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id="toc-Substrate_binding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Substrate_binding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Substrate binding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Substrate_binding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-"Lock_and_key"_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Lock_and_key"_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>"Lock and key" model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Lock_and_key"_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Induced_fit_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Induced_fit_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Induced fit model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Induced_fit_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catalysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catalysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Catalysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catalysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Dynamics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Substrate_presentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Substrate_presentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Substrate presentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Substrate_presentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allosteric_modulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allosteric_modulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Allosteric modulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allosteric_modulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cofactors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cofactors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Cofactors</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cofactors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Cofactors subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Cofactors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coenzymes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coenzymes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Coenzymes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coenzymes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermodynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermodynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Thermodynamics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermodynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kinetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kinetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Kinetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kinetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inhibition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inhibition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Inhibition</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Inhibition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Inhibition subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Inhibition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Types_of_inhibition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_inhibition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Types of inhibition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_inhibition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Competitive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Competitive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.1</span> <span>Competitive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Competitive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-competitive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-competitive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.2</span> <span>Non-competitive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-competitive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uncompetitive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uncompetitive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.3</span> <span>Uncompetitive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uncompetitive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mixed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mixed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.4</span> <span>Mixed</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mixed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Irreversible" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Irreversible"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.5</span> <span>Irreversible</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Irreversible-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Functions_of_inhibitors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functions_of_inhibitors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Functions of inhibitors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functions_of_inhibitors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Factors_affecting_enzyme_activity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Factors_affecting_enzyme_activity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Factors affecting enzyme activity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Factors_affecting_enzyme_activity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological_function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Biological function</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biological_function-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Biological function subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Biological_function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Metabolism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metabolism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Metabolism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metabolism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Control_of_activity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Control_of_activity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Control of activity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Control_of_activity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.1</span> <span>Regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-translational_modification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-translational_modification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.2</span> <span>Post-translational modification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-translational_modification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quantity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.3</span> <span>Quantity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subcellular_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subcellular_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.4</span> <span>Subcellular distribution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subcellular_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organ_specialization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organ_specialization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2.5</span> <span>Organ specialization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organ_specialization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Involvement_in_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Involvement_in_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Involvement in disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Involvement_in_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Industrial applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Enzyme_databases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enzyme_databases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Enzyme databases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enzyme_databases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 133 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-133" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">133 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensiem" title="Ensiem – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ensiem" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzym" title="Enzym – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Enzym" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%85" title="إنزيم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إنزيم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzima" title="Enzima – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Enzima" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A7%8E%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%95" title="উৎসেচক – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="উৎসেচক" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzima" title="Enzima – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Enzima" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ens%C3%ADma" title="Ensíma – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ensíma" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentl%C9%99r" title="Fermentlər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fermentlər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%86%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%85" title="آنزیم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آنزیم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A7%8E%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%95" title="উৎসেচক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উৎসেচক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A0%E2%81%BF-s%C3%B2%CD%98" title="Kàⁿ-sò͘ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kàⁿ-sò͘" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Ферменттар – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ферменттар" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Ферменты – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ферменты" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Фэрмэнты – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Фэрмэнты" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE" title="एंजाइम – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="एंजाइम" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensima" title="Ensima – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Ensima" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Ензим – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ензим" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzim" title="Enzim – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Enzim" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzim" title="Enzim – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Enzim" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzim" title="Enzim – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Enzim" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzim" title="Enzim – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Enzim" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzym" title="Enzym – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Enzym" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensym" title="Ensym – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ensym" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzym" title="Enzym – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Enzym" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%85" title="لونزيم – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لونزيم" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entsyma" title="Entsyma – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Entsyma" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzym" title="Enzym – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Enzym" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ens%C3%BC%C3%BCm" title="Ensüüm – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ensüüm" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%88%CE%BD%CE%B6%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%BF" title="Ένζυμο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ένζυμο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzima" title="Enzima – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Enzima" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzimo" title="Enzimo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Enzimo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzima" title="Enzima – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Enzima" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entzima" title="Entzima – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Entzima" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%86%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%85" title="آنزیم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آنزیم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Enzyme" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kveiki" title="Kveiki – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Kveiki" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Enzyme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eins%C3%ADm" title="Einsím – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Einsím" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzima" title="Enzima – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Enzima" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%88" title="Ферменташ – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Ферменташ" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Фермент – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Фермент" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Хальмг</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%9A%A8%EC%86%8C" title="효소 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="효소" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%96%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%BF" title="Ֆերմենտ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ֆերմենտ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5" title="प्रकिण्व – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रकिण्व" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzim" title="Enzim – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Enzim" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzimo" title="Enzimo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Enzimo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensima" title="Ensima – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Ensima" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzim" title="Enzim – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Enzim" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyma" title="Enzyma – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Enzyma" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/INzwayiza" title="INzwayiza – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="INzwayiza" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ens%C3%ADm" title="Ensím – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ensím" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzima" title="Enzima – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Enzima" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%96%D7%99%D7%9D" title="אנזים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אנזים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88nzim" title="Ènzim – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Ènzim" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Enzyme" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ფერმენტები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფერმენტები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Ферменттер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ферменттер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimeng%27enya" title="Kimeng'enya – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kimeng'enya" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anzim" title="Anzim – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Anzim" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enz%C3%AEm" title="Enzîm – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Enzîm" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Фермент – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Фермент" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%99%E0%BB%84%E0%BA%8A" title="ເອນໄຊ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ເອນໄຊ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzymum" title="Enzymum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Enzymum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enz%C4%ABmi" title="Enzīmi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Enzīmi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Ферментар – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Ферментар" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentas" title="Fermentas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Fermentas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzym" title="Enzym – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Enzym" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzimolojia" title="Enzimolojia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Enzimolojia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzima" title="Enzima – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Enzima" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzim" title="Enzim – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Enzim" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Ензим – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ензим" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzima" title="Enzima – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Enzima" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF" title="രാസാഗ്നി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="രാസാഗ്നി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95" title="उत्प्रेरक – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="उत्प्रेरक" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%85" title="انزيم – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="انزيم" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzim" title="Enzim – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Enzim" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Энзим – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Энзим" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%87%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="အင်န်ဇိုင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အင်န်ဇိုင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzym" title="Enzym – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Enzym" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE" title="इन्जाइम – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="इन्जाइम" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%85%B5%E7%B4%A0" title="酵素 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="酵素" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%88" title="Ферменташ – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Ферменташ" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ens%C3%BC%C3%BCm" title="Ensüüm – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Ensüüm" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzym" title="Enzym – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Enzym" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzym" title="Enzym – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Enzym" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensime" title="Ensime – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Ensime" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzim" title="Enzim – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Enzim" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nam%27a_(Inzaayimii)" title="Nam'a (Inzaayimii) – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Nam'a (Inzaayimii)" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentlar" title="Fermentlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Fermentlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%90%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%88%E0%A8%AE" title="ਐੱਨਜ਼ਾਈਮ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਐੱਨਜ਼ਾਈਮ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%85" title="انزائم – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="انزائم" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%B2%E1%80%89%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B2%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA" title="အဲဉ်းသုဲင် – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="အဲဉ်းသုဲင်" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%85" title="انزايم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="انزايم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzym" title="Enzym – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Enzym" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzymy" title="Enzymy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Enzymy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzima" title="Enzima – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Enzima" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh mw-list-item"><a href="https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzym" title="Enzym – Colognian" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh" data-title="Enzym" data-language-autonym="Ripoarisch" data-language-local-name="Colognian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ripoarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzim%C4%83" title="Enzimă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Enzimă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huptana" title="Huptana – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Huptana" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BC" title="Ензім – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Ензім" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Ферменты – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ферменты" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Энзим – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Энзим" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Enzyme" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzima" title="Enzima – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Enzima" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%91%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B8" title="එන්සයිම – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="එන්සයිම" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Enzyme" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enz%C3%BDm" title="Enzým – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Enzým" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encim" title="Encim – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Encim" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensiim" title="Ensiim – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Ensiim" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%86%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%85" title="ئەنزیم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەنزیم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Ензим – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ензим" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzim" title="Enzim – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Enzim" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89nzim" title="Énzim – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Énzim" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entsyymi" title="Entsyymi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Entsyymi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzym" title="Enzym – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Enzym" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensima" title="Ensima – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Ensima" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="நொதியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நொதியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Фермент – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Фермент" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%8E%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81" title="ఎంజైము – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఎంజైము" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%8C" title="เอนไซม์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เอนไซม์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzim" title="Enzim – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Enzim" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Ферментилер – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Ферментилер" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Ферменти – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ферменти" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%81" title="خامرہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="خامرہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Enzyme" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inzime" title="Inzime – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Inzime" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensaym" title="Ensaym – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Ensaym" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%85%B6" title="酶 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="酶" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%96%D7%99%D7%9D" title="ענזים – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ענזים" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%85%B5%E7%B4%A0" title="酵素 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="酵素" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferments" title="Ferments – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Ferments" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" 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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></span></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected due to vandalism"><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Enzymology&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzymology">Enzymology</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Large biological molecule that acts as a catalyst</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Biocatalyst" redirects here. For the use of natural catalysts in organic chemistry, see <a href="/wiki/Biocatalysis" title="Biocatalysis">Biocatalysis</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glucosidase_enzyme.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Ribbon diagram of glycosidase with an arrow showing the cleavage of the maltose sugar substrate into two glucose products." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Glucosidase_enzyme.png/400px-Glucosidase_enzyme.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Glucosidase_enzyme.png/600px-Glucosidase_enzyme.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Glucosidase_enzyme.png/800px-Glucosidase_enzyme.png 2x" data-file-width="1706" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>The enzyme <a href="/wiki/Glucosidase" class="mw-redirect" title="Glucosidase">glucosidase</a> converts the sugar <a href="/wiki/Maltose" title="Maltose">maltose</a> into two <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> sugars. <a href="/wiki/Active_site" title="Active site">Active site</a> residues in red, maltose substrate in black, and <a href="/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide" title="Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide">NAD</a> <a href="/wiki/Cofactor_(biochemistry)" title="Cofactor (biochemistry)">cofactor</a> in yellow. 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padding:0.2em; font-size:175%; font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Myoglobin.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Myoglobin.png/220px-Myoglobin.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Myoglobin.png/330px-Myoglobin.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Myoglobin.png/440px-Myoglobin.png 2x" data-file-width="1159" data-file-height="1173" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption" style="padding:0 0 0.8em;"><b>Chemistry of life</b></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding:0.15em 0.15em 0.25em; display:block; background-color: transparent; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles" title="Index of biochemistry articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry" title="Outline of biochemistry">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biochemistry" title="History of biochemistry">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #A2B8BF"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">Biomolecules</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Enzymes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">Gene expression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #A2B8BF"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">List of biochemists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemist" title="Biochemist">Biochemist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biochemists" title="List of biochemists">List of biochemists</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #A2B8BF"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Biomolecule families</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><i><u><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrates">Carbohydrates</a>:</u></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohols" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohols">Alcohols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycoproteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycoproteins">Glycoproteins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycosides" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycosides">Glycosides</a></li> <li><i><u><a href="/wiki/Lipids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipids">Lipids</a>:</u></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eicosanoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Eicosanoids">Eicosanoids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatty_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatty acids">Fatty acids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fatty-acid_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatty-acid metabolism">Fatty-acid metabolism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycerides" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycerides">Glycerides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phospholipids" class="mw-redirect" title="Phospholipids">Phospholipids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphingolipids" class="mw-redirect" title="Sphingolipids">Sphingolipids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">Cholesterol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Steroids">Steroids</a></li> <li><u><i><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleic acids">Nucleic acids</a>:</i></u></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleobases" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobases">Nucleobases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleosides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleosides">Nucleosides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleotides">Nucleotides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleotide metabolism">Nucleotide metabolism</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><u><a href="/wiki/Proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteins">Proteins</a>:</u></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acids">Amino acids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acid metabolism">Amino acid metabolism</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><u>Other:</u></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrapyrroles" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapyrroles">Tetrapyrroles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heme" title="Heme">Heme</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #A2B8BF"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Chemical synthesis</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_gene_synthesis" title="Artificial gene synthesis">Artificial gene synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomimetic_synthesis" title="Biomimetic synthesis">Biomimetic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioretrosynthesis" title="Bioretrosynthesis">Bioretrosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis_(nanotechnology)" title="Chemosynthesis (nanotechnology)">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_synthesis" title="Convergent synthesis">Convergent synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Custom_peptide_synthesis" title="Custom peptide synthesis">Custom peptide synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_process" title="Direct process">Direct process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_synthesis" title="Divergent synthesis">Divergent synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrosynthesis" title="Electrosynthesis">Electrosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantioselective_synthesis" title="Enantioselective synthesis">Enantioselective synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fully_automated_synthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Fully automated synthesis">Fully automated synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_synthesis" title="Hydrothermal synthesis">Hydrothermal synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_ablation_synthesis_in_solution" title="Laser ablation synthesis in solution">LASiS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanosynthesis" title="Mechanosynthesis">Mechanosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-pot_synthesis" title="One-pot synthesis">One-pot synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">Organic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peptide_synthesis" title="Peptide synthesis">Peptide synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiosynthesis" title="Radiosynthesis">Radiosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrosynthetic_analysis" title="Retrosynthetic analysis">Retrosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semisynthesis" title="Semisynthesis">Semisynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-phase_synthesis" title="Solid-phase synthesis">Solid-phase synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solvothermal_synthesis" title="Solvothermal synthesis">Solvothermal synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">Total synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_combustion_synthesis" title="Volume combustion synthesis">Volume combustion synthesis</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #A2B8BF"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Biochemistry fields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioorthogonal_chemistry" title="Bioorthogonal chemistry">Bioorthogonal chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganic_chemistry" title="Bioorganic chemistry">Bioorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganometallic_chemistry" title="Bioorganometallic chemistry">Bioorganometallic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry" title="Bioinorganic chemistry">Bioinorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysical_chemistry" title="Biophysical chemistry">Biophysical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immunology</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #A2B8BF"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Glossaries</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Glossary of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" title="Glossary of chemistry terms">Glossary of chemistry</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: #82C3D8; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Biochemistry" title="Category:Biochemistry">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biochemistry_sidebar" title="Template:Biochemistry sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biochemistry_sidebar" title="Template talk:Biochemistry sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biochemistry_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biochemistry sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Enzymes</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span></span>/</a></span></span>) are <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> that act as biological <a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalysts</a> by accelerating <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical reactions">chemical reactions</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Molecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecules">molecules</a> upon which enzymes may act are called <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(chemistry)" title="Substrate (chemistry)">substrates</a>, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as <a href="/wiki/Product_(chemistry)" title="Product (chemistry)">products</a>. Almost all <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolic processes</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> need <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis" title="Enzyme catalysis">enzyme catalysis</a> in order to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8.1">: 8.1 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" title="Metabolic pathway">Metabolic pathways</a> depend upon enzymes to catalyze individual steps. The study of enzymes is called <i>enzymology</i> and the field of <a href="/wiki/Pseudoenzyme" title="Pseudoenzyme">pseudoenzyme analysis</a> recognizes that during evolution, some enzymes have lost the ability to carry out biological catalysis, which is often reflected in their <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> sequences and unusual 'pseudocatalytic' properties.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid24107129_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid24107129-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Enzymes are known to catalyze more than 5,000 biochemical reaction types.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other biocatalysts are <a href="/wiki/Ribozyme" title="Ribozyme">catalytic RNA molecules</a>, also called <a href="/wiki/Ribozyme" title="Ribozyme">ribozymes</a>. They are sometimes described as a <i>type</i> of enzyme rather than being <i>like</i> an enzyme, but even in the decades since ribozymes' discovery in 1980–1982, the word <i>enzyme</i> alone often means the protein type specifically (as is used in this article). </p><p>An enzyme's <a href="/wiki/Chemical_specificity" title="Chemical specificity">specificity</a> comes from its unique <a href="/wiki/Tertiary_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Tertiary structure">three-dimensional structure</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.E02159" rel="nofollow"><img resource="/wiki/File:IUPAC_definition_for_enzymes.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/IUPAC_definition_for_enzymes.png/550px-IUPAC_definition_for_enzymes.png" decoding="async" width="550" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/IUPAC_definition_for_enzymes.png/825px-IUPAC_definition_for_enzymes.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/IUPAC_definition_for_enzymes.png 2x" data-file-width="901" data-file-height="394" /></a><figcaption>IUPAC definition for enzymes</figcaption></figure> <p>Like all catalysts, enzymes increase the <a href="/wiki/Reaction_rate" title="Reaction rate">reaction rate</a> by lowering its <a href="/wiki/Activation_energy" title="Activation energy">activation energy</a>. Some enzymes can make their conversion of substrate to product occur many millions of times faster. An extreme example is <a href="/wiki/Orotidine_5%27-phosphate_decarboxylase" title="Orotidine 5'-phosphate decarboxylase">orotidine 5'-phosphate decarboxylase</a>, which allows a reaction that would otherwise take millions of years to occur in milliseconds.<sup id="cite_ref-radzicka_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-radzicka-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid17889251_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17889251-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chemically, enzymes are like any catalyst and are not consumed in chemical reactions, nor do they alter the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">equilibrium</a> of a reaction. Enzymes differ from most other catalysts by being much more specific. Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules: <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor" title="Enzyme inhibitor">inhibitors</a> are molecules that decrease enzyme activity, and <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_activator" title="Enzyme activator">activators</a> are molecules that increase activity. Many therapeutic <a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">drugs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">poisons</a> are enzyme inhibitors. An enzyme's activity decreases markedly outside its optimal <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> and <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a>, and many enzymes are (permanently) <a href="/wiki/Denaturation_(biochemistry)" title="Denaturation (biochemistry)">denatured</a> when exposed to excessive heat, losing their structure and catalytic properties. </p><p>Some enzymes are used commercially, for example, in the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>. Some household products use enzymes to speed up chemical reactions: enzymes in <a href="/wiki/Detergent_enzymes" title="Detergent enzymes">biological washing powders</a> break down protein, starch or <a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">fat</a> stains on clothes, and enzymes in <a href="/wiki/Papain" title="Papain">meat tenderizer</a> break down proteins into smaller molecules, making the meat easier to chew. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_history">Etymology and history</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eduardbuchner.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of Eduard Buchner." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Eduardbuchner.jpg/220px-Eduardbuchner.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Eduardbuchner.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="254" data-file-height="356" /></a><figcaption>Eduard Buchner</figcaption></figure> <p>By the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the digestion of <a href="/wiki/Meat" title="Meat">meat</a> by stomach secretions<sup id="cite_ref-Reaumur1752_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reaumur1752-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the conversion of <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a> to <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugars</a> by plant extracts and <a href="/wiki/Saliva" title="Saliva">saliva</a> were known but the mechanisms by which these occurred had not been identified.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>French chemist <a href="/wiki/Anselme_Payen" title="Anselme Payen">Anselme Payen</a> was the first to discover an enzyme, <a href="/wiki/Diastase" title="Diastase">diastase</a>, in 1833.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few decades later, when studying the <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (food)">fermentation</a> of sugar to <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">alcohol</a> by <a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> concluded that this fermentation was caused by a <a href="/wiki/Vital_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Vital force">vital force</a> contained within the yeast cells called "ferments", which were thought to function only within living organisms. He wrote that "alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1877, German physiologist <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_K%C3%BChne" title="Wilhelm Kühne">Wilhelm Kühne</a> (1837–1900) first used the term <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/enzyme" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:enzyme">enzyme</a></i>, which comes from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> </i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%B6%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%BF" class="extiw" title="wikt:ένζυμο">ἔνζυμον</a><i> (énzymon)</i> '<a href="/wiki/Bread#Leavening" title="Bread">leavened</a>, in yeast', to describe this process.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word <i>enzyme</i> was used later to refer to nonliving substances such as <a href="/wiki/Pepsin" title="Pepsin">pepsin</a>, and the word <i>ferment</i> was used to refer to chemical activity produced by living organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Buchner" title="Eduard Buchner">Eduard Buchner</a> submitted his first paper on the study of yeast extracts in 1897. In a series of experiments at the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a>, he found that sugar was fermented by yeast extracts even when there were no living yeast cells in the mixture.<sup id="cite_ref-urlEduard_Buchner_–_Biographical_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlEduard_Buchner_–_Biographical-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He named the enzyme that brought about the fermentation of sucrose "<a href="/wiki/Zymase" title="Zymase">zymase</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-urlEduard_Buchner_–_Nobel_Lecture:_Cell-Free_Fermentation_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlEduard_Buchner_–_Nobel_Lecture:_Cell-Free_Fermentation-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1907, he received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> for "his discovery of cell-free fermentation". Following Buchner's example, enzymes are usually named according to the reaction they carry out: the suffix <i><a href="/wiki/-ase" title="-ase">-ase</a></i> is combined with the name of the <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(biochemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (biochemistry)">substrate</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Lactase" title="Lactase">lactase</a> is the enzyme that cleaves <a href="/wiki/Lactose" title="Lactose">lactose</a>) or to the type of reaction (e.g., <a href="/wiki/DNA_polymerase" title="DNA polymerase">DNA polymerase</a> forms DNA polymers).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The biochemical identity of enzymes was still unknown in the early 1900s. Many scientists observed that enzymatic activity was associated with proteins, but others (such as Nobel laureate <a href="/wiki/Richard_Willst%C3%A4tter" title="Richard Willstätter">Richard Willstätter</a>) argued that proteins were merely carriers for the true enzymes and that proteins <i>per se</i> were incapable of catalysis.<sup id="cite_ref-Willstätter_1927_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Willstätter_1927-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1926, <a href="/wiki/James_B._Sumner" title="James B. Sumner">James B. Sumner</a> showed that the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Urease" title="Urease">urease</a> was a pure protein and crystallized it; he did likewise for the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Catalase" title="Catalase">catalase</a> in 1937. The conclusion that pure proteins can be enzymes was definitively demonstrated by <a href="/wiki/John_Howard_Northrop" title="John Howard Northrop">John Howard Northrop</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Meredith_Stanley" title="Wendell Meredith Stanley">Wendell Meredith Stanley</a>, who worked on the digestive enzymes <a href="/wiki/Pepsin" title="Pepsin">pepsin</a> (1930), <a href="/wiki/Trypsin" title="Trypsin">trypsin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chymotrypsin" title="Chymotrypsin">chymotrypsin</a>. These three scientists were awarded the 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.<sup id="cite_ref-urlThe_Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry_1946_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlThe_Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry_1946-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The discovery that enzymes could be crystallized eventually allowed their structures to be solved by <a href="/wiki/X-ray_crystallography" title="X-ray crystallography">x-ray crystallography</a>. This was first done for <a href="/wiki/Lysozyme" title="Lysozyme">lysozyme</a>, an enzyme found in tears, saliva and <a href="/wiki/Egg_white" title="Egg white">egg whites</a> that digests the coating of some bacteria; the structure was solved by a group led by <a href="/wiki/David_Chilton_Phillips" title="David Chilton Phillips">David Chilton Phillips</a> and published in 1965.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This high-resolution structure of lysozyme marked the beginning of the field of <a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">structural biology</a> and the effort to understand how enzymes work at an atomic level of detail.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid10390620_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid10390620-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_and_nomenclature">Classification and nomenclature</h2></div> <p>Enzymes can be classified by two main criteria: either <a href="/wiki/Protein_primary_structure" title="Protein primary structure">amino acid sequence</a> similarity (and thus evolutionary relationship) or enzymatic activity. </p><p><b>Enzyme activity</b>. An enzyme's name is often derived from its substrate or the chemical reaction it catalyzes, with the word ending in <i>-ase</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8.1.3">: 8.1.3 </span></sup> Examples are <a href="/wiki/Lactase" title="Lactase">lactase</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_dehydrogenase" title="Alcohol dehydrogenase">alcohol dehydrogenase</a> and <a href="/wiki/DNA_polymerase" title="DNA polymerase">DNA polymerase</a>. Different enzymes that catalyze the same chemical reaction are called <a href="/wiki/Isozyme" title="Isozyme">isozymes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 10.3">: 10.3 </span></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Biochemistry_and_Molecular_Biology" title="International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology">International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology</a> have developed a <a href="/wiki/Nomenclature" title="Nomenclature">nomenclature</a> for enzymes, the <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_Commission_number" title="Enzyme Commission number">EC numbers (for "Enzyme Commission")</a>. Each enzyme is described by "EC" followed by a sequence of four numbers which represent the hierarchy of enzymatic activity (from very general to very specific). That is, the first number broadly classifies the enzyme based on its mechanism while the other digits add more and more specificity.<sup id="cite_ref-moss_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moss-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The top-level classification is: </p> <ul><li>EC 1, <a href="/wiki/Oxidoreductase" title="Oxidoreductase">Oxidoreductases</a>: catalyze <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a>/reduction reactions</li> <li>EC 2, <a href="/wiki/Transferase" title="Transferase">Transferases</a>: transfer a <a href="/wiki/Functional_group" title="Functional group">functional group</a> (<i>e.g.</i> a methyl or phosphate group)</li> <li>EC 3, <a href="/wiki/Hydrolase" title="Hydrolase">Hydrolases</a>: catalyze the <a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">hydrolysis</a> of various bonds</li> <li>EC 4, <a href="/wiki/Lyase" title="Lyase">Lyases</a>: cleave various bonds by means other than hydrolysis and oxidation</li> <li>EC 5, <a href="/wiki/Isomerase" title="Isomerase">Isomerases</a>: catalyze <a href="/wiki/Isomer" title="Isomer">isomerization</a> changes within a single molecule</li> <li>EC 6, <a href="/wiki/Ligase" title="Ligase">Ligases</a>: join two molecules with <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bonds</a>.</li> <li>EC 7, <a href="/wiki/Translocase" title="Translocase">Translocases</a>: catalyze the movement of ions or molecules across membranes, or their separation within membranes.</li></ul> <p>These sections are subdivided by other features such as the substrate, products, and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_mechanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical mechanism">chemical mechanism</a>. An enzyme is fully specified by four numerical designations. For example, <a href="/wiki/Hexokinase" title="Hexokinase">hexokinase</a> (EC 2.7.1.1) is a transferase (EC 2) that adds a phosphate group (EC 2.7) to a hexose sugar, a molecule containing an alcohol group (EC 2.7.1).<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Sequence similarity</b>. EC categories do <b>not</b> reflect sequence similarity. For instance, two ligases of the same EC number that catalyze exactly the same reaction can have completely different sequences. Independent of their function, enzymes, like any other proteins, have been classified by their sequence similarity into numerous families. These families have been documented in dozens of different protein and protein family databases such as <a href="/wiki/Pfam" title="Pfam">Pfam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Non-homologous isofunctional enzymes</b>. Unrelated enzymes that have the same enzymatic activity have been called <i>non-homologous isofunctional enzymes</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">Horizontal gene transfer</a> may spread these genes to unrelated species, especially bacteria where they can replace endogenous genes of the same function, leading to hon-homologous gene displacement. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Q10_graph_c.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A graph showing that reaction rate increases exponentially with temperature until denaturation causes it to decrease again." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Q10_graph_c.svg/400px-Q10_graph_c.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Q10_graph_c.svg/600px-Q10_graph_c.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Q10_graph_c.svg/800px-Q10_graph_c.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="668" /></a><figcaption>Enzyme activity initially increases with temperature (<a href="/wiki/Q10_(temperature_coefficient)" title="Q10 (temperature coefficient)">Q10 coefficient</a>) until the enzyme's structure unfolds (<a href="/wiki/Denaturation_(biochemistry)" title="Denaturation (biochemistry)">denaturation</a>), leading to an optimal <a href="/wiki/Rate_of_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Rate of reaction">rate of reaction</a> at an intermediate temperature.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Protein_structure" title="Protein structure">Protein structure</a></div> <p>Enzymes are generally <a href="/wiki/Globular_protein" title="Globular protein">globular proteins</a>, acting alone or in larger <a href="/wiki/Protein_complex" title="Protein complex">complexes</a>. The sequence of the amino acids specifies the structure which in turn determines the catalytic activity of the enzyme.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although structure determines function, a novel enzymatic activity cannot yet be predicted from structure alone.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Enzyme structures unfold (<a href="/wiki/Denaturation_(biochemistry)" title="Denaturation (biochemistry)">denature</a>) when heated or exposed to chemical denaturants and this disruption to the structure typically causes a loss of activity.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Enzyme denaturation is normally linked to temperatures above a species' normal level; as a result, enzymes from bacteria living in volcanic environments such as <a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">hot springs</a> are prized by industrial users for their ability to function at high temperatures, allowing enzyme-catalysed reactions to be operated at a very high rate. </p><p>Enzymes are usually much larger than their substrates. Sizes range from just 62 amino acid residues, for the <a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">monomer</a> of <a href="/wiki/4-Oxalocrotonate_tautomerase" title="4-Oxalocrotonate tautomerase">4-oxalocrotonate tautomerase</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to over 2,500 residues in the animal <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid_synthase" title="Fatty acid synthase">fatty acid synthase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only a small portion of their structure (around 2–4 amino acids) is directly involved in catalysis: the catalytic site.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This catalytic site is located next to one or more <a href="/wiki/Binding_site" title="Binding site">binding sites</a> where residues orient the substrates. The catalytic site and binding site together compose the enzyme's <a href="/wiki/Active_site" title="Active site">active site</a>. The remaining majority of the enzyme structure serves to maintain the precise orientation and dynamics of the active site.<sup id="cite_ref-Suzuki_2015_7_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suzuki_2015_7-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In some enzymes, no amino acids are directly involved in catalysis; instead, the enzyme contains sites to bind and orient catalytic <a href="/wiki/Cofactor_(biochemistry)" title="Cofactor (biochemistry)">cofactors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Suzuki_2015_7_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suzuki_2015_7-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Enzyme structures may also contain <a href="/wiki/Allosteric_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Allosteric site">allosteric sites</a> where the binding of a small molecule causes a <a href="/wiki/Conformational_change" title="Conformational change">conformational change</a> that increases or decreases activity.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A small number of <a href="/wiki/Ribonucleic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ribonucleic acid">RNA</a>-based biological catalysts called <a href="/wiki/Ribozyme" title="Ribozyme">ribozymes</a> exist, which again can act alone or in complex with proteins. The most common of these is the <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosome</a> which is a complex of protein and catalytic RNA components.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2.2">: 2.2 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanism">Mechanism</h2></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Enzyme_structure.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Lysozyme displayed as an opaque globular surface with a pronounced cleft which the substrate depicted as a stick diagram snuggly fits into." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Enzyme_structure.svg/400px-Enzyme_structure.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Enzyme_structure.svg/600px-Enzyme_structure.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Enzyme_structure.svg/800px-Enzyme_structure.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1107" /></a><figcaption>Organisation of <a href="/wiki/Protein_structure" title="Protein structure">enzyme structure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lysozyme" title="Lysozyme">lysozyme</a> example. Binding sites in blue, catalytic site in red and <a href="/wiki/Peptidoglycan" title="Peptidoglycan">peptidoglycan</a> substrate in black. (<span class="plainlinks"><a href="/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank" title="Protein Data Bank">PDB</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rcsb.org/structure/9LYZ">9LYZ</a></span>)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Substrate_binding">Substrate binding</h3></div> <p>Enzymes must bind their substrates before they can catalyse any chemical reaction. Enzymes are usually very specific as to what <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(biochemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (biochemistry)">substrates</a> they bind and then the chemical reaction catalysed. <a href="/wiki/Chemical_specificity" title="Chemical specificity">Specificity</a> is achieved by binding pockets with complementary shape, charge and <a href="/wiki/Hydrophilic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrophilic">hydrophilic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hydrophobic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrophobic">hydrophobic</a> characteristics to the substrates. Enzymes can therefore distinguish between very similar substrate molecules to be <a href="/wiki/Chemoselectivity" title="Chemoselectivity">chemoselective</a>, <a href="/wiki/Regioselectivity" title="Regioselectivity">regioselective</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stereospecificity" title="Stereospecificity">stereospecific</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of the enzymes showing the highest specificity and accuracy are involved in the copying and <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">expression</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>. Some of these enzymes have "<a href="/wiki/Proofreading_(biology)" title="Proofreading (biology)">proof-reading</a>" mechanisms. Here, an enzyme such as <a href="/wiki/DNA_polymerase" title="DNA polymerase">DNA polymerase</a> catalyzes a reaction in a first step and then checks that the product is correct in a second step.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This two-step process results in average error rates of less than 1 error in 100 million reactions in high-fidelity mammalian polymerases.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5.3.1">: 5.3.1 </span></sup> Similar proofreading mechanisms are also found in <a href="/wiki/RNA_polymerase" title="RNA polymerase">RNA polymerase</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Aminoacyl_tRNA_synthetase" title="Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase">aminoacyl tRNA synthetases</a><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosomes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Conversely, some enzymes display <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_promiscuity" title="Enzyme promiscuity">enzyme promiscuity</a>, having broad specificity and acting on a range of different physiologically relevant substrates. Many enzymes possess small side activities which arose fortuitously (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Neutral_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutral evolution">neutrally</a>), which may be the starting point for the evolutionary selection of a new function.<sup id="cite_ref-Tawfik10_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tawfik10-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hexokinase_induced_fit.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Hexokinase displayed as an opaque surface with a pronounced open binding cleft next to unbound substrate (top) and the same enzyme with more closed cleft that surrounds the bound substrate (bottom)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Hexokinase_induced_fit.svg/400px-Hexokinase_induced_fit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="446" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Hexokinase_induced_fit.svg/600px-Hexokinase_induced_fit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Hexokinase_induced_fit.svg/800px-Hexokinase_induced_fit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1673" /></a><figcaption>Enzyme changes shape by induced fit upon substrate binding to form enzyme-substrate complex. <a href="/wiki/Hexokinase" title="Hexokinase">Hexokinase</a> has a large induced fit motion that closes over the substrates <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">adenosine triphosphate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xylose" title="Xylose">xylose</a>. Binding sites in blue, substrates in black and <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Mg<sup>2+</sup></a> cofactor in yellow. (<span class="plainlinks"><a href="/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank" title="Protein Data Bank">PDB</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rcsb.org/structure/2E2N">2E2N</a></span>, <span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rcsb.org/structure/2E2Q">2E2Q</a></span>)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Lock_and_key"_model"><span id=".22Lock_and_key.22_model"></span>"Lock and key" model</h4></div> <p>To explain the observed specificity of enzymes, in 1894 <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Emil_Fischer" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermann Emil Fischer">Emil Fischer</a> proposed that both the enzyme and the substrate possess specific complementary geometric shapes that fit exactly into one another.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is often referred to as "the lock and key" model.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8.3.2">: 8.3.2 </span></sup> This early model explains enzyme specificity, but fails to explain the stabilization of the transition state that enzymes achieve.<sup id="cite_ref-Cooper_2000_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooper_2000-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Induced_fit_model">Induced fit model</h4></div> <p>In 1958, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_E._Koshland,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel E. Koshland, Jr.">Daniel Koshland</a> suggested a modification to the lock and key model: since enzymes are rather flexible structures, the active site is continuously reshaped by interactions with the substrate as the substrate interacts with the enzyme.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, the substrate does not simply bind to a rigid active site; the amino acid <a href="/wiki/Side_chain" title="Side chain">side-chains</a> that make up the active site are molded into the precise positions that enable the enzyme to perform its catalytic function. In some cases, such as <a href="/wiki/Glycosidases" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycosidases">glycosidases</a>, the substrate <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a> also changes shape slightly as it enters the active site.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The active site continues to change until the substrate is completely bound, at which point the final shape and charge distribution is determined.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Induced fit may enhance the fidelity of molecular recognition in the presence of competition and noise via the <a href="/wiki/Conformational_proofreading" title="Conformational proofreading">conformational proofreading</a> mechanism.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catalysis">Catalysis</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis" title="Enzyme catalysis">Enzyme catalysis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transition_state_theory" title="Transition state theory">Transition state theory</a></div> <p>Enzymes can accelerate reactions in several ways, all of which lower the <a href="/wiki/Activation_energy" title="Activation energy">activation energy</a> (ΔG<sup>‡</sup>, <a href="/wiki/Gibbs_free_energy" title="Gibbs free energy">Gibbs free energy</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-Fersht_1985_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fersht_1985-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>By stabilizing the transition state: <ul><li>Creating an environment with a charge distribution complementary to that of the transition state to lower its energy<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>By providing an alternative reaction pathway: <ul><li>Temporarily reacting with the substrate, forming a covalent intermediate to provide a lower energy transition state<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>By destabilizing the substrate ground state: <ul><li>Distorting bound substrate(s) into their transition state form to reduce the energy required to reach the transition state<sup id="cite_ref-PMID12947189_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PMID12947189-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>By orienting the substrates into a productive arrangement to reduce the reaction <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a> change<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (the contribution of this mechanism to catalysis is relatively small)<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ol> <p>Enzymes may use several of these mechanisms simultaneously. For example, <a href="/wiki/Protease" title="Protease">proteases</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Trypsin" title="Trypsin">trypsin</a> perform covalent catalysis using a <a href="/wiki/Catalytic_triad" title="Catalytic triad">catalytic triad</a>, stabilize charge build-up on the transition states using an <a href="/wiki/Oxyanion_hole" title="Oxyanion hole">oxyanion hole</a>, complete <a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">hydrolysis</a> using an oriented water substrate.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dynamics">Dynamics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Protein_dynamics" title="Protein dynamics">Protein dynamics</a></div> <p>Enzymes are not rigid, static structures; instead they have complex internal dynamic motions – that is, movements of parts of the enzyme's structure such as individual amino acid residues, groups of residues forming a <a href="/wiki/Turn_(biochemistry)" title="Turn (biochemistry)">protein loop</a> or unit of <a href="/wiki/Protein_secondary_structure" title="Protein secondary structure">secondary structure</a>, or even an entire <a href="/wiki/Protein_domain" title="Protein domain">protein domain</a>. These motions give rise to a <a href="/wiki/Conformational_ensemble" class="mw-redirect" title="Conformational ensemble">conformational ensemble</a> of slightly different structures that interconvert with one another at <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">equilibrium</a>. Different states within this ensemble may be associated with different aspects of an enzyme's function. For example, different conformations of the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Dihydrofolate_reductase" title="Dihydrofolate reductase">dihydrofolate reductase</a> are associated with the substrate binding, catalysis, cofactor release, and product release steps of the catalytic cycle,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> consistent with <a href="/wiki/Catalytic_resonance_theory" title="Catalytic resonance theory">catalytic resonance theory</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Substrate_presentation">Substrate presentation</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Enzyme" title="Special:EditPage/Enzyme">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Substrate_presentation" title="Substrate presentation">Substrate presentation</a> is a process where the enzyme is sequestered away from its substrate. Enzymes can be sequestered to the plasma membrane away from a substrate in the nucleus or cytosol. Or within the membrane, an enzyme can be sequestered into lipid rafts away from its substrate in the disordered region. When the enzyme is released it mixes with its substrate. Alternatively, the enzyme can be sequestered near its substrate to activate the enzyme. For example, the enzyme can be soluble and upon activation bind to a lipid in the plasma membrane and then act upon molecules in the plasma membrane. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allosteric_modulation">Allosteric modulation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Allosteric_regulation" title="Allosteric regulation">Allosteric regulation</a></div> <p>Allosteric sites are pockets on the enzyme, distinct from the active site, that bind to molecules in the cellular environment. These molecules then cause a change in the conformation or dynamics of the enzyme that is transduced to the active site and thus affects the reaction rate of the enzyme.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this way, allosteric interactions can either inhibit or activate enzymes. Allosteric interactions with metabolites upstream or downstream in an enzyme's metabolic pathway cause <a href="/wiki/Feedback" title="Feedback">feedback</a> regulation, altering the activity of the enzyme according to the <a href="/wiki/Flux_(metabolism)" title="Flux (metabolism)">flux</a> through the rest of the pathway.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cofactors">Cofactors</h2></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Transketolase_%2B_TPP.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Thiamine pyrophosphate displayed as an opaque globular surface with an open binding cleft where the substrate and cofactor both depicted as stick diagrams fit into." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Transketolase_%2B_TPP.png/400px-Transketolase_%2B_TPP.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Transketolase_%2B_TPP.png/600px-Transketolase_%2B_TPP.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Transketolase_%2B_TPP.png/800px-Transketolase_%2B_TPP.png 2x" data-file-width="1270" data-file-height="1057" /></a><figcaption>Chemical structure for <a href="/wiki/Thiamine_pyrophosphate" title="Thiamine pyrophosphate">thiamine pyrophosphate</a> and protein structure of <a href="/wiki/Transketolase" title="Transketolase">transketolase</a>. Thiamine pyrophosphate cofactor in yellow and <a href="/wiki/Xylulose_5-phosphate" title="Xylulose 5-phosphate">xylulose 5-phosphate</a> substrate in black. (<span class="plainlinks"><a href="/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank" title="Protein Data Bank">PDB</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rcsb.org/structure/4KXV">4KXV</a></span>)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cofactor_(biochemistry)" title="Cofactor (biochemistry)">Cofactor (biochemistry)</a></div> <p>Some enzymes do not need additional components to show full activity. Others require non-protein molecules called cofactors to be bound for activity.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cofactors can be either <a href="/wiki/Inorganic" class="mw-redirect" title="Inorganic">inorganic</a> (e.g., metal <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron%E2%80%93sulfur_cluster" title="Iron–sulfur cluster">iron–sulfur clusters</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Flavin_group" title="Flavin group">flavin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heme" title="Heme">heme</a>). These cofactors serve many purposes; for instance, metal ions can help in stabilizing nucleophilic species within the active site.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organic cofactors can be either <a href="/wiki/Coenzyme" class="mw-redirect" title="Coenzyme">coenzymes</a>, which are released from the enzyme's active site during the reaction, or <a href="/wiki/Prosthetic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosthetic groups">prosthetic groups</a>, which are tightly bound to an enzyme. Organic prosthetic groups can be covalently bound (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Biotin" title="Biotin">biotin</a> in enzymes such as <a href="/wiki/Pyruvate_carboxylase" title="Pyruvate carboxylase">pyruvate carboxylase</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid10470036_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid10470036-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An example of an enzyme that contains a cofactor is <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_anhydrase" title="Carbonic anhydrase">carbonic anhydrase</a>, which uses a zinc cofactor bound as part of its active site.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These tightly bound ions or molecules are usually found in the active site and are involved in catalysis.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8.1.1">: 8.1.1 </span></sup> For example, flavin and heme cofactors are often involved in <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 17">: 17 </span></sup> </p><p>Enzymes that require a cofactor but do not have one bound are called <i>apoenzymes</i> or <i>apoproteins</i>. An enzyme together with the cofactor(s) required for activity is called a <i>holoenzyme</i> (or haloenzyme). The term <i>holoenzyme</i> can also be applied to enzymes that contain multiple protein subunits, such as the <a href="/wiki/DNA_polymerase" title="DNA polymerase">DNA polymerases</a>; here the holoenzyme is the complete complex containing all the subunits needed for activity.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8.1.1">: 8.1.1 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coenzymes">Coenzymes</h3></div> <p>Coenzymes are small organic molecules that can be loosely or tightly bound to an enzyme. Coenzymes transport chemical groups from one enzyme to another.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagner_1975_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagner_1975-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples include <a href="/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide" title="Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide">NADH</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide_phosphate" title="Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate">NADPH</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">adenosine triphosphate</a> (ATP). Some coenzymes, such as <a href="/wiki/Flavin_mononucleotide" title="Flavin mononucleotide">flavin mononucleotide</a> (FMN), <a href="/wiki/Flavin_adenine_dinucleotide" title="Flavin adenine dinucleotide">flavin adenine dinucleotide</a> (FAD), <a href="/wiki/Thiamine_pyrophosphate" title="Thiamine pyrophosphate">thiamine pyrophosphate</a> (TPP), and <a href="/wiki/Tetrahydrofolate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrahydrofolate">tetrahydrofolate</a> (THF), are derived from <a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">vitamins</a>. These coenzymes cannot be synthesized by the body <i><a href="/wiki/De_novo_synthesis" title="De novo synthesis">de novo</a></i> and closely related compounds (vitamins) must be acquired from the diet. The chemical groups carried include: </p> <ul><li>the <a href="/wiki/Hydride" title="Hydride">hydride</a> ion (H<sup>−</sup>), carried by <a href="/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide" title="Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide">NAD or NADP<sup>+</sup></a></li> <li>the phosphate group, carried by <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">adenosine triphosphate</a></li> <li>the acetyl group, carried by <a href="/wiki/Coenzyme_A" title="Coenzyme A">coenzyme A</a></li> <li>formyl, methenyl or methyl groups, carried by <a href="/wiki/Folic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Folic acid">folic acid</a> and</li> <li>the methyl group, carried by <a href="/wiki/S-adenosylmethionine" class="mw-redirect" title="S-adenosylmethionine">S-adenosylmethionine</a><sup id="cite_ref-Wagner_1975_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagner_1975-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Since coenzymes are chemically changed as a consequence of enzyme action, it is useful to consider coenzymes to be a special class of substrates, or second substrates, which are common to many different enzymes. For example, about 1000 enzymes are known to use the coenzyme NADH.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coenzymes are usually continuously regenerated and their concentrations maintained at a steady level inside the cell. For example, NADPH is regenerated through the <a href="/wiki/Pentose_phosphate_pathway" title="Pentose phosphate pathway">pentose phosphate pathway</a> and <i>S</i>-adenosylmethionine by <a href="/wiki/Methionine_adenosyltransferase" class="mw-redirect" title="Methionine adenosyltransferase">methionine adenosyltransferase</a>. This continuous regeneration means that small amounts of coenzymes can be used very intensively. For example, the human body turns over its own weight in ATP each day.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</h2></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Enzyme_catalysis_energy_levels_2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A two dimensional plot of reaction coordinate (x-axis) vs. energy (y-axis) for catalyzed and uncatalyzed reactions. The energy of the system steadily increases from reactants (x = 0) until a maximum is reached at the transition state (x = 0.5), and steadily decreases to the products (x = 1). However, in an enzyme catalysed reaction, binding generates an enzyme-substrate complex (with slightly reduced energy) then increases up to a transition state with a smaller maximum than the uncatalysed reaction." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Enzyme_catalysis_energy_levels_2.svg/400px-Enzyme_catalysis_energy_levels_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Enzyme_catalysis_energy_levels_2.svg/600px-Enzyme_catalysis_energy_levels_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Enzyme_catalysis_energy_levels_2.svg/800px-Enzyme_catalysis_energy_levels_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="489" /></a><figcaption>The energies of the stages of a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reaction</a>. Uncatalysed (dashed line), substrates need a lot of <a href="/wiki/Activation_energy" title="Activation energy">activation energy</a> to reach a <a href="/wiki/Transition_state" title="Transition state">transition state</a>, which then decays into lower-energy products. When enzyme catalysed (solid line), the enzyme binds the substrates (ES), then stabilizes the transition state (ES<sup>‡</sup>) to reduce the activation energy required to produce products (EP) which are finally released.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Activation_energy" title="Activation energy">Activation energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">Thermodynamic equilibrium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">Chemical equilibrium</a></div> <p>As with all catalysts, enzymes do not alter the position of the chemical equilibrium of the reaction. In the presence of an enzyme, the reaction runs in the same direction as it would without the enzyme, just more quickly.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8.2.3">: 8.2.3 </span></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_anhydrase" title="Carbonic anhydrase">carbonic anhydrase</a> catalyzes its reaction in either direction depending on the concentration of its reactants:<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table role="presentation" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 0 1.6em; border:none;"><tbody><tr><td style="vertical-align:middle; border:none; padding:0;" class="nowrap"> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {CO2{}+H2O->[{\text{Carbonic anhydrase}}]H2CO3}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <mover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Carbonic anhydrase</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> </mover> </mrow> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {CO2{}+H2O->[{\text{Carbonic anhydrase}}]H2CO3}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cb4c8837b26e96fe552c17d863f93e0618cd998b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; margin-top: -0.329ex; width:36.285ex; height:4.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {CO2{}+H2O->[{\text{Carbonic anhydrase}}]H2CO3}}}"></span> (in <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a>; high CO<sub>2</sub> concentration)</td> <td style="vertical-align:middle; width:99%; border:none; padding:0;"></td> <td style="vertical-align:middle; border:none; padding:0;" class="nowrap"><b>(<span id="math_1" class="reference nourlexpansion" style="font-weight:bold;">1</span>)</b></td></tr></tbody></table> <table role="presentation" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 0 1.6em; border:none;"><tbody><tr><td style="vertical-align:middle; border:none; padding:0;" class="nowrap"> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {CO2{}+H2O<-[{\text{Carbonic anhydrase}}]H2CO3}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <mover> <mo>←</mo> <mpadded width="+0.556em" lspace="0.389em" voffset=".15em"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Carbonic anhydrase</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> </mover> </mrow> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {CO2{}+H2O<-[{\text{Carbonic anhydrase}}]H2CO3}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/618e95485aa1c3c44a29c557ac448ae5b544ff07" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; margin-top: -0.329ex; width:36.242ex; height:4.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {CO2{}+H2O<-[{\text{Carbonic anhydrase}}]H2CO3}}}"></span> (in <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a>; low CO<sub>2</sub> concentration)</td> <td style="vertical-align:middle; width:99%; border:none; padding:0;"></td> <td style="vertical-align:middle; border:none; padding:0;" class="nowrap"><b>(<span id="math_2" class="reference nourlexpansion" style="font-weight:bold;">2</span>)</b></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The rate of a reaction is dependent on the <a href="/wiki/Activation_energy" title="Activation energy">activation energy</a> needed to form the <a href="/wiki/Transition_state" title="Transition state">transition state</a> which then decays into products. Enzymes increase reaction rates by lowering the energy of the transition state. First, binding forms a low energy enzyme-substrate complex (ES). Second, the enzyme stabilises the transition state such that it requires less energy to achieve compared to the uncatalyzed reaction (ES<sup>‡</sup>). Finally the enzyme-product complex (EP) dissociates to release the products.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8.3">: 8.3 </span></sup> </p><p>Enzymes can couple two or more reactions, so that a thermodynamically favorable reaction can be used to "drive" a thermodynamically unfavourable one so that the combined energy of the products is lower than the substrates. For example, the hydrolysis of <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a> is often used to drive other chemical reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholls_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholls-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kinetics">Kinetics</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:329px;max-width:329px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:327px;max-width:327px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Enzyme_mechanism_2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Schematic reaction diagrams for uncatalzyed (Substrate to Product) and catalyzed (Enzyme + Substrate to Enzyme/Substrate complex to Enzyme + Product)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Enzyme_mechanism_2.svg/325px-Enzyme_mechanism_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="325" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Enzyme_mechanism_2.svg/488px-Enzyme_mechanism_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Enzyme_mechanism_2.svg/650px-Enzyme_mechanism_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="125" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A chemical reaction mechanism with or without <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis" title="Enzyme catalysis">enzyme catalysis</a>. The enzyme (E) binds <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(chemistry)" title="Substrate (chemistry)">substrate</a> (S) to produce <a href="/wiki/Product_(chemistry)" title="Product (chemistry)">product</a> (P).</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:327px;max-width:327px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Michaelis_Menten_curve_2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A two dimensional plot of substrate concentration (x axis) vs. reaction rate (y axis). The shape of the curve is hyperbolic. The rate of the reaction is zero at zero concentration of substrate and the rate asymptotically reaches a maximum at high substrate concentration." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Michaelis_Menten_curve_2.svg/325px-Michaelis_Menten_curve_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="325" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Michaelis_Menten_curve_2.svg/488px-Michaelis_Menten_curve_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Michaelis_Menten_curve_2.svg/650px-Michaelis_Menten_curve_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Michaelis%E2%80%93Menten_kinetics" title="Michaelis–Menten kinetics">Saturation curve</a> for an enzyme reaction showing the relation between the substrate concentration and reaction rate.</div></div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_kinetics" title="Enzyme kinetics">Enzyme kinetics</a></div> <p>Enzyme kinetics is the investigation of how enzymes bind substrates and turn them into products.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rate data used in kinetic analyses are commonly obtained from <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_assay" title="Enzyme assay">enzyme assays</a>. In 1913 <a href="/wiki/Leonor_Michaelis" title="Leonor Michaelis">Leonor Michaelis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maud_Leonora_Menten" class="mw-redirect" title="Maud Leonora Menten">Maud Leonora Menten</a> proposed a quantitative theory of enzyme kinetics, which is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Michaelis%E2%80%93Menten_kinetics" title="Michaelis–Menten kinetics">Michaelis–Menten kinetics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The major contribution of Michaelis and Menten was to think of enzyme reactions in two stages. In the first, the substrate binds reversibly to the enzyme, forming the enzyme-substrate complex. This is sometimes called the Michaelis–Menten complex in their honor. The enzyme then catalyzes the chemical step in the reaction and releases the product. This work was further developed by <a href="/wiki/George_Edward_Briggs" title="George Edward Briggs">G. E. Briggs</a> and <a href="/wiki/J._B._S._Haldane" title="J. B. S. Haldane">J. B. S. Haldane</a>, who derived kinetic equations that are still widely used today.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Enzyme rates depend on <a href="/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">solution</a> conditions and substrate <a href="/wiki/Concentration" title="Concentration">concentration</a>. To find the maximum speed of an enzymatic reaction, the substrate concentration is increased until a constant rate of product formation is seen. This is shown in the saturation curve on the right. Saturation happens because, as substrate concentration increases, more and more of the free enzyme is converted into the substrate-bound ES complex. At the maximum reaction rate (<i>V</i><sub>max</sub>) of the enzyme, all the enzyme active sites are bound to substrate, and the amount of ES complex is the same as the total amount of enzyme.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8.4">: 8.4 </span></sup> </p><p><i>V</i><sub>max</sub> is only one of several important kinetic parameters. The amount of substrate needed to achieve a given rate of reaction is also important. This is given by the <a href="/wiki/Michaelis%E2%80%93Menten_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Michaelis–Menten constant">Michaelis–Menten constant</a> (<i>K</i><sub>m</sub>), which is the substrate concentration required for an enzyme to reach one-half its maximum reaction rate; generally, each enzyme has a characteristic <i>K</i><sub>M</sub> for a given substrate. Another useful constant is <i>k</i><sub>cat</sub>, also called the <i>turnover number</i>, which is the number of substrate molecules handled by one active site per second.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8.4">: 8.4 </span></sup> </p><p>The efficiency of an enzyme can be expressed in terms of <i>k</i><sub>cat</sub>/<i>K</i><sub>m</sub>. This is also called the specificity constant and incorporates the <a href="/wiki/Rate_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Rate constant">rate constants</a> for all steps in the reaction up to and including the first irreversible step. Because the specificity constant reflects both affinity and catalytic ability, it is useful for comparing different enzymes against each other, or the same enzyme with different substrates. The theoretical maximum for the specificity constant is called the diffusion limit and is about 10<sup>8</sup> to 10<sup>9</sup> (M<sup>−1</sup> s<sup>−1</sup>). At this point every collision of the enzyme with its substrate will result in catalysis, and the rate of product formation is not limited by the reaction rate but by the diffusion rate. Enzymes with this property are called <i><a href="/wiki/Catalytically_perfect_enzyme" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalytically perfect enzyme">catalytically perfect</a></i> or <i>kinetically perfect</i>. Example of such enzymes are <a href="/wiki/Triosephosphateisomerase" class="mw-redirect" title="Triosephosphateisomerase">triose-phosphate isomerase</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_anhydrase" title="Carbonic anhydrase">carbonic anhydrase</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholinesterase" title="Acetylcholinesterase">acetylcholinesterase</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catalase" title="Catalase">catalase</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fumarase" title="Fumarase">fumarase</a>, <a href="/wiki/%CE%92-lactamase" class="mw-redirect" title="Β-lactamase">β-lactamase</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Superoxide_dismutase" title="Superoxide dismutase">superoxide dismutase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8.4.2">: 8.4.2 </span></sup> The turnover of such enzymes can reach several million reactions per second.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 9.2">: 9.2 </span></sup> But most enzymes are far from perfect: the average values of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k_{\rm {cat}}/K_{\rm {m}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k_{\rm {cat}}/K_{\rm {m}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/20420b052126966d4009c65c5342cda33036e809" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.372ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k_{\rm {cat}}/K_{\rm {m}}}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k_{\rm {cat}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">c</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">a</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k_{\rm {cat}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/90626a789e6fd3e4651c36328c1fcfa64789b38f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.635ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k_{\rm {cat}}}"></span> are about <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 10^{5}{\rm {s}}^{-1}{\rm {M}}^{-1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">M</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 10^{5}{\rm {s}}^{-1}{\rm {M}}^{-1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ef512037b4da4d312f89dc4e35a5ca44cee2a187" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:11.092ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 10^{5}{\rm {s}}^{-1}{\rm {M}}^{-1}}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 10{\rm {s}}^{-1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>10</mn> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 10{\rm {s}}^{-1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/34cbb1e27dae0c04fc794a91f2aa001aca7054c1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.574ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 10{\rm {s}}^{-1}}"></span>, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Bar-Even_2011_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bar-Even_2011-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Michaelis–Menten kinetics relies on the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_mass_action" title="Law of mass action">law of mass action</a>, which is derived from the assumptions of free <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a> and thermodynamically driven random collision. Many biochemical or cellular processes deviate significantly from these conditions, because of <a href="/wiki/Macromolecular_crowding" title="Macromolecular crowding">macromolecular crowding</a> and constrained molecular movement.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recent, complex extensions of the model attempt to correct for these effects.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Inhibition">Inhibition</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:404px;max-width:404px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:402px;max-width:402px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:DHFR_methotrexate_inhibitor.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/DHFR_methotrexate_inhibitor.svg/400px-DHFR_methotrexate_inhibitor.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="384" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/DHFR_methotrexate_inhibitor.svg/600px-DHFR_methotrexate_inhibitor.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/DHFR_methotrexate_inhibitor.svg/800px-DHFR_methotrexate_inhibitor.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1728" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:402px;max-width:402px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Methotrexate_vs_folate_2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two dimensional representations of the chemical structure of folic acid and methotrexate highlighting the differences between these two substances (amidation of pyrimidone and methylation of secondary amine)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Methotrexate_vs_folate_2.svg/400px-Methotrexate_vs_folate_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Methotrexate_vs_folate_2.svg/600px-Methotrexate_vs_folate_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Methotrexate_vs_folate_2.svg/800px-Methotrexate_vs_folate_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="225" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The coenzyme <a href="/wiki/Folic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Folic acid">folic acid</a> (left) and the anti-cancer drug <a href="/wiki/Methotrexate" title="Methotrexate">methotrexate</a> (right) are very similar in structure (differences show in green). As a result, methotrexate is a competitive inhibitor of many enzymes that use folates.</div></div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor" title="Enzyme inhibitor">Enzyme inhibitor</a></div> <p>Enzyme reaction rates can be decreased by various types of enzyme inhibitors.<sup id="cite_ref-Cornish-Bowden_2004_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cornish-Bowden_2004-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 73–74">: 73–74 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_of_inhibition">Types of inhibition</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Competitive">Competitive</h4></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Competitive_inhibitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Competitive inhibitor">competitive inhibitor</a> and substrate cannot bind to the enzyme at the same time.<sup id="cite_ref-Price_1979_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Price_1979-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often competitive inhibitors strongly resemble the real substrate of the enzyme. For example, the drug <a href="/wiki/Methotrexate" title="Methotrexate">methotrexate</a> is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Dihydrofolate_reductase" title="Dihydrofolate reductase">dihydrofolate reductase</a>, which catalyzes the reduction of <a href="/wiki/Folic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Folic acid">dihydrofolate</a> to tetrahydrofolate.<sup id="cite_ref-Goodsell_340–341_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodsell_340–341-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The similarity between the structures of dihydrofolate and this drug are shown in the accompanying figure. This type of inhibition can be overcome with high substrate concentration. In some cases, the inhibitor can bind to a site other than the binding-site of the usual substrate and exert an <a href="#Allosteric_modulation">allosteric effect</a> to change the shape of the usual binding-site.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Non-competitive">Non-competitive</h4></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Non-competitive_inhibition" title="Non-competitive inhibition">non-competitive inhibitor</a> binds to a site other than where the substrate binds. The substrate still binds with its usual affinity and hence K<sub>m</sub> remains the same. However the inhibitor reduces the catalytic efficiency of the enzyme so that V<sub>max</sub> is reduced. In contrast to competitive inhibition, non-competitive inhibition cannot be overcome with high substrate concentration.<sup id="cite_ref-Cornish-Bowden_2004_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cornish-Bowden_2004-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 76–78">: 76–78 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Uncompetitive">Uncompetitive</h4></div> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Uncompetitive_inhibitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Uncompetitive inhibitor">uncompetitive inhibitor</a> cannot bind to the free enzyme, only to the enzyme-substrate complex; hence, these types of inhibitors are most effective at high substrate concentration. In the presence of the inhibitor, the enzyme-substrate complex is inactive.<sup id="cite_ref-Cornish-Bowden_2004_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cornish-Bowden_2004-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 78">: 78 </span></sup> This type of inhibition is rare.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mixed">Mixed</h4></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Mixed_inhibition" title="Mixed inhibition">mixed inhibitor</a> binds to an allosteric site and the binding of the substrate and the inhibitor affect each other. The enzyme's function is reduced but not eliminated when bound to the inhibitor. This type of inhibitor does not follow the Michaelis–Menten equation.<sup id="cite_ref-Cornish-Bowden_2004_70-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cornish-Bowden_2004-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 76–78">: 76–78 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Irreversible">Irreversible</h4></div> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Irreversible_inhibitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Irreversible inhibitor">irreversible inhibitor</a> permanently inactivates the enzyme, usually by forming a <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bond</a> to the protein.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">Penicillin</a><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Aspirin" title="Aspirin">aspirin</a><sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are common drugs that act in this manner. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Functions_of_inhibitors">Functions of inhibitors</h3></div> <p>In many organisms, inhibitors may act as part of a <a href="/wiki/Feedback" title="Feedback">feedback</a> mechanism. If an enzyme produces too much of one substance in the organism, that substance may act as an inhibitor for the enzyme at the beginning of the pathway that produces it, causing production of the substance to slow down or stop when there is sufficient amount. This is a form of <a href="/wiki/Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">negative feedback</a>. Major metabolic pathways such as the <a href="/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle" title="Citric acid cycle">citric acid cycle</a> make use of this mechanism.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 17.2.2">: 17.2.2 </span></sup> </p><p>Since inhibitors modulate the function of enzymes they are often used as drugs. Many such drugs are reversible competitive inhibitors that resemble the enzyme's native substrate, similar to <a href="/wiki/Methotrexate" title="Methotrexate">methotrexate</a> above; other well-known examples include <a href="/wiki/Statin" title="Statin">statins</a> used to treat high <a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Endo1992_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Endo1992-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Protease_inhibitors" class="mw-redirect" title="Protease inhibitors">protease inhibitors</a> used to treat <a href="/wiki/Retroviral" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroviral">retroviral</a> infections such as <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A common example of an irreversible inhibitor that is used as a drug is <a href="/wiki/Aspirin" title="Aspirin">aspirin</a>, which inhibits the <a href="/wiki/Cyclooxygenase" title="Cyclooxygenase">COX-1</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyclooxygenase" title="Cyclooxygenase">COX-2</a> enzymes that produce the <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a> messenger <a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin" title="Prostaglandin">prostaglandin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other enzyme inhibitors are poisons. For example, the poison <a href="/wiki/Cyanide" title="Cyanide">cyanide</a> is an irreversible enzyme inhibitor that combines with the copper and iron in the active site of the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Cytochrome_c_oxidase" title="Cytochrome c oxidase">cytochrome c oxidase</a> and blocks <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">cellular respiration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Factors_affecting_enzyme_activity">Factors affecting enzyme activity</h2></div> <p>As enzymes are made up of proteins, their actions are sensitive to change in many physio chemical factors such as pH, temperature, substrate concentration, etc. </p><p>The following table shows pH optima for various enzymes.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Enzyme </th> <th>Optimum pH </th> <th>pH description </th></tr> <tr> <td>Pepsin </td> <td>1.5–1.6 </td> <td>Highly acidic </td></tr> <tr> <td>Invertase </td> <td>4.5 </td> <td>Acidic </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lipase (stomach) </td> <td>4.0–5.0 </td> <td>Acidic </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lipase (castor oil) </td> <td>4.7 </td> <td>Acidic </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lipase (pancreas) </td> <td>8.0 </td> <td>Alkaline </td></tr> <tr> <td>Amylase (malt) </td> <td>4.6–5.2 </td> <td>Acidic </td></tr> <tr> <td>Amylase (pancreas) </td> <td>6.7–7.0 </td> <td>Acidic-neutral </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cellobiase </td> <td>5.0 </td> <td>Acidic </td></tr> <tr> <td>Maltase </td> <td>6.1–6.8 </td> <td>Acidic </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sucrase </td> <td>6.2 </td> <td>Acidic </td></tr> <tr> <td>Catalase </td> <td>7.0 </td> <td>Neutral </td></tr> <tr> <td>Urease </td> <td>7.0 </td> <td>Neutral </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cholinesterase </td> <td>7.0 </td> <td>Neutral </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ribonuclease </td> <td>7.0–7.5 </td> <td>Neutral </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fumarase </td> <td>7.8 </td> <td>Alkaline </td></tr> <tr> <td>Trypsin </td> <td>7.8–8.7 </td> <td>Alkaline </td></tr> <tr> <td>Adenosine triphosphate </td> <td>9.0 </td> <td>Alkaline </td></tr> <tr> <td>Arginase </td> <td>10.0 </td> <td>Highly alkaline </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biological_function">Biological function</h2></div> <p>Enzymes serve a wide variety of <a href="/wiki/Function_(biology)" title="Function (biology)">functions</a> inside living organisms. They are indispensable for <a href="/wiki/Signal_transduction" title="Signal transduction">signal transduction</a> and cell regulation, often via <a href="/wiki/Kinase" title="Kinase">kinases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphatase" title="Phosphatase">phosphatases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also generate movement, with <a href="/wiki/Myosin" title="Myosin">myosin</a> hydrolyzing <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">adenosine triphosphate</a> (ATP) to generate <a href="/wiki/Muscle_contraction" title="Muscle contraction">muscle contraction</a>, and also transport cargo around the cell as part of the <a href="/wiki/Cytoskeleton" title="Cytoskeleton">cytoskeleton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other <a href="/wiki/ATPase" title="ATPase">ATPases</a> in the cell membrane are <a href="/wiki/Ion_pump_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion pump (biology)">ion pumps</a> involved in <a href="/wiki/Active_transport" title="Active transport">active transport</a>. Enzymes are also involved in more exotic functions, such as <a href="/wiki/Luciferase" title="Luciferase">luciferase</a> generating light in <a href="/wiki/Fireflies" class="mw-redirect" title="Fireflies">fireflies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Viruses</a> can also contain enzymes for infecting cells, such as the <a href="/wiki/HIV_integrase" class="mw-redirect" title="HIV integrase">HIV integrase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase" title="Reverse transcriptase">reverse transcriptase</a>, or for viral release from cells, like the <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a> virus <a href="/wiki/Neuraminidase" title="Neuraminidase">neuraminidase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12370077_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12370077-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An important function of enzymes is in the <a href="/wiki/Digestive_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Digestive systems">digestive systems</a> of animals. Enzymes such as <a href="/wiki/Amylase" title="Amylase">amylases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protease" title="Protease">proteases</a> break down large molecules (<a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a> or <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>, respectively) into smaller ones, so they can be absorbed by the intestines. Starch molecules, for example, are too large to be absorbed from the intestine, but enzymes hydrolyze the starch chains into smaller molecules such as <a href="/wiki/Maltose" title="Maltose">maltose</a> and eventually <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>, which can then be absorbed. Different enzymes digest different food substances. In <a href="/wiki/Ruminant" title="Ruminant">ruminants</a>, which have <a href="/wiki/Herbivorous" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivorous">herbivorous</a> diets, microorganisms in the gut produce another enzyme, <a href="/wiki/Cellulase" title="Cellulase">cellulase</a>, to break down the cellulose cell walls of plant fiber.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metabolism">Metabolism</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glycolysis_metabolic_pathway.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Schematic diagram of the glycolytic metabolic pathway starting with glucose and ending with pyruvate via several intermediate chemicals. Each step in the pathway is catalyzed by a unique enzyme." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Glycolysis_metabolic_pathway.svg/440px-Glycolysis_metabolic_pathway.svg.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Glycolysis_metabolic_pathway.svg/660px-Glycolysis_metabolic_pathway.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Glycolysis_metabolic_pathway.svg/880px-Glycolysis_metabolic_pathway.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="624" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" title="Metabolic pathway">metabolic pathway</a> of <a href="/wiki/Glycolysis" title="Glycolysis">glycolysis</a> releases energy by converting <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> to <a href="/wiki/Pyruvate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyruvate">pyruvate</a> via a series of intermediate metabolites. Each chemical modification (red box) is performed by a different enzyme.</figcaption></figure> <p>Several enzymes can work together in a specific order, creating <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" title="Metabolic pathway">metabolic pathways</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 30.1">: 30.1 </span></sup> In a metabolic pathway, one enzyme takes the product of another enzyme as a substrate. After the catalytic reaction, the product is then passed on to another enzyme. Sometimes more than one enzyme can catalyze the same reaction in parallel; this can allow more complex regulation: with, for example, a low constant activity provided by one enzyme but an inducible high activity from a second enzyme.<sup id="cite_ref-Rouzer_2009_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rouzer_2009-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Enzymes determine what steps occur in these pathways. Without enzymes, metabolism would neither progress through the same steps and could not be regulated to serve the needs of the cell. Most central metabolic pathways are regulated at a few key steps, typically through enzymes whose activity involves the hydrolysis of ATP. Because this reaction releases so much energy, other reactions that are <a href="/wiki/Endothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothermic">thermodynamically unfavorable</a> can be coupled to ATP hydrolysis, driving the overall series of linked metabolic reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 30.1">: 30.1 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Control_of_activity">Control of activity</h3></div> <p>There are five main ways that enzyme activity is controlled in the cell.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 30.1.1">: 30.1.1 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Regulation">Regulation</h4></div> <p>Enzymes can be either <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_activator" title="Enzyme activator">activated</a> or <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor" title="Enzyme inhibitor">inhibited</a> by other molecules. For example, the end product(s) of a metabolic pathway are often inhibitors for one of the first enzymes of the pathway (usually the first irreversible step, called committed step), thus regulating the amount of end product made by the pathways. Such a regulatory mechanism is called a <a href="/wiki/Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">negative feedback mechanism</a>, because the amount of the end product produced is regulated by its own concentration.<sup id="cite_ref-Suzuki_2015_8_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suzuki_2015_8-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 141–48">: 141–48 </span></sup> Negative feedback mechanism can effectively adjust the rate of synthesis of intermediate metabolites according to the demands of the cells. This helps with effective allocations of materials and energy economy, and it prevents the excess manufacture of end products. Like other <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostatic devices</a>, the control of enzymatic action helps to maintain a stable internal environment in living organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Suzuki_2015_8_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suzuki_2015_8-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 141">: 141 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Post-translational_modification">Post-translational modification</h4></div> <p>Examples of <a href="/wiki/Post-translational_modification" title="Post-translational modification">post-translational modification</a> include <a href="/wiki/Phosphorylation" title="Phosphorylation">phosphorylation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myristoylation" title="Myristoylation">myristoylation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glycosylation" title="Glycosylation">glycosylation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Suzuki_2015_8_88-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suzuki_2015_8-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 149–69">: 149–69 </span></sup> For example, in the response to <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Phosphorylation" title="Phosphorylation">phosphorylation</a> of multiple enzymes, including <a href="/wiki/Glycogen_synthase" title="Glycogen synthase">glycogen synthase</a>, helps control the synthesis or degradation of <a href="/wiki/Glycogen" title="Glycogen">glycogen</a> and allows the cell to respond to changes in <a href="/wiki/Blood_sugar" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood sugar">blood sugar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Doble_2003_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doble_2003-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example of post-translational modification is the cleavage of the polypeptide chain. <a href="/wiki/Chymotrypsin" title="Chymotrypsin">Chymotrypsin</a>, a digestive protease, is produced in inactive form as <a href="/wiki/Chymotrypsinogen" title="Chymotrypsinogen">chymotrypsinogen</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">pancreas</a> and transported in this form to the <a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">stomach</a> where it is activated. This stops the enzyme from digesting the pancreas or other tissues before it enters the gut. This type of inactive precursor to an enzyme is known as a <a href="/wiki/Zymogen" title="Zymogen">zymogen</a><sup id="cite_ref-Suzuki_2015_8_88-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suzuki_2015_8-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 149–53">: 149–53 </span></sup> or proenzyme. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Quantity">Quantity</h4></div> <p>Enzyme production (<a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcription</a> and <a href="/wiki/Translation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Translation (genetics)">translation</a> of enzyme genes) can be enhanced or diminished by a cell in response to changes in the cell's environment. This form of <a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">gene regulation</a> is called <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_induction" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzyme induction">enzyme induction</a>. For example, bacteria may become <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">resistant to antibiotics</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a> because enzymes called <a href="/wiki/Beta-lactamase" title="Beta-lactamase">beta-lactamases</a> are induced that hydrolyse the crucial <a href="/wiki/Beta-lactam" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-lactam">beta-lactam ring</a> within the penicillin molecule.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid8452343_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid8452343-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example comes from enzymes in the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> called <a href="/wiki/Cytochrome_P450_oxidase" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytochrome P450 oxidase">cytochrome P450 oxidases</a>, which are important in <a href="/wiki/Drug_metabolism" title="Drug metabolism">drug metabolism</a>. Induction or inhibition of these enzymes can cause <a href="/wiki/Drug_interaction" title="Drug interaction">drug interactions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Skett_Gibson_2001_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skett_Gibson_2001-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Enzyme levels can also be regulated by changing the rate of enzyme <a href="/wiki/Catabolism" title="Catabolism">degradation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 30.1.1">: 30.1.1 </span></sup> The opposite of enzyme induction is <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_repression" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzyme repression">enzyme repression</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Subcellular_distribution">Subcellular distribution</h4></div> <p>Enzymes can be compartmentalized, with different metabolic pathways occurring in different <a href="/wiki/Cellular_compartment" title="Cellular compartment">cellular compartments</a>. For example, <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a> are synthesized by one set of enzymes in the <a href="/wiki/Cytosol" title="Cytosol">cytosol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum" title="Endoplasmic reticulum">endoplasmic reticulum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi</a> and used by a different set of enzymes as a source of energy in the <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondrion</a>, through <a href="/wiki/%CE%92-oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Β-oxidation">β-oxidation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, <a href="/wiki/Protein_targeting" title="Protein targeting">trafficking</a> of the enzyme to different compartments may change the degree of <a href="/wiki/Protonation" title="Protonation">protonation</a> (e.g., the neutral <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a> and the acidic <a href="/wiki/Lysosome" title="Lysosome">lysosome</a>) or oxidative state (e.g., oxidizing <a href="/wiki/Periplasm" title="Periplasm">periplasm</a> or reducing <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a>) which in turn affects enzyme activity.<sup id="cite_ref-Suzuki_2015_4_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suzuki_2015_4-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to partitioning into membrane bound organelles, enzyme subcellular localisation may also be altered through polymerisation of enzymes into macromolecular cytoplasmic filaments.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Organ_specialization">Organ specialization</h4></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Multicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular">multicellular</a> <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>, cells in different <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a> have different patterns of <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a> and therefore have different sets of enzymes (known as <a href="/wiki/Isozyme" title="Isozyme">isozymes</a>) available for metabolic reactions. This provides a mechanism for regulating the overall metabolism of the organism. For example, <a href="/wiki/Hexokinase" title="Hexokinase">hexokinase</a>, the first enzyme in the <a href="/wiki/Glycolysis" title="Glycolysis">glycolysis</a> pathway, has a specialized form called <a href="/wiki/Glucokinase" title="Glucokinase">glucokinase</a> expressed in the liver and <a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">pancreas</a> that has a lower <a href="/wiki/Affinity_(pharmacology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Affinity (pharmacology)">affinity</a> for glucose yet is more sensitive to glucose concentration.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This enzyme is involved in sensing <a href="/wiki/Blood_sugar" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood sugar">blood sugar</a> and regulating insulin production.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Involvement_in_disease">Involvement in disease</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phenylalanine_hydroxylase_mutations.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Ribbon diagram of phenylalanine hydroxylase with bound cofactor, coenzyme and substrate" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Phenylalanine_hydroxylase_mutations.svg/440px-Phenylalanine_hydroxylase_mutations.svg.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Phenylalanine_hydroxylase_mutations.svg/660px-Phenylalanine_hydroxylase_mutations.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Phenylalanine_hydroxylase_mutations.svg/880px-Phenylalanine_hydroxylase_mutations.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1041" /></a><figcaption>In <a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine_hydroxylase" title="Phenylalanine hydroxylase">phenylalanine hydroxylase</a> over 300 different mutations throughout the structure cause <a href="/wiki/Phenylketonuria" title="Phenylketonuria">phenylketonuria</a>. <a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">Phenylalanine</a> substrate and <a href="/wiki/Tetrahydrobiopterin" title="Tetrahydrobiopterin">tetrahydrobiopterin</a> coenzyme in black, and <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Fe<sup>2+</sup></a> cofactor in yellow. (<span class="plainlinks"><a href="/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank" title="Protein Data Bank">PDB</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rcsb.org/structure/1KW0">1KW0</a></span>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Autosomal_recessive_inheritance_for_affected_enzyme.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Autosomal_recessive_inheritance_for_affected_enzyme.png/310px-Autosomal_recessive_inheritance_for_affected_enzyme.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="513" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Autosomal_recessive_inheritance_for_affected_enzyme.png/465px-Autosomal_recessive_inheritance_for_affected_enzyme.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Autosomal_recessive_inheritance_for_affected_enzyme.png/620px-Autosomal_recessive_inheritance_for_affected_enzyme.png 2x" data-file-width="925" data-file-height="1532" /></a><figcaption>Hereditary defects in enzymes are generally inherited in an <a href="/wiki/Autosomal_inheritance" class="mw-redirect" title="Autosomal inheritance">autosomal</a> fashion because there are more non-X chromosomes than X-chromosomes, and a <a href="/wiki/Recessive_inheritance" class="mw-redirect" title="Recessive inheritance">recessive</a> fashion because the enzymes from the unaffected genes are generally sufficient to prevent symptoms in carriers.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">Genetic disorder</a></div> <p>Since the tight control of enzyme activity is essential for <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a>, any malfunction (mutation, overproduction, underproduction or deletion) of a single critical enzyme can lead to a genetic disease. The malfunction of just one type of enzyme out of the thousands of types present in the human body can be fatal. An example of a fatal genetic disease due to enzyme insufficiency is <a href="/wiki/Tay%E2%80%93Sachs_disease" title="Tay–Sachs disease">Tay–Sachs disease</a>, in which patients lack the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Hexosaminidase" title="Hexosaminidase">hexosaminidase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One example of enzyme deficiency is the most common type of <a href="/wiki/Phenylketonuria" title="Phenylketonuria">phenylketonuria</a>. Many different single amino acid mutations in the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine_hydroxylase" title="Phenylalanine hydroxylase">phenylalanine hydroxylase</a>, which catalyzes the first step in the degradation of <a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">phenylalanine</a>, result in build-up of phenylalanine and related products. Some mutations are in the active site, directly disrupting binding and catalysis, but many are far from the active site and reduce activity by destabilising the protein structure, or affecting correct oligomerisation.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid10527663_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid10527663-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can lead to <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a> if the disease is untreated.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example is <a href="/wiki/Pseudocholinesterase_deficiency" title="Pseudocholinesterase deficiency">pseudocholinesterase deficiency</a>, in which the body's ability to break down choline ester drugs is impaired.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oral administration of enzymes can be used to treat some functional enzyme deficiencies, such as <a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_insufficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Pancreatic insufficiency">pancreatic insufficiency</a><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Lactose_intolerance" title="Lactose intolerance">lactose intolerance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another way enzyme malfunctions can cause disease comes from <a href="/wiki/Germline_mutation" title="Germline mutation">germline mutations</a> in genes coding for <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">DNA repair</a> enzymes. Defects in these enzymes cause cancer because cells are less able to repair mutations in their <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genomes</a>. This causes a slow accumulation of mutations and results in the <a href="/wiki/Carcinogenesis" title="Carcinogenesis">development of cancers</a>. An example of such a hereditary <a href="/wiki/Cancer_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancer syndrome">cancer syndrome</a> is <a href="/wiki/Xeroderma_pigmentosum" title="Xeroderma pigmentosum">xeroderma pigmentosum</a>, which causes the development of <a href="/wiki/Skin_cancer" title="Skin cancer">skin cancers</a> in response to even minimal exposure to <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet light">ultraviolet light</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2></div> <p>Similar to any other protein, enzymes change over time through <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a> and sequence divergence. Given their central role in <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>, enzyme evolution plays a critical role in <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a>. A key question is therefore whether and how enzymes can change their enzymatic activities alongside. It is generally accepted that many new enzyme activities have evolved through <a href="/wiki/Gene_duplication" title="Gene duplication">gene duplication</a> and mutation of the duplicate copies although evolution can also happen without duplication. One example of an enzyme that has changed its activity is the ancestor of <a href="/wiki/Methionyl_aminopeptidase" title="Methionyl aminopeptidase">methionyl aminopeptidase</a> (MAP) and creatine amidinohydrolase (<a href="/wiki/Creatinase" title="Creatinase">creatinase</a>) which are clearly homologous but catalyze very different reactions (MAP removes the amino-terminal <a href="/wiki/Methionine" title="Methionine">methionine</a> in new proteins while creatinase hydrolyses <a href="/wiki/Creatine" title="Creatine">creatine</a> to <a href="/wiki/Sarcosine" title="Sarcosine">sarcosine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a>). In addition, MAP is metal-ion dependent while creatinase is not, hence this property was also lost over time.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Small changes of enzymatic activity are extremely common among enzymes. In particular, substrate binding specificity (see above) can easily and quickly change with single amino acid changes in their substrate binding pockets. This is frequently seen in the main enzyme classes such as <a href="/wiki/Kinase" title="Kinase">kinases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Artificial (in vitro) evolution is now commonly used to modify enzyme activity or specificity for industrial applications (see below). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Industrial_applications">Industrial applications</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Industrial_enzymes" title="Industrial enzymes">Industrial enzymes</a></div> <p>Enzymes are used in the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">chemical industry</a> and other industrial applications when extremely specific catalysts are required. Enzymes in general are limited in the number of reactions they have evolved to catalyze and also by their lack of stability in <a href="/wiki/Organic_solvent" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic solvent">organic solvents</a> and at high temperatures. As a consequence, <a href="/wiki/Protein_engineering" title="Protein engineering">protein engineering</a> is an active area of research and involves attempts to create new enzymes with novel properties, either through rational design or <i>in vitro</i> evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These efforts have begun to be successful, and a few enzymes have now been designed "from scratch" to catalyze reactions that do not occur in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <th style="width:24%;">Application </th> <th style="width:38%;">Enzymes used </th> <th style="width:38%;">Uses </th></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel industry</a></b> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;"><a href="/wiki/Cellulase" title="Cellulase">Cellulases</a> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;">Break down cellulose into sugars that can be fermented to produce <a href="/wiki/Cellulosic_ethanol" title="Cellulosic ethanol">cellulosic ethanol</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cheng_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cheng-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><a href="/wiki/Ligninase" class="mw-redirect" title="Ligninase">Ligninases</a> </td> <td>Pretreatment of <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> for biofuel production.<sup id="cite_ref-cheng_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cheng-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Biological_detergent" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological detergent">Biological detergent</a></b> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;"><a href="/wiki/Protease" title="Protease">Proteases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amylase" title="Amylase">amylases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lipase" title="Lipase">lipases</a> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;">Remove protein, starch, and fat or oil stains from laundry and dishware.<sup id="cite_ref-Kirk_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kirk-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><a href="/wiki/Mannanase" class="mw-redirect" title="Mannanase">Mannanases</a> </td> <td>Remove food stains from the common food additive <a href="/wiki/Guar_gum" title="Guar gum">guar gum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kirk_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kirk-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;" rowspan="4"><b><a href="/wiki/Brewing" title="Brewing">Brewing industry</a></b> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;"><a href="/wiki/Amylase" title="Amylase">Amylase</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glucanase" title="Glucanase">glucanases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protease" title="Protease">proteases</a> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;">Split polysaccharides and proteins in the <a href="/wiki/Malt" title="Malt">malt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-briggs_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-briggs-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 150–9">: 150–9 </span></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><a href="/wiki/Betaglucanase" class="mw-redirect" title="Betaglucanase">Betaglucanases</a> </td> <td>Improve the <a href="/wiki/Wort" title="Wort">wort</a> and beer filtration characteristics.<sup id="cite_ref-briggs_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-briggs-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 545">: 545 </span></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><a href="/wiki/Amyloglucosidase" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyloglucosidase">Amyloglucosidase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pullulanase" title="Pullulanase">pullulanases</a> </td> <td>Make low-calorie <a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a> and adjust fermentability.<sup id="cite_ref-briggs_115-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-briggs-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 575">: 575 </span></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><a href="/wiki/Acetolactate_decarboxylase" title="Acetolactate decarboxylase">Acetolactate decarboxylase</a> (ALDC) </td> <td>Increase fermentation efficiency by reducing <a href="/wiki/Diacetyl" title="Diacetyl">diacetyl</a> formation.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;"><b><a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">Culinary uses</a></b> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;"><a href="/wiki/Papain" title="Papain">Papain</a> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;"><a href="/wiki/Tenderizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenderizer">Tenderize</a> meat for cooking.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;" rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Dairy" title="Dairy">Dairy industry</a></b> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;"><a href="/wiki/Chymosin" title="Chymosin">Rennin</a> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;"><a href="/wiki/Hydrolyze" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrolyze">Hydrolyze</a> protein in the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Cheese" title="Cheese">cheese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><a href="/wiki/Lipase" title="Lipase">Lipases</a> </td> <td>Produce <a href="/wiki/Camembert_cheese" class="mw-redirect" title="Camembert cheese">Camembert cheese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blue_cheese" title="Blue cheese">blue cheeses</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Roquefort" title="Roquefort">Roquefort</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;" rowspan="4"><b><a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">Food processing</a></b> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;"><a href="/wiki/Amylase" title="Amylase">Amylases</a> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;">Produce sugars from <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a>, such as in making <a href="/wiki/High-fructose_corn_syrup" title="High-fructose corn syrup">high-fructose corn syrup</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><a href="/wiki/Protease" title="Protease">Proteases</a> </td> <td>Lower the protein level of <a href="/wiki/Flour" title="Flour">flour</a>, as in <a href="/wiki/Biscuit" title="Biscuit">biscuit</a>-making.<sup id="cite_ref-GMOdatabase_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GMOdatabase-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><a href="/wiki/Trypsin" title="Trypsin">Trypsin</a> </td> <td>Manufacture <a href="/wiki/Hypoallergenic" title="Hypoallergenic">hypoallergenic</a> baby foods.<sup id="cite_ref-GMOdatabase_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GMOdatabase-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><a href="/wiki/Cellulase" title="Cellulase">Cellulases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pectinase" title="Pectinase">pectinases</a> </td> <td>Clarify <a href="/wiki/Fruit_juice" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit juice">fruit juices</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;"><b><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></b> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;"><a href="/wiki/Nuclease" title="Nuclease">Nucleases</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNA_ligase" title="DNA ligase">DNA ligase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polymerase" title="Polymerase">polymerases</a> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;">Use <a href="/wiki/Restriction_enzyme" title="Restriction enzyme">restriction digestion</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a> to create <a href="/wiki/Recombinant_DNA" title="Recombinant DNA">recombinant DNA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 6.2">: 6.2 </span></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;"><b><a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">Paper industry</a></b> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;"><a href="/wiki/Xylanase" title="Xylanase">Xylanases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemicellulase" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemicellulase">hemicellulases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lignin_peroxidase" title="Lignin peroxidase">lignin peroxidases</a> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;">Remove <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a> from <a href="/wiki/Kraft_pulp" class="mw-redirect" title="Kraft pulp">kraft pulp</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;"><b><a href="/wiki/Personal_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal care">Personal care</a></b> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;"><a href="/wiki/Protease" title="Protease">Proteases</a> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;">Remove proteins on <a href="/wiki/Contact_lens" title="Contact lens">contact lenses</a> to prevent infections.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;" rowspan="1"><b><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch industry</a></b> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;"><a href="/wiki/Amylase" title="Amylase">Amylases</a> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 3px #aaa;">Convert <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a> into <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> and various <a href="/wiki/Inverted_sugar_syrup" title="Inverted sugar syrup">syrups</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/48px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/64px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Foodlogo2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/32px-Foodlogo2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/48px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/64px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="146" data-file-height="106" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Food" title="Portal:Food">Food portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_enzymes" title="Industrial enzymes">Industrial enzymes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_enzymes" title="List of enzymes">List of enzymes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_machine" title="Molecular machine">Molecular machine</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enzyme_databases">Enzyme databases</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BRENDA" title="BRENDA">BRENDA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ExPASy" class="mw-redirect" title="ExPASy">ExPASy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IntEnz" title="IntEnz">IntEnz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KEGG" title="KEGG">KEGG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MetaCyc" title="MetaCyc">MetaCyc</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Stryer_2002-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stryer_2002_1-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStryerBergTymoczko2002" class="citation book cs1">Stryer L, Berg JM, Tymoczko JL (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21154/"><i>Biochemistry</i></a> (5th ed.). San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-4955-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7167-4955-6"><bdi>0-7167-4955-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biochemistry&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-7167-4955-6&rft.aulast=Stryer&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Berg%2C+JM&rft.au=Tymoczko%2C+JL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK21154%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span><span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphyFarhanEyers2017" class="citation journal cs1">Murphy JM, Farhan H, Eyers PA (April 2017). "Bio-Zombie: the rise of pseudoenzymes in biology". <i>Biochemical Society Transactions</i>. <b>45</b> (2): 537–544. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbst20160400">10.1042/bst20160400</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28408493">28408493</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Society+Transactions&rft.atitle=Bio-Zombie%3A+the+rise+of+pseudoenzymes+in+biology&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=537-544&rft.date=2017-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1042%2Fbst20160400&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28408493&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=JM&rft.au=Farhan%2C+H&rft.au=Eyers%2C+PA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid24107129-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid24107129_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphyZhangYoungReese2014" class="citation journal cs1">Murphy JM, Zhang Q, Young SN, Reese ML, Bailey FP, Eyers PA, et al. 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"A proficient enzyme". <i>Science</i>. <b>267</b> (5194): 90–93. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995Sci...267...90R">1995Sci...267...90R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.7809611">10.1126/science.7809611</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7809611">7809611</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8145198">8145198</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=A+proficient+enzyme&rft.volume=267&rft.issue=5194&rft.pages=90-93&rft.date=1995-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.7809611&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8145198%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7809611&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995Sci...267...90R&rft.aulast=Radzicka&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Wolfenden%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid17889251-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid17889251_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCallahanMiller2007" class="citation journal cs1">Callahan BP, Miller BG (December 2007). "OMP decarboxylase--An enigma persists". <i>Bioorganic Chemistry</i>. <b>35</b> (6): 465–469. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bioorg.2007.07.004">10.1016/j.bioorg.2007.07.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17889251">17889251</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bioorganic+Chemistry&rft.atitle=OMP+decarboxylase--An+enigma+persists&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=465-469&rft.date=2007-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.bioorg.2007.07.004&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17889251&rft.aulast=Callahan&rft.aufirst=BP&rft.au=Miller%2C+BG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reaumur1752-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Reaumur1752_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Réaumur1752" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Antoine_Ferchault_de_R%C3%A9aumur" title="René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur">de Réaumur RA</a> (1752). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k35505/f452.item">"Observations sur la digestion des oiseaux"</a>. <i>Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences</i> (in French). <b>1752</b>: 266, 461.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Histoire+de+l%27Acad%C3%A9mie+Royale+des+Sciences&rft.atitle=Observations+sur+la+digestion+des+oiseaux&rft.volume=1752&rft.pages=266%2C+461&rft.date=1752&rft.aulast=de+R%C3%A9aumur&rft.aufirst=RA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k35505%2Ff452.item&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1904" class="citation book cs1">Williams HS (1904). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/Wil4Sci.html"><i>A History of Science: in Five Volumes</i>. <i>Volume IV: Modern Development of the Chemical and Biological Sciences</i></a>. Harper and Brothers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Science%3A+in+Five+Volumes.+Volume+IV%3A+Modern+Development+of+the+Chemical+and+Biological+Sciences&rft.pub=Harper+and+Brothers&rft.date=1904&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=HS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetext.lib.virginia.edu%2Ftoc%2Fmodeng%2Fpublic%2FWil4Sci.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayenPersoz1833" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Payen A, Persoz JF (1833). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q9I3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA73">"Mémoire sur la diastase, les principaux produits de ses réactions et leurs applications aux arts industriels"</a> [Memoir on diastase, the principal products of its reactions, and their applications to the industrial arts]. <i>Annales de chimie et de physique</i>. 2nd (in French). <b>53</b>: 73–92.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+de+chimie+et+de+physique&rft.atitle=M%C3%A9moire+sur+la+diastase%2C+les+principaux+produits+de+ses+r%C3%A9actions+et+leurs+applications+aux+arts+industriels&rft.volume=53&rft.pages=73-92&rft.date=1833&rft.aulast=Payen&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Persoz%2C+JF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ9I3AAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManchester1995" class="citation journal cs1">Manchester KL (December 1995). "Louis Pasteur (1822–1895)--chance and the prepared mind". <i>Trends in Biotechnology</i>. <b>13</b> (12): 511–515. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0167-7799%2800%2989014-9">10.1016/S0167-7799(00)89014-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8595136">8595136</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Biotechnology&rft.atitle=Louis+Pasteur+%281822%E2%80%931895%29--chance+and+the+prepared+mind&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=511-515&rft.date=1995-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0167-7799%2800%2989014-9&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8595136&rft.aulast=Manchester&rft.aufirst=KL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kühne coined the word "enzyme" in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKühne1877" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kühne W (1877). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jzdMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA190">"Über das Verhalten verschiedener organisirter und sog. ungeformter Fermente"</a> [On the behavior of various organized and so-called unformed ferments]. <i>Verhandlungen des Naturhistorisch-medicinischen Vereins zu Heidelberg</i>. new series (in German). <b>1</b> (3): 190–193.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Verhandlungen+des+Naturhistorisch-medicinischen+Vereins+zu+Heidelberg&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+das+Verhalten+verschiedener+organisirter+und+sog.+ungeformter+Fermente&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=190-193&rft.date=1877&rft.aulast=K%C3%BChne&rft.aufirst=W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjzdMAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA190&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span> Relevant passage on page 190: <i>"Um Missverständnissen vorzubeugen und lästige Umschreibungen zu vermeiden schlägt Vortragender vor, die ungeformten oder nicht organisirten Fermente, deren Wirkung ohne Anwesenheit von Organismen und ausserhalb derselben erfolgen kann, als </i>Enzyme<i> zu bezeichnen."</i> (Translation: In order to obviate misunderstandings and avoid cumbersome periphrases, [the author, a university lecturer] suggests designating as "enzymes" the unformed or not organized ferments, whose action can occur without the presence of organisms and outside of the same.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmes2003" class="citation book cs1">Holmes FL (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=abqjP-_KfzkC&q=history+of+enzymes+ferment+living+organisms&pg=PA270">"Enzymes"</a>. In Heilbron JL (ed.). <i>The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 270. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199743766" title="Special:BookSources/9780199743766"><bdi>9780199743766</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Enzymes&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+History+of+Modern+Science&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=270&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780199743766&rft.aulast=Holmes&rft.aufirst=FL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DabqjP-_KfzkC%26q%3Dhistory%2Bof%2Benzymes%2Bferment%2Bliving%2Borganisms%26pg%3DPA270&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-urlEduard_Buchner_–_Biographical-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-urlEduard_Buchner_–_Biographical_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1907/buchner-bio.html">"Eduard Buchner"</a>. <i>Nobel Laureate Biography</i>. Nobelprize.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nobel+Laureate+Biography&rft.atitle=Eduard+Buchner&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fchemistry%2Flaureates%2F1907%2Fbuchner-bio.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-urlEduard_Buchner_–_Nobel_Lecture:_Cell-Free_Fermentation-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-urlEduard_Buchner_–_Nobel_Lecture:_Cell-Free_Fermentation_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1907/buchner-lecture.html">"Eduard Buchner – Nobel Lecture: Cell-Free Fermentation"</a>. <i>Nobelprize.org</i>. 1907<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nobelprize.org&rft.atitle=Eduard+Buchner+%E2%80%93+Nobel+Lecture%3A+Cell-Free+Fermentation&rft.date=1907&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fchemistry%2Flaureates%2F1907%2Fbuchner-lecture.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The naming of enzymes by adding the suffix "-ase" to the substrate on which the enzyme acts, has been traced to French scientist <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Duclaux" title="Émile Duclaux">Émile Duclaux</a> (1840–1904), who intended to honor the discoverers of <a href="/wiki/Diastase" title="Diastase">diastase</a> – the first enzyme to be isolated – by introducing this practice in his book <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuclaux_E1899" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Duclaux E (1899). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Kp9EAAAAQAAJ"><i>Traité de microbiologie: Diastases, toxines et venins</i></a> [<i>Microbiology Treatise: diastases, toxins and venoms</i>] (in French). Paris, France: Masson and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trait%C3%A9+de+microbiologie%3A+Diastases%2C+toxines+et+venins&rft.place=Paris%2C+France&rft.pub=Masson+and+Co&rft.date=1899&rft.au=Duclaux+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKp9EAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span> See Chapter 1, especially page 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Willstätter_1927-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Willstätter_1927_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillstätter1927" class="citation journal cs1">Willstätter R (1927). "Faraday lecture. Problems and methods in enzyme research". <i>Journal of the Chemical Society (Resumed)</i>: 1359–1381. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2FJR9270001359">10.1039/JR9270001359</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Chemical+Society+%28Resumed%29&rft.atitle=Faraday+lecture.+Problems+and+methods+in+enzyme+research&rft.pages=1359-1381&rft.date=1927&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2FJR9270001359&rft.aulast=Willst%C3%A4tter&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span> quoted in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlow2000" class="citation journal cs1">Blow D (April 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0969-2126%2800%2900125-8">"So do we understand how enzymes work?"</a>. <i>Structure</i>. <b>8</b> (4): R77–R81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0969-2126%2800%2900125-8">10.1016/S0969-2126(00)00125-8</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10801479">10801479</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Structure&rft.atitle=So+do+we+understand+how+enzymes+work%3F&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=R77-R81&rft.date=2000-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0969-2126%2800%2900125-8&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10801479&rft.aulast=Blow&rft.aufirst=D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252FS0969-2126%252800%252900125-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-urlThe_Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry_1946-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-urlThe_Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry_1946_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1946/">"Nobel Prizes and Laureates: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1946"</a>. <i>Nobelprize.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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A three-dimensional Fourier synthesis at 2 Angstrom resolution". <i>Nature</i>. <b>206</b> (4986): 757–761. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965Natur.206..757B">1965Natur.206..757B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F206757a0">10.1038/206757a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5891407">5891407</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4161467">4161467</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Structure+of+hen+egg-white+lysozyme.+A+three-dimensional+Fourier+synthesis+at+2+Angstrom+resolution&rft.volume=206&rft.issue=4986&rft.pages=757-761&rft.date=1965-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F206757a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4161467%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5891407&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1965Natur.206..757B&rft.aulast=Blake&rft.aufirst=CC&rft.au=Koenig%2C+DF&rft.au=Mair%2C+GA&rft.au=North%2C+AC&rft.au=Phillips%2C+DC&rft.au=Sarma%2C+VR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid10390620-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid10390620_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnsonPetsko1999" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson LN, Petsko GA (July 1999). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Union+of+Biochemistry+and+Molecular+Biology&rft.atitle=Recommendations+of+the+Nomenclature+Committee+of+the+International+Union+of+Biochemistry+and+Molecular+Biology+on+the+Nomenclature+and+Classification+of+Enzymes+by+the+Reactions+they+Catalyse&rft.aulast=Moss&rft.aufirst=GP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.qmul.ac.uk%2Fsbcs%2Fiubmb%2Fenzyme%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNomenclature_Committee" class="citation web cs1">Nomenclature Committee. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141201224835/http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/enzyme/EC2/7/1/1.html">"EC 2.7.1.1"</a>. <i>International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (NC-IUBMB)</i>. School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary, University of London. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/enzyme/EC2/7/1/1.html">the original</a> on 1 December 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Enzyme promiscuity: a mechanistic and evolutionary perspective". <i>Annual Review of Biochemistry</i>. <b>79</b>: 471–505. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-biochem-030409-143718">10.1146/annurev-biochem-030409-143718</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20235827">20235827</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Biochemistry&rft.atitle=Enzyme+promiscuity%3A+a+mechanistic+and+evolutionary+perspective&rft.volume=79&rft.pages=471-505&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-biochem-030409-143718&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20235827&rft.aulast=Khersonsky&rft.aufirst=O&rft.au=Tawfik%2C+DS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'BrienHerschlag1999" class="citation journal cs1">O'Brien PJ, Herschlag D (April 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1074-5521%2899%2980033-7">"Catalytic promiscuity and the evolution of new enzymatic activities"</a>. <i>Chemistry & Biology</i>. <b>6</b> (4): R91–R105. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1074-5521%2899%2980033-7">10.1016/S1074-5521(99)80033-7</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10099128">10099128</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemistry+%26+Biology&rft.atitle=Catalytic+promiscuity+and+the+evolution+of+new+enzymatic+activities&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=R91-R105&rft.date=1999-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1074-5521%2899%2980033-7&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10099128&rft.aulast=O%27Brien&rft.aufirst=PJ&rft.au=Herschlag%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252FS1074-5521%252899%252980033-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFischer1894" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Fischer E (1894). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k90736r/f364.chemindefer">"Einfluss der Configuration auf die Wirkung der Enzyme"</a> [Influence of configuration on the action of enzymes]. <i>Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin</i> (in German). <b>27</b> (3): 2985–93. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fcber.18940270364">10.1002/cber.18940270364</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Berichte+der+Deutschen+Chemischen+Gesellschaft+zu+Berlin&rft.atitle=Einfluss+der+Configuration+auf+die+Wirkung+der+Enzyme&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=2985-93&rft.date=1894&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fcber.18940270364&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k90736r%2Ff364.chemindefer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span> From page 2992: <i>"Um ein Bild zu gebrauchen, will ich sagen, dass Enzym und Glucosid wie Schloss und Schlüssel zu einander passen müssen, um eine chemische Wirkung auf einander ausüben zu können."</i> (To use an image, I will say that an enzyme and a glucoside [i.e., glucose derivative] must fit like a lock and key, in order to be able to exert a chemical effect on each other.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cooper_2000-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cooper_2000_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper_GM2000" class="citation book cs1">Cooper GM (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9921/">"Chapter 2.2: The Central Role of Enzymes as Biological Catalysts"</a>. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cell00geof"><i>The Cell: a Molecular Approach</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Washington (DC ): ASM Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87893-106-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-87893-106-6"><bdi>0-87893-106-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2.2%3A+The+Central+Role+of+Enzymes+as+Biological+Catalysts&rft.btitle=The+Cell%3A+a+Molecular+Approach&rft.place=Washington+%28DC+%29&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=ASM+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-87893-106-6&rft.au=Cooper+GM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK9921%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoshland1958" class="citation journal cs1">Koshland DE (February 1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC335371">"Application of a Theory of Enzyme Specificity to Protein Synthesis"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>44</b> (2): 98–104. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1958PNAS...44...98K">1958PNAS...44...98K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.44.2.98">10.1073/pnas.44.2.98</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC335371">335371</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16590179">16590179</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Application+of+a+Theory+of+Enzyme+Specificity+to+Protein+Synthesis&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=98-104&rft.date=1958-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC335371%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16590179&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.44.2.98&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1958PNAS...44...98K&rft.aulast=Koshland&rft.aufirst=DE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC335371&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVasellaDaviesBöhm2002" class="citation journal cs1">Vasella A, Davies GJ, Böhm M (October 2002). 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European Union. 10 July 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/database/enzymes/94.protease.html">the original</a> on 24 February 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 February</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GMO+Compass&rft.atitle=Protease+%E2%80%93+GMO+Database&rft.date=2010-07-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gmo-compass.org%2Feng%2Fdatabase%2Fenzymes%2F94.protease.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlkortaGarbisuLlamaSerra1998" class="citation journal cs1">Alkorta I, Garbisu C, Llama MJ, Serra JL (January 1998). "Industrial applications of pectic enzymes: a review". <i>Process Biochemistry</i>. <b>33</b> (1): 21–28. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0032-9592%2897%2900046-0">10.1016/S0032-9592(97)00046-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Process+Biochemistry&rft.atitle=Industrial+applications+of+pectic+enzymes%3A+a+review&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=21-28&rft.date=1998-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0032-9592%2897%2900046-0&rft.aulast=Alkorta&rft.aufirst=I&rft.au=Garbisu%2C+C&rft.au=Llama%2C+MJ&rft.au=Serra%2C+JL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBajpai1999" class="citation journal cs1">Bajpai P (March 1999). "Application of enzymes in the pulp and paper industry". <i>Biotechnology Progress</i>. <b>15</b> (2): 147–157. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fbp990013k">10.1021/bp990013k</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10194388">10194388</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26080240">26080240</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biotechnology+Progress&rft.atitle=Application+of+enzymes+in+the+pulp+and+paper+industry&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=147-157&rft.date=1999-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A26080240%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10194388&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fbp990013k&rft.aulast=Bajpai&rft.aufirst=P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBegleyParaginaSporn1990" class="citation journal cs1">Begley CG, Paragina S, Sporn A (March 1990). "An analysis of contact lens enzyme cleaners". <i>Journal of the American Optometric Association</i>. <b>61</b> (3): 190–194. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2186082">2186082</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Optometric+Association&rft.atitle=An+analysis+of+contact+lens+enzyme+cleaners&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=190-194&rft.date=1990-03&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2186082&rft.aulast=Begley&rft.aufirst=CG&rft.au=Paragina%2C+S&rft.au=Sporn%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarris2009" class="citation book cs1">Farris PL (2009). "Economic Growth and Organization of the U.S. Starch Industry". In BeMiller JN, Whistler RL (eds.). <i>Starch Chemistry and Technology</i> (3rd ed.). London: Academic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780080926551" title="Special:BookSources/9780080926551"><bdi>9780080926551</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Economic+Growth+and+Organization+of+the+U.S.+Starch+Industry&rft.btitle=Starch+Chemistry+and+Technology&rft.place=London&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Academic&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780080926551&rft.aulast=Farris&rft.aufirst=PL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <dl><dt>General</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergTymoczkoStryer2002" class="citation book cs1">Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biochemistrychap00jere"><i>Biochemistry</i></a></span> (5th ed.). New York, NY: W. H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-3051-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7167-3051-0"><bdi>0-7167-3051-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biochemistry&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-7167-3051-0&rft.aulast=Berg&rft.aufirst=JM&rft.au=Tymoczko%2C+JL&rft.au=Stryer%2C+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbiochemistrychap00jere&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span>, A biochemistry textbook available free online through NCBI Bookshelf.<span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></li></ul> <dl><dt>Etymology and history</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornish-Bowden1997" class="citation book cs1">Cornish-Bowden A, ed. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101213084345/http://bip.cnrs-mrs.fr/bip10/buchner.htm"><i>New Beer in an Old Bottle: Eduard Buchner and the Growth of Biochemical Knowledge</i></a>. Universitat de València. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-370-3328-4" title="Special:BookSources/84-370-3328-4"><bdi>84-370-3328-4</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bip.cnrs-mrs.fr/bip10/buchner.htm">the original</a> on 13 December 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Beer+in+an+Old+Bottle%3A+Eduard+Buchner+and+the+Growth+of+Biochemical+Knowledge&rft.pub=Universitat+de+Val%C3%A8ncia&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=84-370-3328-4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbip.cnrs-mrs.fr%2Fbip10%2Fbuchner.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span>, A history of early enzymology.</li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <dl><dt>Enzyme structure and mechanism</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuzuki_H2015" class="citation book cs1">Suzuki H (2015). <i>How Enzymes Work: From Structure to Function</i>. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4463-92-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-4463-92-8"><bdi>978-981-4463-92-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Enzymes+Work%3A+From+Structure+to+Function&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-981-4463-92-8&rft.au=Suzuki+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt>Kinetics and inhibition</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornish-Bowden2012" class="citation book cs1">Cornish-Bowden A (2012). <i>Fundamentals of Enzyme Kinetics</i> (4th ed.). Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3527330744" title="Special:BookSources/978-3527330744"><bdi>978-3527330744</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Enzyme+Kinetics&rft.place=Weinheim&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Wiley-VCH&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3527330744&rft.aulast=Cornish-Bowden&rft.aufirst=A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnzyme" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Enzymes" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Enzymes">Enzymes</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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(biochemistry)">Cofactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis" title="Enzyme catalysis">Enzyme catalysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allosteric_regulation" title="Allosteric regulation">Allosteric regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperativity" title="Cooperativity">Cooperativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor" title="Enzyme inhibitor">Enzyme inhibitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_activator" title="Enzyme activator">Enzyme activator</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_Commission_number" title="Enzyme Commission number">EC number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_superfamily" title="Protein superfamily">Enzyme superfamily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_family" title="Protein family">Enzyme family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_enzymes" title="List of enzymes">List of enzymes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kinetics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_kinetics" title="Enzyme kinetics">Enzyme kinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eadie%E2%80%93Hofstee_diagram" title="Eadie–Hofstee diagram">Eadie–Hofstee diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanes%E2%80%93Woolf_plot" title="Hanes–Woolf plot">Hanes–Woolf plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineweaver%E2%80%93Burk_plot" title="Lineweaver–Burk plot">Lineweaver–Burk plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michaelis%E2%80%93Menten_kinetics" title="Michaelis–Menten kinetics">Michaelis–Menten kinetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>EC1 <a href="/wiki/Oxidoreductase" title="Oxidoreductase">Oxidoreductases</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)" title="List of EC numbers (EC 1)">list</a>)</li> <li><b>EC2 <a href="/wiki/Transferase" title="Transferase">Transferases</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)" title="List of EC numbers (EC 2)">list</a>)</li> <li><b>EC3 <a href="/wiki/Hydrolase" title="Hydrolase">Hydrolases</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)" title="List of EC numbers (EC 3)">list</a>)</li> <li><b>EC4 <a href="/wiki/Lyase" title="Lyase">Lyases</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_4)" title="List of EC numbers (EC 4)">list</a>)</li> <li><b>EC5 <a href="/wiki/Isomerase" title="Isomerase">Isomerases</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_5)" title="List of EC numbers (EC 5)">list</a>)</li> <li><b>EC6 <a href="/wiki/Ligase" title="Ligase">Ligases</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_6)" title="List of EC numbers (EC 6)">list</a>)</li> <li><b>EC7 <a href="/wiki/Translocase" title="Translocase">Translocases</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_7)" title="List of EC numbers (EC 7)">list</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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