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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a <a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution" title="Category:Pollution">series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0; background:#fadcc5; color:#fadcc5"><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_pollution3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/220px-Air_pollution3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/330px-Air_pollution3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/440px-Air_pollution3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2250" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Air pollution from a factory</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Air quality index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling" title="Atmospheric dispersion modeling">Atmospheric dispersion modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">Chlorofluorocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">Combustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">Exhaust gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">Haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_distillation" title="Global distillation">Global distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smog" title="Smog">Smog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">Soot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compound</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Digital</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_pollution" title="Information pollution">Information</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_light_pollution" title="Ecological light pollution">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overillumination" class="mw-redirect" title="Overillumination">Overillumination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum_pollution" title="Radio spectrum pollution">Radio spectrum</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">Ozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment" title="Radium and radon in the environment">Radium and radon in the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_effects_from_noise" title="Health effects from noise">Health effects from noise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals_and_sonar" title="Marine mammals and sonar">Marine mammals and sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_barrier" title="Noise barrier">Noise barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundproofing" title="Soundproofing">Soundproofing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste" title="Bioremediation of radioactive waste">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">Depleted uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_in_the_environment" title="Uranium in the environment">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_heating" title="Electrical resistance heating">Electrical resistance heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_mining" title="Illegal mining">Illegal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">Phytoremediation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Solid waste</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_mail" title="Advertising mail">Advertising mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_waste" title="Biodegradable waste">Biodegradable waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_waste" title="Brown waste">Brown waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_loss_and_waste" title="Food loss and waste">Food waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_waste" title="Green waste">Green waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Space</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">Space debris</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Visual_pollution" title="Visual pollution">Visual</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutter_(advertising)" title="Clutter (advertising)">Advertising clutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">Nuclear famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">Nuclear winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_environmental_law" title="War and environmental law">War and environmental law</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosolids" title="Biosolids">Biosolids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewater_(fire_fighting)" title="Firewater (fire fighting)">Firewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_salinization" title="Freshwater salinization">Freshwater salinization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sludge" title="Sludge">Sludge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_stagnation" title="Water stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_water" title="Sulfur water">Sulfur water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Water quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">Wastewater</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_environmental_pollution" title="History of environmental pollution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">Pollutants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paint</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Misc</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_source_pollution" title="Area source pollution">Area source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbology" title="Garbology">Garbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_pollution" title="Legacy pollution">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic</a></li></ul></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lists</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pollution-related_diseases" title="List of pollution-related diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_laws_by_country" title="List of environmental laws by country">Law by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" title="List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Most polluted cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Least polluted cities by PM2.5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international environmental agreements">Treaties</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Categories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution_by_country" 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.navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pollution_sidebar" title="Template:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pollution_sidebar" title="Template talk:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Since the mid-20th century, <b>plutonium in the environment</b> has been primarily produced by human activity. The first plants to produce <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> for use in <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombs" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bombs">atomic bombs</a> were the <a href="/wiki/Hanford_nuclear_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanford nuclear site">Hanford nuclear site</a> in Washington, and the <a href="/wiki/Mayak" title="Mayak">Mayak nuclear plant</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Chelyabinsk_Oblast" title="Chelyabinsk Oblast">Chelyabinsk Oblast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>. Over a period of four decades,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "both released more than 200 million <a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curies</a> of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive isotopes">radioactive isotopes</a> into the surrounding environment – twice the amount expelled in the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> in each instance."<sup id="cite_ref-katebr_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-katebr-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The majority of <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> are not short-lived on a <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">geological timescale</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though it has been argued that traces of the long-lived <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-244" title="Plutonium-244"><sup>244</sup>Pu</a> isotope still exist in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This isotope has been found in <a href="/wiki/Lunar_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar soil">lunar soil</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Meteorites" class="mw-redirect" title="Meteorites">meteorites</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the <a href="/wiki/Oklo" title="Oklo">Oklo</a> natural reactor.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, one study on plutonium in <a href="/wiki/Marine_(ocean)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine (ocean)">marine</a> <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a> indicates that the atomic bomb fallout accounts for 66% of the <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239"><sup>239</sup>Pu</a> and 59% <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-240" title="Plutonium-240"><sup>240</sup>Pu</a> in the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a>. In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">nuclear reprocessing</a> contributes the majority of the <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-238" title="Plutonium-238"><sup>238</sup>Pu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-241" title="Plutonium-241"><sup>241</sup>Pu</a> in the Earth's oceans, whereas nuclear weapons testing is responsible for only 6.5% and 16.5% of these isotopes, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources_of_plutonium">Sources of plutonium</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium_in_the_environment&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Sources of plutonium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plutonium_production">Plutonium production</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium_in_the_environment&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Plutonium production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg/220px-Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg/330px-Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg/440px-Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2812" data-file-height="2092" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Hanford_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanford site">Hanford site</a> represents two-thirds of the nation's high-level radioactive waste by volume. Nuclear reactors line the riverbank at the Hanford Site along the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia River</a> in January 1960.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Richland,_Washington" title="Richland, Washington">Richland, Washington</a> was the first city established to support plutonium production at the nearby <a href="/wiki/Hanford_nuclear_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanford nuclear site">Hanford nuclear site</a>, to power the American nuclear weapons arsenals. <a href="/wiki/Ozyorsk,_Chelyabinsk_Oblast" title="Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast">Ozersk, Russia</a> supported plutonium production to power the Soviet nuclear arsenals at the <a href="/wiki/Mayak" title="Mayak">Mayak</a> nuclear plant. These were the first two cities in the world to produce plutonium for use in <a href="/wiki/Cold_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold war">cold war</a> <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombs" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bombs">atomic bombs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-katebr_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-katebr-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 2013 book, <i><a href="/wiki/Plutopia" title="Plutopia">Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Kate_Brown_(professor)" title="Kate Brown (professor)">Kate Brown</a> explores the health of affected citizens in both the United States and Russia, and the "slow-motion disasters" that still threaten the environments where the plants are located.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Brown, the plants at <a href="/wiki/Hanford_Site" title="Hanford Site">Hanford</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mayak" title="Mayak">Mayak</a> released over 200 million <a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curies</a> of radioactive isotopes into the surrounding environment over four decades, which is twice the amount expelled in the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> in each instance.<sup id="cite_ref-katebr_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-katebr-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of the <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a> over the years from Hanford and Mayak were part of normal operations. Unforeseen accidents did occur, but plant management kept this secret, and the pollution continued unabated. Even today, as pollution threats to health and the environment persist, the government conceals information about the associated risks from the public.<sup id="cite_ref-katebr_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-katebr-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bomb_detonations">Bomb detonations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium_in_the_environment&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Bomb detonations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trinityglassactivity.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Trinityglassactivity.png/450px-Trinityglassactivity.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Trinityglassactivity.png/675px-Trinityglassactivity.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Trinityglassactivity.png/900px-Trinityglassactivity.png 2x" data-file-width="979" data-file-height="598" /></a><figcaption>Levels of radioactivity in the trinitite glass from two different samples as measured by <a href="/wiki/Gamma_spectroscopy" title="Gamma spectroscopy">gamma spectroscopy</a> on lumps of the glass. The americium content is the current content while all other isotopes have been back-calculated to shortly after the moment of detonation.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pubeforeandaftertrinity.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Pubeforeandaftertrinity.png/450px-Pubeforeandaftertrinity.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Pubeforeandaftertrinity.png/675px-Pubeforeandaftertrinity.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Pubeforeandaftertrinity.png/900px-Pubeforeandaftertrinity.png 2x" data-file-width="979" data-file-height="598" /></a><figcaption>Isotopic signatures of the plutonium before and after the detonation.</figcaption></figure> <p>About 3.5 tons of plutonium have been released into the environment by atomic bomb tests. While this might sound significant, it has only resulted in a very small dose to the majority of the humans on Earth. Overall the health effects of <a href="/wiki/Fission_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission products">fission products</a> are far greater than the effects of the <a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">actinides</a> released by a nuclear bomb detonation. The plutonium from the fuel of the bomb is converted into a high-fired <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxide</a> that is carried high into the air. It slowly falls to earth as global <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">fallout</a> and is not <a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">soluble</a>, and as a result it is difficult for this plutonium to be incorporated into an organism if ingested. Much of this plutonium is absorbed into sediments of lakes, rivers and oceans. However, about 66% of the plutonium from a bomb explosion is formed by the neutron capture of <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238"><sup>238</sup>U</a>; this plutonium is not converted by the bomb into a high fired <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxide</a>, as it is formed more slowly. This formed plutonium is more soluble and more harmful as <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">fallout</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Choppin_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Choppin-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some plutonium can be deposited close to the point of detonation. The glassy <a href="/wiki/Trinitite" title="Trinitite">trinitite</a> formed by the <a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity bomb</a> has been examined to determine what actinides and other <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">radioisotopes</a> it contained. A 2006 paper<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reports the levels of long lived radioisotopes in the trinitite. <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_europium" title="Isotopes of europium"><sup>152</sup>Eu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_europium" title="Isotopes of europium"><sup>154</sup>Eu</a> was mainly formed by the neutron activation of the <a href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium">europium</a> in the soil, and the level of radioactivity for these isotopes is highest where the neutron dose to the <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> was larger. Some of the <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60"><sup>60</sup>Co</a> was generated by activation of the <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a> in the soil, but some was also generated by the activation of the cobalt in the <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> (100 foot) tower on which the bomb stood. This <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60"><sup>60</sup>Co</a> from the tower would have been scattered over the site reducing the difference in the soil levels. <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_barium" title="Isotopes of barium"><sup>133</sup>Ba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Americium-241" title="Americium-241"><sup>241</sup>Am</a> were created by the neutron activation of barium and plutonium inside the bomb. The <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a> was present in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a> in the chemical explosives used while the plutonium was the <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a> fuel used. </p><p>As the <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239"><sup>239</sup>Pu</a>/<a href="/wiki/Plutonium-240" title="Plutonium-240"><sup>240</sup>Pu</a> ratio only changed slightly during the Trinity detonation, it has been commented<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that this isotope ratio for the majority of atomic bombs (in Japan the <sup>239</sup>Pu/<sup>240</sup>Pu ratio in soil is normally in the range 0.17 to 0.19<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) is very different than from the bomb dropped upon <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki,_Nagasaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagasaki, Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bomb_safety_trials">Bomb safety trials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium_in_the_environment&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Bomb safety trials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg/250px-Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg/375px-Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg/500px-Fission_bomb_assembly_methods.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The two basic fission weapon designs.</figcaption></figure> <p>Plutonium has also been released into the environment in <i>safety trials</i>. In these experiments, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_bombs" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear bombs">nuclear bombs</a> have been subjected to simulated accidents or detonated with an abnormal initiation of their chemical explosives. An abnormal implosion will result in a compression of the <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_pit" class="mw-redirect" title="Plutonium pit">plutonium pit</a>, which is less uniform and smaller than the designed compression in the device. In these experiments where no or very little <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> occurs, plutonium metal has been scattered around the test sites. While some of these tests have been done underground, other such tests were conducted in open air. A paper on the <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioisotope">radioisotopes</a> left on an island by the <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> nuclear bombs tests of the 20th century has been printed by the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> and a section of this report deals with plutonium contamination resulting from such tests.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other related trials were conducted at <a href="/wiki/Maralinga,_South_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Maralinga, South Australia">Maralinga, South Australia</a> where both normal bomb detonations and "safety trials" have been conducted. While the activity from the fission products has decayed away almost totally (as of 2006) the plutonium remains active.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space">Space</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium_in_the_environment&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Space"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cutdrawing_of_an_GPHS-RTG.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Cutdrawing_of_an_GPHS-RTG.png/400px-Cutdrawing_of_an_GPHS-RTG.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Cutdrawing_of_an_GPHS-RTG.png 1.5x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of an RTG used on the <a href="/wiki/Cassini_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Cassini probe">Cassini probe</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Plutonium can also be introduced into the environment via the reentry of artificial satellites containing <a href="/wiki/Atomic_battery" title="Atomic battery">atomic batteries</a>. There have been several such incidents, the most prominent being the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_13" title="Apollo 13">Apollo 13</a> mission. The <a href="/wiki/Apollo_Lunar_Surface_Experiments_Package" title="Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package">Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package</a> carried on the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_Module" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar Module">Lunar Module</a> re-entered the atmosphere over the South Pacific. Many atomic batteries have been of the <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric generator</a> (RTG) type. The Plutonium-238 used in RTGs has a <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> of 88 years, as opposed to the plutonium-239 used in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons">nuclear weapons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">reactors</a>, which has a <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> of 24,100 years. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (December 2012)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In April 1964 a <a href="/w/index.php?title=SNAP-9A_Accident&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SNAP-9A Accident (page does not exist)">SNAP-9A</a> failed to achieve orbit and disintegrated, dispersing roughly 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-238" title="Plutonium-238">plutonium-238</a> over all continents. Most plutonium fell in the southern hemisphere. An estimated 6300 <a href="/wiki/GBq" class="mw-redirect" title="GBq">GBq</a> or 2100 <a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">man-Sv</a> of radiation was released<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and led to NASA's development of solar photovoltaic energy technology.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (August 2012)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator_plutonium_pellet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator_plutonium_pellet.jpg/150px-Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator_plutonium_pellet.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator_plutonium_pellet.jpg/225px-Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator_plutonium_pellet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator_plutonium_pellet.jpg/300px-Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator_plutonium_pellet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="884" data-file-height="696" /></a><figcaption>Image of (mostly) thermally isolated, RTG pellet glowing red hot because of <a href="/wiki/Incandescence" class="mw-redirect" title="Incandescence">incandescence</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Chain reactions do not occur inside RTGs, so a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown" title="Nuclear meltdown">nuclear meltdown</a> is impossible. In fact, some RTGs are designed so that fission does not occur at all; rather, forms of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> which cannot trigger other radioactive decays are used instead. As a result, the fuel in an RTG is consumed much more slowly and much less power is produced. RTGs are still a potential source of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a>: if the container holding the fuel leaks, the radioactive material will contaminate the environment. The main concern is that if an accident were to occur during launch or a subsequent passage of a spacecraft close to Earth, harmful material could be released into the atmosphere. However, this event is extremely unlikely with current RTG cask designs.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (December 2012)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In order to decrease the risk of the radioactive material being released, the fuel is typically stored in individual modular units with their own heat shielding. They are surrounded by a layer of <a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">iridium</a> metal and encased in high-strength <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> blocks. These two materials are corrosion and heat-resistant. Surrounding the graphite blocks is an aeroshell, designed to protect the entire assembly against the heat of reentering the Earth's atmosphere. The plutonium fuel is also stored in a ceramic form that is heat-resistant, decreasing the risk of vaporization and aerosolization. The ceramic is also highly <a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">insoluble</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (December 2012)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The US Department of Energy has conducted seawater tests and determined that the graphite casing, which was designed to withstand reentry, is stable and no release of plutonium should occur. Subsequent investigations have found no increase in the natural background radiation in the area. The <a href="/wiki/Apollo_13" title="Apollo 13">Apollo 13 accident</a> represents an extreme scenario due to the high <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_entry" title="Atmospheric entry">re-entry</a> velocities of the craft returning from cislunar space. This accident has served to validate the design of later-generation RTGs as highly safe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_fuel_cycle">Nuclear fuel cycle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium_in_the_environment&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Nuclear fuel cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Plutonium has been released into the environment in aqueous solution from <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">nuclear reprocessing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uranium_enrichment" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium enrichment">uranium enrichment</a> plants. The chemistry of this plutonium is different from that of the metal oxides formed from <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear bomb">nuclear bomb</a> detonations. </p><p>One example of a site where plutonium entered the soil is <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Flats_Plant" title="Rocky Flats Plant">Rocky Flats</a> where in the recent past <a href="/wiki/XANES" class="mw-redirect" title="XANES">XANES</a> (<a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a>) has been used to determine the chemical nature of the plutonium in the <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The XANES was used to determine the <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation state</a> of the plutonium, while <a href="/wiki/EXAFS" class="mw-redirect" title="EXAFS">EXAFS</a> was used to investigate the structure of the plutonium compound present in the soil and <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PuXANES.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/PuXANES.jpg/350px-PuXANES.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/PuXANES.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="358" data-file-height="346" /></a><figcaption>The XANES experiments done on plutonium in <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a> and standards of the different <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation states</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chernobyl">Chernobyl</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium_in_the_environment&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Chernobyl"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a></div> <p>Because plutonium oxide is involatile, most of the plutonium in the reactor was not released during the fire. However that which was released can be measured. V.I. Yoschenko et al. reported that grass and forest fires can make the <a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">caesium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">strontium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> become mobile in the air again.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fukushima">Fukushima</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium_in_the_environment&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Fukushima"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster">Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant">Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant</a></div> <p>The ongoing crisis at this site includes Spent Fuel Pools on the upper floors, exposed to the elements with complex MOX and plutonium products. The Japanese Government Taskforce has asked for submissions to the International Research Institute for Nuclear Decommissioning<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in regards to the ongoing Contaminated Water Issues.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_crime">Nuclear crime</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium_in_the_environment&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Nuclear crime"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There have been 18 incidents concerning theft or loss of <a href="/wiki/Highly_enriched_uranium" class="mw-redirect" title="Highly enriched uranium">highly enriched uranium</a> (HEU) and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> confirmed by the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">IAEA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-harvard2010_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvard2010-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One case exists of a <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">German</a> man who attempted to poison his ex-wife with plutonium stolen from WAK (<a href="/wiki/Wackersdorf_reprocessing_plant" title="Wackersdorf reprocessing plant">Wiederaufbereitungsanlage</a> <a href="/wiki/Karlsruhe" title="Karlsruhe">Karlsruhe</a>), a small scale reprocessing plant where he worked. He did not steal a large amount of plutonium, just rags used for wiping surfaces and a small amount of liquid waste. The man was sent to <a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">prison</a> for his crime.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least two other people were contaminated by the plutonium.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Two flats in <a href="/wiki/Rhineland-Palatinate" title="Rhineland-Palatinate">Rhineland-Palatinate</a> were also contaminated.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These were later cleaned at a cost of two million <a href="/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">euros</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_chemistry">Environmental chemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium_in_the_environment&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Environmental chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview">Overview</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium_in_the_environment&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Plutonium, like other actinides, readily forms a dioxide <a href="/wiki/Plutonyl" title="Plutonyl">plutonyl</a> core (PuO<sub>2</sub>). In the environment, this plutonyl core readily complexes with carbonate as well as other oxygen <a href="/wiki/Functional_group" title="Functional group">moieties</a> (OH<sup>−</sup>, NO<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup>, NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>, and SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup>) to form charged complexes which can be readily mobile with low affinities to soil.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li>PuO<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>1</sub><sup>2−</sup></li> <li>PuO<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub><sup>4−</sup></li> <li>PuO<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub><sup>6−</sup></li></ul> <p>PuO<sub>2</sub> formed from neutralizing highly acidic nitric acid solutions tends to form polymeric PuO<sub>2</sub> which is resistant to complexation. Plutonium also readily shifts valences between the +3, +4, +5 and +6 states. It is common for some fraction of plutonium in solution to exist in all of these states in equilibrium.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Binding_to_soil">Binding to soil</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium_in_the_environment&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Binding to soil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Plutonium is known to bind to soil particles very strongly (see above for an X-ray spectroscopic study of plutonium in soil and <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a>). While <a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">caesium</a> has very different chemistry to the actinides, it is well known that both caesium and many of the actinides bind strongly to the <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a> in soil. Hence it has been possible to use <sup>134</sup>Cs labeled soil to study the migration of Pu and Cs in soils. It has been shown that <a href="/wiki/Colloid" title="Colloid">colloidal</a> transport processes control the migration of Cs (and will control the migration of Pu) in the soil at the <a href="/wiki/Waste_Isolation_Pilot_Plant" title="Waste Isolation Pilot Plant">Waste Isolation Pilot Plant</a> according to R.D. Whicker and S.A. Ibrahim.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> J.D. Chaplin et al. recently reported advances in the <a href="/wiki/Diffusive_gradients_in_thin_films" title="Diffusive gradients in thin films">Diffusive gradients in thin films</a> technique, which have provided a method to measure labile bioavailable <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a> in soils, as well as in freshwater and seawater.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microbiological_chemistry">Microbiological chemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium_in_the_environment&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Microbiological chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mary Neu (at <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos</a> in the USA) has done some work which suggests that <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> can accumulate plutonium because the <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> transport systems used by the bacteria also function as plutonium transport systems.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biology">Biology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium_in_the_environment&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Plutonium ingested by or injected into humans is transported in the <a href="/wiki/Transferrin" title="Transferrin">transferrin</a> based <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>(III) transport system and then is stored in the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> in the iron store (<a href="/wiki/Ferritin" title="Ferritin">ferritin</a>), after an exposure to plutonium it is important to rapidly inject the subject with a <a href="/wiki/Chelation" title="Chelation">chelating</a> agent such as <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> complex<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of <a href="/wiki/DTPA" class="mw-redirect" title="DTPA">DTPA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This antidote is useful for a single exposure such as that which would occur if a <a href="/wiki/Glove_box" class="mw-redirect" title="Glove box">glove box</a> worker were to cut his or her hand with a plutonium-contaminated object. The calcium complex has faster metal binding kinetics than the <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> complex but if the calcium complex is used for a long time it tends to remove important minerals from the person. The zinc complex is less able to cause these effects. </p><p>Plutonium that is inhaled by humans lodges in the lungs and is slowly translocated to the <a href="/wiki/Lymph_nodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lymph nodes">lymph nodes</a>. Inhaled plutonium has been shown to lead to lung cancer in experimental animals.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium_in_the_environment&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides in the environment</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium_in_the_environment&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBrown2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kate_Brown_(professor)" title="Kate Brown (professor)">Brown, Kate</a> (2013). <a href="/wiki/Plutopia" title="Plutopia"><i>Plutopia: nuclear families, atomic cities, and the great Soviet and American plutonium disasters</i></a>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-985576-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-985576-6"><bdi>978-0-19-985576-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plutopia%3A+nuclear+families%2C+atomic+cities%2C+and+the+great+Soviet+and+American+plutonium+disasters&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-985576-6&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Kate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium+in+the+environment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-katebr-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-katebr_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-katebr_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-katebr_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-katebr_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Lindley2013" class="citation web cs1">Robert Lindley (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hnn.us/article/153096">"Kate Brown: Nuclear "Plutopias" the Largest Welfare Program in American History"</a>. <i>History News Network</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+News+Network&rft.atitle=Kate+Brown%3A+Nuclear+%22Plutopias%22+the+Largest+Welfare+Program+in+American+History&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Robert+Lindley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhnn.us%2Farticle%2F153096&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium+in+the+environment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090225154131/http://www.ead.anl.gov/pub/doc/plutonium.pdf">"Plutonium"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Human Health Fact Sheet</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-06-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cdc.gov&rft.atitle=CDC+Radiation+Emergencies+%7C+Radioisotope+Brief%3A+Plutonium-239+%28Pu-239%29&rft.date=2022-04-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fnceh%2Fradiation%2Femergencies%2Fisotopes%2Fplutonium.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlutonium+in+the+environment" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pollution" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#fadcc5"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pollution" title="Template:Pollution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pollution" title="Template talk:Pollution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pollution" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#fadcc5"><div><a href="/wiki/History_of_environmental_pollution" title="History of environmental pollution">History</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Air quality index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling" title="Atmospheric dispersion modeling">Atmospheric dispersion modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">Chlorofluorocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">Combustion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joss_paper" title="Joss paper">Joss paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_burning_of_waste" title="Open burning of waste">Open burning of waste</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renovation" title="Renovation">Renovation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demolition" title="Demolition">Demolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">Exhaust gas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diesel_exhaust" title="Diesel exhaust">Diesel exhaust</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">Haze</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">Smoke</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">Internal combustion engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_distillation" title="Global distillation">Global distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">Asbestos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_working" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal working">Metal working</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_refining" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil refining">Oil refining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_dust" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood dust">Wood dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">Welding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">Smelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smog" title="Smog">Smog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">Soot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_carbon" title="Black carbon">Black carbon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Digital</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_pollution" title="Information pollution">Information pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_light_pollution" title="Ecological light pollution">Ecological light pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overillumination" class="mw-redirect" title="Overillumination">Overillumination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum_pollution" title="Radio spectrum pollution">Radio spectrum pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Natural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">Ozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment" title="Radium and radon in the environment">Radium and radon in the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transportation</a> <ul><li>Land</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Sustainable transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals_and_sonar" title="Marine mammals and sonar">Marine mammals and sonar</a></li></ul></li> <li>Industrial</li> <li>Military</li> <li>Abstract</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste" title="Bioremediation of radioactive waste">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_in_the_environment" title="Uranium in the environment">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herbicide" title="Herbicide">Herbicides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manure_management" title="Manure management">Manure waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticides</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_heating" title="Electrical resistance heating">Electrical resistance heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">Phytoremediation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Solid waste</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_mail" title="Advertising mail">Advertising mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_waste" title="Biodegradable waste">Biodegradable waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_waste" title="Brown waste">Brown waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battery_recycling" title="Battery recycling">Battery recycling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_loss_and_waste" title="Food loss and waste">Food waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_waste" title="Green waste">Green waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_waste" title="Biomedical waste">Biomedical waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_waste" title="Chemical waste">Chemical waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_waste" title="Construction waste">Construction waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">Lead poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_poisoning" title="Mercury poisoning">Mercury poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic waste</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lead_smelting" title="Lead smelting">Lead smelting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">Coal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">Gold mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">Surface mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">Deep sea mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">Mining waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining" title="Uranium mining">Uranium mining</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garbage" title="Garbage">Garbage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">Microplastics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Landfill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_treatment" title="Thermal treatment">Thermal treatment</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris"> Space</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Visual_pollution" title="Visual pollution">Visual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutter_(advertising)" title="Clutter (advertising)">Clutter (advertising)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a> (<a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a> - <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">nuclear famine</a> - <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">nuclear winter</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_environmental_law" title="War and environmental law">War and environmental law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewater_(fire_fighting)" title="Firewater (fire fighting)">Firewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_debris" title="Marine debris">debris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_exploitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil exploitation">Oil exploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil exploration">Oil exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_latrine" title="Pit latrine">Pit latrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Shipping</a></li> 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