the belongings of the ship's officers. Tables games appear widely in paintings of this period, mainly those of Dutch and German painters, such as <a href="/wiki/Adriaen_van_Ostade" title="Adriaen van Ostade">Van Ostade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jan_Steen" title="Jan Steen">Jan Steen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bosch" title="Hieronymus Bosch">Hieronymus Bosch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder" title="Pieter Bruegel the Elder">Bruegel</a>. Among surviving artworks are <a href="/wiki/Cardsharps_(Caravaggio)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardsharps (Caravaggio)">Cardsharps</a> by <a href="/wiki/Caravaggio" title="Caravaggio">Caravaggio</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Backgammon">Backgammon</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Backgammon">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_backgammon">Early backgammon</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Early backgammon">edit</a>]</div> Backgammon's immediate predecessor was the 16th century tables game of <a href="/wiki/Irish_(game)" title="Irish (game)">Irish</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cram-2">[2]</a> Irish was the Anglo-Scottish equivalent of the French Toutes Tables and Spanish Todas Tablas, the latter name first being used in the 1283 <a href="/wiki/El_Libro_de_los_Juegos" class="mw-redirect" title="El Libro de los Juegos">El Libro de los Juegos</a>, a translation of Arabic manuscripts by the <a href="/wiki/Toledo_School_of_Translators" title="Toledo School of Translators">Toledo School of Translators</a>. Irish had been popular at the Scottish court of James IV and considered to be "the more serious and solid game" when the variant which became known as Backgammon began to emerge in the first half of the 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-Howell_1635,_Vol._2,_No._68-3">[3]</a> In medieval Italy, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Barail&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Barail (page does not exist)">Barail</a> was played on a backgammon board, with the important difference that both players moved their pieces counter-clockwise and starting from the same side of the board.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The game rules for Barail are recorded in a 13th-century manuscript held in the Italian National Library in Florence.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Darnica_Gurieli_by_Christoforo_de_Castelli_mid_17th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Darnica_Gurieli_by_Christoforo_de_Castelli_mid_17th_century.jpg/130px-Darnica_Gurieli_by_Christoforo_de_Castelli_mid_17th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Darnica_Gurieli_by_Christoforo_de_Castelli_mid_17th_century.jpg/195px-Darnica_Gurieli_by_Christoforo_de_Castelli_mid_17th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Darnica_Gurieli_by_Christoforo_de_Castelli_mid_17th_century.jpg/260px-Darnica_Gurieli_by_Christoforo_de_Castelli_mid_17th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1421" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a> Noblewomen Darnica <a href="/wiki/Gurieli" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurieli">Gurieli</a> with backgammon in the foreground, circa 1635</figcaption></figure> The earliest mention of backgammon, under the name Baggammon, was by James Howell in a letter dated 1635.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[a]</a> In English, the word "backgammon" is most likely derived from "back" and <a href="/wiki/Middle_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle English language">Middle English</a>: gamen, meaning "game" or "play". Meanwhile, the first use documented by the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> was in 1650.<a href="#cite_note-oed-22">[21]</a> In 1666, it is reported that the "old name for backgammon used by Shakespeare and others" was Tables.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> However, it is clear from Willughby that "tables" was a generic name and that the phrase "playing at tables" was used in a similar way to "playing at cards".<a href="#cite_note-Willughby-24">[23]</a> The first known rules of "Back Gammon" were produced by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Willughby" title="Francis Willughby">Francis Willughby</a> around 1672;<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> they were quickly followed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotton" title="Charles Cotton">Charles Cotton</a> in 1674.<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hoyle-backgammon.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Hoyle-backgammon.png/170px-Hoyle-backgammon.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Hoyle-backgammon.png/255px-Hoyle-backgammon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Hoyle-backgammon.png/340px-Hoyle-backgammon.png 2x" data-file-width="1092" data-file-height="2154" /></a><figcaption>A Short Treatise on the Game of Back-Gammon</figcaption></figure> In the 16th century, <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabethan">Elizabethan</a> laws and church regulations had prohibited "playing at tables" in England, but by the 18th century, Backgammon had superseded Irish and become popular among the English clergy.<a href="#cite_note-murray-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edmond_Hoyle" title="Edmond Hoyle">Edmond Hoyle</a> published A Short Treatise on the Game of Back-Gammon in 1753; this described rules and strategy for the game and was bound together with a similar text on <a href="/wiki/Whist" title="Whist">whist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> The early form of backgammon was very similar to its predecessor, Irish. The aim, board, number of pieces or "men", direction of play and starting layout were the same as in the modern game.<a href="#cite_note-28">[b]</a> However, there was no doubling die, there was no bar on the board or the bar was not used (men simply being moved off the table when hit) and the scoring was different. The game was won double if either the winning throw was a doublet or the opponent still had men outside the home board. It was won triple if a player bore all men off before any of the opponent's men reached the home board; this was a back-gammon. Some terminology, such as "point", "hitting a blot", "home", "doublet", "bear off" and "men" are recognisably the same as in the modern game; others, such as "binding a man" (adding a second man to a point) "binding up the tables" (taking all one's first 6 points), "fore game", "latter game", "nipping a man" (hitting a blot and playing it on forwards) "playing at length" (using both dice to move one man) are no longer in vogue.<a href="#cite_note-Cotton-29">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Willughby-24">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modern_backgammon">Modern backgammon</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Modern backgammon">edit</a>]</div> By no later than 1850, the rules of play had changed to those used today. Tables boards were now made with a 'bar' in the centre and men that were hit went onto the bar. Winning double or by "two hits" was achieved by bearing all one's men off before the other has borne any — this was now called a gammon. If the winner bore off all men while the loser still had men in his adversary's table, it was a back-gammon and worth "three hits", i.e., triple.<a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a> The most recent major development in backgammon was the addition of the doubling cube. Doubles had originally been recorded by placing "common parlour matches" on the bar in the centre of the board.<a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a> A doubling cube was first introduced in the 1920s in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> among members of gaming clubs in the <a href="/wiki/Lower_East_Side" title="Lower East Side">Lower East Side</a>.<a href="#cite_note-robertie-501-32">[30]</a> The cube required players not only to select the best move in a given position, but also to estimate the probability of winning from that position, transforming backgammon into the <a href="/wiki/Expected_value" title="Expected value">expected value</a>-driven game played in the 20th and 21st centuries.<a href="#cite_note-robertie-501-32">[30]</a> The popularity of backgammon surged in the mid-1960s, in part due to the charisma of <a href="/wiki/Prince_Alexis_Obolensky" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Alexis Obolensky">Prince Alexis Obolensky</a> who became known as "The Father of Modern Backgammon".<a href="#cite_note-GAM-33">[31]</a> "Obe", as he was called by friends, co-founded the International Backgammon Association,<a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a> which published a set of official rules. He also established the World Backgammon Club of Manhattan, devised a backgammon tournament system in 1963, then organized the first major international backgammon tournament in March 1964, which attracted royalty, celebrities and the press. The game became a huge fad and was played on college campuses, in <a href="/wiki/Discoth%C3%A8ques" class="mw-redirect" title="Discothèques">discothèques</a> and at country clubs;<a href="#cite_note-GAM-33">[31]</a> stockbrokers and bankers began playing at conservative men's clubs.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-35">[33]</a> People young and old all across the country dusted off their boards and pieces. Cigarette, liquor and car companies began to sponsor tournaments, and <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Hefner" title="Hugh Hefner">Hugh Hefner</a> held backgammon parties at the <a href="/wiki/Playboy_Mansion" title="Playboy Mansion">Playboy Mansion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a> Backgammon clubs were formed and tournaments were held, resulting in a World Championship promoted in <a href="/wiki/Las_Vegas,_Nevada" class="mw-redirect" title="Las Vegas, Nevada">Las Vegas</a> in 1967.<a href="#cite_note-PLAY65-37">[35]</a> In the second half of the 20th century, new terms were introduced in America, such as 'beaver' and 'checkers' for men (although American backgammon experts <a href="/wiki/Oswald_Jacoby" title="Oswald Jacoby">Jacoby</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_R._Crawford" title="John R. Crawford">Crawford</a> continued to use both the older terms as well as the new ones).<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a> Most recently, the United States Backgammon Federation (USBGF) was organized in 2009 to repopularize the game in the United States. Board and committee members include many of the top players, tournament directors and writers in the worldwide backgammon community. The USBGF has recently created Standards of Ethical Practice<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> to address issues on which tournament rules fail to touch. In its country of origin, the UK Backgammon Federation is the national authority and runs a backgammon championship — the Backgammon Galaxy UK Open Tournament — as well as club championships, online leagues and knockout tournaments. Like the USBGF they are active members of the <a href="/wiki/World_Backgammon_Federation" title="World Backgammon Federation">World Backgammon Federation</a> (WBF) and their tournament rules have been adopted in their entirety by the WBF.<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Software">Software</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Software">edit</a>]</div> Backgammon entered the computer era in the 1990s when software was developed to play and analyze games, and for people to play one another over the internet. <ul><li>Johnson's Expert Backgammon, introduced in 1990, was the first commercially available software package to analyze positions and provide stats for wins, losses, gammons, and backgammons. It was based on conventional programming techniques and only achieved a level of play of weak intermediate.<a href="#cite_note-Bagai-41">[39]</a></li></ul> <ul><li>TD-Gammon, written by Gerry Tesauro at IBM, used <a href="/wiki/Neural_net" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural net">neural net</a> techniques that allowed it to learn based on experience. A full package with <a href="/wiki/Rollout_(backgammon)" title="Rollout (backgammon)">rollouts</a> was never released to the public.<a href="#cite_note-Bagai-41">[39]</a></li></ul> <ul><li>JellyFish, written by Fredriik Dahl and released in 1994, was the first commercially available software based on neural networks, and like TD-Gammon its play approached or surpassed that of the best human players.<a href="#cite_note-Bagai-41">[39]</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Snowie, written by André Nicoulin and Olivier Egger and released in 1998, was a neural-net program that had similar playing strength to its neural net predecessors, but had a more advanced user interface; in particular it could analyze an entire match instead of just one move at a time. <a href="#cite_note-Bagai-41">[39]</a></li></ul> <ul><li>gnubg, written by many programmers as part of the <a href="/wiki/Gnu" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnu">gnu</a> free software project, was released in 2001. It has a similar strength to JellyFish, but is free software. It is still supported and is available for Windows, MAC OS, and most varieties of Linux. Since it is open source, the source code is publicly available.<a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EXtreme_Gammon" title="EXtreme Gammon">eXtreme Gammon</a>, written by Xavier Dufaure de Citres and released in 2009, is available for Windows and mobile platforms. According to the <a href="/wiki/Financial_Times" title="Financial Times">Financial Times</a>, the program is the best backgammon player in the world, and the near-exclusive study tool for all serious backgammon players. <a href="#cite_note-FT-44">[42]</a></li></ul> Real-time online play began with the <a href="/wiki/First_Internet_Backgammon_Server" title="First Internet Backgammon Server">First Internet Backgammon Server</a> in July 1992,<a href="#cite_note-fibs-hist-45">[43]</a> but there are now a range of options.<a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rules">Rules</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Rules">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BackgammonBoard.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/BackgammonBoard.svg/220px-BackgammonBoard.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/BackgammonBoard.svg/330px-BackgammonBoard.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/BackgammonBoard.svg/440px-BackgammonBoard.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="706" data-file-height="605" /></a><figcaption>Board in starting position with two dice and a doubling cube</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bg-movement.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Bg-movement.svg/220px-Bg-movement.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Bg-movement.svg/330px-Bg-movement.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Bg-movement.svg/440px-Bg-movement.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="351" data-file-height="301" /></a><figcaption>Paths of movement for red and black, with checkers in the starting position; viewed from the black side, with home or inner board at lower right</figcaption></figure> Since 2018, backgammon has been overseen internationally by the <a href="/wiki/World_Backgammon_Federation" title="World Backgammon Federation">World Backgammon Federation</a> who set the rules of play for international tournaments. Backgammon playing pieces may be termed men, checkers, draughts, stones, counters, pawns, discs, pips, chips, or nips.<a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a> Checkers is a relatively modern American English term derived from another board game, <a href="/wiki/Draughts" class="mw-redirect" title="Draughts">draughts</a>, which in US English is called <a href="/wiki/Checkers" title="Checkers">checkers</a>. The objective is for players to <a href="/wiki/Bear_off" class="mw-redirect" title="Bear off">bear off</a> all their disc pieces from the board before their opponent can do the same. As the playing time for each individual game is short, it is often played in matches where victory is awarded to the first player to reach a certain number of points. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Board">Board</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Board">edit</a>]</div> The dimensions of a board when opened, for a tournament game, should be at a minimum of 44 cm by 55 cm to a maximum of 66 cm by 88 cm.<a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Setup">Setup</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Setup">edit</a>]</div> Each side of the board has a track of 12 long triangles, called <a href="/wiki/Point_(tables_game)" class="mw-redirect" title="Point (tables game)">points</a>. The points form a continuous track in the shape of a <a href="/wiki/Horseshoe" title="Horseshoe">horseshoe</a>, and are numbered from 1 to 24. In the most commonly used setup, each player begins with fifteen pieces; two are placed on their 24-point, three on their 8-point, and five each on their 13-point and their 6-point. The two players move their pieces in opposing directions, from the 24-point towards the 1-point.<a href="#cite_note-robertie-winners-51">[49]</a> Points 1 through 6 are called the home board or inner board, and points 7 through 12 are called the outer board. The 7-point is referred to as the bar point, and the 13-point as the midpoint. The 5-point for each player is sometimes called the "golden point".<a href="#cite_note-robertie-winners-51">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-hoyle-52">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Movement">Movement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Movement">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Backgammon_example.ogv/220px--Backgammon_example.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="169" data-durationhint="396" data-mwtitle="Backgammon_example.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Backgammon_example.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/07/Backgammon_example.ogv/Backgammon_example.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="428" data-height="328" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Backgammon_example.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="428" data-height="328" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/07/Backgammon_example.ogv/Backgammon_example.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="188" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/07/Backgammon_example.ogv/Backgammon_example.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="314" data-height="240" /></video><figcaption>Video of a game of backgammon, showing movement around the board, entering from the bar, formation of primes, use of the doubling cube and bearing off</figcaption></figure> To start the game, each player rolls one die, and the player with the higher number moves first using the numbers shown on both dice. If the players roll the same number, they must roll again until they roll different numbers.<a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a> Both dice must land completely flat on the right-hand side of the gameboard. The players then take alternate turns, rolling two dice at the beginning of each turn.<a href="#cite_note-robertie-winners-51">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-hoyle-52">[50]</a> After rolling the dice, players must, if possible, move their pieces according to the number shown on each die. For example, if the player rolls a 6 and a 3 (denoted as "6-3"), the player must move one checker six points forward, and another or the same checker three points forward. The same checker may be moved twice, as long as the two moves can be made separately and legally: six and then three, or three and then six. If a player rolls two of the same number, called doubles, that player must play each die twice. For example, a roll of 5-5 allows the player to make four moves of five spaces each. On any roll, a player must move according to the numbers on both dice if it is at all possible to do so. If one or both numbers do not allow a legal move, the player forfeits that portion of the roll and the turn ends. If moves can be made according to either one die or the other, but not both, the higher number must be used. If one die is unable to be moved, but such a move is made possible by the moving of the other die, that move is compulsory. In the course of a move, a checker may land on any point that is unoccupied or is occupied by one or more of the player's own checkers. It may also land on a point occupied by exactly one opposing checker, or "<a href="/wiki/Blot_(tables_game)" class="mw-redirect" title="Blot (tables game)">blot</a>". In this case, the blot has been "hit" and is placed in the middle of the board on the bar that divides the two sides of the playing surface. A checker may never land on a point occupied by two or more opposing checkers; thus, no point is ever occupied by checkers from both players simultaneously.<a href="#cite_note-robertie-winners-51">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-hoyle-52">[50]</a> There is no limit to the number of checkers that can occupy a point or the bar at any given time. Checkers placed on the bar must re-enter the game through the opponent's home board before any other move can be made. A roll of 1 allows the checker to enter on the 24-point (opponent's 1), a roll of 2 on the 23-point (opponent's 2), and so forth, up to a roll of 6 allowing entry on the 19-point (opponent's 6). Checkers may not enter on a point occupied by two or more opposing checkers. Checkers can enter on unoccupied points, or on points occupied by a single opposing checker; in the latter case, the single checker is hit and placed on the bar. A player may not move any other checkers until all checkers belonging to that player on the bar have re-entered the board.<a href="#cite_note-robertie-winners-51">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-hoyle-52">[50]</a> If a player has checkers on the bar, but rolls a combination that does not allow any of those checkers to re-enter, the player does not move. If the opponent's home board is completely "closed" (i.e. all six points are each occupied by two or more checkers), there is no roll that will allow a player to enter a checker from the bar, and that player stops rolling and playing until at least one point becomes open (occupied by one or zero checkers) due to the opponent's moves. A turn ends only when the player has removed his or her dice from the board. Prior to this moment, a move can be undone and replayed an unlimited number of times. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bearing_off">Bearing off</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Bearing off">edit</a>]</div> When all of a player's checkers are in that player's home board, that player may start removing them; this is called "bearing off". A roll of 1 may be used to bear off a checker from the 1-point, a 2 from the 2-point, and so on. If all of a player's checkers are on points lower than the number showing on a particular die, the player must use that die to bear off one checker from the highest occupied point.<a href="#cite_note-robertie-winners-51">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-hoyle-52">[50]</a> For example, if a player rolls a 6 and a 5, but has no checkers on the 6-point and two on the 5-point, then the 6 and the 5 must be used to bear off the two checkers from the 5-point. When bearing off, a player may also move a lower die roll before the higher even if that means the full value of the higher die is not fully utilized. For example, if a player has exactly one checker remaining on the 6-point, and rolls a 6 and a 1, the player may move the 6-point checker one place to the 5-point with the lower die roll of 1, and then bear that checker off the 5-point using the die roll of 6; this is sometimes useful tactically. As before, if there is a way to use all moves showing on the dice by moving checkers within the home board or by bearing them off, the player must do so. If a player's checker is hit while in the process of bearing off, that player may not bear off any others until it has been re-entered into the game and moved into the player's home board, according to the normal movement rules. The first player to bear off all fifteen of their own checkers wins the game. When keeping score in backgammon, the points awarded depend on the scale of the victory. A player who bears off all fifteen pieces when the opponent has borne off at least one, wins a single game worth 1 point. If all fifteen have been borne off before the opponent gets at least one checker off, this is a gammon or double game worth 2 points. A backgammon or triple game is worth 3 points and occurs when the losing player has borne off no pieces and has one or more on the bar and/or in the winner's home table (inner board).<a href="#cite_note-robertie-winners-51">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-hoyle-52">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Doubling_cube">Doubling cube</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Doubling cube">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Backgammon_DoublingCube.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Backgammon_DoublingCube.jpg/220px-Backgammon_DoublingCube.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Backgammon_DoublingCube.jpg/330px-Backgammon_DoublingCube.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Backgammon_DoublingCube.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="390" /></a><figcaption>Doubling cube</figcaption></figure> To speed up match play and to provide an added dimension for strategy, a doubling cube is usually used. The doubling cube is not a die to be rolled, but rather a marker, with the numbers 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64 inscribed on its sides to denote the current stake. At the start of each game, the doubling cube is placed on the midpoint of the bar with the number 64 showing; the cube is then said to be "centered, on 1". When the cube is still centered, either player may start their turn by proposing that the game be played for twice the current stakes. Their opponent must either accept ("take") the doubled stakes or resign ("drop") the game immediately. Whenever a player accepts doubled stakes, the cube is placed on their side of the board with the corresponding <a href="/wiki/Power_of_two" title="Power of two">power of two</a> facing upward, to indicate that the right to redouble, which is to offer to continue doubling the stakes, belongs exclusively to that player.<a href="#cite_note-robertie-winners-51">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-hoyle-52">[50]</a> If the opponent drops the doubled stakes, they lose the game at the current value of the doubling cube. For instance, if the cube showed the number 2 and a player wanted to redouble the stakes to put it at 4, the opponent choosing to drop the redouble would lose two, or twice the original stake. There is no limit on the number of redoubles. Although 64 is the highest number depicted on the doubling cube, the stakes may rise to 128, 256, and so on. In money games, a player is often permitted to "beaver" when offered the cube, doubling the value of the game again, while retaining possession of the cube.<a href="#cite_note-bill_robertie-beavers-54">[52]</a> A variant of the doubling cube "beaver" is the "raccoon". Players who doubled their opponent, seeing the opponent beaver the cube, may in turn then double the stakes once again ("raccoon") as part of that cube phase before any dice are rolled. The opponent retains the doubling cube. An example of a "raccoon" is the following: White doubles Black to 2 points, Black accepts then beavers the cube to 4 points; White, confident of a win, raccoons the cube to 8 points, while Black retains the cube. Such a move adds greatly to the risk of having to face the doubling cube coming back at 8 times its original value when first doubling the opponent (offered at 2 points, counter offered at 16 points) should the luck of the dice change. Some players may opt to invoke the "Murphy rule" or the "automatic double rule". If both opponents roll the same opening number, the doubling cube is incremented on each occasion yet remains in the middle of the board, available to either player. The Murphy rule may be invoked with a maximum number of automatic doubles allowed and that limit is agreed to prior to a game or match commencing. When a player decides to double the opponent, the value is then a double of whatever face value is shown (e.g. if two automatic doubles have occurred putting the cube up to 4, the first in-game double will be for 8 points). The Murphy rule is not an official rule in backgammon and is rarely, if ever, seen in use at officially sanctioned tournaments. The "Jacoby rule", named after <a href="/wiki/Oswald_Jacoby" title="Oswald Jacoby">Oswald Jacoby</a>, allows gammons and backgammons to count for their respective double and triple values only if the cube has already been offered and accepted. This encourages a player with a large lead to double, possibly ending the game, rather than to play it to conclusion hoping for a gammon or backgammon. The Jacoby rule is widely used in money play but is not used in match play.<a href="#cite_note-robertie-serious-55">[53]</a> The "Crawford rule", named after <a href="/wiki/John_R._Crawford" title="John R. Crawford">John R. Crawford</a>, is designed to make match play more equitable for the player in the lead. If a player is one point away from winning a match, that player's opponent will always want to double as early as possible in order to catch up. Whether the game is worth one point or two, the trailing player must win to continue the match. To balance the situation, the Crawford rule requires that when a player first reaches a score one point short of winning, neither player may use the doubling cube for the following game, called the "Crawford game". After the Crawford game, normal use of the doubling cube resumes. The Crawford rule is routinely used in tournament match play.<a href="#cite_note-robertie-serious-55">[53]</a> It is possible for a Crawford game to never occur in a match. If the Crawford rule is in effect, then another option is the "Holland rule", named after <a href="/wiki/Tim_Holland_(backgammon)" title="Tim Holland (backgammon)">Tim Holland</a>, which stipulates that after the Crawford game, a player cannot double until after at least two rolls have been played by each side. It was common in tournament play in the 1980s, but is now rarely used.<a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_games">Related games</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Related games">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tables_game" title="Tables game">Tables game</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alfonso-todas-tablas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Alfonso-todas-tablas.jpg/220px-Alfonso-todas-tablas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Alfonso-todas-tablas.jpg/330px-Alfonso-todas-tablas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Alfonso-todas-tablas.jpg/440px-Alfonso-todas-tablas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="402" /></a><figcaption>Todas tablas from the <a href="/wiki/Libro_de_los_juegos" title="Libro de los juegos">Libro de los juegos</a></figcaption></figure> Minor variations to the standard game are common among casual players in certain regions. For instance, only allowing a maximum of five men on any point (Britain)<a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a> or disallowing "hit-and-run" in the home board (Middle East).<a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a> There are also many relatives of backgammon within the tables family with different aims, modes of play and strategies. Some are played primarily throughout one geographic region, and others add new tactical elements to the game. These other tables games commonly have a different starting position, restrict certain moves, or assign special value to certain dice rolls, but in some geographic games even the rules and direction of movement of the counters change, rendering them fundamentally different. <a href="/wiki/Acey-deucey" title="Acey-deucey">Acey-deucey</a> is a relative of backgammon in which players start with no counters on the board, and must enter them onto the board at the beginning of the game. The roll of 1-2 is given special consideration, allowing the player, after moving the 1 and the 2, to select any desired doubles move. A player also receives an extra turn after a roll of 1-2 or of doubles.<a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hypergammon" title="Hypergammon">Hypergammon</a> is a game in which players have only three counters on the board, starting with one each on the 24, 23 and 22 points. With the aid of a computer this game was solved by Hugh Sconyers around 1994, meaning that exact equities for all cube positions are available for all 32 million possible positions.<a href="#cite_note-Tesauro2002-61">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-strato-variants-62">[60]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tavli_Board_without_slots_(traditional)_B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Tavli_Board_without_slots_%28traditional%29_B.jpg/220px-Tavli_Board_without_slots_%28traditional%29_B.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Tavli_Board_without_slots_%28traditional%29_B.jpg/330px-Tavli_Board_without_slots_%28traditional%29_B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Tavli_Board_without_slots_%28traditional%29_B.jpg/440px-Tavli_Board_without_slots_%28traditional%29_B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5465" data-file-height="4719" /></a><figcaption>A Greek <a href="/wiki/Tavli" title="Tavli">Tavli</a> board. The sound of the dice hitting the wooden board is a typical characteristic of Tavli and the <a href="/wiki/Kafenio" title="Kafenio">coffee-house</a> culture surrounding it.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Nard_(game)" title="Nard (game)">Nard</a> is a traditional tables game from <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> which may be an ancestor of backgammon. It has a different opening layout in which all 15 pieces start on the 24th point. During play pieces may not be hit and there are no gammons or backgammons. <a href="/wiki/Sugoroku" title="Sugoroku">Ban-sugoroku</a> is a Japanese game that is a close relative of backgammon. It utilizes the same starting position but has slightly different rules. Russian backgammon is a variant described in 1895 as: "...much in vogue in Russia, Germany, and other parts of the Continent...".<a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> Players start with no counters on the board, and both players move in the same direction to bear off in a common home board. In this variant, doubles are powerful: four moves are played as in backgammon, followed by four moves according to the difference of the dice value from 7, and then the player has another turn (with the caveat that the turn ends if any portion of it cannot be completed).<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gul_bara" title="Gul bara">Gul bara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tapa_(game)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapa (game)">Tapa</a> are tables games popular in south-eastern Europe and Turkey. The play will iterate among Backgammon, Gul Bara, and Tapa until one of the players reaches a score of 7 or 5.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Coan_ki" title="Coan ki">Coan ki</a> is an ancient Chinese tables game. <a href="/wiki/Plakoto" title="Plakoto">Plakoto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fevga" title="Fevga">Fevga</a> and Portes are three varieties of tables games played in Greece. Together, the three are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Tavli" title="Tavli">Tavli</a> and are usually played one after the other; game being three, five, or seven points.<a href="#cite_note-Papahristou33-65">[63]</a> Misere (backgammon to lose) is a variant of backgammon in which the objective is to lose the game.<a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tavla" title="Tavla">Tavla</a> is a Turkish variation. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Strategy_and_tactics">Strategy and tactics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Strategy and tactics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Backgammon_match_strategy" title="Backgammon match strategy">Backgammon match strategy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Backgammon-set_from_American_civil_war.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Backgammon-set_from_American_civil_war.jpeg/220px-Backgammon-set_from_American_civil_war.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Backgammon-set_from_American_civil_war.jpeg/330px-Backgammon-set_from_American_civil_war.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Backgammon-set_from_American_civil_war.jpeg/440px-Backgammon-set_from_American_civil_war.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="429" /></a><figcaption>Backgammon set, 19th century</figcaption></figure> Backgammon is played in two principal variations, money and match play: <ul><li>Money play means that every point counts evenly and every game stands alone, whether money is actually being wagered or not; sometimes it is called unlimited play.</li></ul> <ul><li>Match play means that the players play until one side scores (or exceeds) a certain number of points.</li></ul> The format has a significant effect on strategy. In a match, the objective is not to win the maximum possible number of points, but rather to simply reach the score needed to win the match, so optimal play may depend on the match score. In money play, the theoretically correct checker play and cube action would never vary based on the score. Backgammon has an established <a href="/wiki/Backgammon_opening_theory" title="Backgammon opening theory">opening theory</a>, although it is less detailed than that of chess. The <a href="/wiki/Game_tree" title="Game tree">tree</a> of positions expands rapidly because of the number of possible dice rolls and the moves available on each turn. Recent computer analysis has offered more insight on opening plays, but the midgame is reached quickly. After the opening, backgammon players frequently rely on some established general strategies, combining and switching among them to adapt to the changing conditions of a game. There are several strategies or "game plans" to achieve a win: <ul><li>The running game is a strategy minimizing or breaking contact while ahead in the race. <a href="#cite_note-magriel-67">[65]</a></li> <li><div>The holding game is holding a point on the opponent's side of the board, called an anchor. As the game progresses, the player may gain an advantage by hitting an opponent's blot from the anchor or by rolling large doubles that allow the checkers to escape into a running game.<a href="#cite_note-magriel-67">[65]</a></div></li> <li>The priming game involves building a wall of checkers, called a prime, covering a number of consecutive points. This obstructs opposing checkers that are behind the prime. A checker trapped behind a six-point prime cannot escape until the prime is broken.<a href="#cite_note-magriel-67">[65]</a></li> <li><div>The attacking game, sometimes called a blitz, is a strategy of covering the home board as quickly as possible while hitting one's opponent and keeping them on the bar. Because the opponent has difficulty re-entering from the bar or escaping, a player can quickly gain a race advantage and win the game, often with a gammon.<a href="#cite_note-robertie-winners-51">[49]</a></div></li></ul> A backgame is a strategy that involves holding two or more anchors in an opponent's home board while being substantially behind in the race.<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> The anchors obstruct the opponent's checkers and create opportunities to hit them as they move home. The backgame is generally used only to salvage a game wherein a player is already significantly behind. Using a backgame as an initial strategy is usually unsuccessful.<a href="#cite_note-robertie-winners-51">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-magriel-67">[65]</a> Duplication refers to the placement of checkers such that one's opponent needs the same dice rolls to achieve different goals. For example, players may position all of their blots in such a way that the opponent must roll a 2 in order to hit any of them, reducing the probability of being hit more than once.<a href="#cite_note-robertie-winners-51">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-magriel-67">[65]</a> Diversification refers to a complementary tactic of placing one's own checkers in such a way that more numbers are useful.<a href="#cite_note-magriel-67">[65]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pip_(counting)#Dice" title="Pip (counting)">pipcount</a> is number of pips needed to move a player's checkers around and off the board. Many positions require a measurement of a player's standing in the race, for example, in making a doubling cube decision, or in determining whether to run home and begin bearing off. The difference between the two players' pip counts is a measure of the leader's racing advantage. For cube decisions, a number of formulas have been developed over the years,<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> including the Thorpe count,<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> the Ward count, the Keith count,<a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a> and iSight.<a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a> These calculations enable a player to determine whether to offer or take a double based on the pipcount in non-contact positions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cube_handling">Cube handling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Cube handling">edit</a>]</div> Two theoretical models provide a basis for cube handling, i.e. when to offer a double and when to accept an offered double. Both ignore the effects of gammons and backgammons. <ul><li>The dead cube model ignores the advantage the taker gets from having sole access to the cube. It estimates that the takepoint (i.e. the minimum game winning chances to accept a cube) is 25% and the doubling window opens at 50%.</li></ul> <ul><li>The live cube model assumes a maximum value for sole cube access (i.e. that the taker may use the cube most efficiently by either raising the stakes or doubling out the opponent). It estimates that the takepoint is 20% and the doubling window opens at 80%.</li></ul> In practice, the takepoints and doubling points are somewhere in between, since while cube ownership cannot be ignored, assuming maximal efficiency for a re-cube is also not a valid assumption.<a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a> Ignoring gammons and backgammons, the takepoint in money play is about 22%.<a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a> All of the above ignores gammons and backgammons for either side, so in practice the calculation of takepoints is more complicated.<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Equity">Equity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Equity">edit</a>]</div> A player's equity in a money or unlimited game is the average <a href="/wiki/Expected_value" title="Expected value">expected value</a> that will be won or lost as a result of that game. For instance, if a player is certain to win but has no chance of a gammon or backgammon their equity is 1 and their opponent's equity is -1. If it is certain that the player will win a backgammon, their equity is 3 and their opponent's equity is -3. In Example 1 below, the player's winning chances are 75%, which corresponds to an equity of +0.5.<a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> <dl><dd>Example 1</dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bkgm61.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/14/Bkgm61.jpg/150px-Bkgm61.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/14/Bkgm61.jpg/225px-Bkgm61.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/14/Bkgm61.jpg/300px-Bkgm61.jpg 2x" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="498" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <dl><dd>Suppose there are only two checkers left on the board and the player on-roll has a checker on their six point and the opponent has a checker on their one point. The player on-roll will bear off with 27/36 rolls or 75% of the time. If the game was played from that position 100 times the on-roll player would win ~75 games and their opponent would win ~25 for a net win of ~50 points per 100 games. The on-roll player's equity would be .5 and their opponent's would be -.5.</dd> <dd>If the doubling cube was accessible they could offer the cube and increase their equity to 1: either their opponent passes the cube and the game is over, or their opponent takes the cube and loses 100 points per 100 games (instead of the 50 with the cube centered). This illustrates that the raw takepoint for money play is 25%.</dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bkgm521.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/32/Bkgm521.jpg/150px-Bkgm521.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/32/Bkgm521.jpg/225px-Bkgm521.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/32/Bkgm521.jpg/300px-Bkgm521.jpg 2x" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="498" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <dl><dd>Example 2</dd></dl> <dl><dd>Now, suppose the on-roll player has two checkers, one on the five point and one on the one point while their opponent still has one on the one point. 23 rolls bear off both checkers so the winning percentage is 64% instead of 75% and the equities are about +0.28 ((64-36)/100) and -.028. If the on-roll player offers the cube, their equity doubles to 0.56 and their opponent should take the cube because -0.56 is better than -1.</dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bkgm5ptHoldingGame.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Bkgm5ptHoldingGame.jpg/150px-Bkgm5ptHoldingGame.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Bkgm5ptHoldingGame.jpg/225px-Bkgm5ptHoldingGame.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Bkgm5ptHoldingGame.jpg/300px-Bkgm5ptHoldingGame.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="487" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <dl><dd>Example 3</dd></dl> <dl><dd>This example is more complicated, since there are gammons and backgammons to be had by both players and it is not the last chance to offer the cube. Computer analysis estimates the player with the black pieces wins 72.1% of games, plus 2.0% gammons, and 0.1% backgammons. Their opponent wins 27.9% of games, 2.0% gammons, and no backgammons. This adds up to the following equities:</dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>No double 0.667</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Double, take 0.684</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Double, pass 1.000</dd></dl></dd> <dd>The on-roll player should offer a double since their equity increases, and their opponent should take since they retain more equity by taking than passing.<a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cheating">Cheating</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Cheating">edit</a>]</div> To reduce the possibility of cheating, most good-quality backgammon sets use <a href="/wiki/Dice#Manufacturing" title="Dice">precision dice</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Dice_cup" class="mw-redirect" title="Dice cup">dice cup</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dummies-79">[77]</a> This reduces the likelihood of <a href="/wiki/Loaded_dice" class="mw-redirect" title="Loaded dice">loaded dice</a> being used, which is the main way of cheating in face-to-face play.<a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a> A common method of cheating online is the use of a computer program to find the optimal move on each turn; to combat this, many online sites use move-comparison software that identifies when a player's moves resemble those of a backgammon program. Online cheating has therefore become extremely difficult.<a href="#cite_note-Dummies-79">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_and_competitive_play">Social and competitive play</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Social and competitive play">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wurfzabel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Wurfzabel.jpg/220px-Wurfzabel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Wurfzabel.jpg/330px-Wurfzabel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Wurfzabel.jpg/440px-Wurfzabel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2354" data-file-height="1413" /></a><figcaption>Medieval players, from the 13th century <a href="/wiki/Carmina_Burana" title="Carmina Burana">Carmina Burana</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legality">Legality</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Legality">edit</a>]</div> In State of Oregon v. Barr, a 1982 court case pivotal to the continued widespread organised playing of backgammon in the US, the State argued that backgammon is a game of chance and that it was therefore subject to Oregon's stringent gambling laws. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Magriel" title="Paul Magriel">Paul Magriel</a> was a key witness for the defence, contradicting Roger Nelson, the expert prosecution witness, by saying, "Game theory, however, really applies to games with imperfect knowledge, where something is concealed, such as poker. Backgammon is not such a game. Everything is in front of you. The person who uses that information in the most effective manner will win." After the closing arguments, Judge Stephen S. Walker concluded that backgammon is a game of skill, not a game of chance, and found the defendant, backgammon tournament director Ted Barr, not guilty of promoting gambling.<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Club_and_tournament_play">Club and tournament play</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Club and tournament play">edit</a>]</div> Enthusiasts have formed <a href="/wiki/Club_(organization)" title="Club (organization)">clubs</a> for social play of backgammon. Local clubs may hold informal gatherings, with members meeting at cafés and bars in the evening to play and converse.<a href="#cite_note-sydney-82">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-bray1-83">[81]</a> A few clubs offer additional services, maintaining their own facilities or offering computer analysis of troublesome plays.<a href="#cite_note-bray2-84">[82]</a> Around 2003, some club leaders noticed a growth of interest in backgammon, and attributed it to the game's popularity on the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-laverty-85">[83]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Backgammon_chouette" title="Backgammon chouette">backgammon chouette</a> permits three or more players to participate in a single game, often for money. One player competes against a team of all the other participants, and positions rotate after each game. Chouette play often permits the use of multiple doubling cubes.<a href="#cite_note-robertie-winners-51">[49]</a> Backgammon clubs may also organize <a href="/wiki/Tournaments" class="mw-redirect" title="Tournaments">tournaments</a>. Large club tournaments sometimes draw competitors from other regions, with final matches viewed by hundreds of spectators.<a href="#cite_note-magriel-nyt-86">[84]</a> The top players at regional tournaments often compete in major national and international championships. Winners at major tournaments may receive prizes of tens of thousands of <a href="/wiki/US_dollar" class="mw-redirect" title="US dollar">dollars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-maxa-87">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_competition">International competition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: International competition">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_world_backgammon_champions" title="List of world backgammon champions">List of world backgammon champions</a></div> The first world championship competition in backgammon was held in <a href="/wiki/Las_Vegas_Valley" title="Las Vegas Valley">Las Vegas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nevada" title="Nevada">Nevada</a> in 1967. <a href="/wiki/Tim_Holland_(backgammon)" title="Tim Holland (backgammon)">Tim Holland</a> was declared the winner that year and at the tournament the following year. For unknown reasons, there was no championship in 1970, but in 1971, Tim Holland again won the title. The competition remained in Las Vegas until 1975, when it moved to <a href="/wiki/Paradise_Island" title="Paradise Island">Paradise Island</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a>. The years 1976, 1977 and 1978 saw "dual" World Championships, one in the Bahamas attended by the Americans, and the European Open Championships in <a href="/wiki/Monte_Carlo" title="Monte Carlo">Monte Carlo</a> with mostly European players. In 1979, Lewis Deyong, who had promoted the Bahamas World Championship for the prior three years, suggested that the two events be combined.<a href="#cite_note-PLAY65-37">[35]</a> Monte Carlo was universally acknowledged as the site of the World Backgammon Championship and has remained as such for thirty years.<a href="#cite_note-mindzine-88">[86]</a> The Monte Carlo tournament draws hundreds of players and spectators, and is played over the course of a week.<a href="#cite_note-maxa-87">[85]</a> By the 21st century, the largest international tournaments had established the basis of a tour for top professional players. Major tournaments are held yearly worldwide. <a href="/wiki/PartyGaming" title="PartyGaming">PartyGaming</a> sponsored the first <a href="/wiki/World_Series_of_Backgammon" title="World Series of Backgammon">World Series of Backgammon</a> in 2006 from <a href="/wiki/Cannes" title="Cannes">Cannes</a> and later the "Backgammon Million" tournament held in the Bahamas in January 2007 with a prize pool of one million dollars, the largest for any tournament to date.<a href="#cite_note-partygammon-89">[87]</a> In 2008, the <a href="/wiki/World_Series_of_Backgammon" title="World Series of Backgammon">World Series of Backgammon</a> ran the world's largest international events in London, the UK Masters, the biggest tournament ever held in the UK with 128 international class players; the Nordic Open, which instantly became the largest in the world with around 500 players in all flights and 153 in the championship, and Cannes, which hosted the Riviera Cup, the traditional follow-up tournament to the World Championships. Cannes also hosted the WSOB championship, the WSOB finale, which saw 16 players play three-point shootout matches for €160,000. The event was recorded for television in Europe and aired on <a href="/wiki/Eurosport" title="Eurosport">Eurosport</a>. The World Backgammon Association (WBA)<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> has been holding the biggest backgammon tour on the circuit since 2007, the "European Backgammon Tour"<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> (EBGT). In 2011, the WBA collaborated with the online backgammon provider <a href="/wiki/Play65" title="Play65">Play65</a> for the 2011 season of the European Backgammon Tour and with "Betfair" in 2012. The 2013 season of the European Backgammon Tour featured 11 stops and 19 qualified players competing for €19,000 in a grand finale in <a href="/wiki/Lefkosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Lefkosa">Lefkosa</a>, Northern Cyprus. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gambling">Gambling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Gambling">edit</a>]</div> When backgammon is <a href="/wiki/Gambling" title="Gambling">played for money</a>, the most common arrangement is to assign a monetary value to each point, and to play to a certain score, or until either player chooses to stop. The stakes are raised by gammons, backgammons, and use of the doubling cube. Backgammon is sometimes available in <a href="/wiki/Casino" title="Casino">casinos</a>. Before the commercialization of <a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">artificial neural network</a> programs, <a href="/wiki/Proposition_bet" title="Proposition bet">proposition bets</a> on specific positions were very common among backgammon players and gamblers.<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> As with most gambling games, successful play requires a combination of luck and skill, as a single dice roll can sometimes significantly change the outcome of the game.<a href="#cite_note-magriel-67">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mediterranean_and_West_Asian_cultural_significance">Mediterranean and West Asian cultural significance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Mediterranean and West Asian cultural significance">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Damascene-style_inlaid_Backgammon_board,_Cairo,_Khan_el-Khalili.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Damascene-style_inlaid_Backgammon_board%2C_Cairo%2C_Khan_el-Khalili.jpg/220px-Damascene-style_inlaid_Backgammon_board%2C_Cairo%2C_Khan_el-Khalili.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="346" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Damascene-style_inlaid_Backgammon_board%2C_Cairo%2C_Khan_el-Khalili.jpg/330px-Damascene-style_inlaid_Backgammon_board%2C_Cairo%2C_Khan_el-Khalili.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Damascene-style_inlaid_Backgammon_board%2C_Cairo%2C_Khan_el-Khalili.jpg/440px-Damascene-style_inlaid_Backgammon_board%2C_Cairo%2C_Khan_el-Khalili.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2393" data-file-height="3768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Damascening" title="Damascening">Damascene</a>-style <a href="/wiki/Marquetry" title="Marquetry">marquetry</a> backgammon board, <a href="/wiki/Khan_el-Khalili" title="Khan el-Khalili">Khan el-Khalili</a>, Cairo</figcaption></figure> Backgammon is considered the <a href="/wiki/National_sport" title="National sport">national game</a> in many countries of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a>:<a href="#cite_note-Arab_American_Almanac_1984-93">[91]</a> <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Allatson_Gallimard_(Firm)_1995-94">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Ergil_2014-95">[93]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Hinebaugh_2019-96">[94]</a> <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Los_Angeles_Times_1988-97">[95]</a> <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-The_Israel_Economist_1978-98">[96]</a> <a href="/wiki/State_of_Palestine" title="State of Palestine">Palestine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Khūrī_Ḫūrī_1990-99">[97]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a><a href="#cite_note-Arab_American_Almanac_1984-93">[91]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Team_2018-100">[98]</a> The popularity of the game across the region is primarily an oral tradition,<a href="#cite_note-Los_Angeles_Times_1988-97">[95]</a> and appears to have been strengthened during the era of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, which controlled the whole Eastern Mediterranean in the early modern period. <a href="/wiki/Afif_Bahnassi" title="Afif Bahnassi">Afif Bahnassi</a>, Syria's director of antiquities, stated in 1988: "For some reason, backgammon became the rage of the Ottoman Empire. It really spread across the Arab world with the Turks, and it stayed behind when they left."<a href="#cite_note-Los_Angeles_Times_1988-97">[95]</a> The game is a common feature of <a href="/wiki/Coffeehouse" title="Coffeehouse">coffeehouses</a> throughout the region. Since at least the early 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> became well known as the preeminent location for <a href="/wiki/Damascening" title="Damascening">Damascene</a>-style wooden <a href="/wiki/Marquetry" title="Marquetry">marquetry</a> backgammon sets that have become famous throughout the region.<a href="#cite_note-Los_Angeles_Times_1988-97">[95]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Backgammon_and_Dominos_numbers_in_Ottoman_Turkish,_1907.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Backgammon_and_Dominos_numbers_in_Ottoman_Turkish%2C_1907.jpg/220px-Backgammon_and_Dominos_numbers_in_Ottoman_Turkish%2C_1907.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Backgammon_and_Dominos_numbers_in_Ottoman_Turkish%2C_1907.jpg/330px-Backgammon_and_Dominos_numbers_in_Ottoman_Turkish%2C_1907.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Backgammon_and_Dominos_numbers_in_Ottoman_Turkish%2C_1907.jpg/440px-Backgammon_and_Dominos_numbers_in_Ottoman_Turkish%2C_1907.jpg 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="792" /></a><figcaption>Backgammon and Dominos numbers in <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish" title="Ottoman Turkish">Ottoman Turkish</a>, in <a href="/wiki/V._H._Hagopian" title="V. H. Hagopian">V. H. Hagopian</a>'s 1907 Ottoman-Turkish Conversation-Grammar. <a href="/wiki/James_Redhouse" title="James Redhouse">James Redhouse</a>'s milestone <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish" title="Ottoman Turkish">Ottoman Turkish</a> dictionary in the 19th century described a similar phenomenon alongside many other Ottoman words of Persian or Turkish origin.<a href="#cite_note-Redhouse_1890-101">[99]</a></figcaption></figure> A unique feature of backgammon throughout the region is players' use of mixed <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> numbers to announce <a href="/wiki/Dice" title="Dice">dice</a> rolls, rather than Arabic or other local languages.<a href="#cite_note-Gippert-102">[100]</a> Related to this phenomenon, the game is frequently referred to as Shesh Besh, which is a rhyming combination shesh, meaning six in <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> (as well as many historical and current Semitic languages), and besh, meaning five in Turkish. Shesh besh is commonly used to refer to when a player scores a 5 and 6 at the same time on dice.<a href="#cite_note-BoueriBoutros2006-103">[101]</a> This language contains six types of <a href="/wiki/Irregular_inflection" class="mw-redirect" title="Irregular inflection">irregular inflections</a>: <ul><li>1) doubles in pure Persian, (6-6 and 3-3);<a href="#cite_note-Gippert-102">[100]</a></li> <li>2a) unequal throws in pure Persian, higher followed by lower<a href="#cite_note-Gippert-102">[100]</a></li> <li>2b) unequal throws in pure Persian, with a connecting vowel in between<a href="#cite_note-Gippert-102">[100]</a></li> <li>3) Mixed Turkish-Persian numeral (6–5, 5-5, 4-4)<a href="#cite_note-Gippert-102">[100]</a></li> <li>4) alternatives for 2a and 2b in pure Turkish (6–4, 5–4, 5–1, 2–1)<a href="#cite_note-Gippert-102">[100]</a></li> <li>5) special cases (3–2, 2-2, 1-1); where 3-2 is a version of 2a with a "ba" added for phonetic reasons, 2-2 is <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: دوباره for "twice" or two-times-two, and 1-1 is a hybrid Turkish-Persian where hep is Turkish for "altogether".<a href="#cite_note-Gippert-102">[100]</a></li></ul> In the early 20th century, as use of Classical Arabic was being promoted with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a>, efforts were made to replace the Persian-Turkish numbers used in backgammon play.<a href="#cite_note-Suleiman_2013_p._8-104">[102]</a> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="5">Dice throw language used across the Eastern Mediterranean </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Throw </th> <th colspan="3">Language </th></tr> <tr> <th>Image</th> <th>Numbers</th> <th>Turkish</th> <th>Persian</th> <th>Bulgarian </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/20px-Dice-1.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/30px-Dice-1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/40px-Dice-1.png 2x" data-file-width="201" data-file-height="201" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/20px-Dice-1.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/30px-Dice-1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/40px-Dice-1.png 2x" data-file-width="201" data-file-height="201" /></a></td> <td>1 – 1</td> <td>Hep Yek</td> <td>هبت يك</td> <td>Еп-ек (еци, епеци); Ep-ek (eci, epeci) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/20px-Dice-2.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/30px-Dice-2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/40px-Dice-2.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/20px-Dice-2.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/30px-Dice-2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/40px-Dice-2.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></td> <td>2 – 2</td> <td>Dubara</td> <td>دوبارة</td> <td>Дю-бара (дубари); Du-bara (dubara, dubari) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/20px-Dice-2.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/30px-Dice-2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/40px-Dice-2.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/20px-Dice-1.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/30px-Dice-1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/40px-Dice-1.png 2x" data-file-width="201" data-file-height="201" /></a></td> <td>2 – 1</td> <td>Dü yek; yek-i dü; Iki Bir</td> <td>دُو يك</td> <td>Ик-и-бир; Ik-i-bir </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/20px-Dice-3.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/30px-Dice-3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/40px-Dice-3.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/20px-Dice-3.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/30px-Dice-3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/40px-Dice-3.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></td> <td>3 – 3</td> <td>Dü Se</td> <td>دوسة</td> <td>Дю-се (ме-се); Du-se (me-se) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/20px-Dice-3.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/30px-Dice-3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/40px-Dice-3.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/20px-Dice-2.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/30px-Dice-2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/40px-Dice-2.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></td> <td>3 – 2</td> <td>Seba-i Dü</td> <td>سِه دُو</td> <td>Себа-и-дю; Seba-i-du </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/20px-Dice-3.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/30px-Dice-3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/40px-Dice-3.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/20px-Dice-1.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/30px-Dice-1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/40px-Dice-1.png 2x" data-file-width="201" data-file-height="201" /></a></td> <td>3 – 1</td> <td>Se Yek</td> <td>سِه يك</td> <td>Се-и-ек; Se-i-ek </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-4.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/20px-Dice-4.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/30px-Dice-4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/40px-Dice-4.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-4.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/20px-Dice-4.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/30px-Dice-4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/40px-Dice-4.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></td> <td>4 – 4</td> <td>Dört Cihar (Dört Caar)</td> <td>درجي</td> <td>Дьорт-джехар (джаар, дорджар); Djort-jahar (jaar, dordjar) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-4.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/20px-Dice-4.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/30px-Dice-4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/40px-Dice-4.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/20px-Dice-3.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/30px-Dice-3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/40px-Dice-3.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></td> <td>4 – 3</td> <td>Cihar-ü Se (Caar-i Se)</td> <td>جهار سِه</td> <td>Джехар-у-се; Jehar-u-se </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-4.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/20px-Dice-4.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/30px-Dice-4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/40px-Dice-4.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/20px-Dice-2.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/30px-Dice-2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/40px-Dice-2.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></td> <td>4 – 2</td> <td>Cihar-i Dü (Caar-i Dü)</td> <td>جهار دُو</td> <td>Джехар-и-дю; Jehar-i-du </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-4.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/20px-Dice-4.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/30px-Dice-4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/40px-Dice-4.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/20px-Dice-1.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/30px-Dice-1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/40px-Dice-1.png 2x" data-file-width="201" data-file-height="201" /></a></td> <td>4 – 1</td> <td>Cihar-ı Yek (Caar-i Yek)</td> <td>جهار يك</td> <td>Джехар-и-ек; Jehar-i-ek </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-5.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/20px-Dice-5.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/30px-Dice-5.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/40px-Dice-5.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-5.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/20px-Dice-5.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/30px-Dice-5.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/40px-Dice-5.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></td> <td>5 – 5</td> <td>Dü Beş</td> <td>دبش</td> <td>Дю-беш; Du-besh </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-5.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/20px-Dice-5.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/30px-Dice-5.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/40px-Dice-5.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-4.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/20px-Dice-4.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/30px-Dice-4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/40px-Dice-4.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></td> <td>5 – 4</td> <td>Beş Dört; Cihar-ü Penc (Caar-i Penc)</td> <td>پنج جهار</td> <td>Беш-дьорт; Besh-dyort </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-5.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/20px-Dice-5.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/30px-Dice-5.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/40px-Dice-5.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/20px-Dice-3.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/30px-Dice-3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/40px-Dice-3.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></td> <td>5 – 3</td> <td>Penc-ü Se</td> <td>پنج سِه</td> <td>Пендж-и-се; Penj-i-se </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-5.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/20px-Dice-5.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/30px-Dice-5.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/40px-Dice-5.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/20px-Dice-2.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/30px-Dice-2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/40px-Dice-2.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></td> <td>5 – 2</td> <td>Penc-i Dü</td> <td>پنج دُو</td> <td>Пендж-и-дю; Panj-i-du </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-5.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/20px-Dice-5.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/30px-Dice-5.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/40px-Dice-5.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/20px-Dice-1.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/30px-Dice-1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/40px-Dice-1.png 2x" data-file-width="201" data-file-height="201" /></a></td> <td>5 – 1</td> <td>Penc-i Yek; Beş Bir</td> <td>پنج يك</td> <td>Пендж-и-ек; Panj-i-ek </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-6E.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/20px-Dice-6E.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/30px-Dice-6E.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/40px-Dice-6E.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-6E.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/20px-Dice-6E.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/30px-Dice-6E.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/40px-Dice-6E.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></td> <td>6 – 6</td> <td>Dü Şeş</td> <td>دشش</td> <td>Дю-шеш; Du-shesh </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-6E.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/20px-Dice-6E.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/30px-Dice-6E.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/40px-Dice-6E.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-5.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/20px-Dice-5.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/30px-Dice-5.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Dice-5.png/40px-Dice-5.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></td> <td>6 – 5</td> <td>Şeş Beş</td> <td>شيش بيش</td> <td>Шеш-беш; Shesh-besh </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-6E.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/20px-Dice-6E.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/30px-Dice-6E.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/40px-Dice-6E.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-4.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/20px-Dice-4.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/30px-Dice-4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Dice-4.png/40px-Dice-4.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></td> <td>6 – 4</td> <td>Şeş Cihar (Altɨdört)</td> <td>شيش جهار</td> <td>Шеш-джехар; Shesh-jehar </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-6E.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/20px-Dice-6E.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/30px-Dice-6E.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/40px-Dice-6E.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/20px-Dice-3.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/30px-Dice-3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Dice-3.png/40px-Dice-3.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></td> <td>6 – 3</td> <td>Şeş-ü Se</td> <td>شيش سِه</td> <td>Шеш-у-се; Shesh-u-se </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-6E.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/20px-Dice-6E.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/30px-Dice-6E.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/40px-Dice-6E.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/20px-Dice-2.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/30px-Dice-2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Dice-2.png/40px-Dice-2.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></td> <td>6 – 2</td> <td>Şeş-i Dü</td> <td>شيش دُو</td> <td>Шеш-и-дю; Shash-i-du </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-6E.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/20px-Dice-6E.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/30px-Dice-6E.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dice-6E.png/40px-Dice-6E.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Dice-1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/20px-Dice-1.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/30px-Dice-1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Dice-1.png/40px-Dice-1.png 2x" data-file-width="201" data-file-height="201" /></a></td> <td>6 – 1</td> <td>Şeş-i Yek</td> <td>شيش يك</td> <td>Шеш-у-ек; Shesh-u-ek. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Studies_and_analysis">Studies and analysis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Studies and analysis">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GNU_bg_screenshot.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/GNU_bg_screenshot.png/220px-GNU_bg_screenshot.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/GNU_bg_screenshot.png/330px-GNU_bg_screenshot.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/GNU_bg_screenshot.png/440px-GNU_bg_screenshot.png 2x" data-file-width="1424" data-file-height="1045" /></a><figcaption>A screen shot of GNU Backgammon, showing an evaluation and rollout of possible moves</figcaption></figure> Backgammon has been studied considerably by <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer scientists</a>. <a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">Neural networks</a> and other approaches have offered significant advances to software for gameplay and analysis. With 15 white and 15 black counters and 24 possible positions, backgammon has 18 <a href="/wiki/Names_of_large_numbers" title="Names of large numbers">quintillion</a> possible legal positions.<a href="#cite_note-UKBGF_2014-105">[103]</a> The first strong computer opponent was BKG 9.8. It was written by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Berliner" title="Hans Berliner">Hans Berliner</a> in the late 1970s on a DEC <a href="/wiki/PDP-10" title="PDP-10">PDP-10</a> as an experiment in evaluating board game positions. Early versions of BKG played badly even against poor players, but Berliner noticed that its critical mistakes were always at transitional phases in the game. He applied principles of <a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">fuzzy logic</a> to improve its play between phases, and by July 1979, BKG 9.8 was strong enough to play against the reigning world champion <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Villa" title="Luigi Villa">Luigi Villa</a>. It won the match 7–1, becoming the first computer program to defeat a world champion in any board game. Berliner stated that the victory was largely a matter of luck, as the computer received more favorable dice rolls.<a href="#cite_note-berliner-acm-106">[104]</a> In the late 1980s, backgammon programmers found more success with an approach based on <a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">artificial neural networks</a>. <a href="/wiki/TD-Gammon" title="TD-Gammon">TD-Gammon</a>, developed by Gerald Tesauro of <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>, was the first of these programs to play near the expert level. Its neural network was trained using <a href="/wiki/Temporal_difference_learning" title="Temporal difference learning">temporal difference learning</a> applied to data generated from self-play.<a href="#cite_note-tesauro-acm-107">[105]</a> According to assessments by <a href="/wiki/Bill_Robertie" title="Bill Robertie">Bill Robertie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kit_Woolsey" title="Kit Woolsey">Kit Woolsey</a>, TD-Gammon's play was at or above the level of the top human players in the world.<a href="#cite_note-tesauro-acm-107">[105]</a> Woolsey said of the program that "There is no question in my mind that its positional judgment is far better than mine."<a href="#cite_note-tesauro-acm-107">[105]</a> Tesauro proposed using <a href="/wiki/Rollout_(backgammon)" title="Rollout (backgammon)">rollout analysis</a> to compare the performance of computer algorithms against human players.<a href="#cite_note-Tesauro2002-61">[59]</a> In this method, a <a href="/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method" title="Monte Carlo method">Monte-Carlo evaluation</a> of positions is conducted (typically thousands of trials) where different random dice sequences are simulated. The rollout score of the human (or the computer) is the difference of the average game results by following the selected move versus following the best move, then averaged for the entire set of taken moves. Neural network research has resulted in three modern <a href="/wiki/Proprietary_software" title="Proprietary software">proprietary programs</a>, JellyFish,<a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a> Snowie<a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a> and <a href="/wiki/EXtreme_Gammon" title="EXtreme Gammon">eXtreme Gammon</a>,<a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Shareware" title="Shareware">shareware</a> BGBlitz<a href="#cite_note-111">[109]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Free_software" title="Free software">free software</a> GNU Backgammon.<a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a> These programs not only play the game, but offer tools for analyzing games and detailed comparisons of individual moves. The strength of these programs lies in their neural networks' weights tables, which are the result of months of training. Without them, these programs play no better than a human novice. For the bearoff phase, backgammon software usually relies on a database containing precomputed equities for all possible bearoff positions. There are 54,263 bearoff positions for each side. This means there are 542632 total bearoff positions (~3 billion positions). In 1981 Hugh Sconyers wrote a computer program that solved all positions with nine checkers or fewer for both sides. In the early 1990s Hugh extended his results to all bearoff positions. For each position there are four results: no cube, roller's cube, center cube and opponent's cube. So, Hugh's bearoff database contains the exact answers to ~12 billion bearoff situations. Another neural network software developed by Nikolaos Papachristou is Palamedes that was developed in the early 2000s and it can also play variations like Hypergammon, Portes, Plakoto, Fevga, Narde and has multiple engines for each one.<a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a> Computer-versus-computer competitions are also held at <a href="/wiki/Computer_Olympiad#Backgammon" title="Computer Olympiad">Computer Olympiad</a> events. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kbackgammon.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Nuvola_apps_kbackgammon.png/28px-Nuvola_apps_kbackgammon.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Nuvola_apps_kbackgammon.png/42px-Nuvola_apps_kbackgammon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Nuvola_apps_kbackgammon.png/56px-Nuvola_apps_kbackgammon.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Games" title="Portal:Games">Games portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Backgammon_notation" title="Backgammon notation">Backgammon notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tables_game" title="Tables game">Tables games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabletop_game" title="Tabletop game">Tabletop games</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> The fact that this is the earliest mention is stated in Fiske (1905), p. 285. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Albeit Cotton (1674) gives an alternative starting layout as well as the familiar one. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Fiske-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Fiske_1-0">^</a> Fiske (1905), p. 159. </li> <li id="cite_note-Cram-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cram_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cram_2-1">b</a> Forgeng, Johnson and Cram (2003), p. 269. </li> <li id="cite_note-Howell_1635,_Vol._2,_No._68-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Howell_1635,_Vol._2,_No._68_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Howell_1635,_Vol._2,_No._68_3-1">b</a> Howell (1635), Vol. 2, No. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1928-1009-378">"game-board | British Museum"</a>. The British Museum. Retrieved 18 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+British+Museum&rft.atitle=game-board+%7C+British+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fcollection%2Fobject%2FW_1928-1009-378&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Iranica_board_game-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Iranica_board_game_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iranica_board_game_5-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchädlerDunn-Vaturi" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Schädler, Ulrich; Dunn-Vaturi, Anne-Elizabeth. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/board-games-in-pre-islamic-persia">"Board Games in pre-Islamic Persia"</a>. Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 2018-04-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Board+Games+in+pre-Islamic+Persia&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.aulast=Sch%C3%A4dler&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft.au=Dunn-Vaturi%2C+Anne-Elizabeth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fboard-games-in-pre-islamic-persia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-6"><a href="#cite_ref-:4_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBecker2007" class="citation book cs1">Becker, Andrea (2007). "The Royal Game of Ur". In <a href="/wiki/Irving_Finkel" title="Irving Finkel">Finkel, Irving</a> (ed.). Ancient Board Games in Perspective: Papers from the 1990 British Museum Colloquium, with Additional Contributions. London, England: British Museum Press. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780714111537" title="Special:BookSources/9780714111537"><bdi>9780714111537</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/150371733">150371733</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Royal+Game+of+Ur&rft.btitle=Ancient+Board+Games+in+Perspective%3A+Papers+from+the+1990+British+Museum+Colloquium%2C+with+Additional+Contributions&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=British+Museum+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F150371733&rft.isbn=9780714111537&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-7"><a href="#cite_ref-:3_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonovan2017" class="citation book cs1">Donovan, Tristan (2017). It's all a game : the history of board games from Monopoly to Settlers of Catan (First ed.). New York: Thomas Dunne Books. pp. 13–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781250082725" title="Special:BookSources/9781250082725"><bdi>9781250082725</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/960239246">960239246</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=It%27s+all+a+game+%3A+the+history+of+board+games+from+Monopoly+to+Settlers+of+Catan&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=13-16&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Thomas+Dunne+Books&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F960239246&rft.isbn=9781250082725&rft.aulast=Donovan&rft.aufirst=Tristan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-austin-zeno-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-austin-zeno_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-austin-zeno_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-austin-zeno_8-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustin1934" class="citation journal cs1">Austin, Roland G (1934). "Zeno's Game of τάβλη". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 54 (2): 202–205. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F626864">10.2307/626864</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/626864">626864</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163212104">163212104</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Hellenic+Studies&rft.atitle=Zeno%27s+Game+of+%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%B2%CE%BB%CE%B7&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=202-205&rft.date=1934&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163212104%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F626864%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F626864&rft.aulast=Austin&rft.aufirst=Roland+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bell-9"><a href="#cite_ref-bell_9-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Charles_Bell" title="Robert Charles Bell">Robert Charles Bell</a>, Board and table games from many civilizations, Courier Dover Publications, 1979, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-23855-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-23855-5">0-486-23855-5</a>, pp. 33–35. </li> <li id="cite_note-koukoules-10"><a href="#cite_ref-koukoules_10-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoukoules1948" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phaidon_Koukoules&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phaidon Koukoules (page does not exist)">Koukoules, Phaidon</a> (1948). Vyzantinon Vios kai Politismos. Vol. 1. Collection de l'institut français d'Athènes. pp. 200–204.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vyzantinon+Vios+kai+Politismos&rft.pages=200-204&rft.pub=Collection+de+l%27institut+fran%C3%A7ais+d%27Ath%C3%A8nes&rft.date=1948&rft.aulast=Koukoules&rft.aufirst=Phaidon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-austin-roman2-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-austin-roman2_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-austin-roman2_11-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustin1935" class="citation journal cs1">Austin, Roland G. (February 1935). "Roman Board Games. II". Greece & Rome. 4 (11): 76–82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0017383500003119">10.1017/s0017383500003119</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248520932">248520932</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Greece+%26+Rome&rft.atitle=Roman+Board+Games.+II&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=76-82&rft.date=1935-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0017383500003119&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248520932%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Austin&rft.aufirst=Roland+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-austin-roman1-12"><a href="#cite_ref-austin-roman1_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustin1934" class="citation journal cs1">Austin, Roland G. (October 1934). "Roman Board Games. I". Greece & Rome. 4 (10): 24–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0017383500002941">10.1017/s0017383500002941</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162861940">162861940</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Greece+%26+Rome&rft.atitle=Roman+Board+Games.+I&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=24-34&rft.date=1934-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0017383500002941&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162861940%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Austin&rft.aufirst=Roland+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Finkel, Irving L. 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(2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hoylesruleso8fav00hoyl">Hoyle's Rules of Games</a> (Third Revised and Updated ed.). Signet. pp. 321–330. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-451-20484-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-451-20484-4"><bdi>978-0-451-20484-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hoyle%27s+Rules+of+Games&rft.pages=321-330&rft.edition=Third+Revised+and+Updated&rft.pub=Signet&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-451-20484-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhoylesruleso8fav00hoyl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bkgm.com/rules.html">"Rules of Backgammon"</a>. Backgammon Galore!. <q>To start the game, each player throws a single die. This determines both the player to go first and the numbers to be played.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rules+of+Backgammon&rft.pub=Backgammon+Galore%21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bkgm.com%2Frules.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bill_robertie-beavers-54"><a href="#cite_ref-bill_robertie-beavers_54-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertie" class="citation web cs1">Robertie, Bill. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gammonvillage.com/backgammon/news/early_beavers.cfm">"Backgammon Beavers"</a>. GammonVillage. Retrieved 2007-10-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Backgammon+Beavers&rft.pub=GammonVillage&rft.aulast=Robertie&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gammonvillage.com%2Fbackgammon%2Fnews%2Fearly_beavers.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-robertie-serious-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-robertie-serious_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-robertie-serious_55-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertie2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bill_Robertie" title="Bill Robertie">Robertie, Bill</a> (2006). Backgammon for Serious Players (second ed.). Cardoza. pp. 19–22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-940685-68-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-940685-68-0"><bdi>978-0-940685-68-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Backgammon+for+Serious+Players&rft.pages=19-22&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=Cardoza&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-940685-68-0&rft.aulast=Robertie&rft.aufirst=Bill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160312074549/http://bkgm.com/gloss/lookup.cgi?pat=holland+rule">"Backgammon Glossary/Holland Rule"</a>. Backgammon Galore!. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bkgm.com/gloss/lookup.cgi?pat=holland+rule">the original</a> on 2016-03-12. Retrieved 2009-02-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Backgammon+Glossary%2FHolland+Rule&rft.pub=Backgammon+Galore%21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bkgm.com%2Fgloss%2Flookup.cgi%3Fpat%3Dholland%2Brule&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bkgm.com/variants/OldEnglish.html">"Old English Backgammon"</a>. Backgammon Galore!.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Old+English+Backgammon&rft.pub=Backgammon+Galore%21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bkgm.com%2Fvariants%2FOldEnglish.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bkgm.com/faq/BasicRules.html#is_hit_and_run_allowed_also_known_as_pick_and_pass_">"Backgammon FAQ: Basic Rules"</a>. Backgammon Galore!.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Backgammon+FAQ%3A+Basic+Rules&rft.pub=Backgammon+Galore%21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bkgm.com%2Ffaq%2FBasicRules.html%23is_hit_and_run_allowed_also_known_as_pick_and_pass_&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://usbgf.org/learn-backgammon/rules-of-backgammon/">"Backgammon Rules – And How To Play"</a>. US Backgammon Federation. 8 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Backgammon+Rules+%E2%80%93+And+How+To+Play&rft.pub=US+Backgammon+Federation&rft.date=2021-05-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusbgf.org%2Flearn-backgammon%2Frules-of-backgammon%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> The Backgammon Book, Chapter 11, O. Jacoby & J. R. Crawford, 1970, Macmillan & Co </li> <li id="cite_note-Tesauro2002-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tesauro2002_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tesauro2002_61-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTesauro,_G.2002" class="citation journal cs1">Tesauro, G. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927050304/http://www.math-info.univ-paris5.fr/~bouzy/Doc/PJR/Backgammon.pdf">"Programming backgammon using self-teaching neural nets"</a> (PDF). Artificial Intelligence. 134 (1): 181–199. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0004-3702%2801%2900110-2">10.1016/S0004-3702(01)00110-2</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.math-info.univ-paris5.fr/~bouzy/Doc/PJR/Backgammon.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2007-08-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Artificial+Intelligence&rft.atitle=Programming+backgammon+using+self-teaching+neural+nets&rft.volume=134&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=181-199&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0004-3702%2801%2900110-2&rft.au=Tesauro%2C+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.math-info.univ-paris5.fr%2F~bouzy%2FDoc%2FPJR%2FBackgammon.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-strato-variants-62"><a href="#cite_ref-strato-variants_62-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrato" class="citation web cs1">Strato, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gammonlife.com/variants/index.htm">"Backgammon Variants"</a>. Gammonlife. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070913213206/http://www.gammonlife.com/variants/index.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 13 September 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Backgammon+Variants&rft.pub=Gammonlife&rft.aulast=Strato&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gammonlife.com%2Fvariants%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bkgm.com/books/Berkeley/Transcription/">"Draughts and Backgammon, by Berkeley"</a>. bkgm.com. Retrieved 2022-12-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bkgm.com&rft.atitle=Draughts+and+Backgammon%2C+by+Berkeley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbkgm.com%2Fbooks%2FBerkeley%2FTranscription%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bkgm.com/variants/RussianBackgammon.html">"Russian Backgammon"</a>. Backgammon Galore!. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090313084251/http://bkgm.com/variants/RussianBackgammon.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 March 2009. Retrieved 2009-02-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Russian+Backgammon&rft.pub=Backgammon+Galore%21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bkgm.com%2Fvariants%2FRussianBackgammon.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Papahristou33-65"><a href="#cite_ref-Papahristou33_65-0">^</a> Papahristou (2015), pp. 33–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bkgm.com/variants/Misere.html">"Misere (Backgammon to Lose)"</a>. Backgammon Galore!. Retrieved 2020-08-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Backgammon+Galore%21&rft.atitle=Misere+%28Backgammon+to+Lose%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbkgm.com%2Fvariants%2FMisere.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-magriel-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-magriel_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-magriel_67-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-magriel_67-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-magriel_67-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-magriel_67-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-magriel_67-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-magriel_67-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagriel1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Magriel" title="Paul Magriel">Magriel, Paul</a> (1976). Backgammon. Quadrangle/The New York Times Book Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-0615-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-0615-8"><bdi>978-0-8129-0615-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Backgammon&rft.pub=Quadrangle%2FThe+New+York+Times+Book+Co&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-8129-0615-8&rft.aulast=Magriel&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bkgm.com/gloss/lookup.cgi?back+game%20game">"Backgammon Glossary/Back Game"</a>. Backgammon Galore!.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Backgammon+Glossary%2FBack+Game&rft.pub=Backgammon+Galore%21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bkgm.com%2Fgloss%2Flookup.cgi%3Fback%2Bgame%2520game&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bkgm.com/articles/page04.html#pip_counting">"Backgammon Articles: When and How to Use the Doubling Cube"</a>. www.bkgm.com. Retrieved 2024-10-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bkgm.com&rft.atitle=Backgammon+Articles%3A+When+and+How+to+Use+the+Doubling+Cube&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bkgm.com%2Farticles%2Fpage04.html%23pip_counting&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bkgm.com/rgb/rgb.cgi?view+772">"Backgammon Cube Handling in Races"</a>. www.bkgm.com. Retrieved 2024-10-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bkgm.com&rft.atitle=Backgammon+Cube+Handling+in+Races&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bkgm.com%2Frgb%2Frgb.cgi%3Fview%2B772&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bkgm.com/articles/CubeHandlingInRaces/#comparing_the_formulas">"Cube Handling in Noncontact Positions"</a>. www.bkgm.com. Retrieved 2024-10-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bkgm.com&rft.atitle=Cube+Handling+in+Noncontact+Positions&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bkgm.com%2Farticles%2FCubeHandlingInRaces%2F%23comparing_the_formulas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://bkgm.com/articles/Reichert/insights-with-isight.pdf">https://bkgm.com/articles/Reichert/insights-with-isight.pdf</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.bkgm.com/articles/Janowski/cubeformulae.pdf">https://www.bkgm.com/articles/Janowski/cubeformulae.pdf</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gammonlife.com/writers/simple-backgammon-cube-strategy.htm">"GAMMONLIFE.COM - Backgammon Cube Strategy Made Simple"</a>. www.gammonlife.com. Retrieved 2024-10-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.gammonlife.com&rft.atitle=GAMMONLIFE.COM+-+Backgammon+Cube+Strategy+Made+Simple&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gammonlife.com%2Fwriters%2Fsimple-backgammon-cube-strategy.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.bkgm.com/articles/Simborg/WhenToDouble/index.html">https://www.bkgm.com/articles/Simborg/WhenToDouble/index.html</a> "I wish there were as good a law for when to take the cube. No one I know has come up with a simple solution for this ..." </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLamford2001" class="citation book cs1">Lamford, Paul (2001). Starting Out in Backgammon. London: Everyman Publishers. p. 126.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Starting+Out+in+Backgammon&rft.place=London&rft.pages=126&rft.pub=Everyman+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Lamford&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchiemann" class="citation book cs1">Schiemann, Dirk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dirk-schiemann.de/the-theorie-of-backgammon.html#">The Theory of Backgammon Mathematics, Logic, and Intuition</a>. Sciwie Verlag. pp. 18–23, 64–77.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theory+of+Backgammon+Mathematics%2C+Logic%2C+and+Intuition&rft.pages=18-23%2C+64-77&rft.pub=Sciwie+Verlag&rft.aulast=Schiemann&rft.aufirst=Dirk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdirk-schiemann.de%2Fthe-theorie-of-backgammon.html%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.bkgm.com/articles/GOL/May01/hold.htm">https://www.bkgm.com/articles/GOL/May01/hold.htm</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dummies-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dummies_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dummies_79-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBray2008" class="citation book cs1">Bray, Chris (2008). Backgammon for Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 13, 224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-69456-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-69456-5"><bdi>978-0-470-69456-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Backgammon+for+Dummies&rft.pages=13%2C+224&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-470-69456-5&rft.aulast=Bray&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrington_Green1845" class="citation book cs1">Harrington Green, Jonathan (1845). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anexposureartsa01greegoog">An exposure of the arts and miseries of gambling</a>. Redding. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anexposureartsa01greegoog/page/n205">203</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+exposure+of+the+arts+and+miseries+of+gambling&rft.pages=203&rft.pub=Redding&rft.date=1845&rft.aulast=Harrington+Green&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanexposureartsa01greegoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bkgm.com/articles/BackgammonTimes/LuckVsSkill-TrialOfTedBarr/index.html">"The Trial (and Tribulations) of Oregon Promoter Ted Barr"</a>. Backgammon Times. Vol. 2, no. 2. 1982.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Backgammon+Times&rft.atitle=The+Trial+%28and+Tribulations%29+of+Oregon+Promoter+Ted+Barr&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1982&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bkgm.com%2Farticles%2FBackgammonTimes%2FLuckVsSkill-TrialOfTedBarr%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sydney-82"><a href="#cite_ref-sydney_82-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Tribes of Sydney—Sydney Backgammon Club". The Daily Telegraph (Australia). June 24, 2006. p. 95.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph+%28Australia%29&rft.atitle=Tribes+of+Sydney%E2%80%94Sydney+Backgammon+Club&rft.pages=95&rft.date=2006-06-24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bray1-83"><a href="#cite_ref-bray1_83-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBray2002" class="citation news cs1">Bray, Chris (June 29, 2002). "Backgammon". The Independent (London). p. 50.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent+%28London%29&rft.atitle=Backgammon&rft.pages=50&rft.date=2002-06-29&rft.aulast=Bray&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bray2-84"><a href="#cite_ref-bray2_84-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBray2000" class="citation news cs1">Bray, Chris (November 25, 2000). "Backgammon". 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July 10, 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PR+Newswire&rft.atitle=PartyGammon.com+to+Stage+First+Ever+US%241+Million+Backgammon+Tournament&rft.date=2006-07-10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.world-backgammon-association.com">"World Backgammon Association"</a>. www.world-backgammon-association.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.world-backgammon-association.com&rft.atitle=World+Backgammon+Association&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.world-backgammon-association.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180307074142/http://ebgt.info/">"Home"</a>. www.ebgt.info. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ebgt.info/">the original</a> on 2018-03-07. Retrieved 2013-11-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ebgt.info&rft.atitle=Home&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ebgt.info%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWachtel" class="citation web cs1">Wachtel, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091010184227/http://www.backgammon.org/articles/backgammon-proposition-week/">"Backgammon Proposition"</a>. backgammon.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.backgammon.org/articles/backgammon-proposition-week/">the original</a> on 2009-10-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=backgammon.org&rft.atitle=Backgammon+Proposition&rft.aulast=Wachtel&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.backgammon.org%2Farticles%2Fbackgammon-proposition-week%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arab_American_Almanac_1984-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arab_American_Almanac_1984_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arab_American_Almanac_1984_93-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4j0OAQAAMAAJ">Arab American Almanac</a>. News Circle Publishing Company. 1984. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-915652-03-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-915652-03-7"><bdi>978-0-915652-03-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2022-05-03. <q>Backgammon: Throughout the Eastern Mediterranean region, it is unquestionably the single most popular game ; tric trac or towleh (table), as it is called, is practically the national sport of Lebanon</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arab+American+Almanac&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=News+Circle+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-915652-03-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4j0OAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Allatson_Gallimard_(Firm)_1995-94"><a href="#cite_ref-Allatson_Gallimard_(Firm)_1995_94-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllatsonGallimard_(Firm)1995" class="citation book cs1">Allatson, W.; Gallimard (Firm) (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zh8ZAQAAIAAJ">Egypt</a>. Knopf Book and Cassette Classics Series. Alfred A. Knopf. p. 495. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-75566-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-75566-1"><bdi>978-0-679-75566-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2022-05-03. <q>...tawla (backgammon), the national game…</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt&rft.series=Knopf+Book+and+Cassette+Classics+Series&rft.pages=495&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-679-75566-1&rft.aulast=Allatson&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Gallimard+%28Firm%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dzh8ZAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ergil_2014-95"><a href="#cite_ref-Ergil_2014_95-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErgil2014" class="citation web cs1">Ergil, Leyla Yvonne (2014-10-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dailysabah.com/life/2014/10/11/top-tavla-tips-for-expats-to-play-like-a-turk">"Top Tavla tips for expats to play like a Turk"</a>. Daily Sabah. <q>Tavla, otherwise known as backgammon, can easily be considered Turkey's national game and, in the way it is played a metaphor for life in Turkey.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Daily+Sabah&rft.atitle=Top+Tavla+tips+for+expats+to+play+like+a+Turk&rft.date=2014-10-11&rft.aulast=Ergil&rft.aufirst=Leyla+Yvonne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dailysabah.com%2Flife%2F2014%2F10%2F11%2Ftop-tavla-tips-for-expats-to-play-like-a-turk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hinebaugh_2019-96"><a href="#cite_ref-Hinebaugh_2019_96-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinebaugh2019" class="citation book cs1">Hinebaugh, J.P. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GPd7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49">More Board Game Education: Inspiring Students Through Board Games</a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4758-4834-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4758-4834-2"><bdi>978-1-4758-4834-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2022-05-03. <q>Tavli (Backgammon in Greek) is the national game of Cyprus</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=More+Board+Game+Education%3A+Inspiring+Students+Through+Board+Games&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-4758-4834-2&rft.aulast=Hinebaugh&rft.aufirst=J.P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGPd7DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Los_Angeles_Times_1988-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Los_Angeles_Times_1988_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Los_Angeles_Times_1988_97-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Los_Angeles_Times_1988_97-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Los_Angeles_Times_1988_97-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-02-04-mn-40503-story.html">"Love of Backgammon : To Arabs, It's the 1 Game That Counts"</a>. Los Angeles Times. 1988-02-04. <q>While other games--chess, bridge, even poker--have made inroads from time to time, backgammon has been for centuries the pastime of the Middle East</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Love+of+Backgammon+%3A+To+Arabs%2C+It%27s+the+1+Game+That+Counts&rft.date=1988-02-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-1988-02-04-mn-40503-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Israel_Economist_1978-98"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Israel_Economist_1978_98-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0WseAQAAMAAJ">The Israel Economist</a>. Kollek. 1978. Retrieved 2022-05-03. <q>Even in Israel [Rummikub] took a long time to make an impact, though today it ranks only just behind Shesh-Besh (backgammon) as the national pastime</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Israel+Economist&rft.pub=Kollek.&rft.date=1978&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0WseAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Khūrī_Ḫūrī_1990-99"><a href="#cite_ref-Khūrī_Ḫūrī_1990_99-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhūrīḪūrī1990" class="citation book cs1">Khūrī, F.I.; Ḫūrī, F.I. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N_SNAAAAMAAJ">Tents and Pyramids: Games and Ideology in Arab Culture from Backgammon to Autocratic Rule</a>. Saqi Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86356-334-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86356-334-8"><bdi>978-0-86356-334-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2022-05-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tents+and+Pyramids%3A+Games+and+Ideology+in+Arab+Culture+from+Backgammon+to+Autocratic+Rule&rft.pub=Saqi+Books&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-86356-334-8&rft.aulast=Kh%C5%ABr%C4%AB&rft.aufirst=F.I.&rft.au=%E1%B8%AA%C5%ABr%C4%AB%2C+F.I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN_SNAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Team_2018-100"><a href="#cite_ref-Team_2018_100-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeam2018" class="citation web cs1">Team, GCT (2018-01-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://greekcitytimes.com/2018/01/23/all-you-need-to-know-about-tavli-greeces-national-board-game/">"All You Need To Know About Tavli, Greece's National Board Game"</a>. Greek City Times. Retrieved 2022-05-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Greek+City+Times&rft.atitle=All+You+Need+To+Know+About+Tavli%2C+Greece%27s+National+Board+Game&rft.date=2018-01-23&rft.aulast=Team&rft.aufirst=GCT&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgreekcitytimes.com%2F2018%2F01%2F23%2Fall-you-need-to-know-about-tavli-greeces-national-board-game%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Redhouse_1890-101"><a href="#cite_ref-Redhouse_1890_101-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedhouse1890" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Redhouse" title="James Redhouse">Redhouse, J.W.</a> (1890). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mms7AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1436">A Turkish and English Lexicon: Shewing in English the Significations of the Turkish Terms</a>. American mission. p. 1125. Retrieved 2022-05-01. <q>P. [for Persian origin]: شش shesh, a. Six. شش اناز A player with six objects. 2. A player at backgammon. شش بش Six and five, in backgammon. شش و يك Six and one. شش بش كورمك (To take the six for a five) To see double. دو شش Sixes, in backgammon</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Turkish+and+English+Lexicon%3A+Shewing+in+English+the+Significations+of+the+Turkish+Terms&rft.pages=1125&rft.pub=American+mission&rft.date=1890&rft.aulast=Redhouse&rft.aufirst=J.W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmms7AQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA1436&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gippert-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gippert_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gippert_102-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gippert_102-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gippert_102-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gippert_102-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gippert_102-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gippert_102-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGippert1989" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gippert, Jost (1989). "Ein persisch-türkisches Zählsystem beim Würfelspiel ["A Persian-Turkic counting system used in dice games"]". In Einar von Schuler (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YdwNAAAAYAAJ">XXIII. Deutscher Orientalistentag: vom 16. bis 20. September 1985 in Würzburg : ausgewählte Vorträge</a>. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, Volume 139 (or Volume 7 of Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft: Supplement) (in German). F. Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden. pp. 259–273. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-515-04961-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-515-04961-0"><bdi>978-3-515-04961-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ein+persisch-t%C3%BCrkisches+Z%C3%A4hlsystem+beim+W%C3%BCrfelspiel+%5B%22A+Persian-Turkic+counting+system+used+in+dice+games%22%5D&rft.btitle=XXIII.+Deutscher+Orientalistentag%3A+vom+16.+bis+20.+September+1985+in+W%C3%BCrzburg+%3A+ausgew%C3%A4hlte+Vortr%C3%A4ge&rft.series=Zeitschrift+der+Deutschen+Morgenl%C3%A4ndischen+Gesellschaft%2C+Volume+139+%28or+Volume+7+of+Zeitschrift+der+Deutschen+Morgenl%C3%A4ndischen+Gesellschaft%3A+Supplement%29&rft.pages=259-273&rft.pub=F.+Steiner+Verlag+Wiesbaden&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-3-515-04961-0&rft.aulast=Gippert&rft.aufirst=Jost&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYdwNAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> This can be read online at <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/personal/jg/html/jg1985b.htm">[1]</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020203231823/https://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/personal/jg/html/jg1985b.htm">archived</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-BoueriBoutros2006-103"><a href="#cite_ref-BoueriBoutros2006_103-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoueriBoutrosSayad2006" class="citation book cs1">Boueri, Marijean; Boutros, Jill; Sayad, Joanne (April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VIemBhgNmpAC&pg=PA59">Lebanon A to Z: A Middle Eastern Mosaic</a>. PublishingWorks. pp. 59–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9744803-4-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9744803-4-3"><bdi>978-0-9744803-4-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lebanon+A+to+Z%3A+A+Middle+Eastern+Mosaic&rft.pages=59-&rft.pub=PublishingWorks&rft.date=2006-04&rft.isbn=978-0-9744803-4-3&rft.aulast=Boueri&rft.aufirst=Marijean&rft.au=Boutros%2C+Jill&rft.au=Sayad%2C+Joanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVIemBhgNmpAC%26pg%3DPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Suleiman_2013_p._8-104"><a href="#cite_ref-Suleiman_2013_p._8_104-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuleiman2013" class="citation book cs1">Suleiman, Y. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o8xdAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8">Arabic Sociolinguistics: Issues and Perspectives</a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-77937-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-77937-4"><bdi>978-1-136-77937-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2022-05-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabic+Sociolinguistics%3A+Issues+and+Perspectives&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-77937-4&rft.aulast=Suleiman&rft.aufirst=Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do8xdAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-UKBGF_2014-105"><a href="#cite_ref-UKBGF_2014_105-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ukbgf.com/developing-positional-awareness/">"Developing Positional Awareness"</a>. UKBGF. 2014-01-03. Retrieved 2022-09-26. <q>There are 18,528,584,051,601,162,496 distinct backgammon positions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UKBGF&rft.atitle=Developing+Positional+Awareness&rft.date=2014-01-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fukbgf.com%2Fdeveloping-positional-awareness%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-berliner-acm-106"><a href="#cite_ref-berliner-acm_106-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerliner1980" class="citation journal cs1">Berliner, Hans (January 1980). "Backgammon program beats world champ". ACM SIGART Bulletin (69): 6–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1056433.1056434">10.1145/1056433.1056434</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36222242">36222242</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACM+SIGART+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Backgammon+program+beats+world+champ&rft.issue=69&rft.pages=6-9&rft.date=1980-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F1056433.1056434&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A36222242%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Berliner&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tesauro-acm-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tesauro-acm_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tesauro-acm_107-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tesauro-acm_107-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTesauro1995" class="citation journal cs1">Tesauro, Gerald (March 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.research.ibm.com/massive/tdl.html">"Temporal difference learning and TD-Gammon"</a>. Communications of the ACM. 38 (3): 58–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F203330.203343">10.1145/203330.203343</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8763243">8763243</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&rft.atitle=Temporal+difference+learning+and+TD-Gammon&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=58-68&rft.date=1995-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F203330.203343&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8763243%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Tesauro&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.research.ibm.com%2Fmassive%2Ftdl.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150816163340/http://www.backgammon.help/software.html">"Backgammon software - Backgammon Online Guide"</a>. www.backgammon.help. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.backgammon.help/software.html">the original</a> on 2015-08-16. Retrieved 2015-08-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.backgammon.help&rft.atitle=Backgammon+software+-+Backgammon+Online+Guide&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.backgammon.help%2Fsoftware.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bgsnowie.com">"BackgammonSnowie - World class poker coaching software"</a>. www.bgsnowie.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bgsnowie.com&rft.atitle=BackgammonSnowie+-+World+class+poker+coaching+software&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bgsnowie.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.extremegammon.com">"eXtreme Gammon"</a>. www.extremegammon.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.extremegammon.com&rft.atitle=eXtreme+Gammon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.extremegammon.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bgblitz.com">"BGBlitz"</a>. BGBlitz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090225122525/http://bgblitz.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2009. Retrieved 2009-02-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BGBlitz&rft.pub=BGBlitz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bgblitz.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gnu.org/software/gnubg/gnubg.html">"GNU Backgammon"</a>. www.gnu.org. Retrieved 2022-12-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.gnu.org&rft.atitle=GNU+Backgammon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gnu.org%2Fsoftware%2Fgnubg%2Fgnubg.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nikpapa.com/Palamedes/">"Palamedes"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Palamedes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnikpapa.com%2FPalamedes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>_ (1930). The Retail Bookseller: Trade news for the Book Buyer. Vol. 33. Retail Bookseller.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlfonso_X_of_Castile1273" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alfonso_X_of_Castile" title="Alfonso X of Castile">Alfonso X of Castile</a> (1273). <a href="/wiki/El_Libro_de_los_Juegos" class="mw-redirect" title="El Libro de los Juegos">El Libro de los Juegos</a>. Toledo: Royal Scriptorium.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=El+Libro+de+los+Juegos&rft.place=Toledo&rft.pub=Royal+Scriptorium&rft.date=1273&rft.au=Alfonso+X+of+Castile&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Bohn, Henry George (1850). The Hand-Book of Games. London: Bohn.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCotton1674" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotton" title="Charles Cotton">Cotton, Charles</a> (1674). <a href="/wiki/The_Compleat_Gamester" title="The Compleat Gamester">The Compleat Gamester</a>. London: A.M. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/558875155">558875155</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Compleat+Gamester&rft.place=London&rft.pub=A.M.&rft.date=1674&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F558875155&rft.aulast=Cotton&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiske,_Willard" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiske, Willard">Fiske, Willard</a> (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chessinicelandin00fiskuoft/page/n9/mode/2up">Chess in Iceland and in Icelandic Literature: with Historical Notes on Other Table-Games.</a> Florence: The Florentine Typographical Society.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardner2020" class="citation journal cs1">Gardner, Iain (2020). "Backgammon and cosmology at the Sasanian court". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 83 (2): 249–257. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X20002177">10.1017/S0041977X20002177</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216459314">216459314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Backgammon+and+cosmology+at+the+Sasanian+court&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=249-257&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0041977X20002177&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A216459314%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gardner&rft.aufirst=Iain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Howell, James (1835). "LXVII. [Letter] To Master G. Stone" in Familiar Letters. Vol. 2. (1850). London: Humphrey Moseley. p. 105.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacoby,_Oswald" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacoby, Oswald">Jacoby, Oswald</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crawford_John_R." class="mw-redirect" title="Crawford John R.">Crawford John R.</a> (1970). The Backgammon Book. NY: Viking. IA</li> <li>Papahristou, Nikolaos (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dspace.lib.uom.gr/bitstream/2159/18687/2/PapahristouNikolaos_Phd2015.pdf">Decision Making in Multiplayer Environments: Application in backgammon variants</a>. Thessaloniki: University of Macedonia. Doctoral Studies Programme.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parlett,_David" class="mw-redirect" title="Parlett, David">Parlett, David</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rH6DAAAAMAAJ&q=The+Oxford+History+of+Board+Games">The Oxford History of Board Games</a>. Oxford: OUP. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192129987" title="Special:BookSources/9780192129987">9780192129987</a></li> <li>Wheatley, Henry B. (1666). The Diary of <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Pepys" title="Samuel Pepys">Samuel Pepys</a>. Vol. 9. London and NY: Croscup.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillughby2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Willughby" title="Francis Willughby">Willughby, Francis</a> (2003). Forgeng, Jeff; Johnston, Dorothy; Cram, David (eds.). <a href="/wiki/Francis_Willughby%27s_Book_of_Games" title="Francis Willughby's Book of Games">Francis Willughby's Book of Games</a>. Farnham: Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85928-460-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-85928-460-4"><bdi>1-85928-460-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Francis+Willughby%27s+Book+of+Games&rft.place=Farnham&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-85928-460-4&rft.aulast=Willughby&rft.aufirst=Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackgammon" class="Z3988"> (Critical edition of Willughby's volume containing descriptions of games and pastimes, c.1660-1672. Manuscript in the Middleton collection, University of Nottingham; document reference Mi LM 14)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willughby,_Francis" class="mw-redirect" title="Willughby, Francis">Willughby, Francis</a>, A Volume of Plaies containing descriptions of games and pastimes ("Francis Willughby's Book of Games"), c.1660-1672. Manuscript in the Middleton collection, University of Nottingham; document reference <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mss-cat.nottingham.ac.uk/CalmView/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=MiAX%2fLM%2f14">Mi LM 14</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Backgammon&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235611614">.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);margin:0.5em 0;padding:0.2em;line-height:1.5em;font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-header{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-listen-to{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-files{text-align:center;margin-top:10px;margin-bottom:0.4em}.mw-parser-output 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terms</a> at Wiktionary</li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/16px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/24px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/32px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a> <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Backgammon" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Backgammon">Backgammon</a> at Wikibooks</li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Tables_games" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Tables games"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Tables_games" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Tables_game" title="Tables game">Tables games</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forerunners</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hounds_and_jackals" title="Hounds and jackals">Dogs and Jackals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Lines" title="Five Lines">Grammai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludus_duodecim_scriptorum" title="Ludus duodecim scriptorum">Duodecim Scriptorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Game_of_Ur" title="Royal Game of Ur">Game of Twenty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knossos_board_game" title="Knossos board game">Knossos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nard_(game)" title="Nard (game)">Nard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Game_of_Ur" title="Royal Game of Ur">Royal Game of Ur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senet" title="Senet">Senet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabula_(game)" title="Tabula (game)">Tabula</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Tables_icon_01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Tables_icon_01.png/60px-Tables_icon_01.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Tables_icon_01.png/90px-Tables_icon_01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Tables_icon_01.png/120px-Tables_icon_01.png 2x" data-file-width="296" data-file-height="599" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Games of parallel movement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Barail&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Barail (page does not exist)">Barail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fevga" title="Fevga">Fevga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gul_bara" title="Gul bara">Gul bara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacquet_(game)" title="Jacquet (game)">Jacquet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacquet_(game)" title="Jacquet (game)">Jacquet de Versailles</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kotra_(game)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kotra (game) (page does not exist)">Kotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laquet" title="Laquet">Laquet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Nardy" title="Long Nardy">Long Nardy (Narde, Long Nardi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fevga" title="Fevga">Moultezim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawula" title="Tawula">Tawula</a> (Turkish backgammon)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verquere" title="Verquere">Verquere</a> (Swedish tables)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Games of contrary movement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acey-deucey" title="Acey-deucey">Acey-deucey</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Backgammon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludus_Anglicorum" title="Ludus Anglicorum">English game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gioul" title="Gioul">Gioul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_(game)" title="Irish (game)">Irish game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lourche" title="Lourche">Lourche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludus_Anglicorum" title="Ludus Anglicorum">Ludus Anglicorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plakoto" title="Plakoto">Plakoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tavli" title="Tavli">Portes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ticktack" title="Ticktack">Ticktack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourne_case" title="Tourne case">Tourne case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trictrac" title="Trictrac">Trictrac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ssangnyuk" title="Ssangnyuk">Ssangryuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugoroku" title="Sugoroku">Sugoroku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapa_(game)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapa (game)">Tapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tavla" title="Tavla">Tavla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tavli" title="Tavli">Tavli</a> (Greek backgammon)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Games without movement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doublets_(tables_game)" title="Doublets (tables game)">Dames Rabattues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublets_(tables_game)" title="Doublets (tables game)">Doblet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublets_(tables_game)" title="Doublets (tables game)">Doublets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublets_(tables_game)" title="Doublets (tables game)">Ofanfelling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tables_games" title="Category:Tables games">Tables (current)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historical_tables_games" title="Category:Historical tables games">Tables (historical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tables_game_terminology" title="Category:Tables game terminology">Terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Backgammon" title="Category:Backgammon">Backgammon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_tables_game_terms" title="Glossary of tables game terms">Glossary</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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